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# References

Up to date, inflation is the most likely scenario that explains many problems of the standard cosmology, such as the flatness, the horizon and the monopole problems. Although the recent observations strongly support for the predictions of inflation, it remains a successful idea seeking for a convincing theoretical realization. There exist in the literature numerous phenomenological potentials, which give the proper inflationary properties, but some fine-tunings are generically required in order to obtain sufficient e-folding number before the end of inflation and to describe the small amplitude of the observed CMB temperature fluctuations.

It is natural to look for the realizations of inflation within the string theory, since it is arguably our only known consistent description of gravity at the shortest distance and highest energy . Recently, the brane inflationary scenario has been proposed , in which the inflaton is identified with an interbrane seperation. In the brane/antibrane model , the exchanges of closed string modes between branes give the form of inflaton potential, the inflation ends through the condensation of open string tachyon, which corresponds to hybrid inflation model . However, the inflationary scenario based on brane-antibrane attraction and subsequent collision and annihilation is proved to hardly occur , since the interaction between brane and antibrane is very strong, which make the inflaton potential very steep. Although the hypercubic compactification was considered, a fine-tuning to the initial condition is required to obtain enough inflation . However, the situation is immensely improved when the branes intersect at a small angle in some compact directions . By choosing sufficiently small angle between the branes the interaction can be made arbitrarily weak, which make the inflaton potential very flat. The small angle corresponds to a small supersymmetry breaking, while the brane/antibrane system is the extreme supersymmetry breaking case, in which two branes are with opposite orientation. Thus the inflation may appear naturally in systems that are not so far from supersymmetry ones. There are also some brane inflationary scenario implemented in other ways  based on the string theory.

In this paper, a system which consists of two D4 branes intersecting at a very small angle $`\theta `$ is considered, in which the distance between two D4 brane is much larger than the string length. We regard $`\theta `$ as inflaton and study the inflation of D4 brane cosmology. Since the brane system will minimize its energy and make branes become parallel, when the compactification radii are fixed, the changing of $`\theta `$ is mainly connected with that of the homology class of each brane, in which the homology class of this system is still conservative for a well-defined theory. We calculate the amplitudes of the density perturbation and gravitational waves and give some constraints on the parameters of model.

We assume, before beginning, that the moduli, such as the compactification radii and the dilaton, are stabilized by some unknown mechanism at least during the inflationary period. i.e. the evolution of the closed string modes is much slower than that of the open string modes 222Relaxing this condition , the inflation from the closed string moduli was considered in Ref. . In fact in our model the inclusion of dilaton will make the system driven to the minimum of the run-away potential. The analysis is much more complicated and goes beyond the scope of this paper. .We take, not losing generalization, that the length of all extra dimensions is equal and denoted by $`R`$.

As the branes move in a compact space, the R-R tadpole must be cancelled for a well-defined theory, this condition is equivalent to the vanishing of the total homology charge of the system. In addition, the final state after brane inflation is two parallel D4-brane far away from each other and does not annihilate, thus the brane cosmology is still in inflationary phase dominated by the tension of D4-branes and can not exit from it. Generally, an extra plane with opposite orientation and tension far away from this two branes system considered can be put, which is not involved the dynamical evolution of the brane system driving inflation, to avoid these problems. The angle of D4-brane wrapping around a torus is determined by the radii of the torus and the homology class of the brane compactified in it. For our model the radii of torus are fixed by hand, thus the rotation of D4-brane is from the changing of its homology class, which is different from the inflation model of Ref. . The D4 branes wrapping one cycle in torus of radius $`R`$ with the $`\{n_i,m_i\}`$ homological class have angles $`\theta _i=\mathrm{arctan}\frac{m_i}{n_i}`$. This branes system have a total homological charge $`\{(n_1+n_2),(m_1+m_2)\}`$. Although the R-R charge of the two D4-branes system being considered should be a constant, but this does not mean that the charge of each D4-brane is unchanged. It is this changing that is considered in our model. For simplification, we take $`m_1,m_2n_1,n_2`$, which corresponds very small angles, and $`n_1,n_2`$ are constants, thus the changing of homology class of each brane is mainly from $`m_1,m_2`$. Focusing on the relative angle $`\theta =|\theta _1\theta _2|`$ between the branes, no losing generalization, we take $`\theta _1=\theta `$ and $`\theta _2=0`$, which corresponds to $`m_2=0`$. In the small angle approximation $`\theta 1`$, the initial energy density of this system is given by

$`V_{ini}`$ $`=`$ $`T_4R\left(\sqrt{n_1^2+m_1^2}+\sqrt{n_2^2+m_2^2}\right)`$ (1)
$``$ $`2T_4L\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{n_1\mathrm{tan}^2\theta }{2(n_1+n_2)}}+𝒪(\theta ^4)\right)`$
where $`T_4=\frac{M_s^5}{(2\pi )^4g_s}`$ is the D4 brane tension and $`2L=R(n_1+n_2)`$ is about the length sum of each brane warped around the correspondent cycle. The two branes system would evolve toward the supersymmetry state of lower energy, i.e. $`\theta 0`$, thus the final state of this system should be two parallel branes with the same total homological charge.

$`V_{fin}`$ $`=`$ $`2T_4R\sqrt{\left({\displaystyle \frac{n_1+n_2}{2}}\right)^2+\left({\displaystyle \frac{m_1+m_2}{2}}\right)^2}`$ (2)
$``$ $`2T_4L\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{n_1^2\mathrm{tan}^2\theta }{2(n_1+n_2)^2}}+𝒪(\theta ^4)\right)`$
The change of energy between the initial and final state is

$$\mathrm{\Delta }V=V_{fin}V_{ini}\frac{T_4L}{4}\theta ^2$$
(3)
The interaction potential between the two D4-brane intersecting at a angles $`\theta `$ can be computed from the exchange of massless closed string modes, which dual to the one-loop vacuum amplitude for the open string . The string perturbation theory computing the interaction between branes requires that the weak coupling condition $`g_s1`$ must be satisfied. In the limitation of large interbrane separation $`yl_s`$ and small angle $`\theta 1`$, the potential is

$$V(\theta ,y)=\frac{M_s^2}{8\pi ^3}\frac{\theta ^3}{y^2}$$
(4)
Therefore, the total effective potential for the two D4 branes system can be written as

$$V_{eff}=\mathrm{\Delta }V+V_{int}\frac{T_4L}{4}\theta ^2\frac{M_s^2}{32\pi ^3}\frac{\theta ^3}{y^2}$$
(5)
In the case of $`\theta 1`$, $`g_s1`$ and $`yl_s`$, we have $`(yl_s^1)^2\theta g_s(M_sL)^1`$. Thus we see that the first term in the $`V(\theta ,y)`$ is much larger than the sencond term, which is very important to the calculation of model parameters during inflation in the following.

With the potential (5), the 4D effective action for the angle $`\theta `$ and the distance $`y`$ between the branes can be written as 333 A detail calculation from supergravity is given in Ref. . The dynamical term relevant to the angle $`\theta `$ is given by small angle approximations.

$$S=\frac{M_p^2}{2}d^4x\sqrt{g}R\frac{1}{2}T_4Ld^4x\sqrt{g}(_\mu y^\mu y+L^2_\mu \theta ^\mu \theta )+d^4x\sqrt{g}V_{eff}(\theta ,y)$$
(6)
where $`M_p`$ is the 4D Planck mass, which is given by a dimensional reduction $`M_p^2=M_s^2(RM_s)^6g_s^2`$. The fields $`\theta `$ and $`y`$ can be normalized canonically as

$$\varphi =\theta \sqrt{T_4L^3}\mathrm{and}\psi =y\sqrt{T_4L}$$
(7)
Assuming that inflation occurs initially at a small angle and a large distance between the two D4 branes and the fields corresponding to the angle $`\theta `$ and distance $`y`$ is spatially homogeneous but time-dependent, following definition of Ref. , the slow-rolling parameters are given

$$ϵ_{\theta \theta }\eta _{\theta \theta }32\pi ^4\frac{(M_sR)^6}{(M_sL)^3g_s}\frac{1}{\theta ^2}ϵ_{yy}16\pi ^4g_s\frac{(M_sR)^2}{(M_sL)^3}\left(\frac{R}{y}\right)^6\theta ^2$$
(8)
$$\eta _{\theta y}16\pi ^5\frac{(M_sR)^3}{(M_sL)^3}\left(\frac{R}{y}\right)\eta _{yy}48\pi ^5\frac{(M_sR)^2}{(M_sL)^2}\left(\frac{R}{y}\right)^4\theta $$
(9)
In the double fields inflation, the involved calculations are very complex . But fortunately, we find that

$$\frac{\eta _{\theta \theta }}{\eta _{yy}}\frac{2}{\pi g_s(M_sL)}\left(\frac{y}{l_s}\right)^41$$
(10)
$$\frac{\eta _{\theta y}}{\eta _{yy}}\frac{y}{3\theta L}\mathrm{and}\frac{ϵ_{yy}}{\eta _{yy}}\frac{1}{3\pi }\frac{\theta g_s}{M_sL}\left(\frac{R}{y}\right)$$
(11)
and for a very wide range of parameter, we have $`ϵ_{yy},\eta _{\theta y},|\eta _{yy}|\eta _{\theta \theta }`$. Therefore, during inflation the rolling of $`\theta `$ is far fast than that of $`y`$, and in this case, the double fields inflation in this model can be simplified to a simple field inflation corresponding to $`\theta `$.

The e-folding number during inflation is

$$N=H𝑑t\frac{T_4L^3}{M_p^2}_{\theta _{60}}^{\theta _{end}}\frac{V(\theta )}{V^{}(\theta )}𝑑\theta ,$$
(12)
where $`\theta _{60}`$ is the field value corresponding to $`N60`$ required when the COBE scale exits the Hubble radius, and $`\theta _{end}`$ is the field value at which inflation ends, which is determined by $`\eta _{\theta \theta }1`$. Thus we obtain $`\theta _{60}10\theta _{end}`$.

The amplitude of the density perturbation is given by

$$𝒫_s\frac{H^2}{\sqrt{T_4L^3}\dot{\theta }}\frac{10^2g_s}{(M_sL)(M_sR)^3}$$
(13)
and the correspondent spectrum index is

$`n1`$ $``$ $`2\eta _{\theta \theta }6ϵ_{\theta \theta }`$ (14)
$``$ $`10^2\pi ^4{\displaystyle \frac{(M_sR)^6}{(M_sL)^3g_s}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\theta _{60}^2}}`$
The amplitude of the gravitational waves produced during inflation is

$$𝒫_g\frac{H}{M_p}\frac{(M_sL)^{\frac{1}{2}}}{(M_sR)^6}g_s^{\frac{3}{2}}\theta _{60}$$
(15)
If takeing $`g_s0.01`$, $`M_sR10`$ and $`M_sL10^6`$, we obtain $`\theta _{60}10\theta _{end}0.01`$, $`𝒫_s10^5`$, $`n0.99`$ and $`𝒫_g10^8`$, which are a set of consistent value satisfying the CMB observation. In this case, $`M_s10^4M_p`$. We can see $`H10^8M_pM_s`$, which avoids the correction of higher curvature terms in (6) and makes the description of the effective theory reasonable.

Unlike the inflation model of brane/antibrane or branes inflation with fixed angle, in which the distance between the branes corresponding to inflaton shrinks to $`\sqrt{\theta }M_s^1`$, the tachyonic mode of the open string stretching between the branes appears, the inflation ends through the tachyon condensation and a more stable configuration forms , under our considering model, the $`\theta `$ rolls down towards smaller value during inflation, when $`\eta _{\theta \theta }1`$, the inflation ends and $`\theta `$ oscillates about $`\theta =0`$, the released energy reheats the brane cosmology. We can estimate the reheating temperature $`T_{reh}`$ by regard $`T_{reh}^4`$ as the initial potential energy

$$T_{reh}M_s\left(\frac{(M_sL)\theta ^2}{64\pi ^4g_s}\right)^{\frac{1}{4}}$$
(16)
Taking above value, we obtain $`T_{reh}10^{15}`$Gev. Since the distance $`y`$ almost do not change during inflation, there is not the open string tachyon appeared in this model. When $`\theta =0`$, the interaction between two brane disappears. The final configuration should be two parallel D4-brane far away from each other, which move towards each other at a very small relative velocity produced during $`\theta 0`$.

In summary, in the approximation of small angle $`\theta `$ and large interbrane separation $`y`$, the double fields inflation of $`\theta `$ and $`y`$ from the system, which consists of two D4 branes interacting a angle, was studied. We found that the dynamical evolution of $`\theta `$ is dominated during inflation i.e. when the dynamics of both $`\theta `$ and $`y`$ is considered, the $`\theta `$ inflation may be more nature. Taking $`M_sL10^6`$, $`M_sR10`$ and $`g_s0.01`$, we obtain the reasonable amplitude and tilt of the density perturbation satisfying the CMB observation and the string scale $`M_s10^{15}`$Gev, which corresponds to the GUT scale. In this model, there is not the open string tachyon appeared which make inflation end, as in the model of brane/antibrane or branes with fixed angle. The inflation naturally ends at $`\eta _{\theta \theta }1`$ and the released energy reheats the brane cosmology. A rough estimation of reheating temperature is given $`T_{reh}10^{15}`$Gev. In fact, how the energy is released and whether it radiate into the brane or bulk remain open, a deeper discuss is worth to be done. Finally, we would like to mention that Halyo have proposed a rotating-brane inflation model , but our model is in a different brane setup and parameter regime. Our results offer a new avenue for brane inflation.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Miao Li, Ren-Jie Zhang for interesting conversations and comments on our manuscript. We also thank Qing-Guo Huang for discussions. This project was in part supported by NNSFC under Grant Nos. 10175070, 10047004 and 19925523 as well as also by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China under grant No. NKBRSF G19990754.


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# Masses and mixing of neutrinos in grand unified SO(10) model

## 1 Introduction

Non-vanishing but extremely small masses for neutrinos are deduced from the measurements of the solar neutrino deficit and the atmospheric neutrino anomaly. If the neutrino masses does really not vanish, the existence of physics beyond the standard model is immediately implied. Then, grand unified theories (GUTs) are most plausible. However, it has also been observed that the Maki-Nakagawa-Sakata (MNS) matrix, which describes the generation mixing among the leptons similarly to the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa (CKM) matrix for the quarks, has unsuppressed off-diagonal elements. The off-diagonal elements of the CKM matrix are small. This difference between the quarks and the leptons poses a severe constraint on GUT models, since the Higgs couplings of the quarks and the leptons are closely related to each other.

We propose a GUT model based on SO(10) and supersymmetry \[NO1\]. The masses and mixings of the quarks and the leptons are well described simply by introducing a Higgs superfield belonging to $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟎}`$ representation, in addition to ordinarily contained $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟎}`$ and $`\overline{\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟔}}`$ representations. Below the GUT energy scale, the model is the same as the minimal supersymmetric standard model except the inclusion of dimension-5 operators. These new terms lead to small Majorana masses for the left-handed neutrinos after electroweak symmetry is broken down.

## 2 Model

The grand unified group of our model is SO(10). Its spinor $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟔}`$ representation contains all the quark and lepton superfields of one generation, both left-handed and right-handed components. The right-handed neutrinos are thus naturally incorporated. For the Higgs superfields which give masses to the quarks and leptons, one superfield is introduced for each of $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟎}`$, $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟎}`$, and $`\overline{\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟔}}`$ representations. These three representations are all that can couple to the direct product of $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟔}`$ and $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟔}`$.

The representation $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟎}`$ contains SU(2) doublets $`H_{10}^{\overline{5}}`$ and $`H_{10}^5`$ with hypercharges $`Y=1/2`$ and $`Y=1/2`$, respectively, where upper indices denote transformation properties under SU(5). In the representation $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟎}`$ there are four SU(2) doublets: $`H_{120}^{\overline{5}}`$ and $`H_{120}^{\overline{45}}`$ with $`Y=1/2`$ and $`H_{120}^5`$ and $`H_{120}^{45}`$ with $`Y=1/2`$. The representation $`\overline{\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟔}}`$ involves SU(2) doublets $`H_{\overline{126}}^{\overline{45}}`$ with $`Y=1/2`$ and $`H_{\overline{126}}^5`$ with $`Y=1/2`$, an SU(2) triplet $`H_{\overline{126}}^{15}`$, and an SU(2)$`\times `$U(1) singlet $`H_{\overline{126}}^1`$.

The Higgs doublet superfields $`H_1`$ with $`Y=1/2`$ and $`H_2`$ with $`Y=1/2`$ responsible for electroweak symmetry breaking are given by linear combinations of possible SU(2)-doublets with the same hypercharges, which we can write as

$`H_1`$ $`=(C_1^{})_{11}H_{10}^{\overline{5}}+(C_1^{})_{12}H_{120}^{\overline{5}}+(C_1^{})_{13}H_{120}^{\overline{45}}`$
$`+(C_1^{})_{14}H_{\overline{126}}^{\overline{45}}+\mathrm{},`$
$`H_2`$ $`=(C_2^{})_{11}H_{10}^5+(C_2^{})_{12}H_{120}^5+(C_2^{})_{13}H_{120}^{45}`$
$`+(C_2^{})_{14}H_{\overline{126}}^5+\mathrm{},`$
where $`C_1`$ and $`C_2`$ represent unitary matrices. Some components of $`H_1`$ and $`H_2`$ may belong to the representations different from $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟎}`$, $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟎}`$, and $`\overline{\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟔}}`$, which are expressed by the ellipses. The other linear combinations of SU(2) doublets should be sufficiently heavy below the GUT energy scale to satisfy the unification of the gauge coupling constants for SU(3)$`\times `$SU(2)$`\times `$U(1). The scalar component of $`H_{\overline{126}}^1`$ is assumed to have a vacuum expectation value (VEV) $`v_S/\sqrt{2}`$ of the order of a GUT energy scale, giving large masses to right-handed neutrinos and sneutrinos. We take $`H_{\overline{126}}^{15}`$ for heavy enough not to develop a non-vanishing VEV.

The superpotential relevant to the quark and lepton masses are given, in the framework of SU(3)$`\times `$SU(2)$`\times `$U(1), by

$`W`$ $`=\eta _d^{ij}H_1Q^iD^{cj}+\eta _u^{ij}H_2Q^iU^{cj}+\eta _e^{ij}H_1L^iE^{cj}`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\kappa ^{ij}H_2L^iH_2L^j+\mathrm{H}.\mathrm{c}.,`$
where $`Q^i`$, $`U^{ci}`$, and $`D^{ci}`$ denote the quark superfields and $`L^i`$ and $`E^{ci}`$ represent the lepton superfields in self-explanatory notations, with $`i`$ being the generation index. The dimension-5 terms proportional to $`\kappa `$ are induced by exchanging the heavy right-handed neutrinos and sneutrinos.

The coefficients $`\eta _d`$ and $`\eta _u`$ become symmetric concerning generation indices, if the $`(\sqrt{3}H_{120}^{\overline{5}}+H_{120}^{\overline{45}})/2`$ component in $`H_1`$ and the $`H_{120}^{45}`$ component in $`H_2`$ can be neglected. Taking a generation basis in which the coefficient matrix for the up-type quarks is diagonal, they are written as

$`\eta _u`$ $`=\eta _u^D,`$
$`\eta _d`$ $`=V_{CKM}^{}\eta _d^DV_{CKM}^{},`$
where $`\eta _u^D`$ and $`\eta _d^D`$ represent diagonal matrices, and $`V_{CKM}`$ stands for the CKM matrix. The coefficients for the leptons are given by

$`\eta _e`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{3r_1+r_4}{r_1r_4}}\eta _d+{\displaystyle \frac{4}{r_1r_4}}\eta _u+4\stackrel{~}{ϵ},`$
$`\kappa `$ $`=\eta _\nu \left(M_{\nu _R}\right)^1\eta _\nu ^T,`$
$`\eta _\nu `$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{4r_1r_4}{r_1r_4}}\eta _d+{\displaystyle \frac{r_1+3r_4}{r_1r_4}}\eta _u+2r_2\stackrel{~}{ϵ},`$
$`M_{\nu _R}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{2\sqrt{3}v_S}{(C_1)_{41}}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{r_1}{r_1r_4}}\eta _d{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r_1r_4}}\eta _u\right],`$
$`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}=(C_1)_{21}ϵ,`$
$`r_1={\displaystyle \frac{(C_2)_{11}}{(C_1)_{11}}},r_2={\displaystyle \frac{(C_2)_{21}}{(C_1)_{21}}},r_4={\displaystyle \frac{(C_2)_{41}}{(C_1)_{41}}},`$
where $`ϵ`$ denotes the coefficients for the couplings $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟎}\times \mathrm{𝟏𝟔}\times \mathrm{𝟏𝟔}`$. Owing to the group structure, $`ϵ`$ is antisymmetric. The parameters for the leptons are expressed by those for the quarks and the additional six parameters $`r_1`$, $`r_2`$, $`r_4`$, and $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}`$.

## 3 Numerical results

The independent parameters at the GUT energy scale are given by the diagonal matrices $`\eta _u^D`$ and $`\eta _d^D`$, the CKM matrix $`V_{CKM}`$, the ratio $`r_1`$, $`r_2`$, and $`r_4`$, the antisymmetric matrix $`\stackrel{~}{ϵ}`$, and the right-handed neutrino mass scale $`v_S/(C_1)_{41}`$. At the electroweak energy scale, the eigenvalues of $`\eta _u`$, $`\eta _d`$, and $`\eta _e`$ are known experimentally, if the ratio $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ of the VEVs for $`H_1`$ and $`H_2`$ is given. The CKM matrix has been measured. The quantities obtained experimentally for the neutrinos are the mass-squared differences and the MNS matrix.

The matrices $`\eta _u`$, $`\eta _d`$, $`\eta _e`$, and $`\kappa `$ evolve depending on the energy scale. To discuss phenomena at the electroweak energy scale, we make analyses with the aid of the renormalization group equations for $`\eta _u^D`$, $`\eta _d^D`$, $`\eta _e^D`$, $`\kappa ^D`$, $`V_{CKM}`$, and $`V_{MNS}`$. The observed quantities at the electroweak energy scale have to be accommodated by suitable values of the parameters at the GUT energy scale.

The numerical analyses show that the measurements of the neutrino masses and the MNS matrix are explained well in certain regions of the parameter space \[NO2\]. The experimental results for the quark and charged lepton masses and those for the CKM matrix, though they stringently constrain the model parameters, can also be satisfied. The Higgs bosons in $`\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟎}`$ make the mixing structures different between the quarks and the leptons. The $`\overline{\mathrm{𝟏𝟐𝟔}}`$ representation is the origin of the extreme smallness of the neutrino masses. Without invoking contrived schemes, the masses and mixings of the quarks and the leptons can be accommodated consistently by a simple extension of the minimal SO(10) model.

This work is supported in part by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Areas (No. 14039204) from the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, Japan.


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# Anticipated synchronization: a metaphorical linear view

## I Introduction

The coupling of dynamical systems can lead to the synchronization of their outputs PRK01 . Recently, attention has been given to the a peculiar phenomenon introduced by Voss V00 ; V01a ; V01b ; V02  where one system synchronizes not with the present state but with some future state of another system. This regime, called anticipated synchronization, has been demonstrated theoretically and numerically in disparate dynamical systems including discrete or continuous, chaotic and noisy excitable, and quasi-periodic ones M01 ; MZ01 ; HMM02 ; CCMMT02 ; TMMCC02 . Experimental results have considered either electronic circuit implementations of the dynamical equations V02 ; CCMMT02  or lasers running in the chaotic regime both in one-directional LTDASL02  and bidirectional coupling SSSS01 ; APL98 ; HFEMM01 ; BVPMTG02 .

From the viewpoint of an external observer, the dynamics of anticipated synchronization can be seen as if one system is forecasting the state of the other. It is unclear, however, under which general conditions a given dynamical system would or not exhibit such dynamics. The phenomenon in itself is rather counterintuitive because, depending on the setting, mixes notions of synchrony and order with the dynamics of chaos and disorder. Furthermore, it is not immediately apparent whether or not nonlinearities are essential for the process. This paper is dedicated to answer these concerns, by analyzing the minimal setup able to exhibit the more fundamental aspects of this phenomena.

The paper offers three perspectives covering from the simplest scenario to the more complex ones. Section II is a brief overview of anticipated synchronization as described in recent work. Section III discusses a toy model describing the trivial situation of two “particles” moving with uniform trajectory in which one attempts to closely follow the other using the scheme described in the anticipated synchronization literature. These particles can be seen as an special case of the dynamical system presented in Section IV, where the case of two coupled maps is analyzed from a dynamical systems perspective and the condition for anticipated synchronization derived analytically. The same system is revisited in Section V, but now from a Control Systems point of view, both for continuous and discrete cases. The paper closes by listing the most relevant conditions one would expect to see in all cases of anticipated synchronization.

## II Overview of anticipated synchronization.

Two different schemes have been proposed in order to achieve anticipated synchronization V00 . Both schemes use, in a way or another, delay lines which allow forecasting of a master trajectory by a slave identical system.

The first scheme uses the technique of complete replacement. It considers a dynamical system, $`𝐱(t)`$ (known as the master system) whose dynamics involves a delayed feedback of the form:

$$\dot{𝐱}(t)=\alpha 𝐱(t)+𝐟(𝐱(t\tau )),$$
(1)
being $`\alpha >0`$ a constant, and $`𝐟`$ a given, generally non–linear, function. The dynamics of the slave system, $`𝐲(t)`$, is obtained by a similar equation in which the delay term has been completely replaced by the master system. Namely, the evolution equation for $`𝐲(t)`$ is:

$$\dot{𝐲}(t)=\alpha 𝐲(t)+𝐟(𝐱(t))$$
(2)
It is easy to see that the manifold $`𝐲(t)=𝐱(t+\tau )`$, in which the slave anticipates by a time $`\tau `$ the actual output of the master, is a stable solution of the dynamical equations (1-2). This follows readily from the (exact) evolution equation $`\dot{𝚫}(t)=\alpha 𝚫(t)`$ for the delayed difference $`𝚫(t)=𝐲(t)𝐱(t+\tau )`$. This result is independent of both the function $`𝐟(𝐱)`$ under consideration, or the arbitrarily large delay time $`\tau `$. The structural stability of the asymptotic solution has been demonstrated by implementation in electronic circuits V02 . Of course, the result is more remarkable when the dynamics of the master has a high degree of unpredictability, i.e. by choosing $`𝐟(𝐱)`$ and $`\tau `$ such that the dynamics of the master is chaotic. In this scheme, and beyond the mathematical result, the anticipation mechanism can be understood from the fact that the dynamics of the master at time $`t`$ influences its own dynamics at a time $`\tau `$ later, whereas it enters the dynamics of the slave immediately at time $`t`$. In other words, it is as if the slave system $`𝐲(t)`$ has anticipated knowledge of an essential part of the dynamics of the master system $`𝐱(t)`$.

The second scheme is one that includes only delay in the slave dynamics V00 . This is defined by the following dynamical equations for the master and slave systems:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \dot{𝐱}(t)& =& 𝐟(𝐱(t))\hfill \\ \hfill \dot{𝐲}(t)& =& 𝐟(𝐲(t))+𝐊[𝐱(t)𝐲(t\tau )],\hfill \end{array}$$
(3)
where $`𝐟(𝐱(t))`$ is an arbitrary function and $`𝐊`$ is a coupling strength matrix. It is easy to show that the anticipated synchronization manifold $`𝐲(t)=𝐱(t+\tau )`$ is again a solution of this set of equations. At variance with the case of complete replacement, its stability can only be fulfilled in a limited range of parameters for $`\tau `$ and $`𝐊`$. Despite this restriction, however, we believe that this method of anticipated synchronization deserves more attention than that of complete replacement because the anticipation time $`\tau `$ is included as an external parameter and does not influence the dynamics of the master system. Therefore, in principle, any dynamical system can be predicted by using this scheme. Again, the anticipation is more relevant when the dynamics of the master is unpredictable by other simple means.

Recently an extension of the scheme was introduced to include anticipation in non–autonomous systems CCMMT02 ; TMMCC02 . Specifically, it has been considered the following set of equations:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \dot{𝐱}(t)& =& 𝐟(𝐱(t))+𝐈(t)\hfill \\ \hfill \dot{𝐲}(t)& =& 𝐟(𝐲(t))+𝐈(t)+𝐊[𝐱(t)𝐲(t\tau )],\hfill \end{array}$$
(4)
where the new term $`𝐈(t)`$ represents an external input acting on both, master and slave, systems. Although the anticipated manifold $`𝐲(t)=𝐱(t+\tau )`$ is no longer an exact solution of the previous equations (except in the case of a periodic forcing $`𝐈(t+\tau )=𝐈(t)`$), it has been shown that several features of the dynamics of the master can indeed be predicted by the slave. For instance, it is possible to predict the peaks fired by an excitable system subjected to a random external forcing CCMMT02 ; TMMCC02 . We stress that in this case the random forcing induces peak firing at uncorrelated and unpredictable times.

In this second scheme, Eqs. (3-4), the actual mechanism leading to synchronization is much more elusive and, despite the wide variety of work, it is still unclear which are the relevant conditions and requirements for two dynamical systems to exhibit this type of anticipated synchronization. For instance, one would like to understand whether or not nonlinear aspects of the dynamics are needed for the systems to exhibit anticipated synchronization. In the same line to what extent anticipation can be arbitrarily long is of relevance for practical purposes.

## III Two particles following each other

The intention in this section is to undress the anticipated synchronization models of irrelevant aspects, to be able to identify the essential mechanisms at play. The goal is to have a system homologous to the more general ones described in the anticipated synchronization literature. We first look at the simplest linear one, thus we choose a dynamical system of two particles moving uniformly in a one-dimensional space. We consider a particle following a uniform motion

$$\dot{x}(t)=v,$$
(5)
where $`x(t)`$ is the position of the particle at time $`t`$ and $`v`$ its velocity. Following the scheme in anticipated synchronization to forecast (and “synchronize” with) the position of the master particle we consider another (“slave”) particle whose trajectory is given by

$$\dot{y}(t)=v+K(x(t)y(t\tau )),$$
(6)
where $`K`$ is the strength of the coupling between the master particle (Eq. (5)) and the slave (Eq. (6)). To achieve the anticipation, the solution $`y(t)=x(t+\tau )`$ has to be a stable solution. The stability can be studied analyzing the behavior of the delayed difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }(t)=y(t)x(t+\tau )`$. We obtain

$$\dot{\mathrm{\Delta }}(t)=K\mathrm{\Delta }(t\tau ).$$
(7)
The condition for local stability of the solution $`\mathrm{\Delta }(t)=0`$ ($`y(t)=x(t+\tau )`$) is given by Hayes50 ; Glass88

$$K\tau <\frac{\pi }{2}.$$
(8)
This indicates that in order to observe an anticipated solution of the slave particle within this scheme, the product of the coupling with the anticipation time $`\tau `$ has to be smaller than a certain value. Larger values produce an over-correction and the slave is unable to anticipate. This expression qualitatively reproduces the numerical results obtained by several researchers.

It is interesting to note that if the two systems are not identical, e.g., the velocities are different, then

$$\dot{y}(t)=v^{}+K(x(t)y(t\tau )).$$
(9)
then we obtain the same stability condition. However the anticipation is not perfect in the sense that the slave anticipates with a constant mismatch $`y(t)=x(t+\tau )+{\displaystyle \frac{v^{}v}{K}}`$. The mismatch decreases with increasing coupling constant $`K`$.

More generally one could obtain a stability equation of the from

$$\dot{\mathrm{\Delta }}(t)=A\mathrm{\Delta }(t)K\mathrm{\Delta }(t\tau ),$$
(10)
leading to the conditions Hayes50 ; Glass88

$$K<|A|$$
(11)
or,

$$K>|A|\mathrm{and}\tau <\frac{\mathrm{cos}^1(A/K)}{(K^2A^2)^{1/2}},$$
(12)
where the principal value is taken ($`0\mathrm{cos}^1(A/K)\pi `$).

## IV  A dynamical systems perspective: Two coupled maps

Let us consider the same two particles of the previous section but now moving with the more general dynamics given by the following coupled maps:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}x_{k+1}=\alpha x_k+a\hfill & & \mathrm{mod}(m)\hfill \\ y_{k+1}=\alpha y_k+a+\gamma (x_ky_{kn})\hfill & & \mathrm{mod}(m),\hfill \end{array}$$
(13)
where $`\alpha >0`$ and $`a`$ are constants. If $`\alpha >1`$ the $`x_k`$ form a chaotic map, whereas $`\alpha =1`$ leads to a quasi-periodic map and for $`\alpha <1`$ the map converges to $`x_k=a/(1\alpha )`$. The necessary $`n+2`$ initial conditions are the set $`(x_0,y_n,y_{n+1},\mathrm{},y_1,y_0)`$.

We are interested in the possibility of the coupled maps leading to anticipated synchronization, i.e.  in having

$$y_k=x_{n+k}.$$
(14)
as an asymptotic solution for the maps. To this end, we consider the map satisfied by the delayed difference $`\delta _k=x_{n+k}y_k`$:

$$\delta _{k+1}=\alpha \delta _k\gamma \delta _{kn}.$$
(15)
An analysis complementary to ours can be found in HMM02 . The ansatz $`\delta _k=\lambda ^k`$ leads to

$$\delta _k=\underset{i=1}{\overset{n+1}{}}C_i\lambda _i^k\mathrm{mod}(m),$$
(16)
The (complex) constants $`C_1,\mathrm{},C_{n+1}`$ are determined by the initial conditions. The $`\lambda _i`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},n+1`$ are the solutions of the polynomial equation:

$$\lambda ^n(\lambda \alpha )+\gamma =0.$$
(17)
A necessary and sufficient condition for anticipated synchronization to hold and to be asymptotically stable is that $`\underset{k\mathrm{}}{lim}\delta _k=0`$, or equivalently $`|\lambda _i|<1,i=1,\mathrm{},n+1`$. We analyze now the range of validity of this condition as a function of the parameters $`\alpha `$, $`n`$ and $`\gamma `$. It turns out that anticipated synchronization occurs if $`\gamma (\alpha 1,\gamma _c)`$, where the value of $`\gamma _c`$ depends on $`\alpha `$ and $`n`$. We consider three cases:

1.- $`\alpha <1`$. We treat for completeness this case, although it is the less interesting from the practical point of view, since the maps tend asymptotically to a fix point (in practise, after a finite number of steps). Although a full analytical solution does not seem to be available in this case, it is possible to obtain the asymptotic behavior in the case of large anticipation $`n`$:

$$\gamma _c1\alpha +\frac{\pi ^2}{2n^2},\alpha <1,$$
(18)
Notice that anticipation is possible for arbitrarily large $`n`$.

2.- $`\alpha =1`$. In this case, the dynamics is quasi-periodic. The interval of anticipated synchronization can be found analytically as:

$$\gamma _c=2\mathrm{sin}\left(\frac{\pi }{2(2n+1)}\right).$$
(19)
In the limit $`n\mathrm{}`$, $`\gamma _c\frac{\pi }{2n}`$, the same as the continuous case considered in the previous section. Again, anticipation is possible for arbitrarily large $`n`$.

3.- $`\alpha >1`$. This is the more interesting case since the maps are chaotic. It turns out that the condition $`|\lambda _i|<1`$ is only satisfied for $`\alpha <1+\frac{1}{n}`$. Alternatively, for fixed $`\alpha >1`$ the maximum anticipation time is

$$n_{max}=\left[\frac{1}{\alpha 1}\right]\alpha >1,$$
(20)
where $`[x]`$ denotes the integer part of $`x`$. Anticipated synchronization is found for $`\gamma (\alpha 1,\gamma _c)`$ but only for $`n<n_{max}`$. In this case of $`\alpha >1`$ we have not been able to find any analytical approximation or asymptotic expression and the values of $`\gamma _c`$ need to be computed numerically. The previous results are summarized in Fig.1

Let us now analyze the predictability of the map, taking $`\alpha =1.1`$, $`n=6`$, for which the synchronization limits are $`\gamma (0.1,0.19395)`$. First, for visualization purposes, we transform the output of the master map into a series of random spikes by defining a new “firing” sequence $`u_k`$ as $`u_k=1`$ if $`x_k>u`$ and $`u_k=0`$ if $`x_k<u`$, with $`u`$ a convenient threshold value. Similarly for the slave map, we define $`v_k=1`$ if $`y_k>u`$ and $`v_k=0`$ if $`y_k<u`$. In the case of $`\alpha =1.1`$ the timing of the pulses does not have any regularity. As shown in Fig. 2, the power spectrum of the $`u_k`$ signal is flat, showing the absence of any preferred time scale, the series is highly unpredictable.

In Fig. 3 we show that, in accordance with the previous analysis, each pulse of the master system $`u_k`$ is anticipated $`n=6`$ units of time by a pulse in the slave system $`v_{kn}`$ for a coupling $`\gamma =0.16(0.1,0.19395)`$ (middle panel). For too large or too small values of the coupling $`\gamma `$, the synchronization is lost. The existence of a minimum and maximum value for the coupling in order to have anticipated synchronization, which appears here as a property of simple linear maps, has also been observed in more complex chaotic V00  and excitable non-autonomous systems TMMCC02 . These maps can be seen as well as a case of integrate and fire dynamics, often used as caricatures of neural systems.

## V A Control Systems Perspective

From an engineer viewpoint, the slave dynamical system following a master, shown in the previous section, is seen as a cascade of control system blocks. In this section anticipated synchronization is analyzed from this Control System perspective. In both, the continuous and discrete time systems, $`𝐱(t)`$ will be seen as the output of a first order open loop system with no feedback, and the slave $`𝐲(t)`$ (controlled signal) represents the output of an identical system but with delayed time feedback and driven by the master system $`𝐱(t)`$ (the reference signal). With enough loop gain in the feedback loop, the control will act as a servo mechanism which minimizes the error between the reference (master $`𝐱(t)`$) and its own delayed output $`𝐲(t\tau )`$. Hence, the internal variable $`𝐲(t)`$ will be a prediction of $`𝐱(t)`$.

### V.1 Two particles following each other seen as a servo mechanism

The example of the two particles following each other described by equations (5) and (6) can be seem as a servo mechanism where the position of the controlled particle $`y(t\tau )`$ is compared with a reference signal $`x(t)`$. The integrator nature of the loop provides enough gain so that in steady state the error will vanish and the two signals will match.

Equation (5) represents a pure integrator to input $`v`$. Denoting by $`X(s)`$ the Laplace transform of $`x(t)`$ and assuming zero initial conditions for $`x(t=0)`$, the Laplace transform of $`\dot{x}(t)`$ will be $`sX(s)`$. Also, since the constant velocity $`v`$ is represented as an external step input, its Laplace transform $`V(s)`$ will be equal to $`v/s`$. Thus we can write

$$X(s)=\frac{v}{s^2}.$$
(21)
This represents a transfer function, in the Laplace domain, with a pole at the origin of the $`s`$ plane. If $`v`$ is constant the output is a ramp $`x(t)=vt`$.

Repeating the same process for Eq. (6) we can write

$$sY(s)=\frac{v}{s}+K(X(s)e^{\tau s}Y(s)),$$
(22)
from where we obtain

$$Y(s)=\frac{v/s}{(s+Ke^{\tau s})}+\frac{KX(s)}{(s+Ke^{\tau s})}.$$
(23)
Applying the inverse Laplace Transform to Eq. (23) we can obtain the temporal evolution of the output for any given input. The dynamics of the error in the servo mechanism can also be obtain by subtracting $`X(s)Y(s).`$

The input/output relation, (transfer function in control system terms), between $`X(s)`$ and $`Y(s)`$ is given by the ratio of these two functions (considering zero external input):

$$G_{cl}(s)=\frac{Y(s)}{X(s)}=\frac{K/s}{1+\frac{K}{s}e^{\tau s}}.$$
(24)
Equations (22)–(24) can be represented in a block diagram, as in Fig. 4, with direct gain $`G(s)=\frac{K}{s}`$ and feedback gain $`H(s)=e^{\tau s}`$. In more general terms, the closed loop transfer function is given by

$$G_{cl}(s)=\frac{Y(s)}{X(s)}=\frac{G(s)}{1+G(s)H(s)}.$$
(25)
It follows that if the loop gain $`G(s)H(s)1`$, the closed loop transfer function will be given by the feedback term $`G_{cl}(H(s))^1`$. For our example this means that $`Y(s)X(s)e^{\tau s}`$, and applying the inverse Laplace transform $`y(t)x(t+\tau )`$. This was the expected result that proves that the delayed position of the second particle, after some transient, will follow the position of the first one. Likewise, $`y(t)`$ will be moving ahead of $`x(t)`$ in a predictive manner.

To perform a stability analysis, the roots of the denominator $`s+Ke^{\tau s}=0`$ must be found. If we replace $`s`$ by $`i\omega `$ a frequency analysis can be obtained. This is usually done drawing real and imaginary parts of the transfer function with the Nyquist diagram or using the Bode plots, representing module and phase separately. The term $`G(i\omega )K/i\omega `$ has a gain whose module decreases with $`\omega `$ and becomes unity for $`\omega =K`$, and a constant phase equal to $`\pi /2`$. The transfer function of the delay $`H(i\omega )`$ has a constant module equal to one

$$\left|H(i\omega )\right|=\left|e^{i\omega \tau }\right|=1,$$
(26)
and a phase that decreases with $`w`$

$$\varphi (\omega )=\mathrm{arg}[e^{i\omega \tau }]=\omega \tau .$$
(27)
According to the standard stability criteria for linear systems the module of the gain of $`G(\omega )H(\omega )`$ must be smaller than $`1`$ when the phase crosses the $`\pi `$ boundary (meaning the denominator of $`G_{cl}(s)`$ is zero). Substituting $`\omega =K`$ the total phase contribution $`(\tau K+\pi /2)`$ at the unity gain point should be smaller than $`\pi `$, recovering Eq. (8)

$$\tau <\frac{\pi }{2K}.$$
(28)
### V.2 Discrete System

A discrete system similar to the coupled maps described by Eq. (13) (but without the $`\mathrm{mod}(m)`$ constrain) can be seen, in engineering terms, as a discrete time control systems written as two difference equations: one for the master $`x_k`$ and the other for the slave $`y_k`$. The equations (13) without the $`\mathrm{mod}(m)`$ constrain can be rewritten for time $`k`$

$`x_{k+1}`$ $`=`$ $`\alpha x_k+a`$ (29)
$`y_{k+1}`$ $`=`$ $`\alpha y_k+a+\gamma (x_ky_{kn})`$ (30)
To solve Eqs. (29)–(30), we will use the $`Z`$-transform Franklin90 . If $`Z\{x_k\}`$ is the $`Z`$-transform of $`x_k`$ denoted as $`X(z)`$ and $`Z\{x_{k1}\}`$ is the $`Z`$-transform of $`x_{k1}`$ obtained by multiplying $`X(z)`$ by $`z^1`$, applying these rules to both equations, we obtain

$`X(z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{Z\{a\}}{1\alpha z^1}}`$ (31)
$`Y(z)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{Z\{a\}+\gamma z^1X(z)}{1\alpha z^1\gamma z^{(n+1)}}},`$ (32)
where $`Z`$-transform of $`a`$, $`Z\{a\}`$, depends on the type of input $`a`$. For our case, $`a`$ is constant and

$$Z(a)=\frac{az}{za}.$$
(33)
As in the continuous system, we are interested in the transfer function between $`X(z)`$ and $`Y(z)`$. Any feedback system can be viewed as a direct transfer function $`G(z)`$ and a feedback block $`H(z)`$ whose output will be subtracted from the reference, to obtain the error signal. In our case

$$Y(z)=\frac{G_1(z)G_2(z)X(z)+G_2(z)Z(a)}{1+G_1(z)G_2(z)H(z)},$$
(34)
where $`G_1(z)=\gamma z^1`$, $`G_2(z)=(1\alpha z^1)^1`$, and $`H(z)=z^n`$. In the engineering literature, these equations are often represented using block diagrams, as shown in Fig. 5. The closed loop transfer function in this case is given by

$$G_{cl}(z)=\frac{Y(z)}{X(z)}=\frac{\gamma z^1}{1\alpha z^1+z^nz^1}.$$
(35)
Using the same arguments as in the previous subsection, if the loop gain $`G_1(z)G_2(z)H(z)1`$ we can approximate $`G_{cl}(H(z))^1`$. This yields to $`Y(z)z^nX(z)`$ indicating that the output $`y_k`$ predicts $`x_k`$ by $`n`$ sampling periods.

To analyze the stability we analyze the conditions when the denominator of Eq. (34) equals zero. Thus to ensure stability the roots of the denominator must lie inside the circle given by

$$z^n(z\alpha )=\gamma ,$$
(36)
recovering Eq. (17).

## VI Conclusions

As stated at the outset, the purpose of this paper is to undress the models of anticipated synchronization to be able to see the essentials of this intriguing dynamics, which in summary are:

i) The phenomenon of anticipated synchronization in itself does not rely on nonlinear properties of the dynamics, indeed, as shown in Sect. IV nonlinearities make the anticipation harder or impossible.

ii) Some aspects of the problem are naturally understood by looking it from a Control Systems approach, where the delayed term are seen as an “error signal” in a servo mechanism control loop (Sect. V).

iii) As shown by the derivation using simple stability criteria (Sect. III and IV), the boundaries of the anticipated synchronization (i.e., the fundamental diagram in Fig. 1 of coupling strength versus the delay) are expected to be universal for this kind of systems.

Overall, these results account for the necessary qualitative features two systems must have in order to exhibit anticipated synchronization. By clarifying under which conditions the phenomenon would be observable, some questions will naturally arise opening new application of these ideas. From the arguments discussed here it seems that “synchronizing in advance” and “controlling the future state” can be equivalent objectives describing the aim of the process of anticipated synchronization. In that sense it might be worth to study possible connections with systems that learn to master such objectives, as for instance the task of a neural net adapting to capture a flying object.

Acknowledgements DRC thanks the hospitality and support of the Departamento de Física, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca. This work is supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología and FEDER projects BMF2001-0341-C02-01, BFM2002-04474-C02-01, BFM2000-1108 and by NINDS (DRC).


text:
# Finding the remnants of lost jets at RHIC

## Abstract

A fast parton propagating through partonic matter loses energy by medium-induced gluon radiation. We propose a method to detect the energy loss of jets and the final-state interaction of the radiated gluons and the jets with the partonic medium. By embedding jets and radiated energy into a parton cascade, we find that the fate of lost jets can be studied by analyzing the momentum distribution of soft hadrons relative to the jet axis.

The attenuation of hard jets produced in pQCD processes provides an excellent opportunity to study the properties of hot and dense partonic matter expected to be formed in ultrarelativistic heavy ion collisions wang94 ; baier ; wied ; gyul . Due to the energy lost by the jets as a result of multiple elastic and inelastic interactions in the partonic matter, the final hadron $`p_T`$ distribution from the fragmenting jets will be suppressed compared to that from nucleon-nucleon reference spectra convoluted with the number of binary collisions. Measurement of high $`p_T`$ hadrons is thus expected to provide a diagnostic tool for the total energy loss $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ of jets in the dense partonic medium wang02 ; hira . Relative to the binary collision scaled $`p\overline{p}`$ reference spectrum, experimental data phenix ; star ; phobos ; brahms  for central Au+Au collisions at RHIC indeed showed a suppression for $`\pi ^0`$s and $`h^\pm `$, where the suppression is smallest at $`p_T2`$ GeV/c and increases to an approximately constant value for $`p_T=410`$ GeV/c. Apart from the suppression of high $`p_T`$ hadrons at RHIC, the suppression of the away-side jets compared to the near-side jets at high $`p_T`$ star2  is an indication of jet quenching for the away-side jet.

Even the disappearance of away-side jets might be considered as only circumstantial evidence of jet-energy loss. For instance, one could imagine a scenario where mono-jets are produced due to the $`21`$ gluon fusion processes, e.g., in the gluon saturation model kharzeev . If the away-side jet were truly produced then absorbed by the medium, the extra momentum and energy should survive. Our aim is to investigate the degree to which the lost energy and momentum can be extracted from low-$`p_T`$ observables. We propose a straight-forward strategy of gating on the observation of a high-energy parton, then analyzing the accompanying alteration of the low-energy spectra relative to the azimuthal direction of the jet. The distribution of these extra particles, as a function of $`p_T`$ and as function of their rapidity and azimuthal angle relative to the triggering jet, might provide critical insight for understanding the mechanism for jet-energy loss.

To investigate these issues, we consider a baseline dynamical model of the collision, onto which hard jets have been embedded. The base distribution consists of the HIJING model hijing ; ampt2 , which is used to generate a set of initial partons, and ZPC, a parton cascade which simulates the subsequent elastic partonic interactionszpc . HIJING provides the initial momentum and space-time coordinates of partons from minijets and strings which originate from soft nucleon-nucleon collisions. The parton-parton elastic scattering in ZPC is determined by the cross section,

$$\frac{d\sigma }{d\widehat{t}}=C_a4\pi \alpha _s^2\left(1+\frac{\mu ^2}{\widehat{s}}\right)\frac{1}{(\widehat{t}\mu ^2)^2},$$
(1)
where $`\widehat{t}`$ and $`\widehat{s}`$ are the usual Mandelstam variables, $`C_a=9/8,1/2,2/9`$ for $`gg,gq,qq`$ scatterings, and $`\alpha _s`$ is the strong coupling constant assumed to be 0.30. The effective screening mass $`\mu `$ is assumed to independent of temperature and density and is used as a parameter to obtain the desired parton-parton elastic cross section $`\sigma C_a4\pi \alpha _s^2/\mu ^2`$. We have used a typical value for $`\mu =0.50`$ GeV. After the partons freeze out, they are traced back to their parent strings and are converted to hadrons using the Lund string fragmentation model lund .

Since the jet production cross section is small, we include additional hard jets in order to enhance statistics. The multiplicity of the additional jets in an event is obtained from a Poisson distribution with a mean $`n=10`$. The underlying dynamics of the base distribution ($`dN_{\mathrm{parton}}/dy250`$ at $`\sqrt{s}=200A`$ GeV) is not significantly affected by the smaller number of the embedded jets. This technique of oversampling has been widely used to study rare particle production, such as $`K^{}`$ at SIS/GSI kaon , multistrange particles at SPS mstrange , and $`J/\psi `$ at RHIC jpsi . In $`p+p`$ collision, the lowest order (LO) pQCD momentum distribution of hard partons that propagate in the parton cascade is given by

$`E{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma _j^{pp}}{d^3p}}`$ $`=`$ $`K{\displaystyle \underset{a,b}{}}{\displaystyle 𝑑x_a𝑑x_bd^2𝐤_{T_a}d^2𝐤_{T_b}g(𝐤_{T_a})g(𝐤_{T_b})}`$ (2)
$`\times f_a(x_a,Q^2)f_b(x_b,Q^2)E{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma _{ab}}{d^3p}}.`$
In Eq. (2), $`x_a`$, $`x_b`$ are the momenta fractions and $`𝐤_{T_a}`$, $`𝐤_{T_b}`$ are the intrinsic transverse momenta of the initial scattered partons. A constant factor $`K=2`$ is used to account for the NLO corrections. For the collinear parton distribution function (PDF) $`f_a(x_a,Q^2)`$, we employ the LO Glück-Reya-Vogt (GRV94) parametrization grv94 , and for the transverse PDF $`g(𝐤_{T_a})`$, we use Gaussian intrinsic $`k_T`$ distribution of width $`𝐤_{T_a}^2=1`$ GeV2/c2. We neglect nuclear shadowing for the jets as its effect is rather small at mid-rapidity at RHIC energies jeon ; klein . Since we explore events with at least one triggered hadron of $`p_T^{\mathrm{trig}}>4`$ GeV/c, a minimum momentum transfer of $`p_T^{\mathrm{min}}=4`$ GeV/c for the additional jets is assumed. In the hard processes, a proper formation time of $`\tau _0=1/m_T`$ is used for parton production with transverse mass $`m_T`$. The initial transverse coordinate of a hard jet is specified by the number of binary collision distribution for two Woods-Saxon geometries.

The hard jets can suffer energy loss by elastic scattering with the partons from HIJING. However, the dominant energy loss is via medium-induced gluon radiation along the trajectory of the jet. We consider here the dominant first-order total energy loss expression in opacity, $`\chi =L/\lambda _g`$, from the reaction operator approach gyul ; vitev :

$`\mathrm{\Delta }E=2\pi \alpha _s^3C_aC_A{\displaystyle _{\tau _0}^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑\tau \rho (𝐫(\tau ),\tau )(\tau \tau _0)\mathrm{log}{\displaystyle \frac{2E}{\mu ^2L}}.`$ (3)
Here, $`𝐫(\tau )`$ and $`E`$ are the position and initial energy of the jet, $`\rho (𝐫(\tau ),\tau )`$ is the parton density. The color factor $`C_a`$ is given in Eq. (1) and may be expressed as $`C_a=C_RC_T/d_A`$, where $`C_R`$ and $`C_T`$ are the color Casimirs of the jet and the target parton, and $`d_A`$ is the dimension in the adjoint representation with Casimir $`C_A`$. The effective path length required by the radiated gluons for traversing the matter, $`L`$, is taken to be 4 fm. Because of jet quenching the fragmentation function (FF) for a jet $`c`$ to a hadron $`h`$ in vacuum, $`D_{h/c}(z_c,Q_c^2)`$, is altered due to the modification of the kinetic variables of the jet, and the effective fragmentation function follows the relation gyul ,

$`z_cD_{h/c}^{}(z_c,Q_c^2)=z_c^{}D_{h/c}(z_c^{},Q_c^{}^2)+N_gz_gD_{h/g}(z_g,Q_g^2),`$
$`z_c={\displaystyle \frac{p_h}{p_c}},z_c^{}={\displaystyle \frac{p_h}{p_c\mathrm{\Delta }E(p_c)}},z_g={\displaystyle \frac{p_h}{\mathrm{\Delta }E(p_c)/N_g}}.`$ (4)
The second term on the right eventually gives the soft hadrons from the fragmentation of $`N_g`$ radiated gluons. Note that the modified fragmentation function satisfies the sum rule $`𝑑z_cz_cD_{h/c}^{}(z_c,Q_c^2)=1`$. The initial hard jets after the partonic phase are fragmented using the LO Binnewies-Kniehl-Kramer (BKK) parametrization bkk  of the fragmentation functions.

In absence of any definitive relation for how radiated energy should be translated into particles, we take recourse to a statistical prescription. Assuming local thermodynamical equilibrium of the parton medium, if $`\mathrm{\Delta }E(𝐫,\mathrm{\Delta }\tau )`$ is the energy radiated in a time interval $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau `$ (evaluated from Eq. (3)), the number of thermal gluons emitted in $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau `$ can be related to the entropy increase $`\mathrm{\Delta }S`$ of the plasma,

$`N_g(𝐫,\mathrm{\Delta }\tau ){\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\mathrm{\Delta }S={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }E(𝐫,\mathrm{\Delta }\tau )}{T(𝐫,\tau )}},`$ (5)
where the local temperature $`Tϵ(𝐫,\tau )/3\rho (𝐫,\tau )`$ is extracted from the cascade by viewing the local parton number and energy densities $`\rho (𝐫,\tau )`$ and $`ϵ(𝐫,\tau )`$. The factor of $`1/4`$ comes from considering an ideal massless gas of classical particles in equilibrium. The radiated gluons are formed at space-time points along the parent jet’s trajectory consistent with the energy loss described in Eq. (3). They are initially directed along the axis of the parent jet and subsequently scatter via elastic collision with the neighboring partons after a formation time $`\tau _0`$ as used in HIJING. Effectively, this procedure converts 100% of the radiated energy into thermal energy, while maintaining momentum conservation. A less-efficient prescription for thermalizing the radiated energy would result in a reduced multiplicity. Based on local parton-hadron duality eskola ; molnar , each of these radiated gluons after freeze-out are converted to a pion with equal probability for the three charge states.

The inset of Fig. 1 shows the fractional energy loss $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$ for the fast gluons traversing the partonic medium for central Au+Au collisions at a center of mass energy $`\sqrt{s}=200A`$ GeV. In contrast to the asymptotic BDMS baier  energy loss for a thick static plasma, $`\mathrm{\Delta }E_{\mathrm{BDMS}}=\pi \alpha _s^3C_RC_A/2\stackrel{~}{v}L^2\rho `$ (the factor $`\stackrel{~}{v}\mathrm{log}(L/\lambda _g)13`$), where $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$ increases rapidly with decreasing energy, the GLV gyul ; vitev  first-order radiative energy loss $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$ (dashed line) exhibits almost a linear energy dependence for $`E=47`$ GeV while at higher energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$ reveals a $`\mathrm{log}(E)/E`$ decrease. Elastic collision with other partons, which is modeled with the parton cascade, leads to an additional energy loss by $`25\%`$ (solid line).

The dynamical evolution of the average energy loss per jet in an event (for jets at all rapidities), $`(d\mathrm{\Delta }E/dt)/N_j`$, rises for small times due to the longitudinal expansion of the system as shown in Fig. 1. If proper time had been used rather than Cartesian time, the rate would have monotonically fallen due to the falling density.

Figure 1 also shows the rapidity integrated dynamical rate of gluon radiation per average number of jets, $`(dN_g/dt)/N_j`$, as evaluated from Eq. (5). The results are for total jets in an event, and also for jets with definite $`p_T`$. The emission pattern is found to follow that for the energy loss. Though the number of radiated gluons per $`N_j`$ is seen to increase with $`p_T`$, the rapidly decreasing jet production cross section with increasing jet energy $`E`$ actually leads to smallest number of gluon contribution from jets with $`p_T12`$ GeV/c. Although higher-energy jets are rare, they radiate more particles due to fact that they have more available energy and due to the logarithmic dependence of the radiation in Eq. (3). We find that partons with initial $`p_T9`$ GeV/c produce the bulk of the radiated gluons. Using the statistical prescription described above, about 5.5 soft gluons are emitted in an event per jet.

Since jets are typically formed in pairs, the observation of a jet can be used as a trigger. One can then search for the remains of the balancing jet, as well as any particle whose existence is derived from medium-induced radiation from the triggered jet. For our calculations, the trigger is defined as a hadron at midrapidity $`|y|<1`$ with its transverse momentum $`p_T^{\mathrm{trig}}`$ above 4 GeV/c. The $`x`$ direction is then defined to be perpendicular to the beam axis and pointing along the direction of the triggering hadron. Particles radiated from the trigger jet would typically have positive values of $`p_x`$ while particles associated with the jet’s partner would have negative values of $`p_x`$. For a perfect detector, momentum conservation implies

$$p_x\rho (p_x)𝑑p_x=P_T,$$
(6)
where $`P_Tp_T^{\mathrm{trig}}`$ is the momentum of the trigger particle and $`\rho (p_x)=dN/dp_x`$ refers to the momentum density of all other particles. Of course, this constraint is significantly relaxed by finite acceptance. By making a similar distribution $`\rho _0`$ from other events, without the requirement of a trigger, one can define

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\rho (p_x)=\rho (p_x)\rho _0(p_x),$$
(7)
which describes the variation of the momentum density due to the jet. Two quantities related to $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho `$ are of particular interest:

$`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \mathrm{\Delta }\rho (p_x)𝑑p_x},`$
$`\mathrm{\Delta }P_x`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle p_x\mathrm{\Delta }\rho (p_x)𝑑p_x}.`$ (8)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ counts the net number of additional particles, while $`\mathrm{\Delta }P_x`$ describes the momentum, which should be a fraction of $`P_T`$, determined by the acceptance.

Figure 2 shows $`\rho (p_x)`$ for events with a trigger momentum, $`4<P_Tp_T^{\mathrm{trig}}<6`$ GeV/c. For large negative values of $`p_x`$, $`\rho (p_x)`$ is suppressed in Au+Au collisions relative to $`pp`$ results as expected due to the suppression of away-side jets star2 . The situation is reversed for $`|p_x|<600`$ MeV/c, where the spectrum is dominated by the radiated and rescattered particles. The momentum constraint, Eq. (6), is satisfied by an increase of low momentum particles to compensate for the loss of the away-side jet. The net number of extra particles, $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$, is higher in the Au+Au case as would be expected from the induced-radiation and from the statistical nature of Eq. (5) which converts the radiated energy into particles with momenta characterized by the temperature. The alteration of the jets is especially apparent in the inset of Fig. 2 which shows the ratio of the Au+Au and $`pp`$ results. At large negative $`p_x`$ the suppression is approximately a factor of 3, while the enhancement at low $`p_x`$ is approximately a factor of two.

Also shown in Fig. 2 (open circles) is the distribution of the particles in Au+Au collisions that stems from the induced radiation described in Eq. (3). As expected, these particles are at much lower $`p_T`$ than those from $`pp`$ collisions due to their thermalizing with the medium.

For this range of triggers the number of extra particles, both charged and neutral, produced at mid-rapidity was approximately $`\mathrm{\Delta }N=19`$, versus 14 for $`pp`$ collisions. We emphasize that this is a relative increase and that determining $`\rho _0`$ is difficult, as discussed later. The numbers increase by $`20`$% if all rapidities are evaluated. Of course, experiments would detect a reduced number after accounting for efficiencies and acceptances. By itself, this number provides important insight into the driving force behind the disappearance of away-side jets. If the disappearance of away-side jets was largely an initial-state effect, e.g., $`21`$ gluon fusion processes in the gluon saturation model kharzeev , few extra particles would be created, especially at mid-rapidity. One would then expect to see a reduction in $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ for Au+Au vs $`pp`$ rather than the increase found here.

If we assume a perfect detector, the momentum integration described in Eqs. (6) and (Finding the remnants of lost jets at RHIC), resulted in $`\mathrm{\Delta }P_x=4.2`$ GeV/c, after triggering on leading hadrons in the $`p_T^{\mathrm{trig}}=46`$ GeV/c range. This verifies momentum conservation in the procedure. As with the calculation of $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$, most of this balancing momentum was found in the mid-rapidity cut. If the mechanism for jet quenching were an initial-state effect, one would expect less of the balancing momentum to be found with a rapidity near that of the triggering hadron.

It would be straight-forward to expand this analysis to include a binning in rapidity as well as $`p_x`$. One could then analyze the degree to which a jet spreads its energy and momentum in rapidity. Another possibility would be to bin with $`p_T`$ or $`E_T`$ which would allow the determination of the extra energy related to the trigger. The calculations shown here were performed with approximately $`4\times 10^4`$ trigger particles. Two-dimensional binnings would require significantly higher statistics. We would certainly expect large-acceptance experiments such as STAR or PHENIX to be able to perform a comparable analysis as to what was demonstrated here if they were able to measure on the order of $`10^5`$ events with trigger particles.

Given sufficient statistics, the principal difficulty of these sort of analyses lies in defining a class of similar events for the purpose of background subtraction. For instance, if one uses multiplicity at mid-rapidity to define the events, the quantity $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ would always be zero. The means for determining centrality must be independent of the particles used in the analysis of $`\rho `$ and $`\rho _0`$. Furthermore, it must be sufficiently accurate so that the observation of the triggering jet does not bias the event towards being more central. It might be quite possible to quantitatively estimate and correct for such a bias. Fortunately, these effects do not determine the extraction of $`\mathrm{\Delta }P_x`$ since the base distribution, $`\rho _0`$ does not contribute to $`P_x`$.

We also investigated the degree to which our predictions are sensitive to the parameters used in the model. By reducing the medium-induced energy loss by a factor of two, the net number of extra radiated particles was only reduced from 5.5 to about half that number. The energy loss is found to be rather insensitive to the parton elastic cross section. Once the medium becomes opaque, the behavior should be fairly insensitive to details as thermalization should mask any details of the microscopic physics, and the linear dependence of the induced multiplicity with the energy loss parameters should dampen. Consequently, with a much higher initial gluon density, e.g., $`dN_g/dy1000`$ is suggested in some gluon saturation models eskola , it is not clear to what degree the distribution of produced particles would be increased.

In conclusion, we have shown that an analysis of low $`p_T`$ observables can unveil the fate of lost jets at RHIC. A similar analysis of experimental data could provide irrefutable evidence for establishing final-state jet energy loss as the explanation for jet suppression. A high-statistics multi-dimensional analysis would provide quantitative insight into the dynamics and dissipation of jets in high-density matter.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors wish to thank Ivan Vitev for explaining the finer points of medium-induced radiation. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHY-0070818.


text:
# Isospin fractionation and isoscaling in dynamical nuclear collisions

(May 8, 2003)

## Abstract

Isoscaling is found to hold for fragment yields in the antisymmetrized molecular dynamics (AMD) simulations for collisions of calcium isotopes at 35 MeV/nucleon. This suggests the applicability of statistical considerations to the dynamical fragment emission. The observed linear relationship between the isoscaling parameters and the isospin asymmetry of fragments supports the above suggestion. The slope of this linear function yields information about the symmetry energy in low density region where multifragmentation occurs.

In typical intermediate energy nuclear collisions, numerous fragments of intermediate size are produced in addition to light particles Multifrag . The multifragmentation phenomenon is believed to be related to the liquid-gas phase-coexistence in low density expanding nuclear matter. In a two-component system with more neutrons than protons ($`N^{\text{tot}}>Z^{\text{tot}}`$) in equilibrium, the gas phase becomes more neutron-rich than the liquid phase MULLER . This fractionation phenomenon should reflect the features of the symmetry energy in nuclear matter.

Recently, a scaling relation

$$Y_2(N,Z)/Y_1(N,Z)e^{\alpha N+\beta Z}$$
(1)
has been observed XU-isoscale  in the measured fragment yields $`Y_i(N,Z)`$ for two similar systems $`i=1,2`$ with different neutron to proton ratios. This phenomenon is called isoscaling. If one assumes thermal and chemical equilibrium, the isoscaling parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ are related to the neutron-proton content of the emitting source. In fact, statistical models have successfully explained the isoscaling data TSANG-statmodel . However, as fragments are formed during a dynamical evolution of the collision system, multifragmentation should be understood in the dynamical models as well. In fact, a stochastic mean field model has predicted very large scaling parameters for the dynamically produced fragments in the model SMF-isoscale . Such result is difficult to understand without any dynamical effects. It is also important to determine if the scaling parameters in the data can be directly related to the asymmetry term of the equation of state (EOS) of nuclear matter in equilibrium, for a dynamic production.

To explore whether any kind of equilibrium is achieved regarding the isospin fractionation and the fragmentation in dynamical nuclear collisions, we compare the result of the antisymmetrized molecular dynamics (AMD) simulation with what is expected under a statistical assumption. We first derive, under an equilibrium assumption, a linear relation between the isoscaling parameter $`\alpha `$ and the fragment isospin asymmetry $`(Z/A)^2`$. We then test such a relationship using results from the AMD simulations. By studying the dependence on the asymmetry term of the effective force, we will explore whether the relation is useful for assessing the asymmetry term of the EOS.

AMD is a microscopic model for following the time evolution of nuclear collisions ONOab ; ONOh ; ONOi . It represents the colliding system in terms of a fully antisymmetrized product of Gaussian wave packets. Through the time evolution, the wave packet centroids move according to an equation of motion. Besides, the followed state of the simulation branches stochastically and successively into a huge number of reaction channels. The branching is caused by the two-nucleon collisions and by the splittings of the wave packet. The interactions are parametrized in the AMD model in terms of the effective force between nucleons and the two-nucleon collision cross sections.

We perform reaction simulations employing two different effective forces in order to study effects of the asymmetry term. One is the usual Gogny force GOGNY , consistent with the saturation of symmetric nuclear matter at the incompressibility $`K=228`$ MeV. The force is composed of finite-range two-body terms and of a density-dependent term of the form $`t_3\rho ^{1/3}(1+P_\sigma )\delta (𝐫_1𝐫_2)`$, where $`P_\sigma `$ is the spin exchange operator and $`t_3`$ is a coefficient. The second force (called Gogny-AS force) is obtained by modifying the Gogny force with

$$V_{\text{Gogny-AS}}=V_{\text{Gogny}}(1x)t_3\left(\rho (𝐫_1)^{1/3}\rho _0^{1/3}\right)P_\sigma \delta (𝐫_1𝐫_2),$$
(2)
where $`x=\frac{1}{2}`$ and $`\rho _0=0.16\text{fm}^3`$. The two forces coincide at $`\rho =\rho _0`$. Furthermore, they produce the same EOS of symmetric nuclear matter at all density. However, the two forces produce different density dependences of the symmetry energy, as shown in Fig. 1. The choice of $`x=\frac{1}{2}`$ has been made to ensure that the part of the symmetry energy from the direct term is proportional to the density DITORO-force . At densities below $`\rho _0`$, the Gogny force has somewhat higher symmetry energy than the Gogny-AS force. At densities above $`\rho _0`$, the Gogny-AS symmetry energy continues to rise while the Gogny symmetry energy begins to fall, so that significant differences develop.

The AMD simulations were performed for $`{}_{}{}^{40}\mathrm{Ca}+{}_{}{}^{40}\mathrm{Ca}`$, $`{}_{}{}^{48}\mathrm{Ca}+{}_{}{}^{48}\mathrm{Ca}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{60}\mathrm{Ca}+{}_{}{}^{60}\mathrm{Ca}`$ collisions at the incident energy $`E/A=35`$ MeV/nucleon and zero impact parameter. The version of AMD of Ref. ONOi  was utilized. It has been demonstrated that an equivalent version of AMD, for the present purposes, reproduces the experimental data of various fragment observables in $`{}_{}{}^{40}\mathrm{Ca}+{}_{}{}^{40}\mathrm{Ca}`$ at the same energy of 35 MeV/nucleon with the Gogny force ONOh ; WADAa . Each studied collision event was started by boosting two nuclei with centers separated by 9 fm. The dynamical simulation was continued until $`t=300`$ fm/$`c`$. About 1000 events were generated for each system.

In central collisions, as shown in a previous paper ONOh ; WADAa , two nuclei basically penetrate each other and many fragments are formed not only from the projectile-like and target-like parts but also from within the neck region between the two residues. The nuclear matter seems to be strongly expanding, one-dimensionally, in the beam direction.

For the intermediate states, we define the liquid part as the part of the system to be composed of the fragments with $`A>4`$ and any two wave packets whose spatial separation is less than 3 fm are treated as belonging to the same fragment. In the context of the results of Ref. TSANG-statmodel , Fig. 2 shows the time evolution of the isospin asymmetry $`(Z/A)^2`$ of the liquid part for the three reaction systems. At the initial value ($`t0`$), $`(Z/A)_{\text{liq}}^2`$ is $`(Z/A)^2`$ of the initial nuclei. For the neutron-rich systems, $`(Z/A)_{\text{liq}}^2`$ increases rapidly before $`t100`$ fm/$`c`$, and then it continues to increase gradually. This effect can be regarded as the isospin fractionation because the liquid part is getting less neutron-rich and the gas part is getting more neutron-rich. Similar fractionation effects are found in other dynamical model simulations DITORO-force ; BAOANLI . The diamond points in Fig. 2 are the results obtained from the Boltzmann-Uehling-Uhlenbeck calculations BUU-pawel  with an interaction symmetry energy of $`12.125(\rho /\rho _0)`$ MeV. The isospin fractionation has a clear dependence on the asymmetry term of the effective force. The Gogny force (solid lines) always yields a system with larger $`(Z/A)_{\text{liq}}^2`$ than the Gogny-AS force (dashed lines). The complementary effect of fractionation can also be found in the gas-phase information, such as the neutron and proton emission rates in Fig. 3. While for the symmetric system ($`{}_{}{}^{40}\mathrm{Ca}+{}_{}{}^{40}\mathrm{Ca}`$) more protons are emitted than neutrons, because of the Coulomb force, for the very neutron-rich system ($`{}_{}{}^{60}\mathrm{Ca}+{}_{}{}^{60}\mathrm{Ca}`$) much more neutrons are emitted.

Since fragments are produced in a rapidly evolving system in the AMD simulation, it is not evident a priori whether the isoscaling \[Eq. (1)\] is expected in the fragment yield ratio. Nevertheless, when we plot the fragment yield ratio, $`Y_2(N,Z)/Y_1(N,Z)`$, between two reaction systems, we observe a clear isoscaling relation, as shown in Figs. 4 and 5 obtained for the fragments present at $`t=300`$ fm/$`c`$. The extracted scaling parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ are provided in the figure captions and indicated in individual panels. The isoscaling parameters depend on the asymmetry term of the effective force. The fitting parameters, $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$, are of larger magnitude when the Gogny force is used. Moreover, $`\alpha `$ increases with increased differences in the asymmetry of the two systems.

Given that neutron emission costs less energy in a more neutron-rich system and proton emission costs more, it is not surprising that the isospin fractionation is observed in the dynamical simulations. However, the isoscaling is a nontrivial result, difficult to explain outside of statistical considerations. To explore the aspect of equilibrium in fragment emission in AMD simulations, we further explore the relation between the isoscaling and the fragment isospin asymmetry in equilibrium and in simulations.

In the context of the expanding emitting source model EES , it has been pointed out TSANG-statmodel  that the isoscaling parameter $`\alpha `$, obtained from the yield ratio of the emitted fragments, is related to the $`(Z_i/A_i)^2`$ of an equilibrated emitting source by

$$\alpha =4C_{\text{sym}}[(Z_1/A_1)^2(Z_2/A_2)^2]/T,$$
(3)
where $`C_{\text{sym}}`$ is the symmetry energy and $`T`$ is the source temperature. However, in the AMD simulations of collisions there are no easily identifiable emitting sources. All fragments are emitted on about equal footing. To remedy the situation, we show that, for an equilibrated system, Eq. (3) holds also when $`Z_i/A_i`$ is replaced by $`Z/\overline{A}_i`$, where $`\overline{A}_i`$ is the average mass number for fragment charge number $`Z`$ in system $`i`$, provided that fragment properties change gradually with nucleon content.

When we consider a system in equilibrium at the temperature $`T`$ and pressure $`P`$, the number (or yield) of nucleus composed of $`N`$ neutrons and $`Z`$ protons is given by

$$Y_i(N,Z)=Y_{0i}\mathrm{exp}\left[\left(G_{\text{nuc}}(N,Z)\mu _{ni}N\mu _{pi}Z\right)/T\right],$$
(4)
where the index $`i`$ specifies the reaction system, with the total neutron and proton numbers $`N_i^{\text{tot}}`$ and $`Z_i^{\text{tot}}`$, and $`G_{\text{nuc}}(N,Z)`$ stands for the internal Gibbs free energy of the $`(N,Z)`$ nucleus. The net Gibbs free energy $`G_{\text{tot}}`$ for the system is related to the chemical potentials $`\mu _{ni}`$ and $`\mu _{pi}`$ by $`G_{\text{tot}}=\mu _{ni}N_i^{\text{tot}}+\mu _{pi}Z_i^{\text{tot}}`$. In Eq. (4) and the following equations, we suppress the $`(T,P)`$ dependence for different quantities including $`G_{\text{nuc}}`$, $`\mu _{ni}`$ and $`\mu _{pi}`$. It is clear that isoscaling \[Eq. (1)\] is satisfied for Eq. (4), with $`\alpha =(\mu _{n2}\mu _{n1})/T`$ and $`\beta =(\mu _{p2}\mu _{p1})/T`$, as long as the two systems have common temperature and pressure.

For each given $`Z`$, the dependence of $`G_{\text{nuc}}`$ on $`N`$, assuming gradual changes, takes the form

$$G_{\text{nuc}}(N,Z)=a(Z)N+b(Z)+C(Z)(NZ)^2/A.$$
(5)
Because the important range of $`N`$ is limited for a given $`Z`$, this expansion is practically sufficient even when $`G_{\text{nuc}}`$ contains surface terms, Coulomb terms, and any other terms which are smooth in $`A`$ as e.g. the term $`\tau T\mathrm{ln}A`$ introduced by Fisher FISHER . We can regard $`C(Z)`$ as the symmetry energy coefficient in the usual sense, because the second order terms in $`N`$ from the other terms are very small. This fact can be proved by a straightforward analytical calculation if a typical liquid-drop mass-formula is assumed as an example.

Let us consider the average neutron number $`\overline{N}_i(Z)`$ of each element $`Z`$. By identifying the average value with the maximum of the $`N`$ distribution \[Eq. (4)\], we get

$$(/N)[G_{\text{nuc}}(N,Z)\mu _{ni}N\mu _{pi}Z]|_{N=\overline{N}_i(Z)}=0.$$
(6)
A straightforward calculation, using the specific form of $`G_{\text{nuc}}`$ of Eq. (5), results in

$$C(Z)\left[14\left(Z/\overline{A}_i(Z)\right)^2\right]=\mu _{ni}a(Z),$$
(7)
with $`\overline{A}_i(Z)=Z+\overline{N}_i(Z)`$. The equations for the two reaction systems, $`i=1`$ and $`i=2`$, subtracted side by side then yield

$$\frac{\alpha }{\left(Z/\overline{A}_1(Z)\right)^2\left(Z/\overline{A}_2(Z)\right)^2}=4C(Z)/T,$$
(8)
relating the isoscaling parameter $`\alpha `$, the $`(Z/A)^2`$ of fragments and the symmetry energy coefficient $`C(Z)`$ which is a function of $`(T,P)`$. An interesting fact is that this relation does not depend on the terms in $`G_{\text{nuc}}`$ other than the symmetry energy term.

Both sides of Eq. (8) depend on the fragment charge $`Z`$, in principle, and can provide information of the surface effect in the symmetry energy. This issue will be pursued in a separate paper. In the present letter, we use the fact the $`Z`$-dependence of $`Z/\overline{A}_i(Z)`$ in simulations is weak for $`Z5`$, making it meaningful to consider the isospin asymmetry of the liquid part $`(Z/A)_{\text{liq}}^2(Z_{\text{liq}}/A_{\text{liq}})^2`$ that has been averaged over all the fragments with $`A>4`$. For this quantity we expect the relation

$$\frac{\alpha }{\left(Z/A\right)_{\text{liq},1}^2\left(Z/A\right)_{\text{liq},2}^2}=4C/T.$$
(9)
Let us check whether this equilibrium relation (9) is satisfied by the AMD simulations that do not incorporate any assumption of equilibrium. Figure 6 shows the correlation in the AMD simulations between $`(Z/A)_{\text{liq}}^2`$ and the isoscaling parameter $`\alpha `$ from Figs. 4 and 5 for the three reaction systems. A linear relation is observed in accordance to the equilibrium relation (9), suggesting applicability of statistical laws to the isospin composition of fragments. The extracted value of $`4C/T`$ depends on the time of the fragment recognition, but the dependence is weak as both $`\alpha `$ and $`(Z/A)_{\text{liq},1}^2(Z/A)_{\text{liq},2}^2`$ are decreasing functions of $`t`$ for $`t200`$ fm/$`c`$. From the slope of the linear relation, we obtain $`4C/T=26.3`$ for Gogny force and $`4C/T=21.7`$ for Gogny-AS force. The ratio of $`C(\text{Gogny})/C(\text{Gogny-AS})5/4`$, from Fig. 1, is consistent with the idea that fragmentation occurs at low density, $`\rho <\rho _0`$. The absolute values of $`C`$ of 16-20 MeV and 22-26 MeV are reasonable assuming the temperatures $`T3`$-4 MeV.

In conclusion, a linear relation is expected between the isoscaling parameter and the fragment isospin asymmetry $`(Z/A)^2`$ under statistical assumptions. Isoscaling is observed in the dynamical AMD simulation and the results well comply with the linear relation, suggesting that the fragment isospin composition is subject to the statistical laws even in a dynamical picture of production. The slope of this linear function yields information on the symmetry energy for the fragments.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported by Japan Society for the Promotions of Science and the US National Science Foundation under the U.S.-Japan Cooperative Science Program (INT-0124186), by the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization (KEK) as the Supercomputer Project No. 83 (FY2002), and by grants from the US National Science Foundation, PHY-0070818, PHY-0070161 and PHY-01-10253. The work was also partially supported by RIKEN as a nuclear theory project.


text:
# Scattering of Bunched Fractionally Charged Quasiparticles

## Abstract

The charge of fractionally charged quasiparticles, proposed by Laughlin to explain the fractional quantum Hall effect (FQHE), was recently verified by measurements. Charge $`q=e/3`$ and $`e/5`$ ($`e`$ is the electron charge), at filling factors $`\nu =1/3`$ and $`2/5`$, respectively, were measured. Here we report the unexpected bunching of fractional charges, induced by an extremely weak backscattering potential at exceptionally low electron temperatures ($`T<10mK`$) - deduced from shot noise measurements. Backscattered charges $`q=\nu e`$, specifically, $`q=e/3`$, $`q=2e/5`$, and $`q<3e/7`$, in the respective filling factors, were measured. For the same settings but at an only slightly higher electron temperature, the measured backscattered charges were $`q=e/3`$, $`q=e/5`$, and $`q=e/7`$. In other words, bunching of backscattered quasiparticles is taking place at sufficiently low temperatures. Moreover, the backscattered current exhibited distinct temperature dependence that was correlated to the backscattered charge and the filling factor. This observation suggests the existence of ’low’ and ’high’ temperature backscattering states, each with its characteristic charge and characteristic energy.

While Laughlin’s argument, explaining the fractional quantum Hall effect (FQHE) , is useful in predicting the charge of the quasiparticles for fractional filling factors of the type $`\nu =1/(2p+1)`$, the composite Fermion (CF) model  is helpful in more general filling factors, such as $`\nu =n/(2np+1)`$,with $`p`$ and $`n`$ integers. The predicted quasiparticle charge is always $`e^{}=e/(2np+1)`$. For $`p=1`$, $`2`$, and $`3`$ and $`n=1`$, or alternatively for $`\nu =1/3`$, $`2/5`$ and $`3/7`$, we expect $`q=e/3`$, $`e/5`$ and $`e/7`$, respectively. Indeed recent quantum shot noise measurements confirmed these predictions at $`\nu =1/3`$ and $`2/5`$. The shot noise, in turn, resulting from weak backscattering of quasiparticles by a quantum point contact (QPC), was measured at electron temperatures $`3080mK`$, led to charges $`e/3`$ at $`\nu =1/3`$  and $`e/5`$ at $`\nu =2/5`$  \- as expected. Here we report on shot noise measurements in the extreme limits of: (a) weak backscattering ($`r2\%`$), where backscattering events are so rare assuring their independence, and (b) extremely low electron temperatures ($`T_{min}9mK`$). In this regime of a barely perturbed electron system we measured, surprisingly, shot noise corresponding to backscattered charges $`q=\nu e`$, namely, $`q=e/3`$, $`2e/5`$ and $`3e/7`$ at $`\nu =1/3`$, $`2/5`$ and $`3/7`$, respectively. In other words, backscattering in this regime is that of correlated $`p`$ quasiparticles.

Measurements were conducted in a high mobility low-density two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG), embedded in a GaAs-AlGaAs heterojunction. The magnetic field was set well within the conductance plateaus of the FQHE. For example, the magnetic field at $`\nu =1/3`$ was $`B14.26T`$ \- near the center of the $`g_Q=e^2/3h`$ plateau (Fig. 1(a)). A QPC type potential, induced in the 2DEG with two biased metallic gates deposited on the surface of the heterojunction, served as a controlled backscattering potential. A multiple-terminal-configuration (Fig. 1(b)) was employed in order to keep the input and output differential conductance constant, $`g=g_Q`$ \- independent of the transmission of the QPC . The differential conductance was measured with a 3 Hz AC, 0.5 $`\mu `$V RMS, excitation voltage superimposed on a DC bias that was restricted to the linear regime of the QPC. The spectral density of the noise, $`S`$, was measured as function of DC current at a center frequency 1.4 MHz and bandwidth $``$30 kHz (determined by a LC resonant circuit; see Refs. 3 and 4 for more details). A low noise cryogenic preamplifier, in the vicinity of the sample, amplified the voltage fluctuations in terminal A, followed by an amplifier and a spectrum analyzer at ambient temperature, measuring the RMS fluctuations at 1.4 MHz. The temperature of the electrons was determined by measuring the equilibrium noise, $`S=4k_BTg`$, with $`k_B`$ the Boltzman constant. Shot noise was determined by subtracting the current independent noise from the total noise signal.

Figure 1(c) shows typical differential conductance curves of a QPC at bulk filling $`\nu =1/3`$. Measurements were conducted at the lowest electron temperatures $`T9`$ mK for different backscattering potential strengths (controlled by the QPC gates voltage $`V_g`$). Even a relatively weak backscattering potential, with high voltage transmission $`t=g/g_Q0.7`$ ($`r0.3`$), lead to rather strong backscattering near zero applied voltage. Moreover, both the voltage and temperature dependence of the differential conductance were positive - qualitatively agreeing with the prediction of the chiral Luttinger liquid (CLL) model . However, when the QPC potential was tuned even weaker this dependence reversed sign (see Figs. 1(c) and 1(d)). We concentrate now on the limiting case, namely, the extremely weak backscattering regime, with the temperature dependence of the backscattered current for $`r0.03`$ shown in Fig. 1(d). A distinct positive slope over a decade of the current is seen in the $`log(I_B)`$ vs. $`log(T)`$ characteristic, with $`I_B`$ the backscattered current.

We turn now to shot noise measurements. The low temperature quantum shot noise of partitioned particles in the CLL regime was predicted  and later found  to be highly non-classical (non-Poissonian). This is expected since backscattering of quasiparticles is correlated and energy dependent. However, when backscattering events are very rare and the temperature is finite, it is expected that scattering events are stochastic with a resultant classical-like shot noise . Indeed the measured spectral density of the shot noise, $`S`$, shown in the inset of Fig. 1(d), is classical-like. The solid line is the expected shot noise due to stochastic scattering of independent particles at $`T=9`$ mK and charge $`q=e/3`$ . It depends on $`V`$, $`q`$, $`t`$, and $`T`$ via $`S=4k_BTg+2qI_Bt\mathrm{\Theta }(T,V)`$, with $`\mathrm{\Theta }(T,V)=coth(qV/(2k_BT))2k_BT/(qV)`$, $`I_B=Vg_Q(1t)`$, and $`g_Q=\nu e^2/h`$. Here, for $`qVk_BT`$, $`\mathrm{\Theta }(T,V)1`$ and the dependence of $`S`$ on $`I_B`$ is linear, and for $`qVk_BT`$ the Johnson-Nyquist thermal noise dominates. Note that at $`T0`$ and $`t1`$, as in our case, $`S2qI_B`$. The excellent agreement between experiment and prediction proves that scattering events of $`e/3`$ quasiparticles are independent down to the lowest temperatures provided that the backscattering potential is extremely weak.

We now study the regime of extremely weak backscattering at $`p=2`$, namely, electron filling factor $`\nu =2/5`$. The magnetic field was tuned to $`B=12.2`$ T within the $`g_Q=(2/5)e^2/h`$ plateau (see Fig. 1(a)) and the QPC to $`r0.02`$. Note that the general features seen in Fig. 1(c) at $`\nu =1/3`$ are also found at $`\nu =2/5`$. We measured the temperature dependence of the backscattered current, as shown in Fig. 2(a), and find this time two distinct slopes in $`log(I_B)`$ vs. $`log(T)`$ \- with a crossover at $`T45`$ mK. We then measured the shot noise at different electron temperatures and found it, again, to be classical-like in all temperatures (see in Fig. 2(b) two extreme examples). When determining the charge in a most general filling factor one has to rely on the CF model. According to that model the reflected current, carrying the noise, is that of CFs in the $`2^{nd}`$ Landau level (LL), namely $`p=2`$, with the $`e/3`$ quasiparticles (in the $`1^{st}`$ LL) being fully transmitted without contributing to the shot noise . Hence, one can define an effective transmission coefficient of $`2^{nd}`$ LL CFs, $`t_{eff}=(tg_{2/5}g_{1/3})/(g_{2/5}g_{1/3})=6t5`$, which is smaller than the bare transmission $`t`$. However, when $`t`$ is very close to unity $`t_{eff}t`$, and the determination of $`q`$ is not sensitive to the exact value of $`t`$. The two solid lines in Fig. 2(b), agreeing with the data, are the calculated shot noise according to the expression above with charges $`q=2e/5`$ at $`T9`$ mK and $`q=e/5`$ at $`T82`$ mK (with electron temperatures determined independently). While the scattered charge at high temperature $`q=e/5`$, had been verified before , the scattered charge at low temperature $`q=\nu e=2e/5`$, was unexpected. Figure 2(d) shows the charge evolution as the temperature is being increased in the range $`9`$ mK$`<T<50`$ mK. Most of the change takes place over a 20 mK range. In comparison, temperature dependence measurements were conducted in a separately patterned Hall bar. While the $`\nu =1/3`$ conductance plateau remained unaffected at this temperature range and the longitudinal resistance $`R_{xx}`$ increased with temperature, but with dependence quite different than that of $`I_B`$ from the QPC.

Does such unexpected bunching take place also in higher CF filling factors $`p=3`$, namely, at $`\nu =3/7`$? Because of the relatively weak magnetic field at the $`\nu =3/7`$ (B=11.5 T) the many-body energy gap required to establish the $`g_Q=(3/7)e^2/h`$ plateau is rather small. Consequently, the plateau is barely established even at the lowest temperature (see Fig. 2(a)) and there is a finite backscattered current through the bulk (some 0.5%) and the minimum longitudinal resistance $`R_{xx}>0`$. Inducing a very weak QPC potential in the 2DEG increased the backscattered current and produced a measurable shot noise, as seen in Fig. 3. Using the effective transmission (that is more sensitive here to the bare $`t`$) the fitted charge at the lowest temperature was extremely sensitive to minute variations in the electron temperature and seems to hover in the range $`(22.5)e/7`$. Warming the electrons to $`T27`$ mK lowered significantly the shot noise and established firmly a quasiparticle charge of $`e/7`$. This is the first measurement of such small fractional charge. The higher scattered charge at the lowest temperature indicates again bunching of $`e/7`$ quasiparticles - very much like the behavior at $`\nu =2/5`$, however, it seems that an even lower temperature than our lowest temperature ($`T<9`$ mK) is needed to establish bunching of three $`e/7`$ quasiparticles to a charge $`q=3e/7`$ as well as to achieve a perfect FQH plateau.

Summarizing our results one should recall: (a) the 2DEG is rather pure with mobility $`2\times 10^6cm^2V^1s^1`$, hence, scattering is dominated by the weak potential of the QPC; (b) the electron temperature is very low ($`T9`$ mK, $`k_BT0.8`$ $`\mu `$eV), minimizing thermal noise and alleviating any ambiguity in analyzing the data; (c) the QPC is very open, leading to very rare backscattering events; (d) shot noise is classical-like with linear dependence of noise on current - suggesting independent scattering of quasiparticles with a specific charge; (e) pinching the QPC ever so slightly more renders both the DC current and shot noise to be highly non-linear functions of voltage - suggesting correlated scattering of quasiparticles with charge dependent on bias. These results confirm, that in a barely perturbed 2DEG and $`T0`$, a very weakly bound scattering state is formed, with transport dominated by independent scattering events of $`p`$ bunched quasiparticles with charge $`q=\nu e`$. In the CF model, rare backscattering events of simultaneous $`p`$ quasiparticles, one from each LL, are taking place.

Relying on the CLL model, Kane and Fisher predicted such possibility of bunching due to backscattering via to a point scatterer . However, their expression for the backscattered current,$`I_B\upsilon ^2T^{|\alpha |}`$ , with $`\upsilon `$ an energy independent backscattering amplitude and $`\alpha `$ a coefficient depended on the scattered charge, suggests a decrease of the backscattered current with temperature - contradicting our data. Note though that since our QPC is almost fully open, its potential is expected to be rather smooth and shallow with energy dependent backscattering amplitude, $`\upsilon =\upsilon (T,V)`$. This dependence might dominate the behavior of the backscattered current leading to our result. Still, we stress, that our observations were reproducible among samples with different QPCs and different cooling cycles; hence, we believe that it is not sensitive to the details of the QPC potential.

It should be noted that our observed bunching at low temperatures is quite different from the already observed bunching by strong backscattering potentials (at $`\nu =1/3`$, bunching of quasiparticles leads to electron scattering) . In the latter case the FQHE state does not exist in the barrier region, hence preventing the existence of elementary quasiparticles - forcing the quasiparticles to bunch to an electron. Here, however, the FQHE state is hardly perturbed in the barrier region, still allowing the existence of elementary quasiparticles. Hence, the spontaneous bunching of $`p`$ quasiparticles is possibly related to their fractional statistics, namely, their partly Bosonic nature, encouraging them to bunch upon scattering.

We thank C. Kane and A. Stern for helpful discussions and D. Mahalu for the submicron lithography. The work was partly supported by the Israeli Academy of Science and by the German-Israeli Foundation (GIF).