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# Distances and Cosmology From Galaxy Cluster CMB Data

## 1. Introduction

The measurement of distances to standard, or standardizable, candles and/or rulers at a known redshift provides a well-known probe of physical cosmology (see, Peebles (1993) for a review). The well utilized techniques, so far, include luminosity distance to Type Ia supernovae (e.g., Riess et al (1998); Perlmutter et al (1999)), angular diameter distance to horizon size at the last scattering (e.g., Kamionkowski et al (1994)), time delay between gravitationally-lensed images (e.g., Refsdal (1994)), and information from clusters related to the Sunyave-Zel’dovich (SZ; Sunyaev & Zel’dovich (1980)) effect combined with X-ray emission observations (e.g., Reese et al (2002)), among others. Here, we propose an additional geometric test related to galaxy cluster CMB data involving maps of the SZ effect and lensed CMB anisotropies.

The proposed technique makes use of the fact that the background source, primordial CMB anisotropy, lensed by a foreground cluster has well-known properties, including the distance to the last scattering surface where the source is located. This is significant given that most lensing studies based on source ellipticities or flux measurements, such as mass reconstruction of galaxy clusters via weak lensing shear, is affected by the unknown redshift distribution of the lensed background galaxy population. Given a map of the lensed CMB anisotropy distribution, the technique allows one to extract cosmological information to the accuracy that the foreground mass distribution is known a priori. While this has, traditionally, come from lensing studies at optical wavelengths, we suggest, in principle, that the cluster SZ map can be used as a estimator of the mass distribution under certain assumptions on how the gas mass, which contributes to the SZ effect, is related to the total matter responsible for lensing.

The use of SZ and lensed CMB data is motivated by the fact that in the near future, with instruments such as the South Pole Telescope (SPT), and in the long term, with missions such as the CMBpol, one expects large catalogs of arcminute scale CMB data related to galaxy clusters. In the case of multi-frequency CMB data, the cluster SZ effect can be separated based on its unique frequency spectrum relative to the thermal CMB. When the dominant SZ effect is frequency-separated, the anisotropy towards an individual cluster is likely to contain two sources of importance: the SZ kinetic effect resulting from the peculiar velocity of the galaxy cluster along the line of sight and the lensing effect (Seljak & Zaldarriaga (2000)). The two effects have distinct spatial distributions while the frequency-cleaned cluster SZ map provides a filter to remove the kinematic SZ contribution. This is due to the fact the two SZ effects are expected have the same spatial distribution as they both trace the electron density field. When removed, the kinematic SZ data provide a measure of large scale bulk flows and a separate measure of cosmology (Peel & Knox (2002)). Here, we address cosmological uses of the combined SZ and lensed CMB maps of a cluster and extend that to a sample of clusters. While an individual cluster distance measured from the SZ/lensing method is unlikely to be statistically significant, for a large sample of galaxy cluster ($`10^4`$), we show that one can obtain detailed information related to cosmology.

The discussion is organized as follows. In the next Section, we discuss important aspects related to the proposed test and practical considerations related to how well the technique can be implemented in future data. In Section 3, we discuss cosmological measurements and conclude with a summary.

## 2. Cosmological Information via SZ and Lensing

The SZ effect measures the total integrated pressure along the line of sight through the cluster:

$$\mathrm{SZ}(\theta )=g(x)\frac{\sigma _T}{m_ec^2}𝑑\mathrm{}p_e(\theta d_L,\mathrm{})$$

where $`p_e(R,z)`$ is the pressure profile, where $`R=\theta d_L`$ is the projected distance from the cluster center, at a distance of $`d_L`$, and $`\mathrm{}`$ is the line of sight distance. The SZ effect, as is now well-known, is frequency dependent through the spectrum, relative to the CMB blackbody spectrum, given by $`g(x)=x\mathrm{coth}(x/2)4`$, where $`x=h\nu /kT_{\mathrm{CMB}}`$. This frequency dependence is important since it allows the SZ effect to be safely separated from both sources of interest, such as the kinetic SZ effect and lensed CMB anisotropies, and confusions. The area integral of the frequency cleaned SZ map provides an estimator of the gas mass enclosed within the angular radius, weighted by the spatially averaged temperature distribution of electrons:

$$\widehat{M}_{\mathrm{gas}}(\theta )=\frac{m_em_p\mu _ec^2}{\sigma _T}\frac{d_L^2}{k_B\stackrel{~}{T}_e}_0^\theta d^2\theta ^{}\mathrm{SZ}(\theta ^{}),$$
(1)
where $`\mu _e`$ is the electron fraction in the cluster and $`\stackrel{~}{T}_e`$ is the average electron temperature. The factor $`d_L^2`$, where $`d_L`$ is the cluster distance, comes from the conversion of physical distances to angular units.

Due to a variety of reasons, including the detection of inflationary gravitational wave signature in CMB data (Kesden et al (2002); Knox & Song (2002)), there is now a significant attempt to understand the gravitational lensing effect on CMB anisotropies. Since surface brightness is conserved, the lensing effect on CMB is simply a modification to the photon distribution on the sky. In general, through a geometric factor related to the background source distance ($`d_S`$), in our case CMB at the last scattering surface, and the distance to the foreground lens ($`d_L`$), which in this case is a galaxy cluster, the amplitude of the gravitational lensing effect depends on the background cosmology. For the lensed-CMB case, angular deflections of the CMB photons lead to a modification to the large scale CMB gradient such that

$`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mathrm{lens}}(\theta )=(\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mathrm{prim}})\mathrm{cos}\varphi {\displaystyle \frac{4G}{c^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{d_{LS}}{d_Sd_L\theta }}M_{\mathrm{dm}}(\theta ),`$ (2)
where the effect is now sensitive to the total enclosed mass, which we take to be due to the dark matter distribution, and $`\mathrm{cos}\varphi `$ is the position angle with respect to the large scale CMB gradient, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mathrm{prim}})`$ (Seljak & Zaldarriaga (2000); Dodelson & Starkman (2003)). Here, $`d_{LS}`$ is the distance between cluster and the background source. Equation (2) states that when $`\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mathrm{lens}}(\theta )`$ is measured, and $`M_{\mathrm{dm}}(\theta )`$ is either known or also measured independently, information related to cosmology can be extracted from the geometric parameter related to distances. This is possible due to two reasons: $`(\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mathrm{prim}})\mathrm{cos}\varphi `$, is essentially known with a high signal-to-noise ratio from a map of the large scale CMB temperature fluctuations, such as from WMAP or Planck, while $`d_S`$ is also known from first principles and measurable from the CMB anisotropy angular power spectrum.

While $`M_{\mathrm{dm}}(\theta )`$ can be obtained from a variety of observational methods, such as lensing studies at optical wavelengths based on background galaxy ellipticities and magnifications or estimates based on the X-ray emission, we consider CMB related estimates of mass. This is motivated by the wealth of CMB related data expected in the near future with arcminute-scale CMB experiments, both from ground (SPT) and space (CMBpol). The SZ effect allows a reliable estimate of the dark matter distribution under certain assumptions: the simplest is to assume that the gas-to-total mass ratio traces that of the global baryon fractions such that $`M_{\mathrm{dm}}(\theta )=\eta ^1M_{\mathrm{gas}}(\theta )`$ where $`\eta =\mathrm{\Omega }_b/\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$. While we do not consider in detail, one can potentially improve this assumption further based on numerical simulations. When SZ maps are used as an estimator of the enclosed dark matter mass, the cosmological information comes from the combined parameter $`f(z)d_{LS}d_l/d_S\mathrm{\Omega }_m/\mathrm{\Omega }_b`$.

When SZ data are used, note that we also need information related to $`\stackrel{~}{T}_e`$, average electron temperature, for individual clusters. While this can potentially come from X-ray observations, say, from wide field catalogs such as those expected from the proposed Dark Universe Explorer Telescope (DUET), the SZ spectrum can be used to extract an average value of the gas temperature based on the relativistic corrections to the SZ effect (Pointecouteau et al (1998)). This determination is best, at the level of 10% to 15% with Planck, for massive clusters where the electron temperature is high ($`>`$ 5 keV), and these are the same clusters where the lensing effect is expected to dominate. For a large sample of clusters, another approach would be to potentially calibrate some relation between $`\stackrel{~}{T}_e`$ and the SZ effect and use such relations (Cooray (1999); McCarthy et al (2003)), combined with lensed CMB observations, to constrain cosmological parameters.

In Fig. 1, we illustrate the expected profile of the SZ effect (a) and the lensed CMB (b) towards a galaxy cluster. To calculate these maps, we make use of the NFW profile of Navarro et al. (1996) to describe the dark matter distribution. We assume that the gas distribution is in hydrostatic equilibrium with the cluster potential. This allows us to calculate the pressure profile related to the SZ effect following Komatsu & Seljak (2001). In Fig. 1(c), we show the difference between the lensed CMB map and the one predicted based on the integrated SZ profile. While the difference is minor at outer regions of the cluster, we find substantial differences near the inner part of the cluster. This is associated with the fact that gas profile does not trace dark matter distribution in the inner regions due to additional pressure support. When calculating the lensed CMB map, to compare with Fig. 1(b), note that we have scaled the SZ profile by the cluster-averaged value of the gas temperature instead of using the exact temperature profile. While improvements to Fig. 1(c) is clearly expected when the temperature profile is included, we suggest that this is not necessary, at least, in terms of models we have considered. When one compares at several scale radii from the cluster center, we also found the difference with true lens profile and the predicted one to be below the expected noise levels of upcoming CMB observations. Note that the SZ/X-ray route to determine cluster distances require precise temperature information, including the profile, since one squares the SZ map to be compared with X-ray data, thus increasing small differences, and for the reason that temperature profile also enters the X-ray description. We expect further numerical studies to address the extent to which biases can be introduced by representing the temperature distribution with an average value in the SZ/lensing method.

## 3. Cosmological Measurements

Now to understand how well cosmological information can be extracted, we make use of the expected sample of galaxy clusters detectable from a SPT-like experiment in its planned wide field survey of 4000 deg2. These observations are expected to allow detection of clusters down to a mass limit of $`3\times 10^{14}`$ M, though we only make use of the cluster catalog with masses above $`5\times 10^{14}`$ M. Since noise levels and other important experimental aspects are still not well defined for upcoming observations, in order to obtain some guidance, we assume a final pixel noise of 0.5 $`\mu `$K at one arcminute resolution and assume multi-frequency observations such that the SZ effect is separated with an increase in the noise associated with the SZ map by a factor of 2. This is roughly equivalent to an experiment with five channels equally separated from 217 GHz, which is the SZ null frequency.

With SZ separated, to extract the lensed CMB map, we remove the kinetic SZ contribution by assuming that its contribution is simply related to the SZ profile with an overall amplitude given by the peculiar velocity. This removal is aided by the fact that the kinetic SZ and lensed CMB contributions have distinct spatial distributions. Following Sheth & Diaferio (2001), we assume a Gaussian distribution for cluster peculiar velocities with a zero mean, and a variance of 400 km sec-1, consistent with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM cosmology, and ignore virial motions within clusters since such motions do not contribute to the kinetic SZ effect due to cancellations. Any coherent motions, such as bulk rotations of cluster gas lead to an additional kinetic SZ related contribution (Cooray & Chen (2002)), though, we ignore such possibilities here since they are expected to be small, except in certain favored cases. For the lensing extraction, we only make use of the subsample of clusters where the kinetic SZ signal is at the same level as the expected lensed CMB contribution and is expected to be separated with no significant residual noise. Allowing for some accounting of the fact that the background temperature gradient also varies on the sky, such as clusters that lie on hot or cold-spots will not show a significant lensing effect, we found roughly 10% of the cluster catalog will be useful for the proposed study. For a ground-based survey of $``$ 10% of the sky (with SPT), this results in catalog of roughly 103 clusters useful for the proposed study.

The lensed CMB contribution, for the most favorable clusters, is generally detected with signal-to-noise ratios, integrated over the whole cluster, at most at the level of ten. Here, we have ignored contaminants such as radio point sources and dust since these are likely to be removed based on frequency information. When the point source contribution is modeled with counts based on Toffolatti et al. (1999) models, and assuming point sources above 3-sigma noise level can be detected and removed, we found residual noise contributions at the level of 1 $`\mu `$K at 217 GHz, which is at the level of noise in the lensed CMB map. The main source of worry here is an extra population of sources that happen to reside in clusters, though, it is unlikely that such a population dominates at frequencies such as 217 GHz.

Given a carefully selected subsample of clusters where one has reconstructed lensed CMB maps, and using SZ maps as estimates of the gas mass distribution, we now calculate how well the geometric factor related to distances can be extracted. For this purpose, we assume that the background CMB gradient is precisely known. This is a safe assumption given that experiments like WMAP and Planck produce high signal-to-noise maps of the large scale CMB temperature fluctuations. We assume for the subsample of clusters, the average electron temperature of each cluster, either based on the SZ spectrum, or some statistical relation between the temperature and the SZ effect, is known to an accuracy of 10%. With improvements on CMB experimental side, it is likely that this will be the main limitation for the proposed study. We illustrate our results in Fig. 2, where we show the function $`f(z)`$ and expected errors in its measurement. For the illustration purposes here, we bin the cluster catalog assuming that their redshifts are known precisely. For a given cluster, $`f(z)`$ is only known to an accuracy of, in general, 30% and is usually not better than 15% even in the most favored case. For a sample of 1000 clusters, binned in redshift out to a redshift of 2 in 10 bins, we find that $`f(z)`$ can be determined to an accuracy of order to $``$ 10% in low and high redshift bins and at the level of 3% at a redshift of near unity where cluster counts peak. This can be compared to the measurement errors on the Type Ia supernovae luminosity distances expected from the SNAP mission, which is at the level of 1% in each redshift bin of width 0.1. While Fig. 2(a) shows the level expected for a survey of 4000 deg2, for an all sky survey, as expected from the CMBpol mission, the useful catalog of clusters will increase by a factor $``$ 10, and the error on binned $`f(z)`$ reconstructed from such data is expected to improve due to the increase in the cluster sample.

In order to illustrate the extent to which cosmological measurements can be extracted with reconstructed $`f(z)`$, we make use of the Fisher information matrix. We assume a flat-cosmological model where the dark energy contribution has an equation of state $`w`$ and consider the measurement of two parameters related to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`w`$. In Fig. 2(b), we show the expected errors and a comparison to the expected error ellipse on the same parameter plane from SNAP data. While a SPT-like ground-based survey provides limited cosmological information from the proposed test, increasing the capability to an all-sky survey, as expected from the CMBpol mission, one can extract cosmological information at the same precision as the SNAP mission.

To summarize, in the near-future, arcminute scale CMB surveys are expected to detected many tens of thousands or more galaxy clusters based on the SZ effect. We suggest that a subsample of clusters ($``$ 10%) will allow useful extraction of information related to the CMB lensing effect and can be used with SZ data for an additional cosmological test. The proposed test makes use of the lensing geometric factor related to lens and source distances to extract distance information and associated cosmological parameters. While individual distance measurements are not significant, for a subsample of preselected clusters, such as based on the amplitude of $`(\mathrm{\Delta }T_{\mathrm{prim}})`$ with respect to the cluster location, we have shown that precision cosmology can be achieved.

Unlike distances based on the SZ/X-ray route, the proposed cosmological test is independent of assumptions related to the cluster shape including asphericity. This can be understood based on the fact that the effect relies on the line of sight projected quantities and not a line of sight projected quantity (SZ effect) combined with volume integrated emission (X-ray flux). The test, however, assumes some relation between gas mass and the dark matter mass of a cluster and the extent to which this can be achieved should be studied with simulations. Even if not used for cosmology, we suggest conducting this study in future data as a way to understand certain astrophysics related to galaxy clusters.

Acknowledgments: We thank S. Dodelson and G. Starkman for a preprint of their paper, which motivated the author to write this work, D. Huterer for SNAP information, and acknowledge partial support from the Sherman Fairchild Foundation and DOE.


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# 𝜌(770)⁰ and 𝑓₀(980) Production in Au+Au and pp Collisions at √𝑠_{𝑁𝑁} = 200 GeV

## 1 Introduction

The measurement of resonances with lifetimes smaller than, or comparable to, the lifetime of the dense matter produced in relativistic heavy-ion collisions provides an important tool for studying the collision dynamics . Physical effects such as thermal weighting of the states  and dynamical interactions with matter  may modify resonance masses, widths and shapes.

Partial-waves analysis have successfully parameterized $`\pi \pi `$ scattering . Introducing to the formalism the rescattering of pions, in which $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}\rho (770)^0`$, the interference between different scattering channels can distort the line shape of resonances .

Due to the proximity to the K $`\overline{\text{K}}`$ threshold, the $`f_0(980)`$ resonance has been interpreted as a K $`\overline{\text{K}}`$ molecule (bound state) . The study of this exotic state might give insight on the strangeness behavior at the various stages of the collision.

Previous measurements of the $`\rho ^0`$ meson in hadronic $`Z^0`$ decays indicate that the $`\rho ^0`$ line shape is considerably distorted from a relativistic p-wave Breit-Wigner shape, especially at relatively low momentum in multipion systems . A mass shift that may be -30 MeV/$`c^2`$ or larger was observed.

In pp collisions, the $`\rho ^0`$ meson has been measured at $`\sqrt{s}`$ $`=`$ 27.5 GeV . This is the only pp measurement used in the hadroproduced $`\rho ^0`$ mass average reported in . In this measurement, the $`\rho ^0`$ mass $`m_\rho `$ $`=`$ 0.7626 $`\pm `$ 0.0026 GeV/$`c^2`$ was obtained from a fit to a relativistic p-wave Breit-Wigner function times the phase space .

Preliminary results from the first measurement of $`\rho ^0(770)`$ and $`f_0(980)`$ via their hadronic decay channel in minimum bias pp and peripheral Au+Au collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$$`=`$ 200 GeV using the STAR (Solenoidal Tracker At RHIC) detector at RHIC are presented.

## 2 Data Analysis

The main STAR detector consists of a large Time Projection Chamber (TPC)  placed inside a uniform solenoidal magnetic field of 0.5 T that provides the measurement of charged particles. About 11 million minimum bias pp events and about 1.2 million events for the 40$`\%`$ to 80$`\%`$ of the hadronic Au+Au cross section at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$ $`=`$ 200 GeV were used in this analysis. Since the pion daughters from $`\rho ^0`$ decays originate at the interaction point, only tracks whose distance of closest approach to the primary interaction vertex was less than 3 cm were selected. Charged pions were selected by requiring their energy loss ($`dE/dx`$) in the gas of the TPC to be within three standard deviations (3$`\sigma `$) of the expected mean. In order to enhance track quality , the daughters were also required to have pseudorapidities $`|\eta |<0.8`$ and transverse momenta ($`p_T`$) greater than 0.2 GeV/$`c`$.

The $`\rho ^0`$ and $`f_0`$ measurements were performed calculating the invariant mass for each oppositely charge $`\pi \pi `$ pair in an event. The resulting invariant mass distribution was then compared to a reference distribution calculated from the geometric mean of the invariant mass distributions obtained from $`\pi ^+\pi ^+`$ and $`\pi ^{}\pi ^{}`$ pairs from the same event.

The $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ invariant mass distribution ($`M_{\pi \pi }`$) and the like-sign reference distribution were normalized to each other at $`M_{\pi \pi }`$ 1.5 GeV/$`c^2`$. The resulting raw distributions after subtraction for minimum bias pp and peripheral Au+Au collisions at mid-rapidity ($`|y|0.5`$) for a particular $`p_T`$ bin are shown in Fig. 1. The $`p_T`$ coverage of the $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ pair is 0.2 $`p_T`$ 2.2 GeV/$`c`$ for minimum bias pp and peripheral Au+Au collisions. The hadronic “cocktail” was described as follows. The $`K_S^0`$ was fit to a gaussian (dotted line). The $`\omega `$ (light grey line) and $`K^{}(892)^0`$ (dash-dotted line) functions were obtained from the HIJING event generator , with the kaon being misidentified as a pion in the case of the $`K^0`$. The $`\rho ^0(770)`$ (dashed line), the $`f_0(980)`$ (dotted line) and the $`f_2(1270)`$ (dark grey line) were fit to the relativistic Breit-Wigner function (BW)  times the Boltzman factor  PS $`=`$ $`(M_{\pi \pi }/\sqrt{M_{\pi \pi }^2+p_T^2})\mathrm{exp}(\sqrt{M_{\pi \pi }^2+p_T^2}/T)`$ that represents the phase space. Here, $`T`$ is the temperature in which the resonance is emitted . The uncorrected numbers of $`\rho `$, $`f_0`$, $`\omega `$, $`K_S^0`$ and $`f_2`$ were free parameters in the fit while the $`K^0`$ fraction was fixed according to the $`K^{}(892)^0\pi `$K measurement . The $`\rho ^0`$, $`\omega `$ and $`K^0`$ functions were corrected for the detector acceptance . The solid black line in Fig. 1 is the sum of all the contributions in the hadronic “cocktail”.

The $`\rho ^0`$ mass as a function of $`p_T`$ for peripheral Au+Au and minimum bias pp interactions are presented in Fig. 2. The $`\rho ^0`$ mass was obtained by fitting the data to a relativistic p-wave ($`\mathrm{}`$ $`=`$ 1) Breit-Wigner function times the phase space (BW$`\times `$PS), represented by the filled circles in Fig. 2. The $`\rho ^0`$ peak was also fit only to a relativistic p-wave Breit-Wigner function; however, the fit lacked in reproducing the $`\rho ^0`$ line shape and usually underestimated the position of the peak mainly at low $`p_T`$. The $`\rho ^0`$ meson width was fixed at $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ $`=`$ 160 MeV$`/c^2`$, which is consistent with the $`\rho ^0`$ natural width  folded with the detector resolution. In this measurement, we do not have sensitivity for a systematic study of the $`\rho ^0`$ width. In Au+Au collisions, the temperature used in the PS factor was $`T`$ $`=`$ 120 MeV , while in pp $`T`$ $`=`$ 160 MeV . The $`\rho ^0`$ mass at mid-rapidity ($`|y|`$ 0.5) for minimum bias pp and peripheral Au+Au collisions at $`\sqrt{s}`$ $`=`$ 200 GeV increases as a function of $`p_T`$ and is systematically lower than the value reported by . In addition, the $`\rho ^0`$ mass measured in peripheral Au+Au collisions is lower than the pp measurement. In this measurement, we do not have sensitivity for a systematic study of the $`f_0`$ mass and width. In both minimum bias pp and peripheral Au+Au collisions, the $`f_0`$ mass and width were fixed at $``$980 MeV/$`c^2`$ and 75 MeV/$`c^2`$, respectively.

The hadronic “cocktail” presented in Fig. 1 depicts our best understanding of the data. However, the correlations near the $`\rho ^0`$ mass may be of unknown origins, e.g. not well known particles, such as the $`f_0(600)`$ . The uncorrected number of $`\omega `$ as a free parameter in the hadronic “cocktail” may be accounting for some unknown contributions and causing the apparent increase in the $`\rho ^0/\omega `$ ratio between peripheral Au+Au and minimum bias pp interactions. In order to evaluate the systematic uncertainty in the $`\rho ^0`$ mass due to unknown contributions in the hadronic “cocktail”, the $`\rho ^0`$ mass was obtained by fitting the peak to the BW$`\times `$PS function plus an exponential function representing the unknown contributions. This uncertainty is correlated between minimum bias pp and peripheral Au+Au and corresponds to the main contribution to the systematic uncertainties shown in Fig. 2. The other contribution of $``$3 MeV/$`c^2`$ corresponds to the uncertainty in measuring the particle momentum. The mass resolution in the TPC is $``$9 MeV/$`c^2`$. The $`\rho ^0`$ mass obtained from the fit using the BW$`\times `$PS function plus an exponential function was always higher than the mass obtained from the BW$`\times `$PS function in the hadronic “cocktail” fit.

In order to obtain the resonance yield, detector acceptance and efficiency corrections  were applied to the uncorrected numbers of $`\rho ^0`$ and $`f_0`$ obtained from the fit to the BW$`\times `$PS function in the hadronic “cocktail”. The $`d^2N/(2\pi p_Tdp_Tdy)`$ distributions at mid-rapidity ($`|y|<`$ 0.5) as a function of $`p_T`$ for minimum bias pp and peripheral Au+Au collisions are depicted in Fig. 3. In pp interactions, a power-law fit was used to extract the $`\rho ^0`$ and $`f_0`$ yields per unit of rapidity. In Au+Au collisions, an exponential fit in $`m_Tm_0`$ was used to extract the $`\rho ^0`$ and $`f_0`$ yields and the inverse slopes. Here, $`m_0`$ is the $`\rho ^0`$ and $`f_0`$ masses reported in . The systematic uncertainty in the $`\rho ^0`$ and $`f_0`$ yields is estimated to be 15$`\%`$ and 50$`\%`$, respectively for both minimum bias pp and peripheral Au+Au. The systematic errors quoted are due to uncertainties in the tracking efficiency and the normalization between the $`M_{\pi \pi }`$ and the like-sign reference distributions.

The $`\rho ^0/\pi ^{}`$ and $`f_0/\pi ^{}`$ ratios as a function of beam energy for different colliding systems are depicted in Fig. 4. The $`\rho ^0`$ production slightly increases with beam energy and the $`\rho ^0/\pi ^{}`$ ratios for minimum bias pp and peripheral Au+Au interactions are interestingly comparable. In the case of the $`f_0`$, an analysis with smaller uncertainties is necessary for a conclusive statement.

## 3 Conclusions

We have presented preliminary results on $`\rho (770)^0`$ and $`f_0(980)`$ production at mid-rapidity in minimum bias pp and peripheral Au+Au collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{NN}}`$ $`=`$ 200 GeV. This is the first direct measurement of $`\rho ^0(770)\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ and $`f_0(980)\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ in heavy-ion collisions. The measured $`\rho ^0`$ mass increases as a function of $`p_T`$ and is lower than previous measurements reported in  by $``$40 MeV/$`c^2`$ in minimum bias pp and $``$70 MeV/$`c^2`$ in peripheral Au+Au collisions. The same behavior was observed by the OPAL experiment at LEP . Dynamical interactions with the surrounding matter or the interference between different $`\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ scattering channels are possible explanations to the apparent modification of the $`\rho ^0`$ meson properties. The $`\rho ^0`$ production slightly increases with beam energy and the $`\rho /\pi ^{}`$ ratios in minimum bias pp and peripheral Au+Au are interestingly comparable. Future measurements of the $`\rho ^0`$ meson in both leptonic and hadronic channels in pA and different centralities in Au+Au collisions and possibly higher $`p_T`$ coverage will provide important information on the collision dynamics of relativistic collisions.

## References


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# Ferromagnetism and Metamagnetism in Copper-doped Germanium Clathrate

## Abstract

Cu-doped type-I germanium clathrate can exhibit dilute magnetism, including ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, and metamagnetic transitions up to 90 K. 63Cu NMR measurements confirm that these transitions are due to a dilute composition of magnetic defects coupled by conduction electrons, behavior similar to that of magnetic semiconductors. Magnetic measurements indicate localized magnetic moments, attributed to clusters of magnetic ions, with competition between ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic exchange, and also indications of glassy behavior in the ferromagnetic phase. NMR Knight shifts and relaxation times show that the conduction band is metallic with a large Korringa ratio. Comparison to a mean-field theory for the ordering behavior gives a good accounting for the ferromagnetic transition.

Magnetic semiconductors have been the focus of renewed interest, due in part to the potential for spin injection in semiconductor electronics Ohno (1998); Ohno et al. (2000). There have been a number of recent successes in the magnetic doping of semiconductors, for instance GaAs can be doped out of equilibrium with Mn using low-temperature molecular-beam epitaxy Ohno (1998) to yield transition temperatures reported as high as 160 K. Ferromagnetism in these materials is due to the combined action of magnetic ions and a polarized conduction band of itinerant electrons. The magnetic ground state can be complex due to the competition between locally ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic exchange couplings, as well as the positional disorder of dopant atoms Dietl et al. (2001); König et al. (2000); Schliemann and MacDonald (2002); Zaránd and Jankó (2002). Thus, the nature of the ordering process is of fundamental interest.

The clathrate structure is one way to stabilize magnetic ions in group-IV semiconductors. Clathrates Kasper et al. (1965) feature fullerene-type cages in a crystalline framework enclosing electron-donating ions such as Na and Ba. The electron-donors can be balanced by electron-deficient transition-metals substituted onto the framework Cordier and Woll (1991), to produce materials ranging from semiconducting to metallic. This is in contrast to GaAs:Mn, where Mn ions produce strong hole-doping. The open clathrate crystal structure can lead to flat electron band features, and therefore sharp density of states peaks Gryko et al. (1998), which enhance the tendency toward magnetism and superconductivity. In this letter, we describe the magnetism of a dilute magnetic Ge clathrate exhibiting competition between ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic interactions.

Group-IV clathrates have a wide variety of electronic properties. The observations of superconductivity Kawaji et al. (1995) and “electron crystal, phonon glass” behavior Nolas et al. (1998) in Ge and Si clathrates have sparked particular interest. The cages can be vacated, leaving a new elemental form of Si Gryko et al. (2000), and there is a possibility that these materials may grow epitaxially on a diamond substrate Munetoh et al. (2001). Ferromagnetism has been observed in Mn-substituted Ge clathrate Kawaguchi et al. (2000) and in clathrates with Eu ions in the cages Chakoumakos et al. (2001). Here we show that dilute Cu-doped Ge clathrates can exhibit metamagnetism and ferromagnetism, mediated by the conduction electrons.

For sample preparation, ingots of Ba8CuxGe46-x, were induction melted, then reacted for 3 days at $`950^{}`$ C and 4 days at $`700^{}`$ C in evacuated ampoules. Cu substitutes on the 46 site/cell Ge framework in this case Kasper et al. (1965). Diffraction and microprobe analysis Li et al.  have shown that the type-I clathrate of approximate composition Ba8Cu5Ge40 is stabilized by a Zintl mechanism, with vacancies appearing spontaneously to maintain the electron count. By changing the starting material, the Cu content varies over a narrow range. The samples described here, denoted Cu2 and Cu6, had starting compositions $`x`$ = 2 and 6, respectively. Microprobe analysis showed that in the Cu6 sample, the clathrate contains 8% additional Cu. In addition, this sample contains a small amount of Ge3Cu5 phase intermixed with the clathrate, while the Cu2 sample has no other Cu-containing phases Li et al. .

Fig. 1 shows magnetization ($`M`$) curves for the Cu6 sample, obtained using a Quantum Design SQUID magnetometer. Typical ferromagnetic hysteresis is seen at 2 K, going over to a diamagnetic slope at high fields as the ferromagnetic response becomes saturated, showing the underlying diamagnetism of the lattice. At intermediate temperatures the response is metamagnetic, shown in the insets to Fig. 1 as a field-induced transition to ferromagnetic order. The transition is first-order at 60 K, then disappears at higher temperatures.

$`M`$ vs. $`T`$ has been plotted in Fig. 2. In low fields there is a feature at 90 K, associated with an antiferromagnetic transition for the Cu6 sample, since the sample remains diamagnetic below this temperature. The field-cooled (FC) curve has a further cusp at 12 K, associated with a driven ferromagnetic response of the conduction electrons. In larger fields, the 90 K feature becomes less distinct and eventually disappears, as shown for 4 T applied field. A Curie law fits the 4 T data between 55 K and 400 K (solid curve), with $`T_c`$ = 34 K.

The 0.1 T zero-field-cooled (ZFC) and FC data in Fig. 2 show irreversibility below 32 K. Furthermore, the data cross, behavior which has been observed in re-entrant spin glass systems Coles and Roy (1993); Öner et al. (2001), in which a ferromagnetic state disorders at low temperatures due to random antiferromagnetic bonds, and field-alignment locks some regions into reverse-orientation, reducing the net $`M`$.

The Cu2 sample also exhibits low-temperature ferromagnetism. Spontaneous magnetization appears near 10 K, with a saturation moment similar to that of Cu6. However, no metamagnetism was observed for the Cu2 sample, indicating the concentration-dependent nature of this behavior.

Results for Cu6 are summarized in the phase diagram of Fig. 3. Circles are metamagnetic transitions identified from slope changes or jumps in magnetization (Fig. 1). The enclosed phase is antiferromagnetic. The metamagnetic transition changes from second-order to first order between 50 K and 60 K, as seen from the insets to Fig. 1. Thus we have plotted a tri-critical point between these temperatures. The first-order curve ends in a critical point beyond which the paramagnetic state goes continuously into the ferromagnetic state, shown by the unbroken Curie behavior seen in 4 T (Fig. 2). This phase diagram is quite similar to that of NdRu2Ge2 Gignoux and Schmitt (1995). Metamagnetism is not uncommon in such rare-earth intermetallics due to frustrated ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic coupling of rare earth moments, mediated by the conduction electrons. Here the local moments are due to the random distribution of Cu on Ge framework sites in the clathrate.

The square symbols in Fig. 3 identify further slope changes in $`M`$ vs. $`T`$, for example the 4 T data departing from the Curie fit in Fig. 2). At low fields these appear below the metamagnetic line. As shown below, this feature is consistent with the saturation of the band electrons, thus the label $`T_{band}`$.

Since $`M`$ approaches the lattice diamagnetic slope at high fields (Fig. 1), we measured the 400 K response in order to establish this slope, and thus determine the low-temperature saturation moment, $`M_s`$. With an applied field of 7 T, we obtained $`M_s=0.085\mu _B`$ per cell in the Cu6 sample. Since $`M_s=gJ\mu _Bn`$, and the Curie law is $`\chi =n\mu _o\mu _B^2p_{eff}^2/3k(TT_c)`$, the measurements may be used to evaluate $`n`$, the spin density, and $`p_{eff}=g\sqrt{J(J+1)}`$, the local moment. In our case $`J`$ is unknown, however assuming $`J`$ = 1/2, the 4 T Curie fit (Fig. 2) gives $`n`$ = 0.023 per cell and $`p_{eff}=6.2\mu _B`$. Alternatively, $`J`$ = 5/2 gives $`n`$ = 0.011 per cell and $`p_{eff}=9.2\mu _B`$, in either case a dilute set of moments

In type-I Ge clathrates, transition metal atoms generally substitute on the 6$`c`$ crystallographic site, 6 per unit cell among the 46 framework sites Cordier and Woll (1991). Using NMR as a local probe of the Cu sites, we find that the main line consists of non-magnetic Cu in a high-symmetry environment, consistent with occupation of the 6$`c`$ site. The moments of 6.2 or 9.2 $`\mu _B`$ are too large to be single ions, and are presumed associated with composite clusters of neighboring atoms, possibly centered upon wrong-site Cu atoms. Competition between antiferromagnetic superexchange and ferromagnetic double exchange is well known for magnetic semiconductors Dietl et al. (2001); Methfessel and Mattis (1968), and this can explain the metamagnetic behavior observed here: competing internal interactions in the clusters, in addition to the RKKY interaction between clusters, can cause a switching in the magnetic alignment.

63Cu NMR confirms that the dilute magnetism is intrinsic to the clathrate. Data were obtained in a fixed applied field of 9 T. Above 4 K, data were obtained by FFT of small-tip-angle spin echoes, allowing the frequency range to be extended. Fig. 4 shows NMR lineshapes, on a Knight shift ($`K`$) scale based on an aqueous 27AlCl3 reference and published gyromagnetic ratios Carter et al. (1977). The peak near $`K`$ = 0.2% is common to both samples, while Cu6 has an additional lower-$`K`$ peak, changing little with temperature, due to the presence of Ge3Cu5 in that sample. A low-$`K`$ tail was also seen for both samples, as shown in the 4.2 K Cu2 data. This tail can be attributed to nuclei in direct contact with magnetic sites, while the main peak is more characteristic of a non-magnetic metal: Cu metal has $`K`$ = 0.239 % Carter et al. (1977), while the typical range for Cu compounds and nonmagnetic intermetallics is 0 – 0.2 %.

We attributed the low-$`K`$ NMR peak to Ge3Cu5 since it appears only in the Cu6 sample. (Ge3Cu5 is apparently stabilized by the clathrate; attempts to produce this phase alone gave instead a mixture of Ge and orthorhombic GeCu3, with a $`T`$-independent spectrum different from those of Fig. 4.) The higher-$`K`$ peak has the symmetry expected for the nearly-tetrahedral clathrate lattice. The 6$`c`$ site has four identical nearest neighbors, and X-ray diffraction of the Cu clathrate shows the bond angles for this site to be within 0.5 of perfect tetrahedral symmetry Li et al. . The other framework sites also approximate a tetrahedral bonding configuration, but with somewhat more distorted bond angles and crystallographically inequivalent neighbors. For the 6$`c`$ site, we expect small electric field gradients and small electric quadrupole splittings in 63Cu NMR, while lower symmetry gives typically a central transition flanked by quadrupole-split satellites. The matrix elements determining the NMR pulse angles differ by a factor of two for these cases Kanert and Mehring (1971). Our investigation of the pulse response showed that the lower-$`K`$ Cu6 line is a central transition, corresponding to a lower-symmetry environment in the unknown Ge3Cu5 material. The other Cu6 line, and the corresponding line in Cu2, has little or no quadrupole splitting, characteristic of a high-symmetry environment, consistent with its assignment to Cu occupying the 6$`c`$ site of the clathrate framework.

Fig. 5 shows $`K`$ vs. $`T`$, with points representing lineshape maxima. For the clathrate 6$`c`$-line in both samples, $`K`$ increases at low $`T`$. This increase is most prominent for the range 60 – 90 K in Cu6, and we also observed a warming/cooling hysteresis between 77 K and 90 K. Extrapolating the curve $`T_{band}`$ (Fig. 3) to the 9 T field of the NMR spectrometer, we see that changes in $`K`$ occur over the range where the band moment is expected to be changing most rapidly. Thus, the 6$`c`$ resonance exhibits changes that correspond to changes in the magnetism, which we confirm to be intrinsic to the clathrate.

The NMR spin-lattice relaxation time, $`T_1`$, follows a Korringa law in both samples, indicating the presence of a metallic conduction band. $`T_1`$ was obtained by inversion-recovery, with a fit to a single exponential recovery curve for the 6$`c`$ site, appropriate for cases with no quadrupole splitting Kanert and Mehring (1971). The product $`K^2T_1T`$ is shown in the inset of Fig. 5. For both samples, $`K^2T_1T`$ is nearly constant above 90 K, characteristic of relaxation by a metallic band Carter et al. (1977). The increase in $`K^2T_1T`$ at low temperatures is due almost entirely to changes in $`K`$. $`K^2T_1T`$ values are smaller than that expected for the bare nucleus, $`3.8\mu `$s K, which can come about if the Knight shift is a difference of terms, with the negative contribution due to core polarization, for which the hyperfine coupling is negative Carter et al. (1977). This indicates a contribution of Cu $`d`$-electrons to the conduction band. However, the fact that the $`T_1`$ change is much smaller than that of $`K`$ indicates that many of the carriers are unaffected by the transition, probably due to multiple bands crossing the Fermi surface Gryko et al. (1998).

The low-$`T`$ increase in $`K`$ is consistent with a band polarized in the opposite sense to the local moments, assuming that the shift is dominated by core polarization, which has negative hyperfine coupling for Cu. Using the coupling constant $`H^{cp}=`$12.5 T Carter et al. (1977), the low-temperature change in $`K`$, +0.073 % for Cu6, corresponds to a saturated conduction-band magnetization $`M=0.0032\mu _B`$ per cell. In this calculation we assumed the band magnetization to be distributed equally among the 46 framework sites. If we also approximate by assuming that this magnetization is linear in the defect magnetization, we can use the mean-field transition temperature calculated for conduction-band-coupled localized moments Jungwirth et al. (2002):

$$k_BT_c=\frac{np_{eff}J_{int}^2\chi }{4\pi (g^{}\mu _B)^2}.$$
(1)
Here $`J_{int}`$ is the coefficient of a delta-function interaction between the local moments and the band, $`\chi `$ is the band susceptibility, and $`g^{}`$ its g-factor. Assuming the conduction electrons are uniformly polarized by the effective Zeeman field corresponding to $`J_{int}`$, we can write $`M=\chi nJgJ_{int}/(\mu _og^{}\mu _B)`$ for the band magnetization which we evaluated using the Knight shift. Using $`J`$ = 5/2, $`n`$ = 1.1%, and $`p_{eff}=9.2`$ as extracted above, $`g^{}`$=2, and $`T_c`$=12 K, we obtain $`J_{int}`$=0.27 eV nm3 and $`\chi =1.4\times 10^5`$ (SI dimensionless). These are plausible values; $`J_{pd}`$ = 0.055 eV nm3 was obtained for Mn in GaAs Jungwirth et al. (2002), while the $`\chi `$ we obtain is about one-fifth that of copper metal Carter et al. (1977).

Since the susceptibility is in the metallic range, and the magnetic defects well separated, one might expect that spin glass ordering would result from the oscillatory RKKY interaction. However, the clathrate structure can lead to large band masses and sharp electron density of states features Gryko et al. (1998), which may enlarge the oscillation period simply by the decrease of the Fermi wavevector, or possibly by enhancing the response for $`k`$ = 0 in the sense of a paramagnon system Moriya (1985). These features could make related clathrate systems useful for future spin-related applications.

Thus, we have shown that the Cu-doped Ge clathrate can exhibit a rich magnetic structure, including an antiferromagnetic phase which features a metamagnetic transition to the ground-state ferromagnetic configuration. NMR measurements confirmed this behavior to be due to a dilute set of magnetic clusters, coupled via the conduction-band electrons.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported by the Robert A. Welch Foundation, Grant No. A-1526, and by Texas A&M University through the Telecommunications and Informatics Task Force.