text:
# The evolution of baryon density fluctuations in multi-component cosmological simulations

## 1 Introduction

High-precision measurements of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation by the WMAP satellite provide strong support for the so-called standard model of cosmic structure formation, in which Cold Dark Matter (CDM) and dark energy dominate the Universe. The matter distribution at the decoupling epoch has been directly probed by measurements of CMB anisotropies, and it has been confirmed that the observed matter distribution is consistent with the predictions of popular inflationary theories (Spergel et al. 2003). Within this theoretical framework, structure formation in the early Universe is described by gravitational amplification of small initial density fluctuations; non-linear evolution leads to the formation of dark matter halos, followed by hydrodynamic processes such as gas infall into gravitational potential wells, shock heating, and radiative cooling (e.g. Yoshida et al. 2003). Precise modelling of the angular power spectrum of the CMB anisotropies determines the relative densities of the baryonic and non-baryonic components. Furthermore, accurate solutions of the nonlinear Boltzmann equations (Hu & Sugiyama 1995; Ma & Bertschinger 1995; Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1996) show that there is a substantial difference in the distribution of baryons and dark matter at the decoupling epoch. Indeed, recent detailed numerical studies (Yamamoto, Sugiyama & Sato 1998; Singh & Ma 2002) show that the differences remain until much lower redshift $`z20`$ for high baryon densities. In fact, the ratio of baryon density to CDM density determined by the WMAP data (Spergel et al. 2003) is as large as $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{baryon}}/\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{cdm}}0.2`$. Thus these results clearly contradicts the assumption, often made in the context of structure formation, that baryons trace the dark matter; i.e. that local baryon densities are just proportional to those of the dark matter, and their velocities are identical both in direction and in amplitude.

Numerical simulation of structure formation is aimed at revealing how the large-scale features of the Universe formed and evolved from high to low redshifts. Conventionally, cosmological $`N`$-body simulations are started from an initial matter distribution – a random Gaussian realisation – generated using an input power spectrum for the total matter density. Although this is obviously the most plausible way of generating initial conditions for $`N`$-body simulations with only a single collisionless component, it is non-trivial to realise the matter distribution in simulations that employ two (or more) components so that the density and velocity fields of both components evolve consistently. A common belief is that details in the initial configuration are erased by non-linear evolution and hence do not matter if one is interested in the structure of non-linear objects (i.e. “dark halos”) at low redshift. However, this reasoning may not apply at high redshifts or for the intergalactic medium (IGM) where the density fluctuations on relevant scales are in the linear to mildly non-linear regime.

In numerical studies of the properties of the IGM, such as those concerned with the reionisation history of the Universe (e.g. Gnedin & Ostriker 1997; Gnedin 2000; Sokasian et al. 2002, 2003), it is important to accurately compute the thermal properties of baryons in low density regions. Various analytic methods have been developed to obtain the local densities and temperatures of the IGM from the distribution of dark matter that can be computed relatively accurately by either direct $`N`$-body simulations or linear theory (e.g. Bi, Börner & Chu 1992; Jones 1996; Hui & Gnedin 1997; Nusser 2000; Matarrese & Mohayaee 2002). On the other hand, in cosmological $`N`$-body/hydrodynamic simulations, simplifying assumptions are often made. For example, in cosmological Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) simulations, gas particles are either put on top of dark matter particles, or simply displaced by half the mean interparticle separation before perturbations are imposed (e.g. Katz et al. 1996). A naive way of improving upon this simple approach would be to apply the Zel’dovich approximation to baryonic and dark matter components separately using separate transfer functions for each. It is unclear, however, if the generated initial particle distributions and the velocity field reproduce consistent results with predictions of full non-linear theory.

Another closely related issue is that, in particle simulations, a smooth density field must be represented by discrete mass elements. It is well-known that discretisation itself imposes some limitations on the accuracy of numerical simulations (Splinter et al. 1998; Hamana, Yoshida & Suto 2001; Baertschiger et al. 2002). Baertschiger & Sylos-Labini (2001) show that the discreteness of the particles contributes to the evolution of power-law clustering on small scales. Götz & Sommer-Larsen (2002) argue that even small differences in unperturbed particle distributions can yield quite different, in some cases unfavourable, results in the nonlinear evolution of systems (see their Fig. 1).

These facts and questions motivate the need for a systematic study in order to develop and verify a proper method for setting up initial conditions for multi-component cosmological simulations. In the present paper, we examine how details in the initial set-up affect the evolution of matter density fluctuations. We specifically study the power spectra of baryonic and dark matter components and the abundance of dark matter halos using a set of $`N`$-body simulations. We show that differences in initial configurations indeed result in substantial differences in the evolved density field and its growth rate. We compare the numerical results with theoretical predictions and determine an improved method for generating initial conditions.

The rest of the paper is organised as follows. In Section 2, we present the basic theory of the evolution of density fluctuations in the early Universe. In Section 3, we describe the simulation set. We show our numerical results in section 4. Discussion is given in Section 5.

## 2 Theory

### 2.1 Evolution of baryon density fluctuations

The evolution of the cosmological baryon perturbations before the decoupling epoch is described by a number of physical processes which couple the perturbation fields of baryons, CDM, photons and neutrinos in a complex manner. One thus needs to solve the full set of coupled nonlinear Einstein-Boltzmann equations in order to obtain an accurate result. Recent detailed studies by Liu et al. (2001) and Singh & Ma (2002) show that, although density fluctuations on scales smaller than the photon diffusion scale (Silk 1968) are strongly suppressed, the growth of the baryon density fluctuations are eventually accelerated during the drag epoch because the photon-baryon coupling breaks down by recombination. It is also important to note that second-order effects arising from the coupling of the velocity fields to the baryon density field can enhance the growth of small scale fluctuations (Shaviv 1998; Liu et al. 2001; Singh & Ma 2002), although this effect plays an important role only on very small length scales ($`k1000`$Mpc-1).

After recombination, gravitational infall causes the baryon density fluctuations to catch up with those of the dark matter. Yamamoto et al. (1998) show, however, that the growth of perturbation modes on length scales smaller than the Jeans length is delayed due to the initial oscillatory behaviour of the baryons, and thus the residual differences in the fluctuation amplitudes between baryons and dark matter remain until redshifts $`z20100`$. This is clearly shown in Figure 1. There we plot the density power spectra and the velocity power spectra for baryons and CDM for a conventional $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM universe (parameters as summarised in Section 3) at $`z=100`$. The power spectra are computed using the Boltzmann solver of Sugiyama (1995), as described in Yamamoto, Sugiyama & Sato (1998). The density power spectra for baryons and CDM differ by about a factor of two for $`1<k<10`$, whereas the difference in the velocity power spectra is less than 10 percent on these scales (compare the middle panel with the bottom panel).

### 2.2 The Zel’dovich approximation

The standard procedure for setting up initial conditions for cosmological $`N`$-body simulations is to perturb a uniform particle distribution using the Zel’dovich approximation (Zel’dovich 1970). An extensive study of the applicability of the Zel’dovich approximation is presented in a series of papers by Valageas (2002a,b and references therein). We summarise the elements of the method in this section.

Let the initial Lagrangian coordinate of a particle in an unperturbed distribution be $`𝐪`$. Then each particle is subject to a displacement corresponding to a density perturbation. In the Zel’dovich approximation the Eulerian coordinate of the particle at time $`t`$ is

$$𝐫(t,𝐪)=a(t)[𝐪b(t)_𝐪\mathrm{\Phi }_0(𝐪)],$$
(1)
where $`𝐫=a(t)𝐱`$ with $`𝐱`$ being a comoving coordinate and $`b(t)`$ is the growth factor. The velocity field is obtained from

$$𝐯=a\frac{\mathrm{d}𝐱}{\mathrm{d}t}=a\dot{b}_\mathrm{q}\mathrm{\Phi }_0(𝐪).$$
(2)
The quantity $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0(𝐪)`$ is related to the density perturbation $`\delta `$ in the linear regime via the Poisson equation:

$$\delta =b_\mathrm{q}^2\mathrm{\Phi }_0.$$
(3)
It is important to point out that the initial velocity field and the displacement field are linearly related via equation (2). Namely, particles in the Zel’dovich approximation execute motion on straight line trajectories. Therefore, if one uses different transfer functions for two components (e.g. CDM and baryons) while keeping the phase information for a random Gaussian field identical, the generated displacement fields and hence the velocity fields for the two components should differ by an amount corresponding to the difference in the amplitudes of the transfer functions. However, after the decoupling epoch, baryons fall into gravitational potential wells that are dominated by the dark matter, whereas the growth of dark matter density fluctuations is slightly delayed due to the baryonic matter which is more homogeneously distributed. Then, the difference in velocities of baryons and dark matter decays quickly after the decoupling epoch (compare the middle panel and the bottom panel in Figure 1).

Nusser (2000) and Matarrese & Mohayaee (2002) recently derived analytic solutions for the evolution of linear density density perturbations for both baryons and dark matter. While their solutions fully describe the evolution of linear density fluctuations of a two-component fluid for a few particular cases, they are not directly applicable to generating initial conditions for direct $`N`$-body simulations in more general cases. In the present paper we develop a more practical method. The key question is how can we generate initial conditions using solutions of a full non-linear calculation ?

We test five different methods for setting up initial conditions in order to distinguish a correct method (if one exists) and to quantify its accuracy. We describes the technical details in the next section.

## 3 The $`N`$-body/SPH simulations

We use the parallel $`N`$-body/SPH code GADGET (Springel, Yoshida & White 2001), in its “conservative entropy” version (Springel & Hernquist 2002, 2003). All our simulations employ $`2\times 128^3`$ particles (CDM and non-radiative gas components) in a cosmological box of 4 $`h^1`$Mpc on a side. We work with a flat $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-dominated Cold Dark Matter universe, with matter density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{cdm}}=0.26`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}=0.04`$, cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$ and expansion rate at the present epoch $`H_0=70`$km s-1Mpc-1. The qualitative features of our results are not affected by the adopted cosmology, although the degree of the numerical artifacts we discuss depend on the ratio of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{cdm}}/\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}`$. Table 1 summarises the five methods we consider for the set-up of the initial conditions. We describe each specifically in the following subsections. We note that for all the simulations we set the parameters governing the accuracy of the force calculation and time stepping to be very conservative, following Springel et al. (2001) and Power et al. (2003). We set the gravitational softening length $`ϵ_{\mathrm{soft}}`$ = 3 $`h^1`$kpc $``$ one tenth of the mean inter-particle separation.

### 3.1 Unperturbed particle distribution

There are two popular methods for distributing particles “uniformly”. One is to place particles on a rectangular grid. While used most often, a grid distribution has the unfavourable feature of imposing a particular direction in the particle distribution. In other words, a grid distribution is not isotropic, although it is homogeneous on scales larger than the mean inter-particle separation (see e.g. Baertschiger & Sylos-Labini 2001). Götz & Sommer-Larsen (2002) report that grid distributions cause peculiar problems when used for warm dark matter simulations such as those of Bode, Ostriker & Turok (2001). Although the degree of these problems is somewhat uncertain and is likely to be case dependent, it is preferable to avoid these issues altogether by using “glass” particle distributions. Following White (1994), we generate glass initial conditions by evolving a gravitationally interacting $`N`$-particle system in an expanding background with the sign of gravity reversed such that each particle feels repulsive forces from all the other particles. When the system reaches a quasi-equilibrium state, unphysical clumping in the initial distribution is substantially damped, while maintaining uniformity. The particle distribution is also nearly isotropic and hence does not possess any preferred direction.

For all the numerical experiments in the present paper, we use glass particle distributions. We generate two independent glass distributions and use them for gas and CDM particles in Runs B, C, and E, whereas we use identical glass particle distributions for both components in Run A and D (see Table 1).

### 3.2 Transfer functions

In the context of structure formation in CDM models, the density power spectrum at a given epoch is related to the transfer function by

$$P(k)=Ak^nT^2(k),$$
(4)
where $`A`$ is the normalization factor. We consider the Harrison-Zel’dovich primordial power spectrum with $`n=1`$. Figure 1 shows the power spectrum $`4\pi k^3P(k)`$ at $`z_{\mathrm{init}}=100`$. On very large length scales ($`k<0.01h`$/Mpc), the power spectra for baryons and CDM have the same amplitudes, whereas on intermediate length scales ($`1<k<100`$) the amplitudes for baryon density perturbations are smaller by about a factor of two at $`z=100`$. Also the power spectrum for baryons shows characteristic wiggles at $`0.01<k<0.2`$ which is induced by Jeans oscillations before the recombination epoch.

For Runs A, B, and C, transfer functions are given separately for the CDM and the baryonic components, whereas for Run D, we use a single transfer function computed for the total matter density fluctuations. The matter transfer function for Run D is computed from

$$T(k)=\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{total}}}T_\mathrm{b}(k)+\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{cdm}}}{\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{total}}}T_{\mathrm{cdm}}(k).$$
(5)
### 3.3 Phases

In standard inflationary theories that predict adiabatic-type density fluctuations, the distribution of various forms of matter is described by essentially a single scalar function, and thus the phases for baryons and CDM are identical for all the perturbation modes. Although we have no compelling reason to assume the phases are different on any length scale, it is interesting to examine the effect of varying the phases. In order to make comparisons, we assign random, independent phase information for baryons and CDM in Run E. Other configurations for Run E are identical to those of Run B. We compare these simulations in Section 5.

### 3.4 Velocity power spectrum

As we have discussed in Section 2, the differences in the velocity power spectra of baryons and CDM are smaller than the differences in fractional amplitudes of density fluctuations (Figure 1). Since the fractional difference is within 10% and nearly a constant at $`z_{\mathrm{init}}=100`$ over most of the relevant scales, we approximate the velocity fields of both CDM and baryons by the velocity field of the total matter. In practice, we compute the velocity field using the transfer function for the total matter while keeping the phase information identical to that used in generating the spatial displacements. Note that this is equivalent to multiplying the velocity term in equation (2) by a scalar factor. The scalar factor could, in principle, be made scale-dependent, as is done by Klypin et al. (1997) for Mixed Dark Matter simulations.

## 4 Results

Figure 2 shows the power spectra of the initial mass distribution for the four simulations (Run A, B, C, D), and the subsequent evolution is shown in Figure 2 (for $`z=50`$) and Figure 3 ($`z=20,30`$). The filled circles are measured power spectrum for CDM and the open diamonds are for baryons. Note that the particular random realization for these runs shows a dip at $`k3h`$/Mpc. This is simply due to randomization when assigning the fluctuation amplitudes for each perturbation mode, and irrelevant to the analysis in the present paper. Theoretical predictions are shown by the solid line (CDM) and by the dashed line (baryon) for each output redshift. The measured power spectra at $`z=100`$ show a steep turn-over at large wavenumbers $`k>20`$ due to the Poisson noise which scales with the particle number $`N`$ as $`|\delta _k|^2=1/N`$. (Note that we plot $`4\pi k^3P(k)`$ in Figures 2 and 3.) Although the level of the Poisson noise could be reduced by using a larger number of particles, we refrain from carrying out such large, costly simulations. Since we focus on density fluctuations on large length scales, $`k<20`$, where the power spectra and the growth rates can be measured robustly, the shot noise effect is not important in the analysis presented in the following.

In Run D, baryons and CDM have exactly the same velocities both in amplitude and direction. For this simulation the gas particles are simply put on top of the CDM particles and thus they move together initially. Since we used the transfer function for the total matter density in Run D, the measured power spectrum for CDM is smaller than the theoretical prediction (solid line), whereas that for the baryons is larger than the theoretical prediction (dashed line). These differences can be easily accounted for by the ratio of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{baryon}}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{cdm}}`$ to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{total}}`$.

In the bottom portion of each panel in Figure 2, 3, we plot the growth rate of the densities. We measure the growth rate between $`z_{\mathrm{init}}(=100)`$ and $`z`$, normalised by theoretical prediction as

$$\frac{D}{D_{\mathrm{pred}}}=\frac{P(k;z)/P(k;z_{\mathrm{init}})}{P_{\mathrm{pred}}(k;z)/P_{\mathrm{pred}}(k;z_{\mathrm{init}})}.$$
(6)
We compute the theoretical prediction directly from the result of the Boltzmann solver. Run C and Run D reproduce the theoretically predicted value very well, whereas other runs show substantial deviations from the prediction. This remains true even at $`z=30`$, as shown in Figure 3.

The significant over-shoot of the baryonic component in Run A is explained by the tight coupling of the gas and CDM particles falsely caused by using correct transfer functions. In Figure 4, we plot the initial particle distributions in a slab of thickness 40 $`h^1`$kpc for Run A (top panel) and Run B (bottom panel). Figure 4 clearly shows that the gas particles are placed too closely to the nearest CDM particles in Run A. Using separate transfer functions whose amplitudes differ by an approximately constant (and small) factor over the relevant length scales, one obtains a distribution of gas particles each of which is only slightly separated from the closest CDM particle. In this situation, a major fraction of the force exerted on a gas particle is due to the nearest CDM particle, which causes the gas particle to move faster than expected in linear theory. This false coupling was successfully avoided in RunB, for which we used two sets of independent glass distributions; one for the gas particles and the other for the CDM particles. Thus, the velocity vector of a gas particle is uncorrelated with the direction to the nearest CDM particle, as is seen in Figure 4.

Although Run B appears to behave reasonably well, CDM density fluctuations grow slightly too fast whereas the baryon density fluctuations grow too slowly, as seen in the growth rate in comparison with the theoretical prediction. The initial velocities are assigned separately to each component following the standard procedure of the Zel’dovich approximation. Without correcting velocities, the CDM density fluctuations grow faster than the correct solution, and the opposite is true for the baryons. This feature is not seen in Run C, because we corrected the initial velocities for both the baryonic and CDM components. Indeed, the density fluctuations in Run C grow almost precisely as predicted from $`z_{\mathrm{init}}=100`$ to $`z=20`$.

Run D reproduces the correct growth of density fluctuations. This is as expected, because, in Run D, the two components initially behave as a single component, until the pressure forces on gas particles becomes important and, making the orbits of the gas and CDM particles deviate from each other. Note that, at any output redshift, the density fluctuations for a single component (baryons or CDM) does not accurately represent the true solution. Hence, we conclude that the set-up for Run D is not suitable for studies that are concerned with the difference in the distribution of baryons and dark matter.

Overall the initial set up for Run C is clearly the most favourable. The method used for Run C appears to eliminate all the problems and undesirable features found in the other simulations. Also, the excellent agreement between the measured power spectra and the theoretical prediction for both baryonic and CDM components over a large redshift interval confirms that the method is useful for the multi-component cosmological simulations.

## 5 Discussion

### 5.1 Glass distribution for two components

Although the comparison of the results of Run A and Run B show the advantage of using two glass distributions for the CDM and baryonic components, it remains unclear whether the mixture of two independent glass distributions still possesses all desired features. Generally it does not, because close encounters between particles from the different components could happen (Jun Makino, private communication). In order to address this issue, we compute the cross-correlation function $`\xi _{\mathrm{bc}}`$ for a mixed glass distribution. We make a distribution for $`2\times 128^3`$ particles by arbitrarily superposing a glass distribution for $`128^3`$ particles on another glass distribution which is independently generated. The solid line in Figure 5 shows the gas-dark matter cross-correlation $`\xi _{\mathrm{bc}}`$ for this arbitrary mixture of two sets of glass distributions. The overall behaviour might seem quite good, as the cross-correlation $`\xi _{\mathrm{bc}}`$ stays at an almost constant value around zero. However, it means that there is some chance that a gas particle finds a CDM particle quite close to it. Since this chance coupling of the two different components can cause exactly the same problem, even locally, as we found in Run A, it is preferable to generate a distribution of the two components such that the cross-correlation between them is reduced on very small scales. We follow the same procedure as we have done to create glass distributions; i.e., we switch the sign of the gravitational force and evolve the system consisting of a mixture of $`2\times 128^3`$ particles in an expanding background. Since our primary purpose is to avoid false coupling of gas and dark matter particles, we evolve the system only for a brief period of time. Figure 5 shows the cross-correlation function for the initial (solid line) and evolved (dashed line) mixture of the particles. We also plot the correlation of the gas particles (open diamonds) and that of the CDM particles (solid circles). Figure 5 shows that the glass distribution we obtained in this manner possesses the following desired properties: (1) the correlation of a single component is reduced on scales below the mean-interparticle separation, and (2) the cross-correlation is also reduced on the small scales, confirming that the false coupling with the other component such as that found in Run A will not be induced even when we use separate transfer functions.

### 5.2 Real space correlation on small scales

While we conclude that glass distributions are preferred over a regular grid distribution for the reasons described in the previous sections, there still remain a few issues to be clarified regarding unperturbed particle distributions. Setting-up initial conditions for cosmological particle simulations is generally divided into two parts. One is the generation of a uniform particle distribution, which we have discussed, and the other is imposing desired density fluctuations by displacing the particles using the Zeldovich approximation (section 2.2). For the currently standard cosmological models, we further assume that the initial density field is a Gaussian random field, for which the power spectrum fully describes the statistical properties. We first check and show that the initial particle distribution generated in this manner represents a Gaussian density field. i.e., the probability distribution $`P(\delta )`$ of overdensity $`\delta (\mathrm{x})=\rho /\overline{\rho }1`$ in real space is Gaussian. Figure 6 shows $`P(\delta )`$ for our Run C and Run D. We compute the real space density $`\delta (\mathrm{x})`$ by first re-sampling the particles onto a $`128^3`$ grid and then smoothing on a scale $`R_s=100h^1`$kpc. For Run C, we compute $`P(\delta )`$ for both the baryonic and dark matter components, whereas for Run D only the dark matter component is used. (Note that in Run D the gas particles are put on top of the dark matter particles initially, and hence $`P(\delta )`$ at the initial epoch is identical.) As clearly seen in Figure 6, the computed probability distribution is well fitted by a Gaussian for each case. The difference between the two components in Run C is due to the difference in the linear power amplitude on the chosen length scale $`R_s100h^1`$kpc. The measured variances for the baryonic and dark matter components are $`\sigma _\mathrm{b}`$=0.062, $`\sigma _{\mathrm{cdm}}`$=0.081, respectively, in good agreement with analytical estimates $`\sigma _{\mathrm{th},\mathrm{b}}`$=0.060, $`\sigma _{\mathrm{th},\mathrm{cdm}}`$=0.083 computed from the input density power spectra. The corresponding numbers for Run D are $`\sigma _{\mathrm{total}}`$=0.076 and $`\sigma _{\mathrm{th},\mathrm{total}}`$=0.078. We note that, in practice, we used a random number generator in assigning the phases for each Fourier mode so that the generated initial conditions possess a desired feature of a Gaussian random field.

Since any particle distribution (e.g. glass or grid) has its own intrinsic correlations (Gabrielli et al. 2002), the perturbed distribution will have, in principle, a superposition of the intrinsic and imposed (desired) correlations. Baertschiger & Sylos-Labini (2002) argue that the desired power law correlations for cosmological models are not properly realized in discritised density fields at the initial epoch (see also Knebe & Dominguez 2003). We quantify and show this feature by computing the real space correlation from particle distributions. We use the pair-count estimator proposed by Landy & Szalay (1993):

$$\xi (r)=\frac{DD(r)2DR(r)+RR(r)}{RR(r)}.$$
(7)
We randomly distribute the same number of particles as the actual simulation particle, and evaluate the data-data (DD), data-random (DR), and random-random (RR) terms to obtain $`\xi (r)`$. In Figure 7 we show the two-point correlation functions measured from the outputs of Run C and Run D. Initially the correlation on scales below the mean inter-particle separation (dotted line) is absent, reflecting the damped correlation on the small scales in the unperturbed distribution (see Figure 5). The particle clustering at early epochs on the smallest scales is considerably affected by the discreteness as argued by Hamana, Yoshida & Suto (2002). Baertschiger et al. (2002) claim that the development of a power-law correlation on the small scales is governed partly by the initial clustering. It is interesting that the two-point correlation functions of the two components at $`z=20`$ are quite similar even on the smallest length scales, despite the fact that they started from different glass distributions. On the other hand, the feature that the correlation amplitudes are different between the two components in Run C is plausible, and it appears to reproduce correctly the smaller density fluctuations of baryons. At late epochs the nonlinear power transfer eventually dominates the initial power if the effective spectral index at the scale $`nd\mathrm{log}P(k)/d\mathrm{log}k`$ is much less than -1. CDM models satisfy this condition on small length scales (Suto & Sasaki 1991), and hence the power on scales below the mean particle separation at later epochs is expected to be generated via nonlinear mode-coupling (Suginohara et al. 1991; Hamana et al. 2002). Further theoretical study is clearly needed to understand the behaviour of the small scale correlations at early epochs.

### 5.3 Differing phases

As we discussed in Section 3.3, the phases of the perturbations are assumed to be identical for baryons and dark matter as long as the density perturbations are in the linear regime. Nevertheless, it is interesting to examine how the growth of density fluctuations is affected by offsets of phases between the two components. We note that, in real astrophysical situations, phase offsets may be caused during early reionization when the intergalactic gas is photo-heated by radiation from an early generation of stars and driven out of dark matter potential wells. In such cases, it is expected that the growth of either or both components is delayed, compared to the case where the phases are synchronised. We carry out a simple test by applying independent phases to baryon and CDM perturbations at the initial epoch. For simplicity, we assign completely random phases, rather than specifying actual mechanisms that could cause such an offset. Hence, the test is meant to show the effects of the phase offset qualitatively. Figure 8 shows the evolution of the density fluctuations for Run E. As expected, the evolution of both the baryon and the CDM density fluctuations is delayed, with the effect on the former being more substantial. On the other hand, it is interesting that the growth of the baryon density fluctuations is not entirely prevented, despite the large difference in the fractional densities between the two components. This is because, on large scales, the dark matter density fluctuations are still small and the gravitational force from the dark matter has not significantly changed the initial momentum of the baryonic components. Note that, in Figure 8, the apparent differences between the measured power spectra and the theoretical prediction should be interpreted to be owing mostly to the difference in the background assumption, because the theoretical prediction itself is obtained assuming the initial phases are identical.

### 5.4 Nonlinear objects

In the previous sections, we have focused on the evolution of density fluctuations on large scales when they are in linear regime. As Figure 2 and Figure 3 show, the overall differences between our simulations appear as if their effective growth factors deviate, falsely or due to an inaccurate set-up, from the true value. This raises an interesting question of whether or not such differences also show up in some properties of non-linear objects. Using our simulations, we identify dark matter halos by running a friend of friends (FOF) group-finder with the standard choice of linking parameter $`b=0.164`$. We first consider only the dark matter component. The baryon fraction within the halos will be examined later in this section. Figure 9 shows the cumulative mass functions for our simulations at $`z=20`$ and $`z=15`$. Since the overall abundance of halos is still small at $`z=20`$, as seen in the top panel in Figure 9, we allow our simulations to evolve to $`z=15`$ to have a large number of halos. We show the result for the $`z=15`$ outputs in the bottom panel of Figure 9. We compute the mass of the identified halos to be the number of member particles times the particle mass. We discard halos consisting of fewer than 25 particles, and thus the minimum mass in our sample is set to be $`5\times 10^7h^1M_{}`$. Although the mass functions measured in the four simulations agree reasonably well, there is an appreciable differences, particularly between Run D and the other runs. This is easily accounted for by the fact that the growth of the dark matter density fluctuations in Run D is slower than the other runs (see Figure 2, 3).

We also measured the baryon fraction within the dark halos. To this end, we compute the virial radii and virial masses for the halos following Yoshida et al. (2002). Briefly, we define the virial radius $`R_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ as the radius of the sphere centred on the most bound particle of the FOF group having overdensity 200 with respect to the critical density. The virial mass $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ is then the enclosed mass (gas and dark matter) within $`R_{\mathrm{vir}}`$. We compute the baryon fractions for the halos as $`f_\mathrm{b}=M_{\mathrm{gas}}/M_{\mathrm{total}}`$, and normalise by the global baryon fraction $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{b}/\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{matter}}`$. Figure 10 shows the measured baryon fractions for the halos in our simulation at $`z=15`$. In all cases the (normalised) baryon fractions are smaller than unity, representing correctly the effect of hydrodynamic pressure in the absence of gas cooling. Whereas the large scatter at masses smaller than $`2\times 10^8h^1M_{}`$, consisting of fewer than 100 particles, is due to the mass resolution (see Yoshida et al. 2002 for a discussion of the resolution issue), the difference on larger mass scale between the four runs is unexpected. Again, by noting the residual difference in the baryon and dark matter density fluctuations shown in Figure 3 and Figure 7, we are led to the conclusion that the difference in the density fluctuations at early epochs is responsible for the overall trend shown in Figure 10. Indeed, the amplitudes of the baryon and dark matter density fluctuations in Run A and Run D are quite similar from early on ($`z50`$), while those in Run B and Run C remain relatively large until low redshift ($`z20`$). Thus the gas infall is slightly delayed in Run B and Run C, resulting in the smaller baryon fractions than in Run A and Run D.

It should be noted that these results are not expected to be precise in details, but are likely to be dependent on the procedure for identifying halos and also on the definition of the halo mass. The detailed description of nonlinear evolution is beyond the scope of our paper and thus we reserve this issue for the subject of future work using simulations with substantially higher resolution than those described here.

## 6 Conclusion

We have studied the evolution of the matter density fluctuations in cosmological $`N`$-body/hydrodynamic simulations, and discussed various aspects of the set-up of the initial conditions. All the methods we used in generating the initial conditions except for Run E may appear to be plausible, differing only in a few details. However, we have found that such seemingly minor details cause appreciable differences in the evolved density field, not only in linear regime but also in the non-linear regime.

Interestingly, it has turned out that neither of the methods used for Run A and Run D provide suitable initial conditions, with the results of the former being more significantly affected by numerical artifacts. This perhaps comes as a surprise, particularly in the case of Run A, because one may naively hope that using separate transfer functions for baryons and CDM would produce more accurate results. In fact, the baryon density fluctuations reproduced in Run A are the least accurate in terms of the growth rate. Although the particular problem of false particle coupling found in Run A is likely to be a problem in simulations where both components are represented by discrete mass elements, it is preferable, even in simulations that employ a grid-based Eulerian scheme, to avoid artificial coherence between the initial fluid velocity vector and the direction to the nearest CDM particle. This may deserve further study using a grid-based scheme.

By analysing the outputs of the numerical experiments, we identified some peculiar problems and inaccuracies caused by the simplest methods. Then, based on the results, we have suggested a more accurate method to set up initial conditions; i.e., the one used for Run C. In summary, we recommend: (1) using independent glass particle distributions from which a “glass mixture” is made by a treatment to avoid false coupling, (2) using two transfer functions computed for baryons and for dark matter, and (3) taking into account the difference in their velocities at the initialisation epoch. We emphasize that the latter two procedures may be necessary for all cosmological simulations employing multiple components, whether or not both dark matter and gas are realised with particles. We have explicitly shown that, in this manner, the evolution of matter density fluctuations are accurately followed at high redshift.

## Acknowledgments

We thank Edmund Bertschinger, Chung-Pei Ma, Matias Zaldarriaga, Hugues Mathis and Takashi Hamana for valuable discussion. We also thank the anomnymous referee for giving constructive comments which improved the manuscript. This work was supported in part by NSF grants ACI 96-19019, AST 98-02568, AST 99-00877, and AST 00-71019, and by NASA ATP grant NAG5-12150. The simulations were performed at the Center for Parallel Astrophysical Computing at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics.


format: text

text:
# Software Scalability Issues in Large Clusters

## I BACKGROUND

The rapid development of large clusters built with affordable commodity hardware has highlighted the need for scalable cluster administration software that will help system administrators to deploy, maintain and run large clusters. Scalable cluster administration software is critical for the efficient operation of the 2000+ CPU Linux Farm at the RHIC Computing Facility (RCF), and this paper describes our experience with cluster administration software currently in use at the RCF.

The RCF is a large scale data processing facility at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) for the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), a collider dedicated to high-energy nuclear physics experiments. The RCF provides for the computational needs of the RHIC experiments (BRAHMS, PHENIX, PHOBOS, PP2PP and STAR), including batch, mail, printing and data storage. In addition, BNL is the U.S. Tier 1 Center for ATLAS computing, and the RCF also provides for the computational needs of the U.S. collaborators in ATLAS.

The Linux Farm at the RCF provides the majority of the CPU power in the RCF. It is currently listed as the $`3^{rd}`$ largest cluster, according to ”Clusters Top500” (http://clusters.top500.org). Figure 1 shows the rapid growth of the Linux Farm in the last few years.

All aspects of its development (hardware and software), operations and maintenance are overseen by the Linux Farm group, currently a staff of 5 FTE within the RCF.

## II HARDWARE

The Linux Farm is built with commercially available thin rack-mounted, Intel-based servers (1-U and 2-U form factors). Currently, there are 1097 dual-CPU production servers with approximately 917,728 SpecInt2000. Table 1 summarizes the hardware currently in service in the Linux Farm. Hardware reliability has not been an issue at the RCF. The average failure rate is 0.0052 $`failures/(machinemonth)`$, which translates to 5.7 hardware failures per month at its present size. Hardware failures are dominated by disk and power supply failures. A detailed breakdown of the hardware failures by category is shown in Figure 2.

## III MONITORING SOFTWARE

Monitoring and control of the cluster hardware, software and infrastructure (power and cooling) is provided via a mix of open-source software, RCF-designed software and vendor-provided software. Various components of the monitoring software have been redesigned for scalability purposes and to add various persistent and fault-tolerant features to provide near real-time information reliably. Figure 3 shows the two monitoring models used in the design of the various components of the monitoring software.

Figure 4 shows the auto-updating Web-interface to the RCF-designed monitoring software, which allows us to view individual server status within the cluster. Figure 5 is the Web-interface to the complementary open-source ganglia  monitoring software, which provides monitoring information in a user-friendly format via a Web interface.

## IV IMAGE DISTRIBUTION SOFTWARE

The RCF used a Linux image distribution system that relied on an image server that made the image available via NFS to the Linux Farm servers. The image was downloaded and deployed during the rebuilding process. That system worked well until the Linux Farm grew beyond $`150`$ servers, at which point NFS limitations prevented this system from reliably upgrading a large number of servers simultaneously in

an acceptable time interval.

In 2001, the RCF switched to RedHat’s Kickstart installer . Kickstart allowed us to switch to a Web-based image server using standard rpm packages. It has proven very scalable (20 minutes/server with 100’s of servers rebuilt simultaneously) and highly flexible. Multiple images can co-exist with different install options.

Both the old and the new Kickstart image distribution systems rely on a secure MySQL  database system for server authentication and configuration specification.

## V DATABASE SYSTEMS

The RCF uses the open-source, lightweight MySQL database software throughout the facility. MySQL enjoys wide support in the open-source community, and it is well documented. It is used as the general back-end data repository for monitoring, batch control and cluster management purposes at the RCF. MySQL is a scalable and easily configurable database software. Figure 6 shows how MySQL databases are configured in the Linux Farm to achieve high scalability and reliability for monitoring and batch control purposes. Figure 7 shows the PERL-TK interface to the MySQL database for our batch control and monitoring software.

### V.1 OTHER SYSTEM ADMINISTRATION TOOLS

The Linux Farm also uses RCF-designed PYTHON-based scripts for fast, parallel access to the Linux Farm servers. The scripts are used for routine system administration purposes such as installing or updating software. The scripts are also used for automatic emergency remote power access to the servers during infrastrucure system failures (UPS or cooling). Because of the possibility of catastrophic disasters in the case of infrastructure failures (for example, an electrical fire), it is important that the scripts perform fast, parallel and controlled shutdown of the Linux Farm servers. Figure 9 shows how our PYTHON-based scripts fork multiple processes to become a scalable system administration tool.

The RCF also uses vendor-provided software for cluster management. Figure 8 is an example of the user-interface to a software system that is currently deployed in the RCF Linux Farm.

## VI CONCLUSION

Scalable system software has become an important factor to the RCF for efficiently deploying and managing our rapidly growing Linux cluster. It allows us to monitor the status of individual cluster servers in near-real time, to deploy our Linux image in a fast and reliable fashion across the cluster and to access the cluster in a fast, parallel manner.

Because not all of our system software needs can be addressed from a single source, it has become necessary for us to use a mix of RCF-designed, open-source and vendor-provided software to achieve our goal of a scalable system software architecture.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors wish to thank the Information Technology Division and the Physics Department at BNL for their support to the RCF mission.


text:
# Observation of a Narrow Resonance of Mass 2.46 GeV/c2 in the 𝑫_𝒔^{∗+}𝝅^𝟎 Final State, and Confirmation of the 𝑫_{𝒔𝑱}^∗(𝟐𝟑𝟏𝟕)

thanks: Submitted to the 8th Conference on the Intersections of Particle and Nuclear Physics, May 2003, New York

CLEO Collaboration

(May 20, 2003)

## Abstract

Using 13.5 fb-1 of $`e^+e^{}`$ annihilation data collected with the CLEO-II detector, we have observed a new narrow resonance in the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ final state, with a mass near 2.46 GeV/c2. The search for such a state was motivated by the recent discovery by the BABAR Collaboration of a narrow state at 2.32 GeV/c2, the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+`$, that decays to $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$. Reconstructing the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ and $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ final states in CLEO data, we observe a peak in each of the corresponding reconstructed mass difference distributions, $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{D_s\pi ^0}=M(D_s\pi ^0)M(D_s)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{D_s^{}\pi ^0}=M(D_s^{}\pi ^0)M(D_s^{})`$, both of them at values near 350 MeV/c2. These peaks constitute statistically significant evidence for two distinct states, at 2.32 and 2.46 GeV/c2, taking into account the background source that each state comprises for the other in light of the nearly identical values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ observed for the two peaks. We have measured the mean mass differences $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }M}_{D_s\pi ^0}=350.4\pm 1.2\text{[stat.]}\pm 1.0\text{[syst.]}`$MeV/c2 for the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+`$ state, and $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }M}_{D_s^{}\pi ^0}=351.6\pm 1.7\text{[stat.]}\pm 1.0\text{[syst.]}`$MeV/c2 for the new state at 2.46 GeV/c2. We have also searched, but find no evidence, for decays of $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ into the alternate final states $`D_s^+\gamma `$, $`D_s^+\gamma `$, and $`D_s^+\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$. The observations of the two states at 2.32 and 2.46 GeV/c2, in the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ and $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ decay channels respectively, are consistent with their possible interpretations as $`c\overline{s}`$ mesons with orbital angular momentum $`L=1`$, and spin-parity $`J^P=0^+`$ and $`1^+`$.

preprint: CLEO CONF 03-01preprint: CIPANP 2003

The BABAR Collaboration has recently reported babar  evidence for a new narrow resonance with mass near 2.32 GeV/c2, in the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ final state. The BABAR data is consistent with the identification of this state as one of the four lowest-lying members of the $`c\overline{s}`$ system with orbital angular momentum $`L=1`$, and provisionally it has been named the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ meson. A natural candidate would be the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{0}^{}`$ $`c\overline{s}`$ state with spin-parity $`J^P=0^+`$, but other possibilities, including exotic states, are not ruled out. In this paper, we report on a search for the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ meson, as well as other, possibly related states, in data collected with the CLEO II detector in symmetric $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions at the Cornell Electron Storage Ring, at center-of-mass energies $`\sqrt{s}10.6`$ GeV.

The spectroscopy of $`P`$-wave $`c\overline{s}`$ mesons is summarized in Ref. bartelt . Theoretical expectations rgg ; gi ; iw ; gk ; dipe  were that: (1) all four states $`L=1`$ are massive enough that their dominant strong decays would be to the isospin-conserving $`DK`$ and/or $`D^{}K`$ final states, (2) the singlet and triplet $`J^P=1^+`$ states could mix, and (3) in the heavy quark limit, the two states with $`j=3/2`$ would be narrow while the two with $`j=1/2`$ would be broad, where $`j`$ is the sum of the strange quark spin and the orbital angular momentum. Existing experimental evidence pdg ; cleods2  for the narrow $`D_{s1}(2536)`$ and $`D_{sJ}^{}(2573)`$ mesons which decay dominantly to $`D^{}K`$ and $`DK`$ respectively, and the compatibility of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2573)`$ with the $`J^P`$ assignment as $`2^+`$ support this picture.

The observation by BABAR babar  of the new state is surprising because: (1) it is narrow (with intrinsic width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }<10`$MeV), (2) it has been observed in the isospin-violating $`D_s\pi ^0`$ channel, and (3) its mass ($`2316.8\pm 0.4\text{[stat.]}`$MeV/c2) is smaller than most theoretical predictions for a $`0^+`$ $`c\overline{s}`$ state that could decay via this channel. However, points (1) and (2) would be obvious consequences of the low mass, since the $`D^{()}K`$ decay modes would not be allowed kinematically. We also note that at least one theoretical calculation bh  had suggested that in the heavy quark limit the mass splittings between the $`0^+`$ and $`0^{}`$ states of flavored mesons could be as small as 338 MeV/c2, which is near the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+D_s^+`$ mass splitting of $`348.3`$MeV/c2 measured by BABAR.

Since the initial observation, a number of explanations have appeared cahnjackson ; barnescloselipkin ; beverenrupp ; bardeeneichtenhill ; szczepaniak . Cahn and Jackson cahnjackson  apply non-relativistic vector and scalar exchange forces to the constituent quarks. Barnes, Close and Lipkin barnescloselipkin  consider a quark model explanation unlikely and propose a $`DK`$ molecular state. Similarly Szczepaniak szczepaniak  suggests a $`D_s\pi `$ atom. Bardeen, Eichten and Hill bardeeneichtenhill , on the contrary, couple chiral perturbation theory with a quark model representation in heavy quark effective theory, building on the model described in Ref. bh . They infer that the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ is indeed the $`0^+`$ $`c\overline{s}`$ state, predict the existence of the $`1^+`$ partner of this state with a $`1^+0^+`$ mass splitting equal to the $`D_s^{}(2112)D_s`$ (i.e., $`1^{}0^{}`$) mass splitting, and compute the partial widths for decays to allowed final states. Van Beveren and Rupp beverenrupp  also present arguments supporting a low mass for the $`0^+`$ $`c\overline{s}`$ state, by analogy with members of the light scalar meson nonet.

The goals of the analysis presented here are to use CLEO data to shed additional light on the nature of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$, to provide independent evidence regarding its existence, and to search for decays of other new, possibly related states. In particular, we address the following questions. Are the electromagnetic decays $`D_s\gamma `$ or $`D_s^{}\gamma `$ observable in light of the isospin suppression of the strong decay to $`D_s\pi ^0`$? Are other strong decays observable such as $`D_s^{}\pi ^0`$, or the isospin-conserving but Okubo-Zweig-Iizuka (OZI) suppressed ozi  decay $`D_s\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$? If the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ is the expected $`0^+`$ $`c\overline{s}`$ state, might the remaining $`1^+`$ state also be below threshold for decay to $`D^{}K`$, as suggested in Ref. bardeeneichtenhill , and thus be narrow enough to be observable in its decays to $`D_s^{}\pi ^0`$, $`D_s\gamma `$ or $`D_s^{}\gamma `$?

This article is organized as follows. After describing the detector and data set, we summarize the reconstruction of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+D_s^+\pi ^0`$ decay channel, including efforts to understand and exclude contributions from known background processes. We then report on searches for other possible decay channels as described in the preceding paragraph. We report on the appearance of a statistically significant signal in the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ channel, but at a location not compatible with $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+`$. We describe a quantitative analysis of the signals in the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ and $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ channels, leading us to infer the existence of two distinct states. Based on this conclusion, we discuss the properties of these two states, after which we summarize the principal results of the analysis.

The analysis described here is based on 13.5 fb-1 of $`e^+e^{}`$ collision data collected between 1990 and 1998. CLEO II is a general-purpose, large-solid-angle, cylindrical detector featuring precision charged-particle tracking and electromagnetic calorimetry, and is described in detail in Refs. Kubota:1992ww ; Hill:1998ea . In its initial configuration, the tracking system was comprised of a six-layer straw tube chamber just outside of a 3.2-cm radius beryllium beam pipe, followed by a 10-layer hexagonal-cell drift chamber and a 51-layer square-cell drift chamber, immersed in a 1.5-T magnetic field generated by a superconducting solenoid. In 1995, the beam pipe and straw tubes were replaced by a 2.0-cm radius beam pipe plus three layers of silicon strip detectors each with double-sided readout, and a helium-propane gas mixture replaced the argon-ethane mixture previously used in the main drift chamber.

Beyond the tracking system but within the solenoid were also located a 5-cm thick plastic scintillation counter system for time-of-flight measurement and triggering, as well as a barrel calorimeter consisting of 6144 tapered CsI(Tl) crystals 30-cm in length and arrayed in a projective geometry with their long axis oriented radially with respect to the $`e^+e^{}`$ interaction point. An additional 1656 crystals were deployed in two end caps to complete the solid angle coverage. The excellent energy and angular resolution of the calorimeter is critical for the reconstruction of $`\pi ^0\gamma \gamma `$ decays as well as single low-energy photons such as those emitted in the $`D_s^+D_s\gamma `$ transition.

The search for the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ was carried out by reconstructing the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ state, using the $`D_s^+\varphi \pi ^+`$ channel with $`\varphi K^+K^{}`$. Charge conjugation is implied throughout this report. Pairs of oppositely-charged tracks were considered as candidates for the decay products of the $`\varphi `$ if the specific ionization ($`dE/dx`$) is measured in the main drift chamber to be within 2.5 standard deviations of expectations for kaons, and if the invariant mass of the $`K^+K^{}`$ system was within $`\pm 10`$MeV/c2 of the $`\varphi `$ mass. A third track with $`dE/dx`$ consistent with the expectation for a pion was combined with the $`K^+K^{}`$ system to form a $`D_s^+`$ candidate. The observed $`D_s^+`$ peak has a Gaussian width ($`\sigma `$) of $`6.4\pm 0.2`$MeV/c2 in our data, consistent with CLEO Monte Carlo simulations of $`D_s`$ production and decay plus a GEANT-3 geant  based simulation of particle propagation and detector response.

Pairs of clusters of energy deposition of greater than 100 MeV apiece, of which one cluster must lie in the central region of the calorimeter ($`|\mathrm{cos}\theta |<0.71`$, where $`\theta `$ is measured with respect to the beam axis) were selected as the candidates for photons from $`\pi ^0`$ decay if they satisfied $`122<M(\gamma \gamma )<148`$MeV/c2. The $`M(\gamma \gamma )`$ distribution for photon-pairs accompanying a $`D_s^+`$ candidate with $`M(KK\pi )`$ between 1.955 and 1.979 GeV/c2 has a width of $`5.8\pm 0.4`$MeV/c2 in our data, consistent with expectations from the Monte Carlo simulations.

To suppress combinatoric backgrounds, we further required that the momentum of the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ candidate be greater than $`3.5`$GeV/c. We also required that the helicity angle of the $`\varphi K^+K^{}`$ decay satisfy the requirement $`|\mathrm{cos}\theta _h|>0.3`$, where $`\theta _h`$ is the angle between the $`K^+`$ momentum vector, as measured in the $`\varphi `$ rest frame, and the $`\varphi `$ momentum vector, as measured in the $`D_s`$ rest frame. The expected distribution from real $`\varphi `$ decays varies as $`\mathrm{cos}^2\theta _h`$, whereas combinatoric backgrounds tend to be flat. For $`D_s\pi ^0`$ combinations satisfying these requirements, we plot the mass $`M(KK\pi \pi ^0)`$ and the mass difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }M=M(KK\pi \pi ^0)M(KK\pi )`$ in Fig. 1.

To improve the experimental resolution on $`M(KK\pi \pi ^0)`$, the true $`D_s`$ mass has been used to determine the energy of the $`KK\pi `$ system from its measured momentum in Fig. 1(a); this substitution is not done for $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ in Fig. 1(b), or for the calculation of other mass differences entering this analysis.

The narrow peaks in Fig. 1 at mass near 2.32 GeV/c2 and $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ near 350 MeV/c2 are in qualitative agreement with the BABAR observation. We note that there are no peaks in this region when $`KK\pi `$ combinations with $`M(KK\pi )`$ lying in $`D_s`$ side bands are combined with a $`\pi ^0`$. The other features in the spectra shown in Fig. 1, namely the sharp signal from $`D_s^+D_s^+\pi ^0`$ cleodspi0  near the kinematic threshold and the broad enhancement above this (due primarily to $`D_s^+D_s^+\gamma `$ plus a random photon, as well as a small contribution from $`D^+K^{}\pi ^+\pi ^+\pi ^0`$ with a mass mis-assignment), correspond well with the features present in the BABAR data. In addition, Monte Carlo simulations of inclusive charmed hadron production via $`e^+e^{}c\overline{c}`$ give $`M(D_s^+\pi ^0)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ spectra that reproduce the features observed in the data, except for the peak at 2.32 GeV/c2 and 350 MeV/c2. This is also illustrated in Fig. 1, where normalizations of each of the $`c\overline{c}`$ Monte Carlo spectra are fixed so as to match the last 20 bins of the corresponding data spectrum.

We have investigated mechanisms by which a peak at 2.32 GeV/c2 could be generated from decays involving known particles, either through the addition, omission or substitution of a pion or photon, or through the mis-assignment of particle masses to the observed charged particles. In no cases were narrow enhancements in the $`M(D_s^+\pi ^0)`$ spectrum near 2.32 GeV/c2 observed. We will discuss the issue of feed down from a possible new resonance at 2.46 GeV/c2 when we describe our studies of the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ final state.

From a fit to the $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ distribution with a Gaussian signal shape and 3rd order polynomial background function, we obtain a yield of $`231_{29}^{+31}`$ events in the peak near 350 MeV/c2. From Monte Carlo simulations, the detection efficiency associated with the reconstruction of the full $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+D_s^+\pi ^0`$, $`D_s^+\varphi \pi ^+`$, $`\varphi K^+K^{}`$ decay chain is $`(13.1\pm 0.7)\%`$ for the portion of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+`$ momentum spectrum above $`3.5`$GeV/c, where this efficiency does not include the $`D_s`$ and $`\varphi `$ decay branching fractions.

The fit returns a mean and Gaussian width for the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ peak of $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }M}=350.3\pm 1.0`$ MeV/c2 and $`\sigma =8.4_{1.2}^{+1.4}`$MeV/c2, respectively, where the errors are due to statistics only. The expected mass resolution is $`6.4\pm 0.4`$MeV/c2, somewhat smaller than the width returned from the fit to the CLEO data. Further discussions of the broader-than-expected width, as well as of systematic errors in the measurements of the mass and width of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ appear later in this article. However, the mean mass difference and width of the peak are consistent with the corresponding BABAR values babar . Thus, we confirm the existence of a peak in the $`D_s\pi ^0`$ mass spectrum that cannot be explained as reflections from decays of known particles.

The conclusion that the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ is a new narrow resonance decaying to $`D_s\pi ^0`$ leads to two questions: (1) are there other observable decay modes, and (2) might additional new $`c\overline{s}`$ resonances also exist in which normally suppressed decay modes such as $`D_s^{()}\pi ^0`$ are dominant? To answer these questions we have searched in the channels $`D_s\gamma `$, $`D_s^{}\gamma `$, $`D_s^{}\pi ^0`$ and $`D_s\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$.

If the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ is a $`0^+`$ $`L=1`$ $`c\overline{s}`$ meson as has been suggested bardeeneichtenhill , it could decay via $`S`$\- or $`D`$-wave to $`D_s^{}\gamma `$, but would not be able to decay to $`D_s\gamma `$ due to parity and angular momentum conservation. Consequently, observation of one or the other of these channels would be interesting. On the other hand, if neither channel is seen, this would not be too surprising since these are electromagnetic decays, and the $`D_s\pi ^0`$ decay, while isospin-violating, is not as severely phase-space suppressed as in the case of the corresponding decay of the $`D_s^{}`$ where the electromagnetic decay dominates. The BABAR data show no evidence for either channel, however no upper limits were reported on the branching ratios for these channels.

With regard to strong decays, the $`D_s\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ final state is kinematically allowed and isospin-conserving, but would be suppressed by the OZI rule. This is in contrast to the $`D_s\pi ^0`$ channel for which one mechanism would be decay to a $`D_s`$ plus a virtual $`\eta `$, with production of the $`\pi ^0`$ via $`\eta `$-$`\pi ^0`$ mixing cho . Observation of the $`D_s\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ channel would be strong evidence against the interpretation of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ as a $`0^+`$ meson.

Finally, it is possible that the remaining $`L=1`$ $`c\overline{s}`$ state with $`J^P=1^+`$ could also be light enough that decays to $`D^{}K`$ would be kinematically forbidden. In this case, the strong isospin-violating decay of this $`1^+`$ state to $`D_s^{}\pi ^0`$ could occur via $`S`$-wave (the electromagnetic decays to $`D_s\gamma `$ or $`D_s^{}\gamma `$ would also be possible), and thus a peak in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{D_s^{}\pi ^0}=M(D_s\gamma \pi ^0)M(D_s\gamma )`$ spectrum would be a compelling signature of such a state.

To look for these channels we select events containing $`D_s^+\varphi \pi ^+`$ candidates as in the $`D_s\pi ^0`$ analysis. For the $`D_s\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ channel, we combine the $`D_s`$ candidates with two oppositely charged tracks, and plot the mass difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{D_s\pi \pi }=M(D_s\pi \pi )M(D_s)`$, where $`M(D_s)=M(KK\pi )`$, as shown in Fig. 2.

No signal is evident.

To search for states decaying to $`D_s^+\gamma `$, as well as to select $`D_s^+`$ candidates for use in other searches, we have formed $`D_s^+\gamma `$ combinations by selecting photons of energy greater than 150 MeV. We ignore photons that can be paired with another photon such that $`M(\gamma \gamma )`$ is consistent with $`\pi ^0`$ decay. The inclusive $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{D_s\gamma }=M(KK\pi \gamma )M(KK\pi )`$ spectrum for this sample is plotted in Fig. 3(a), illustrating that a large $`D_s^{}`$ sample can be obtained. For decay modes with a $`D_s^{}`$ in the final state, We select $`D_s\gamma `$ combinations where $`M(D_s\gamma )`$ is reconstructed to be between 2.090 and 2.130 GeV/c2.

Also visible in Fig. 3(a), are regions of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{D_s\gamma }`$ spectrum where decays of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ (or of a possible higher mass state) into $`D_s\gamma `$ would appear. There is no evidence for a signal corresponding to a $`M(D_s\gamma )`$ in the vicinity of 2.32 GeV/c2, or elsewhere in the plotted region.

The same conclusion holds for the $`D_s^{}\gamma `$ final state, shown in Fig. 3(b), where we combine selected $`D_s^{}`$ candidates with photons of energy above 200 MeV. The peak in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{D_s^{}\gamma }`$ spectrum in Fig. 3(b) near 150 MeV is due to real $`D_s^+D_s^+\gamma `$ decays in which a random photon has been combined with the $`D_s^+`$ candidate to form the $`D_s^{}`$ candidate, and the actual photon from this transition is combined with this system to form the $`D_{sJ}^{}`$ candidate. There is no sign of any additional structure in this spectrum.

We have also searched in the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ channel for $`D_{sJ}^{}`$ states. This analysis was carried out with different selection criteria than the channels described above. Fig. 4(a) shows the mass difference plot for events with candidate $`D_s^+\varphi \pi ^+`$, $`D_s^+\gamma D_s^+`$ and di-photon combinations consistent with being $`\pi ^0`$ candidates.

Other requirements are similar to those described in preceding sections of this paper, except that all photon candidates are required to be in the central region of the calorimeter, and we do not veto extra photons consistent with $`\pi ^0`$ decay to maintain efficiency. As before, the $`D_s^{}\pi ^0`$ candidates are required to have momenta above 3.5 GeV/c. A signal is apparent at a $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ of $`350.6\pm 1.2`$ MeV/c2, with a width of $`6.1\pm 1.0`$MeV/c2 consistent with our mass resolution of $`6.6\pm 0.5`$MeV/c2. A fit to a Gaussian signal plus polynomial background yields $`53.3\pm 9.7`$ signal events. If the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+`$ were to decay to the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ final state, a peak would be expected at a $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ of $`205`$MeV/c2. The existence of a peak at 351 MeV/c2 leads us to investigate the possibility of a second narrow resonance with a mass near 2463 MeV/c2 that decays to $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$. We note that a similar peak is also present in the $`M(D_s^{}\pi ^0)`$ spectrum observed by BABAR babar , although BABAR does not claim this as evidence for a new state. For ease of notation, we refer to the postulated particle as the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)^+`$.

The kinematics of the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ and $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ decays are quite similar, and it is possible that they can reflect into one another, as noted in Ref. babar . For example, taking $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ events and ignoring the photon we find that essentially all the putative signal events form a peak in the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ mass spectrum in the same location as the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ signal described in previous sections of this report. It is also possible that the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ signal can pick up a random photon such that the $`D_s^+\gamma `$ combination accidentally falls in the $`D_s^+`$ signal region described earlier. In this case, $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+D_s^+\pi ^0`$ decays would reflect into the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)^+D_s^+\pi ^0`$ signal region. A Monte Carlo simulation of $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+`$ production and decay to $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ shows that this does happen, but only for approximately $`9\%`$ of the reconstructed events. By applying the same selection criteria as described in the preceding paragraph, except without selecting the photon from the $`D_s^{}D_s\gamma `$ transition, we obtain $`160.2\pm 18.5`$ candidates for the decay $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)D_s\pi ^0`$.

With this information, we can extract the number of real $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+D_s^+\pi ^0`$ events in our data, denoted as $`R_0`$, as well as the number of real $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)^+D_s^+\pi ^0`$ events, denoted as $`R_1`$, taking into account that the real signal events can both feed each other. The observed numbers of events are $`N_0=160.2\pm 18.5`$ $`D_s\pi ^0`$ events and $`N_1=53.3\pm 9.7`$ $`D_s^{}\pi ^0`$ events. The following equations relate the real to observed numbers:

$$N_0=R_0+R_1f_1$$
(1)
$$N_1=R_1+R_0f_0$$
(2)
where $`R_x`$ is number of real events produced times the efficiency to observe them as signal, and $`f_x`$ is the probability to feed up or feed down relative to the reconstruction efficiency for the respective signal modes. We note that these relations represent first-order approximations; the higher-order corrections are negligible in the present case. From our simulation we measure $`f_0=0.0910\pm 0.0072`$ for the probability that a reconstructed $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)D_s\pi ^0`$ can be combined with a random photon so as to mimic a $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$ candidate. We also obtain $`f_1=0.840\pm 0.044`$, which includes the probability of feed down as well as the photon finding efficiency.

Solving these equations we find that $`R_0=124.9\pm 22.5`$ events and $`R_1=41.9\pm 10.7`$ events, where the uncertainties include both statistical and systematic sources. The result for $`R_1`$ provides strong evidence for the existence of a state at 2463 MeV/c2. The statistical significance of the signal is estimated to be in excess of $`5\sigma `$ by computing the probability for the combinatoric background plus the feed up background to fluctuate up so as to give the observed yield of $`53.3`$ events in the peak in Fig. 4(a).

We have also carried out a direct estimate of the background in Fig. 4(a) due to $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)^+D_s^+\pi ^0`$ plus random photon combinations, by selecting events in $`D_s^{}`$ side band regions in the $`D_s\gamma \pi ^0`$ sample. The $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ distribution for this sample, shown in Fig. 4(b), shows only a small enhancement in the region of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$, thereby demonstrating that the background from $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ decays indeed constitutes only a small fraction of the 53.3 events observed in the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$ peak. Performing a $`\chi ^2`$ fit to the $`D_s^{}`$-side-band-subtracted version of Fig. 4, we obtain consistent results with $`R_1=40.8\pm 11.3`$ events and a value for the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)D_s^{}`$ mass difference of $`351.6\pm 1.7`$MeV/c2. By comparing the values of $`\chi ^2`$ obtained with and without the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$ signal contribution, we infer that the statistical significance of the signal is $`4.4\sigma `$. From our fits to data and Monte Carlo $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ distributions, we also infer a $`90\%`$ confidence level (C.L.) upper limit on the natural width ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)^+`$ state to be $`7`$MeV.

Based on the event yields and detection efficiencies given above, we can determine the production rate times branching fraction for the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$ state to that of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$. We find this to be approximately $`40\%`$.

Unlike the case of the $`0^+`$ state, the $`D_s\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ decay mode is allowed by parity and angular momentum conservation for a state with $`J^P=1^+`$. In the model of Ref. bardeeneichtenhill , it is predicted to occur with a branching fraction of $`19\%`$ relative to that for $`D_s^{}\pi ^0`$. We have fit the $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{D_s\pi \pi }`$ spectrum plotted in Fig. 2 for a signal corresponding to a transition from the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$. Such a signal would peak with a $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{D_s\pi \pi }`$ near 495 MeV/c2 and a Gaussian width of $`3.4\pm 0.2`$MeV/c2 assuming a natural width of zero. No evidence for a signal is found, and we obtain an upper limit on the relative branching fraction of $`8.1\%`$ at the $`90\%`$ C.L.

Having obtained evidence for the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$ state, and having characterized the background that it contributes in the $`D_s\pi ^0D_s`$ mass difference spectrum, we are now able to further address properties of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ state. We recall that our measurement of the Gaussian width of the peak in Fig. 1, $`8.4_{1.2}^{+1.4}`$MeV/c2, is somewhat larger than our mass difference resolution, $`6.4\pm 0.4`$MeV/c2. This difference is consistent with predictions from Monte Carlo simulations where we include both $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$ and $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ production, since roughly one third of the observed $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ events in the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ signal peak enter as a reflection from the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$ state, this ‘background’ peak having an expected Gaussian width of $`14.9\pm 1.0`$MeV/c2.

To better determine the mass and natural width of this state, we carry out a binned likelihood fit of the peak in the $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ spectrum in Fig. 1(b) to a sum of two Gaussians, one for the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ signal, and one to account for the feed down from the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$. Allowing the means and widths of both Gaussians to float, we measure $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }M}`$ for the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ to be $`350.4\pm 1.2`$MeV/c2 with a width of $`5.5\pm 1.3`$MeV/c2. The mean and width for the feed down contribution are $`349.2\pm 3.6`$MeV/c2 and $`15.3\pm 4.1`$MeV/c2, respectively. Both widths are consistent with predictions from Monte Carlo simulations in which the two states are modeled as having a natural width of zero.

We have also carried out fits in which one or both of the widths of the Gaussians were fixed to values determined by the Monte Carlo. In all cases the results were consistent with the results from the fit described above. These two-Gaussian fits return similar values for $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }M}`$ for the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ to the value given above. We have also tried to obtain a purer $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ sample by vetoing events with photons that can be combined with the $`D_s`$ candidate to form a $`D_s^{}`$, thereby removing some of the feed down background from the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$. This veto marginally improves the $`D_s\pi ^0`$ signal when we fit with two Gaussians, and the mass and width change by only a small fraction of the statistical uncertainty. The systematic uncertainty on $`\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }M}`$ receives contributions from uncertainties in the characterization of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$ feed down and from uncertainties in the modeling of the energy resolution of the calorimeter. Conservatively, we estimate the total systematic error to be 1.0 MeV/c2, however further study should allow the size of the estimated error to be decreased. Based on these studies, we limit the natural width of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ to be $`\mathrm{\Gamma }<7`$ MeV at $`90\%`$ C.L.

With regard to the alternate $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)`$ decay channels described earlier, in which no signals were observed, we summarize the limits on the branching fractions relative to the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ mode in Table 1. The normalization for these limits is based on the determination that $`78.1\pm 13.9\%`$ of the observed yield of $`231_{29}^{+31}`$ events in the peak of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }M(D_s\pi ^0)`$ spectrum in Fig. 1 are attributable to $`D_{sJ}^{}(2317)D_s\pi ^0`$ decay after accounting for the feed down from decays of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$ state to $`D_s^{}\pi ^0`$.

The event yields are obtained by fitting the mass difference distributions to a Gaussian with mean fixed to the result from the $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$ channel and width specified by the resolution determined from the simulation of the corresponding decay mode. Uncertainties are dominated by the statistical error on the unseen yields and limits on the relative rates are calculated assuming a Gaussian distribution with negative values not allowed.

In summary, data from the CLEO II detector provides confirming evidence for the existence of a new narrow resonance decaying to $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$, with a mass near 2.32 GeV/c2. This state is consistent with being the $`0^+`$ member of the lowest-lying $`P`$-wave $`c\overline{s}`$ multiplet. We have not observed other decay modes of this state, as summarized in Table 1. We have measured the mass splitting of this state with respect to the $`D_s`$ meson to be $`350.4\pm 1.2\text{[stat.]}\pm 1.0\text{[syst.]}`$MeV/c2, and we find its natural width to be $`\mathrm{\Gamma }<7`$MeV at $`90\%`$ C.L.

We have observed a second narrow state with a mass near 2.46 GeV/c2, decaying to $`D_s^+\pi ^0`$. The measured properties of this state are consistent with its interpretation as the $`1^+`$ partner of the $`0^+`$ state in the spin multiplet with light quark angular momentum of $`j=1/2`$. We have measured the mass splitting of this state with respect to the $`D_s^{}`$ meson to be $`351.6\pm 1.7\text{[stat.]}\pm 1.0\text{[syst.]}`$MeV/c2. The natural width of this state is also found to be $`\mathrm{\Gamma }<7`$MeV at $`90\%`$ C.L. Since the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$ mass lies above the kinematic threshold for decay to $`DK`$ (but not for $`D^{}K`$), the narrow width suggests that this decay does not occur. This is additional evidence for the compatibility of the $`D_{sJ}^{}(2463)`$ with the $`J^P=1^+`$ hypothesis.

In the model of Bardeen, Eichten and Hill, a $`J^P=1^+`$ state is predicted with the same mass splitting $`\mathrm{\Delta }M`$ with the $`1^{}`$ state as that between the $`0^+`$ and $`0^{}`$ states. Taking the difference between the two mean mass differences reported above, we obtain $`\delta (\mathrm{\Delta }M)=(351.6\pm 1.7)(350.4\pm 1.2)=1.2\pm 2.1`$MeV/c2 for the difference between the $`1^+1^{}`$ and $`0^+0^{}`$ mass splittings, where the dominant uncertainty is due to statistics. Thus our observations are consistent with these predictions.

We gratefully acknowledge the effort of the CESR staff in providing us with excellent luminosity and running conditions. We thank W. Bardeen, E. Eichten, S. Godfrey, C. Hill and J. Rosner for useful discussions. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Research Corporation, and the Texas Advanced Research Program.


text:
# Necessary and sufficient range-dimension conditions for bipartite quantum correlations

## References


text:
# Quantum Hall effect on the Lobachevsky plane

## 1 Introduction

The two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) in quantized magnetic fields has attracted a lot of attention in recent years, both experimentally and theoretically. An increasing interest is due to unique magnetic (the de Haas — van Alphen effect), transport (the quantum Hall effect and Shubnikov — de Haas effect), and optic (the cyclotron resonance) properties. Moreover, 2DEG systems are of great interest, since they are extensively used in modern electronic devices and hold much promise as building blocks for future electronic and mechanical nanodevices.

One of the fundamental properties of the 2DEG is the quantum Hall effect (QHE). Although this effect was discovered and theoretically explained about twenty years ago, the interest to the QHE is increasing up to now. Several works is devoted to the effect of electron-electron , electron-phonon , and spin-orbit  interactions on the Hall conductivity. Interesting features are obtained from an analysis of the Hall conductivity at low magnetic fields  or from disorder effects .

Other branch of the QHE physics both theoretical  and experimental  concern the study of the surface curvature effects on the transport properties. The recent progress in nanotechnology has made it possible to produce curved 2D layers  and nanometer-size objects of desired shapes . In particular, an original technique developed in Refs.  enables fabricating nanotubes, quantum rolls, rings, and spiral-like strips of precisely controllable shapes and dimensions. The QHE on different non-flat surfaces have been studied, for example, on the quantum cylinder , sphere , torus , and surface of constant negative curvature .

In this paper we study the effect of the surface curvature of the 2DEG on the Hall conductivity. The case of the 2DEG on the surface of constant negative curvature (the Lobachevsky plane) in an orthogonal magnetic field is considered. Although the Lobachevsky plane is not accessible to the experimental realization, the problem of the physics on the Lobachevsky plane has a deep relation with some interesting problems, like the occurrence of the chaos in the surface of negative curvature , the Berry phase , and point perturbations  on the Lobachevsky plane. In recent years, the QHE on the Lobachevsky plane is a subject of current interest. In particular, the Laughlin wavefunctions of the QHE were studied in Refs. . In Ref.  the noncommutative geometry models for the QHE on the Lobachevsky plane were developed. The QHE in the presence of disorder was investigated in Ref. . Grosche  showed that the QHE at the Aharonov-Bohm flux has interesting features. In Refs.  scattering theory and the Hall conductance of leaky tori with constant negative curvature were considered.

## 2 Density of states

We consider the case of noninteracting electrons confined to the surface of constant negative curvature (the Lobachevsky plane) in a magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{B}`$.

The spinless one-particle Hamiltonian of an electron on a two-dimensional Riemann surface $`M`$ is given by

$$H=\frac{1}{2m^{}}g^{1/2}\left(\frac{\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{i}}_\mu \frac{e}{c}A_\mu \right)g^{1/2}g^{\mu \nu }\left(\frac{\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{i}}_\nu \frac{e}{c}A_\nu \right)+\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{8m^{}}\frac{R}{2},$$
(1)
where $`m^{}`$ is the effective electron mass, $`g^{\mu \nu }`$ is the contravariant component of the metric tensor of the manifold, $`g=detg_{\mu \nu }`$, $`A_\mu `$ is the component of the vector potential of a magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{B}`$, the last term in Eq. (1) is the surface potential which arises from the surface curvature .

We shall employ the Poincaré realization in which the Lobachevsky plane $`M`$ is identified with the upper complex halfplane $`M=\{z=x+\mathrm{i}y\mathrm{}:y>0\}`$ endowed with the metric

$$ds^2=\frac{a^2}{y^2}(x^2+y^2),$$

where $`a`$ is the radius of curvature. Therefore, in the Landau gauge ($`\stackrel{}{A}=(Ba^2y^1,0)`$), the Hamiltonian (1) on the Lobachevsky plane is given by

$$H=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m^{}a^2}\left[y^2\left(_x^2+_y^2\right)+2\mathrm{i}by_x+b^2\frac{1}{4}\right],$$
(2)
where $`b=eBa^2/\mathrm{}c`$. The spectrum of $`H`$ consists of two parts : a point spectrum in the interval $`(0,\mathrm{}^2b^2/2m^{}a^2)`$ consisting of a finite number of Landau levels

$$E_n=\mathrm{}\omega _c\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right)\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m^{}a^2}\left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right)^2,0n<|b|\frac{1}{2}$$
(3)
and an absolutely continuous spectrum in the interval $`[\mathrm{}^2b^2/2m^{}a^2,\mathrm{})`$

$$E(\nu )=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m^{}a^2}\left(b^2+\nu ^2\right),0\nu <\mathrm{}.$$

The electron density of states (DOS) $`n(E)`$ per unit area is defined by the following expression:

$$n(E)=\frac{1}{S}ImG(\stackrel{}{r},\stackrel{}{r};E+\mathrm{i0})\stackrel{}{r},$$

where $`S`$ is the area of the surface and $`G(\stackrel{}{r},\stackrel{}{r^{}};E)`$ is the Green’s function of the Hamiltonian. In the case of homogeneous systems, the renormalized Green’s function $`G^{\mathrm{ren}}(\stackrel{}{r},\stackrel{}{r};E)`$ coincide with the so-called Krein’s function $`Q(E)`$, which for the Lobachevsky plane is given by

$$Q(E)=\frac{m^{}}{2\pi \mathrm{}^2}\left[\psi (tb)+\psi (t+b)+2\gamma _\mathrm{E}\mathrm{ln}4a^2\right],$$

where $`\psi (z)=[\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\Gamma }(z)]^{}`$, $`t(E)=1/2+\sqrt{b^22m^{}a^2E/\mathrm{}^2}`$, and $`\gamma _\mathrm{E}`$ is the Euler number. By applying the properties of $`\psi `$-function and the Sochocki formula $`\delta (x)=(1/\pi )Im(1/(x+\mathrm{i0}))`$, one obtains the following expression for the electron density of states:

$`n(E)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi a^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{0n<|b|1/2}{}}\left(|b|n{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\right)\delta (EE_n)`$ (4)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{m^{}}{2\pi \mathrm{}^2}}\mathrm{\Theta }\left(E{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2b^2}{2m^{}a^2}}\right){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{sinh}2\pi \sqrt{2m^{}a^2E/\mathrm{}^2b^2}}{\mathrm{cosh}2\pi \sqrt{2m^{}a^2E/\mathrm{}^2b^2}+\mathrm{cos}2\pi b}},`$
where $`\mathrm{\Theta }(x)`$ is the Heaviside step function. The first term in Eq. (4) corresponds to the point spectrum and the second term corresponds to the continuous one and coincides with the expression given in Ref. .

In Figures 1 and 2 we plot the dependencies of the DOS on the energy and on the magnetic field, respectively. In these figures we show schematically the delta-peaks, corresponding to the discrete spectrum. The step-like dependence of the density of states correspond to the continuous spectrum. As can be seen from Eq. (4), for $`E=\mathrm{}^2b^2/2m^{}a^2`$, on the plateau of the step, the DOS approaches $`m^{}/2\pi \mathrm{}^2`$ asymptotically with increasing energy or with decreasing magnetic field. Note that the step is a smeared one if $`b`$ is close to an integer (see Fig. 1). If $`b`$ is close to a half-integer, then the sharp peak appear at the threshold of the step (see Fig. 2). The appearance of this peak is defined as follows. For half-integer $`b`$ and $`b^2=2m^{}a^2E/\mathrm{}^2`$ (i.e. at the threshold of the step), the denominator of the second term in Eq. (4) is zero and the infinite peak appears (if $`b`$ is close to the a half-integer, then the peak height is finite).

Note that in the limit of zero curvature ($`a\mathrm{}`$), we get the well known formula for the DOS on the flat surface:

$$n(E)=\frac{|Be|}{2\pi \mathrm{}c}\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\delta (EE_n).$$

In this work we consider the case of high magnetic fields and the large radius of curvature ($`a^2B^2e^2/2m^{}c^2>E_\mathrm{F}`$). In this case, the energy spectrum below the Fermi energy $`E_\mathrm{F}`$ is discrete one only. Therefore, the second term in Eq. (4) is zero.

## 3 Hall conductivity

In the linear response approximation, Strěda  has shown that the Hall conductivity is given by the following expression, when the Fermi energy is in an energy gap:

$$\sigma _{xy}(E_\mathrm{F},0)=\frac{ec}{S}\frac{N}{B},$$
(5)
where $`N`$ is the number of states below the Fermi energy. In the case of large radius of curvature and high magnetic fields $`(a^2B^2e^2/2m^{}c^2>E_\mathrm{F})`$, using Eq. (4) we obtain

$`N`$ $`=`$ $`S{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{E_\mathrm{F}}}n(E)E={\displaystyle \frac{S}{2\pi a^2}}\left[b+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sqrt{b^22m^{}a^2E_\mathrm{F}/\mathrm{}^2}\right]`$ (6)
$`\times \left(b{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[b+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sqrt{b^22m^{}a^2E_\mathrm{F}/\mathrm{}^2}\right]\right),`$
where $`[x]`$ is the integer part of $`x`$ (we consider for simplicity the case of $`b>0`$ only).

It is easy to see that in an energy gap the integer part of $`b+1/2\sqrt{b^22m^{}a^2E_\mathrm{F}/\mathrm{}^2}`$ is constant. Therefore, substituting Eq. (6) into Eq. (5), we obtain

$$\frac{\sigma _{xy}(E_\mathrm{F},0)}{\sigma _0}=\left[b+\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{b^22m^{}a^2E_\mathrm{F}/\mathrm{}^2}\right],$$
(7)
where $`\sigma _0=e^2/h`$.

As can be seen from Eq. (7), the field dependence of the Hall conductivity has a step-like structure. In the limit of zero curvature ($`a\mathrm{}`$), we get the well known formula for the Hall conductivity on the flat surface:

$$\frac{\sigma _{xy}(E_\mathrm{F},0)}{\sigma _0}\underset{a\mathrm{}}{}\left[\frac{1}{2}+\frac{E_\mathrm{F}}{\mathrm{}\omega _c}\right].$$

The breaks in the conductivity arise from the crossings of the Fermi energy by Landau levels. Therefore, the break locations are defined by

$$E_\mathrm{F}=\mathrm{}\omega _c\left(n_0\frac{1}{2}\right)\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m^{}a^2}\left(n_0\frac{1}{2}\right)^2,$$
(8)
where $`n_0`$ is the number of fully occupied Landau levels below the Fermi energy. As can be seen from this equation, the effect of the surface curvature is to shift the break locations to higher magnetic fields. The shift of the break location is equal to $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0(n_01/2)/4\pi a^2`$ (see Fig. 3).

Note that $`\sigma _{xy}(E_\mathrm{F},0)=\sigma _0n_0`$ on the plateaus. From Eq. (8) we find the plateau width

$$\mathrm{\Delta }B=\frac{m^{}c}{|e|\mathrm{}}\left(\frac{E_\mathrm{F}}{n_0^21/4}\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m^{}a^2}\right).$$
(9)
Thus the plateau width for the Lobachevsky plane less than for the flat surface by $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/4\pi a^2`$, where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0=hc/|e|`$ is the magnetic flux quantum.

In Fig. 4 we plot $`\sigma _{xy}(B)`$ at different $`E_\mathrm{F}`$. It can be seen that the plateau width increases with increasing the Fermi energy and the break locations are shifted to higher magnetic fields.

Let us consider the influence of temperature on the Hall conductivity. The dependence of $`\sigma _{xy}`$ on temperature is given by

$$\sigma _{xy}(\mu ,T)=\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(\frac{f_0(E)}{E}\right)\sigma _{xy}(E,0)E,$$

where $`\mu `$ is the chemical potential, $`f_0(E)`$ is the Fermi function, and $`\sigma _{xy}(E,0)`$ is the Hall conductivity at zero temperature. In the case of strong magnetic quantization, we can neglect the contribution of electrons with the energies $`EE_\mathrm{F}`$ lying in the continuous spectrum to the Hall conductivity. Therefore,

$$\frac{\sigma _{xy}(\mu ,T)}{\sigma _0}=\underset{n=0}{\overset{[b1/2]}{}}f_0(E_n)+\frac{\left[b1/2\right]}{1+\mathrm{exp}\{(\mathrm{}^2b^2/2m^{}a^2\mu )/T\}}.$$
(10)
As shown in Fig. 5, an increase of temperature results in smearing of the steps. The smearing is essential for the steps with smaller plateau width.

Let us consider the dependence of the Hall conductivity on the chemical potential. From Eq. (8) we find that the effect of the surface curvature is to shift the break locations to lower values of chemical potential. This shift of the break location is equal to $`\mathrm{}^2(n_01/2)^2/2m^{}a^2`$ (see Fig. 6).

The plateau width is given by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\mu |_{T=0}=\mathrm{}\omega _c\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{m^{}a^2}n_0.$$
(11)
Therefore, the plateau width for the Lobachevsky plane less than for the flat surface by the value proportional to the number of fully occupied Landau levels.

## 4 Conclusions

In conclusion, we have studied the effect of the surface curvature on the Hall conductivity. The case of constant negative curvature (the Lobachevsky plane) in an orthogonal magnetic field have been investigated. It has been shown that the effect of the surface curvature is to change the break locations and the plateau widths; namely, the surface curvature shifts the break locations to higher values of magnetic fields (to lower values of the chemical potential) in the dependence $`\sigma _{xy}(B)`$ ($`\sigma _{xy}(\mu )`$). Note that the shift of break locations are increasing with increasing the number of fully occupied Landau levels below the Fermi energy. In the dependence of $`\sigma _{xy}`$ on $`B`$, the plateau width for the Lobachevsky plane less than for the flat surface by $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/4\pi a^2`$ (see Eq. (9)). In the dependence of $`\sigma _{xy}`$ on $`\mu `$, the plateau width is defined by Eq. (11). As can be seen from this equation, curvature decreases the plateau width. Moreover, the plateau width for the Lobachevsky plane less than for the flat surface by the value proportional to the number of fully occupied Landau levels (see Fig. 6). An increase of temperature results in smearing of the steps. The smearing is essential for the steps with smaller plateau width (see Fig. 5).

## Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the INTAS (Grant No. 00-257) and the Russian Ministry of Education (Grant No. E02-3.4-370). One of us (V.A.G.) was supported in part by the RFBR (Grant No. 02-01-00804-a) and the DFG (Grant No. 436 RUS 113/572/0-2).