text:
# Clustered States as a New Paradigm of Condensed Matter Physics

## 1 Introduction

In this paper it is argued that the recent trends unveiled in the context of manganites regarding the key role of inhomogeneities to explain the colossal magnetoresistance effect can be applied to a variety of other compounds as well. Notably, evidence is rapidly accumulating that underdoped high temperature superconductors are also inhomogeneous at the nanoscale, and theoretical approximations that assume homogeneous states are questionable. It is still unclear if the inhomogeneities have stripe features, as discussed extensively in previous years, or whether they correspond to more randomly shaped clusters, as assumed in the manganite context. Also the origin of these inhomogeneities is much debated. Computational simulations will play a key role in determining the properties of models for manganites and cuprates, since percolative clustered physics is difficult to handle with other methods. Even more recently, clustered states have also been discussed in a very unexpected context, the diluted magnetic semiconductors Mn-doped GaAs. These materials have considerable potential applications in spintronic devices and understanding their behavior may raise their current critical temperatures. In this publication, the three family of materials are briefly discussed and some key references provided such that the reader can appreciate the common trends between the many compounds. These quite unexpected similarities between apparently very different materials promises to lead to a global unified view, where clustered states become a new paradigm of condensed matter physics.

## 2 Manganites

Manganites are currently attracting considerable attention mainly due to the presence of the colossal magnetoresistance effect in magnetotransport measurementsreview , book . In addition, these materials have a complex phase diagram with a plethora of ordered phases, a characteristic of correlated electron systems. A variety of experimental and theoretical investigations have unveiled the inhomogeneous character of the states of relevance to explain the CMR phenomenon, with a competition between ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic states that induces coexistence of clusters at the nanometer-scale book .

To understand this phenomenon, and its associated CMR effect, the first-order transitions that separate the metallic and insulating phases in the clean limit (i.e. without disorder) play a key role book , review . The first-order character of the transition is caused by the different magnetic and charge orders of the competing states. The clean-limit phase diagram is illustrated in Fig. 1 (upper panel). When quenched disorder is introduced in the coupling or density that is modified to change from one phase to the other, the temperature where the Néel and Curie temperatures meet is reduced in value and eventually collapses to zero as in Fig. 1 (middle panel). Further increasing the disorder strength, a spin glassy disordered region appears at low temperatures involving coexisting clusters (Fig. 1 (lower panel)). Simulations by Burgy et al. burgy  have shown that the clustered state between the Curie temperature and the clean-limit critical temperature ($`T^{}`$), with preformed ferromagnetic regions of random orientations, has a huge magnetoresistance since small fields can easily align the moments of the ferromagnetic islands, leading to a percolative conductor in agreement with experimentsfath . This establishes qualitative similarities with “Giant MR” (GMR) multilayered materials, as sketched in Fig.2. The quenched disorder simply triggers the stabilization of the cluster formation, but phase competition is the main driving force of the mixed state. Elastic deformations may also play a key role in this contextbishop . We refer the reader to the literature cited here, and references therein, for a more detailed view of this exciting area of investigations. The readers can also consult a list of “open problems” in the manganite context that has been recently providedrecent .

## 3 High temperature superconductors

The results obtained for manganites are not crucially dependent on the nature of the two competing phases. The argumentation should be valid in the context of high temperature superconductors (HTS) as well, where an antiferromagnetic (AF) insulator (probably with stripes) competes with a $`d`$-wave superconductor (dSC). In the clean-limit, difficult to obtain with the standard chemical doping, the *conjecture* is that the two phases would have been separated by a line of first-order transitions as shown in Fig. 3. The inevitable disorder of the chemical doping procedure opens a window, and in this context the glassy state that separates the insulator from the superconductor is made up of small clusters of the two competing phasesburgy , kivelson  very different from the homogeneous exotic states proposed for that regime.

First-order transitions AF-dSC have already appeared in electron doped materialsharima , and they are also common in heavy-fermion and inorganic superconductor contexts.

Considering the general character of the discussion here, there should be an analog of the colossal effects in cuprates as well. In fact, colossal effects should be ubiquitous when ordered phases compete. A possible manifestation of this effect could be the “Giant Proximity Effect” recently discussed decca  with uncorrelated preformed SC clusters – in the sense that their phases in the order parameter are random – percolating under the influence of nearby superconducting materials and leading to a strong Josephson coupling across the originally non-superconducting sample.

These conjectured results for cuprates, where inhomogeneities play a key role, are in excellent agreement with the most exciting recent experimental developments in the high-Tc arena, namely the scanning tunneling microscopy experiments that unveiled the clustered nature of these materials at the nanoscale.davis

## 4 Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors

Diluted magnetic semiconductors (DMS) are attracting much attention lately due to their potential for device applications in the growing field of spintronics. In particular, a large number of DMS studies have focused on III-V compounds where Mn doping in InAs and GaAs has been achieved using molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) techniques. The main result of recent experimental efforts is the discoveryohno1 , katsumoto , potashnik  of ferromagnetism at a Curie temperature $`T_\mathrm{C}`$$``$110 K in Ga1-xMnxAs, with Mn concentrations $`x`$ up to 10%. It is widely believed that this ferromagnetism is “carrier induced”, with holes donated by Mn ions mediating a ferromagnetic interaction between the randomly localized Mn2+ spins. In practice, anti-site defects reduce the number of holes $`n`$ from its ideal value $`n`$=$`x`$, leading to a ratio $`p`$=$`(n/x)`$ substantially smaller than one.

In this section, generic Monte Carlo (MC) studies of a diluted Kondo lattice model for DMS are summarized. paper1 , paper0 , paper2  Further information can be obtained from the cited references. The Hamiltonian is similar to those employed in the Mn-oxide context, namely

$$\widehat{H}=t\underset{<ij>,\sigma }{}\widehat{c}_{i\sigma }^{}\widehat{c}_{j\sigma }+J\underset{I}{}\stackrel{}{S}_I\stackrel{}{\sigma }_I,$$
(1)
where $`\widehat{c}_{i\sigma }^{}`$ creates a hole at site $`i`$ with spin $`\sigma `$, and the hole spin operator interacting antiferromagnetically with the localized Mn-spin $`\stackrel{}{S}_I`$ is $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }_I=\widehat{c}_{I\alpha }^{}\stackrel{}{\sigma }_{\alpha ,\beta }\widehat{c}_{I\beta }`$. The carrier can visit $`any`$ site of the lattice. The interaction term is restricted to randomly selected sites, $`I`$, with a $`S`$=5/2 Mn-moment. These spins are here considered classical with $`|\stackrel{}{S}_I|`$=1, as widely assumed, allowing for a MC simulation technically similarly as in manganitesreview , book . Approximations include the neglect of on-site Coulomb repulsion $`U`$, valid at small $`x`$ and $`p`$ where double occupancy is unlikely even at $`J/t`$=0. In addition, Mn-oxides investigations book  show that an intermediate or large $`J/t`$ plays a role analogous to a Hubbard $`U/t`$ at any $`x`$ review . At low $`x`$, the probability of nearest-neighbors (NN) Mn-spins is also low (0.0625 at $`x`$=0.25), justifying the neglect of an anti-ferromagnetic (AF) Mn-Mn coupling. The hole motion is described by a one-band tight-binding model, while many bands may be necessary macdonald . Despite this simplification, our model contains spins and holes in interaction and it is expected to capture the main qualitative aspects of carrier-induced ferromagnetism in DMS materials. Our effort builds upon previous important DMS theoretical studies theory , paper0 . However, it differs from previous approaches in important qualitative aspects as explained in Ref. paper1 .

One of the most important observations in the study of Eq. (1) reported in paper1 , is the non-trivial dependence of $`T_\mathrm{C}`$ with coupling, $`J/t`$. For $`J/t`$$``$$`\mathrm{}`$ and a Mn dilute system, the holes are trapped in Mn-sites, reducing drastically $`T_\mathrm{C}`$. Small FM clusters of spins are formed at a temperature scale $`T^{}`$, but there is no correlation between them, leading to a global vanishing magnetization paper0 . On the other hand, when $`J/t=0`$ the system is non-interacting. Since both in the $`J/t`$$``$0 and $`J/t`$=$`\mathrm{}`$ limits $`T_\mathrm{C}`$ is suppressed, an optimal $`J/t|_{opt}`$ must exist where $`T_\mathrm{C}`$ is maximized. This can be seen in Fig.4a-b.paper1

The ($`x`$,$`p`$) dependence of $`T_\mathrm{C}`$ is shown in Fig. 4c, assuming $`t=0.3`$eV.paper1  In this figure, the best value of $`T_\mathrm{C}`$ achieved experimentally for GaMnAs is also indicated approximately. Note that increasing $`x`$ beyond the experimental value of 0.1 would significantly increase $`T_\mathrm{C}`$. At $`J/t|_{opt}`$, the best value is $`x`$$``$0.25, but room-$`T`$ ferromagnetism would be possible even with $`x`$$``$0.15. An increase of $`T_\mathrm{C}`$ could also be achieved if the compensation could be decreased; in the optimal case the best value would be close to $`p=0.5`$. These predictions seem in agreement with experimental developments since very recently Ga1-xMnxAs samples with $`T_\mathrm{C}`$ as high as $`150`$ K were prepared,ku  a result believed to be caused by an enhanced free-hole density.

Dynamical and transport properties have also been calculated for the model presented here paper2 . Of special importance is the conductance, $`G`$, which is calculated using the Kubo formula adapted to geometries usually employed in the context of mesoscopic systems.verges  The cluster is considered to be connected by ideal contacts to two semi-infinite ideal leads, as represented in Fig. 5a. In Fig. 5b the inverse of the conductance, which is a measure of the resistivity, is plotted for a three-dimensional lattice at weak, intermediate, and strong coupling, at fixed $`x`$=$`0.25`$ and $`p`$=$`0.3`$. For the weak coupling regime ($`J/t`$=$`1.0`$) the system is weakly metallic at all temperatures. In the other limit of strong couplings, $`1/G`$ – proportional to the resistivity $`\rho `$ – decreases with increasing temperature, indicating a clear insulating phase, as a result of the system being in a clustered state at the temperatures explored,paper0 , paper1  with carriers localized near the Mn spins. At the important intermediate couplings emphasized in our effort, the system behaves like a dirty metal for $`T<T_\mathrm{C}`$, while for $`T_\mathrm{C}<T<T^{}`$, $`1/G`$ slightly decreases with increasing temperature, indicating that a soft metal to insulator transition takes place near $`T_\mathrm{C}`$. For $`T>T^{}`$, where the system is paramagnetic, $`1/G`$ is almost constant. Note that for strong enough $`J/t`$, $`T_\mathrm{C}0`$ and therefore no metallic phase is present.

It is interesting to compare these numerical results with experiments. For Ga1-xMnxAs, data similar to those found in our investigations have been reported.katsumoto , ohno1 , potashnik  The qualitative behavior of the resistivity in these samples agrees well with the theoretical results presented in Fig. 5b if intermediate couplings are considered.

The clustered state that forms just above $`T_\mathrm{C}`$ is a candidate to describe DMS materials since it explains both the resistivity maximum around $`T_\mathrm{C}`$, as well as the decrease in resistivity with increasing applied magnetic field. In addition, it provides an optimal $`T_\mathrm{C}`$. This clustered state could be unveiled using scanning tunneling microscopy techniques.

Recent experimental work on (Ga,Cr)As have revealed unusual magnetic properties which were associated with the random magnetism of the alloy. The authors of Ref. dakhama  explained their results using a distributed magnetic polaron model, that resembles the clustered-state ideas discussed here and in Refs. paper1 , timm . The present simulations unveils a *previously unknown similarity between DMS materials and transition metal oxides*, since both have regimes where clustered states dominate. This analogy deserves further work.

## 5 Conclusions

The information provided here is indicative of the key role that inhomogeneous clustered states play in many materials. Their existence leads to quite nontrivial results. The colossal magnetoresistance effect appears to be linked to their presence. Giant proximity effects in cuprates may have a similar origin. The physics of important materials for applications such as diluted magnetic semiconductors may share a similar phenomenology, including a large magnetoresistance. This field is at an early stage in its development, which will need a coordinated effort between theorists – mainly those with expertise in simulations – and experimentalists. The study of clustered states is rapidly developing into one of the most active areas of present day condensed matter physics.

Work supported by NSF grant DMR-0122523.


format: text

text:
# Acknowledgments

## Acknowledgments

I am grateful for informative conversations on the expected advances of neutrino astrophysics with A. Capone and T. Piran.


text:
# Accuracy of circular polarization as a measure of spin polarization in quantum dot qubits

## Abstract

A quantum dot spin LED provides a test of carrier spin injection into a qubit, as well as a means of analyzing carrier spin injection in general and local spin polarization. The polarization of the observed light is, however, significantly influenced by the dot geometry so the spin may be more polarized than the emitted light would naively suggest. We have calculated carrier polarization-dependent optical matrix elements using 8-band strain-dependent $`𝐤𝐩`$ theory for InAs/GaAs self-assembled quantum dots (SAQDs) for electron and hole spin injection into a range of quantum dot sizes and shapes, and for arbitrary emission directions. The observed circular polarization does not depend on whether the injected spin-polarized carriers are electrons or holes, but is strongly influenced by the SAQD geometry and emission direction. Calculations for typical SAQD geometries with emission along $`[110]`$ show light that is only 5 % circularly polarized for spin states that are 100% polarized along $`[110]`$. Therefore observed polarizationsChye et al. (2992) of 1% imply a spin polarization within the dot of 20%. We also find that measuring along the growth direction gives near unity conversion of spin to photon polarization, and is the least sensitive to uncertainties in SAQD geometry.

There are several proposals for constructing a quantum bit using a spin confined to a quantum dotLoss and DiVincenzo (1998); Burkard et al. (1999); Imamoglu et al. (1999); Levy (2002). One method of initializing such a quantum bit is to electrically inject spin polarized carriers into the quantum dot. Towards this end, recent experimentsChye et al. (2992) have demonstrated a spin light emitting diode (spin-LED) in which spin polarized carriers are injected into and recombine within InAs/GaAs self-assembled quantum dots (SAQDs). The emitted light is partially circularly polarized, with the degree of polarization providing a measure of the spin in the SAQDs. Besides its application to physical quantum bits, such a system provides information about spin transport and relaxation within the structure as a whole, which is important for the development of spin-based electronics (spintronics)Prinz (1995); Wolf et al. (2001). Spin-LEDs have also been made using quantum wells for the recombination Ohno et al. (1999); Young et al. (2002); Johnston-Halperin et al. (2002); Kohda et al. (2001). The conversion of electron spin to photon polarization is filtered through the selection rules associated with the quantum well or dot. The selection rules for quantum wells are already controversial, and essentially nothing is known about the selection rules for circular polarization in SAQDs. These can be complicated due to the presence of strain and uncertain geometry in SAQDs. In ref. Chye et al. (2992), spin polarized electrons or holes were injected along the $`[001]`$ growth direction from a (Ga,Mn)As layer that was spin polarized along $`[110]`$. The light emitted along the $`[110]`$ direction was found to be only $`1\%`$ circularly polarized, suggesting a small spin polarization within the SAQD. However, due the selection rule uncertainty, a small photon polarization does not necessarily mean that the spin polarization within the SAQD was small.

In this letter we present calculations of the circular polarization dependence of dipole recombination of spin polarized states within a self-assembled InAs/GaAs quantum dot. This gives a measure of the efficiency with which spin polarized SAQD states are converted into circularly polarized photons. The calculations are done for a range of sizes, and shapes. The polarization is independent of whether the injected spin polarized carriers are electrons or holes. We find, however, that the SAQD geometry and emission direction strongly influence the observed circular polarization which varies from 0 to $`20\%`$ (for 100% polarized carriers). For lens a shaped SAQD there is a nonzero polarization for directions perpendicular to the growth direction only if the SAQD is elongated so as to break azimuthal symmetry. We also show that measuring along the growth direction gives near unity conversion of spin to photon polarization, and is the least sensitive to uncertainties in SAQD geometry.

We consider the situation in which the electron spin is polarized along a direction $`d`$ and the emitted light is observed along the same direction. The emitted light is characterized by its degree of polarization defined by

$`P_d={\displaystyle \frac{(I_d^+I_d^{})}{(I_d^++I_d^{})}}`$ (1)
where $`I_d^\pm `$ is the intensity of light with $`\pm `$ helicity. The InAs SAQD is taken to be an ellipsoidal cap, ellongated along $`[110]`$ and surrounded by GaAs (Fig. 1). More specifically, the geometry is determined by

$`e(\widehat{x}_{[110]}\stackrel{}{x})^2+(\widehat{x}_{[1\overline{1}0]}\stackrel{}{x})^2/e+(\widehat{x}_{001}\stackrel{}{x})^2=r^2`$ (2)
where $`\widehat{x}_d`$ is a unit vector along the direction $`d`$, $`e`$ is the elongation, and $`r`$ is a scale determining the overall size of the SAQD. The ellipsoid is sliced along a $`(001)`$ plane, giving the cap shown in Fig. 1. To account for variations and uncertainties in dot geometries, we consider a range of dot shapes, parameterized by the height $`h`$, the elongation $`e`$, and the width-to-heigth ratio $`w`$,

$`h`$ $`=`$ $`1.7\mathrm{nm},2.3\mathrm{nm},2.8\mathrm{nm}`$ (3)
$`e`$ $`=`$ $`d_{[110]}/d_{1\overline{1}0}=1.0,1.2,1.4`$ (4)
$`w`$ $`=`$ $`(d_{[110]}+d_{1\overline{1}0})/h=12,16,20`$ (5)
where $`d_{[110]}`$ and $`d_{1\overline{1}0}`$ are the major axes along the indicated directions. We do not explicitly include composition gradients in the SAQDKegel et al. (2000). However, $`h`$ may be regarded as an effective height after such effects are factored in.

Ground state electron and hole wave functions were calculated using 8-band strain-dependent $`\mathrm{k}\mathrm{p}`$ theory in the envelope approximation, by a method that has been described previously Pryor et al. (1997); Pryor (1998). The grid spacing for the computation was set to the unstrained lattice constant of GaAs. Since strain and confinement split the HH/LH degeneracy, all levels are doubly degenerate, with states that may be denoted $`|\psi `$ and $`T|\psi `$, which are time-reverses of each other. Because the wave functions were computed with a spin-independent Hamiltonian, the state $`|\psi `$ has a random spin orientation. Spin polarized states were constructed by taking a linear combination of the states comprising the doublet, and adjusting the coefficient so as to maximize the expectation value of the pseudospin operator projected onto a direction $`d`$. That is, we find the complex number $`a`$ that maximizes

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\left[\psi |+a^{}\psi |T\right]\widehat{d}\stackrel{}{S}\left[|\psi +aT|\psi \right]}{(1+|a|^2)}}.`$ (6)
The pseudospin operator in the 8-band model is given by

$`\stackrel{}{S}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\stackrel{}{\sigma }_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_6}& 0& 0\\ 0& \stackrel{}{J}_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_8}& 0\\ 0& 0& \stackrel{}{\sigma }_{\mathrm{\Gamma }_7}\end{array}\right)`$ (7)
where $`\stackrel{}{\sigma }`$ and $`\stackrel{}{J}`$ are the spin-1/2 and spin-3/2 angular momentum operators respectively.

For spin-polarized electrons and unpolarized holes, the intensity for emission of circularly polarized light is given by

$$I_d^\pm =|\psi _v|ϵ_d^\pm 𝐏|\psi _c|^2+|\psi _v|Tϵ_d^\pm 𝐏|\psi _c|^2$$
(8)
where $`|psi_v`$ and $`|psi_c`$ are the conduction and valence states with spin oriented alon $`𝐝`$, and $`ϵ_𝐝^\pm `$ is the circular polarization vector for $`\pm `$ helicity with propagation along the direction $`d`$. The corresponding expression for spin polarized holes and unpolarized electrons is

$$I_d^\pm =|\psi _v|ϵ_d^\pm 𝐏|\psi _c|^2+|\psi _v|ϵ_d^\pm 𝐏T|\psi _c|^2.$$
(9)
However, since $`T`$ and $`𝐏`$ anticommute, equations 8 and 9 give identical results .

We first consider the case where the spins are polarized along $`[110]`$. Fig. 2a shows the polarization for the $`[110]`$ direction, $`P_{[110]}`$, as a function of dot geomety, which is parameterized by the elongation $`e`$, the height $`h`$, and the bandgap $`E_g`$. Rather than expressing results in terms of the width-to-heigth ratio $`w`$, we have linearly interpolated the final results between values of $`w`$ so as to obtain $`P_d`$ at convenient values of $`E_g`$.

For axially symmetric dots ($`e=1`$) the polarization is zero, but increases as the dots become more elongated. The polarization also increases with increasing $`E_g`$ with all other parameters held fixed. Finally, for a fixed elongation and fixed band gap, shorter dots have a larger polarization. Taken together, these indicate a general trend that the larger deviations from spherical symmetry result in larger polarization, whether comparing dimensions in the $`[110]`$ vs $`[1\overline{1}0]`$ or $`[001]`$ vs $`[110]`$.

The magnitude of the polarization is of great interest, since the experimentally observed polarizations were only on the order of 1%. For the geometries considered, we find $`P_{[110]}23\%`$. Assuming nominal values $`e=1.2`$, $`h=2.3`$, and $`E_g=1.25\mathrm{eV}`$ Fig. 2 shows that for 100% polarized carriers, the light should be 5% circular polarized. From this value of 0.05 for the conversion efficiency, we can infer that the observed $`1\%`$ circular polarization Chye et al. (2992) was generated by carriers that were $`1/0.05\%=20\%`$ polarized.

Fig. 2b gives the polarization as a function of bandgap, showing the trend of increasing polarization with bandgap. The results of Fig. 2b disagree with the measurementsChye et al. (2992) which show $`P`$ independent of $`E_g`$ for polarized electrons, and decreasing with increasing $`E_g`$ for polarized holes. One possibility is that the polarized hole sample had growth conditions resulting in SAQDs with a size-dependent elongation. Another likely scenario is that the dynamics of hole relaxation into the SAQD are such that spin relaxation is stronger in smaller dots.

To further examine the polarization efficiency, we performed a second series of calculations in which $`P_d`$ was computed as a function of the direction for a single dot geometry. Fig. 3 shows the polarization as a function of the direction $`d`$ for a SAQD. The maximum polarization is obtained along the growth direction, with $`P_{[001]}0.98`$. $`P_d`$ is substantially smaller along $`[110]`$ and $`[1\overline{1}0]`$, and zero for $`[100]`$ and $`[010]`$. While clearly $`[001]`$ is optimal, if one is restricted to the plane perpendicular to the growth direction, then $`[110]`$ is the best choice, while $`[100]`$ and $`[010]`$ are the worst. It is important to note that the photon polarization is a result of SAQD geometry and strain, and not a crystallographic effect. $`[110]`$ is singled out because the SAQD is elongated in that direction. Therefore, growth on a different substrate with different orientation will not remedy the poor spin conversion efficiency.

Besides the larger polarization, $`[001]`$ has other advantages. For the SAQDs considered, $`P_{[001]}1`$ to within a few percent, in contrast to the large variation with geometry seen for $`P_{[110]}`$ and $`P_{[1\overline{1}0]}`$. Thus, measuring along $`[001]`$ decreases the uncertainties due to the large uncertainties in SAQD geometry. Also, because the observed light must be collected within some solid angle, some of the emission will come from directions for which $`P_d`$ is smaller than the nominal direction. From Fig. 3 we see that $`[001]`$ has the advantage of having less curvature, thus decreasing effects from a non-zero collection angle.

We have shown that recombination of spin polarized carriers in InAs/GaAs SAQDs results in only modest polarization of the light emitted perpendicular to the growth direction. The light obtains a circular polarization only for dots that are elongated so as to break azimuthal symmetry. These results explain the small polarization seen in recent experiments Chye et al. (2992) and imply that the spin polarization of the carriers in the SAQDs in Chye et al. (2992) was $`20\%`$. Measurement along $`[001]`$ gives the most efficient conversion of spin to photon polarization. Finally, we have determined that measurements done along the $`[001]`$ direction will be less susceptible to uncertainties and variation in dot geometry, and from effects due to light being collected from a non-zero solid angle. The implications of these features for a particular SAQD qubit will depend on the details of the implementation. However, the anisotropy shown Fig. 3 indicates that a SAQD differs significantly from an ideal isolated spin, and any qubit design must take this into account.

This work was supported by the Army Research Office MURI DAAD19-01-1-0541


text:
# Chaos assisted instanton tunneling in one dimensional perturbed periodic potential

## I Introduction

Tunneling as inherently quantum phenomenon attracts much attention tunneling . Its connection with classical chaos in semiclassical regime has also been discussed GeneralChaos ; GeneralChaos2 . A number of works were devoted to semiclassical chaos assisted tunneling between symmetry related KAM-tori in systems with mixed dynamics (well developed chaotic region coexists in phase space with regular islands) CAT ; CAT2 ; CAT3 . To describe chaos assisted tunneling in systems with mixed dynamics multi-level model Hamiltonian, primarily proposed in GeneralChaos , is often used Example . Less attention has been payed to semiclassical tunneling in KAM systems (chaotic region is not widespread) Chemistry . Another way to describe semiclassical tunneling is based on solutions of Hamilton equations in imaginary time and path integral formalism tunneling . Instanton technique BPST  was used in a very few works InsCh .

In this work we consider one-dimensional quantum system with periodic in space potential affected by small periodic in time perturbation. We use methods created to describe chaos in classical Hamiltonian systems to investigate essentially quantum phenomenon of tunneling. It is achieved in the framework of instanton technique, where solutions of Euclidian equations of motion (instantons) play dominating role, by the use of standard methods from the viewpoint of chaos Chaos . For the systems with periodic in time perturbation energy is no more an exact integral of motion and the language of quasi-energies is more adequate Floquet . For some estimations energy as an adiabatic invariant can also be used Sagdeev . We study properties of chaotic instanton solutions and calculate the form of the spectrum and the lower bound for the width of the ground quasi-energy zone.

Hamiltonian of the system under consideration is taken in the form

$$\stackrel{~}{H}=\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{p}^2+\omega _0^2\mathrm{cos}xϵx\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{+\mathrm{}}{}}\delta (tn\stackrel{~}{T}),$$
(1)
$`\stackrel{~}{T}`$ is the real time period of perturbation, $`ϵ`$ describes the strength of perturbation. The mass of the particle equals unit. Considered cosine potential corresponds nonlinear oscillator. Phase space of nonlinear oscillator has the topology of cylinder (points $`(q,\stackrel{~}{p})`$ and $`(q+2\pi ,\stackrel{~}{p})`$ are identified). Thus its (quasi-)energy spectrum is discrete. Chaos assisted tunneling between two major resonance islands (inside single potential well) for driven nonlinear oscillator has been studied numerically in CAT . In this work we study the system with $`x`$ varying from $`\mathrm{}`$ to $`+\mathrm{}`$. This results in band structure of the (quasi-)energy spectrum Bloch . Systems with spatially periodic potential were studied in the instanton physics Rajar . Perturbation used in (1) was exploited in the systems exhibiting quantum chaos Zaslavsky ; Physica .

There are papers devoted chaos assisted tunneling where some analytical predictions for billiard systems basing on the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics are made GeneralChaos2 . Distinguishing feature of our work is analytical predictions for the system with smooth potential exploring for this purpose instanton technique adopted from quantum field theory BPST .

## II Analysis of chaotic instanton solutions

For applying instanton technique we consider solutions of classical equations of motion in imaginary (Euclidian) time. Hamiltonian (1) has the same form (translated on $`\pi `$) in Euclidian time as in real one.

Euclidian Hamiltonian of the system is $`H=H_0+V`$, where

$$H_0=\frac{1}{2}p^2\omega _0^2\mathrm{cos}x,$$
(2)
and

$$V=\alpha Tx\underset{n=\mathrm{}}{\overset{+\mathrm{}}{}}\delta (\tau nT).$$
(3)
Here $`H_0`$ is nonperturbed Euclidian Hamiltonian of the system and $`V`$ is the Euclidian potential of the perturbation. We also introduced coupling constant $`\alpha 1`$ instead of $`ϵ\alpha T`$ in order to simplify formulas.

Nonperturbed instanton solution describes the motion on the separatrix of the Hamiltonian (2). It is well known that this separatrix is destroyed by any periodic perturbation and on its place stochastic layer is appeared Sagdeev . Perturbed instanton solutions correspond to the motion in vicinity of the separatrix inside the layer. Therefore instead of one instanton solution connecting neighbor maxima of nonperturbed Euclidian potential (classical vacuum states in real time potential) we obtain a manyfold of instanton solutions of Euclidian equations placed inside the stochastic layer.

We calculate parameter of local instability, width of stochastic layer and correlator for perturbed instanton solutions. It is convenient to describe dynamics of the system in action-angle variables Chaos . Equation of motion for action variable has the form

$$\dot{I}=\frac{\alpha \dot{x}}{\omega }\left(2\underset{m=1}{\overset{+\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{cos}(m\nu \tau )+1\right).$$
(4)
Here $`\omega (I)dH_0/dI`$ is the nonlinear frequency Chaos . Instead of angle variable we introduce phase of external force $`\psi `$ defined by the relation $`\dot{\psi }=\nu 2\pi /T`$ Sagdeev . Let $`H_s\omega _0^2`$ to denote the energy of nonperturbed system on the separatrix. Continuous equations of motion for $`I`$ and $`\psi `$ can be reduced to discrete mapping for the phase of external force in the vicinity of separatrix ($`|HH_s|1`$Sagdeev ; Zaslavsky ; Physica

$$\psi _{n+1}=\psi _n+B_n+K_0\mathrm{sin}\psi _n,$$
(5)
where

$$K_0=\frac{8\pi \alpha \nu }{\omega _0}\frac{e^{\pi \nu /2\omega _0}}{|HH_s|},$$

$`B_n`$ are some functions of $`H`$ which exact form is not essential for our purposes. We assume following Sagdeev  that due to small value of perturbation the energy practically does not change with time and equals the energy of the nonperturbed system. The map (5) with arbitrary parameter $`K_0`$ was studied by many authors, for instance Zaslavsky . Particulary, it is known that at $`K_0>1`$ motion is locally unstable and chaotic, whereas at $`K_01`$ it is stable and regular. Thus $`K_0`$ is the parameter of local instability. Condition $`K_01`$ enables us to calculate the width of stochastic layer

$$|H_sH_b|=\frac{8\pi \alpha \nu }{\omega _0}e^{\pi \nu /2\omega _0},$$
(6)
here $`H_b`$ is the energy value on the bound of stochastic layer.

To calculate correlator for perturbed instanton solutions we use standard technique Corr . For the map (5) correlator is

$`R(\tau ,\tau _0)`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi }}{\displaystyle _0^{2\pi }}𝑑\psi _0\mathrm{exp}\{i(\psi (\tau )\psi _0)\}`$ (7)
$`\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\tau \tau _0}{\tau _R}}\right),`$
here $`\psi _0\psi (\tau _0)`$ and the time of correlations decay is $`\tau _R=2\pi /(\omega \mathrm{ln}K_0)`$. Exponential decrease of correlator shows that dynamics of the instanton solutions inside the stochastic layer ($`K_0>1`$) possesses the property of mixing (chaos) Chaos .

Note that perturbed one-instanton solution due to stochastic layer connects not only neighbor vacua of real time potential but also two arbitrary chosen vacua. Remind that to describe tunneling between non-neighbor vacua of nonperturbed system one has to take into account contribution of multi-instanton configurations Rajar .

## III The calculation of the tunneling amplitude and ground zone width

Let us consider the tunneling between neighbor vacua (from $`x\pi `$ to $`x\pi `$ for distinctness) in presence of perturbation (3). In Euclidian time this tunneling process for the nonperturbed system is described by the solution of Euclidian equations of motion with asymptotes $`x=\pi ,p=0`$ at $`\tau =\mathrm{}`$ and $`x=\pi ,p=0`$ at $`\tau =+\mathrm{}`$. There is only one solution satisfying these conditions for nonperturbed system (2) (one-instanton solution)

$$x_0^{inst}(\tau \tau _0)=\pi +4\mathrm{arctan}e^{\omega _0(\tau \tau _0)}.$$
(8)
Its Euclidian action is $`S^{inst}=8\omega _0`$. The instanton’s position is denoted by $`\tau _0`$. Due to Euclidian equations of motion and anti-symmetry of $`x_0^{inst}`$ when time is inverted with respect to the point $`\tau _0`$ perturbation (3) does not change the Euclidian action of the one-instanton solution (8) in the first order on the coupling constant $`S_{pert}^{inst}=S^{inst}+O(\alpha ^2)`$. The only manifestation of the perturbation in this approximation is the appearance of a number of the additional solutions of Euclidian equations of motion with energies close to the energy of nonperturbed one-instanton solution and placed inside the stochastic layer.

Let us consider firstly nonperturbed system at arbitrary energy $`\omega _0^2+\epsilon ,0<\epsilon <2\omega _0^2`$. One half of truncated instanton action can be easily calculated

$$S[x^{inst}(\tau ,\epsilon )]=\underset{a(\epsilon )}{\overset{a(\epsilon )}{}}\sqrt{2(\omega _0^2\mathrm{cos}x(\omega _0^2+\epsilon ))}𝑑x=$$

$$=4\sqrt{4\omega _0^22\epsilon }E(a(\epsilon ),\frac{1}{1\frac{\epsilon }{2\omega _0^2}}),$$
(9)
where $`\pm a(\epsilon )=\pm \mathrm{arcsin}\sqrt{1\frac{\epsilon }{2\omega _0^2}}`$ are turning points, function $`E`$ is the elliptic integral of the second kind.

Then tunneling amplitude in perturbed system can be found by integration over energy of the tunneling amplitude in nonperturbed system with the action (9)

$$A=\underset{0}{\overset{\mathrm{\Delta }H}{}}𝑑\epsilon \underset{x(\tau )\pi }{\overset{x(\tau )\pi }{}}Dx\mathrm{exp}\left[S[x^{inst}(\tau ,\epsilon )]\right],$$
(10)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }H=2|H_sH_b|`$ is the stochastic layer width. The contribution of the chaotic instanton solutions is taken into account by means of integration over $`\epsilon `$. Expression (10) shows that the probability of tunneling (square of the absolute value of the tunneling amplitude) grows while chaotic region spreads ($`\mathrm{\Delta }H`$ increases).

The result is obtained in the first order on coupling constant $`\alpha `$ and does not take into account possible structure of stochastic layer is valid if the layer is narrow and is in agreement with results of numerical Lin  and real CAT3  experiments for similar problems. We have also correspondence in (10) with the nonperturbed case Rajar . Namely, if $`\alpha =0`$ then $`\mathrm{\Delta }H=0`$ and the single solution describing the motion on the separatrix (nonperturbed one-instanton solution) contributes to the tunneling amplitude.

Formula (10) can be made more transparent if we use the approximate form of action (9) at $`\epsilon <2\omega _0^2`$

$$S[x^{inst}(\tau ,\epsilon )]8\omega _0\frac{\pi \epsilon }{\omega _0}.$$
(11)
Then in Gauss approximation we obtain the following expression for the tunneling amplitude

$$A=\underset{0}{\overset{\mathrm{\Delta }H}{}}𝑑\epsilon \underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{+\mathrm{}}{}}𝑑c_0\sqrt{S[x^{inst}(\tau ,\epsilon )]}\mathrm{exp}\left(S[x^{inst}(\tau ,\epsilon )]\right)e^{S^{inst}}\sqrt{S^{inst}}\mathrm{\Gamma }F=\sqrt{8\omega _0}\mathrm{\Gamma }e^{8\omega _0}e^{\frac{\pi \mathrm{\Delta }H}{\omega _0}}.$$
(12)
where integration over $`c_0`$ gives the contribution of zero modes, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a time of the tunneling. Formula (12) up to the factor $`i`$ has the same form in real Minkovski time.

Expression (12) can be interpreted in the following way. Factor $`F=\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{\pi \mathrm{\Delta }H}{\omega _0}\right)>1`$ in (12) differs perturbed and nonperturbed amplitudes and includes the contribution of the layer. One can think about $`F`$ as a number of instanton solutions inside the stochastic layer.

We can find the minimal number of instanton solutions inside the stochastic layer. One can not distinguish instanton solutions within energy interval $`\mathrm{\Delta }E1/\mathrm{\Delta }\tau `$ (Heisenberg uncertainty relation). Here $`\mathrm{\Delta }\tau \omega _0^1`$ denotes the time interval of observation. Thus the energy interval between neighbor instantons is $`\mathrm{\Delta }\epsilon \omega _0`$. Therefore parameter $`F`$ can be found as follows

$$F1+\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }H}{\mathrm{\Delta }\epsilon }e^{\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }H}{\omega _0}},$$
(13)
where unit takes into account the nonperturbed separatrix.

The form of the spectrum of the lower quasi-energy zone is obtained using the amplitude (12) by means of standard technique (multi-instanton contributions are taken into account) Rajar :

$$E_\theta \frac{1}{2}\omega _02e^{S^{inst}}\sqrt{S^{inst}}F\mathrm{cos}\theta ,$$
(14)
here continuous variable $`\theta `$ parametrizes levels of the ground quasi-energy zone. Zone width

$`\mathrm{\Delta }E4e^{S^{inst}}\sqrt{S^{inst}}F`$ (15)
differs from the case of nonperturbed case by factor $`F`$ reflecting the influence of perturbation.

## IV Conclusion

We applied theory of classical chaos for investigation of the chaos assisted tunneling in terms of path integral formalism in imaginary time and instanton technique. We found the parameter of local instability and the width of the stochastic layer. Exponential decrease of the correlator for any perturbed instanton solution was also demonstrated, that means it to possess the property of mixing. Then properties of the stochastic layer and classical chaotic solutions in Euclidean space (chaotic instantons) were used for the calculation tunneling amplitude, ground quasi-energy zone spectrum in the presence of the perturbation and the zone width.

General tendency for chaos assisted tunneling regime (in average – if we abstract from fluctuations) is the increase of tunneling amplitude (probability) as the strength of perturbation increases CAT3 ; Lin . It is confirmed here. The reason is the growth of the width of the chaotic layer and therefore the increase of the number of paths for particle to travel from one regular region to another. For small energies in Gauss approximation tunneling amplitude is increased by the factor $`F>1`$. The life-time of the particle in the certain vacuum of the system decreases. It is connected with the widening of the (quasi-)energy zone (15).

We would like to emphasize that obtained results are not consequences of the particular choice of the nonperturbed Hamiltonian (2) or perturbation (3). Qualitatively they are valid for more general class of one-dimensional nonperturbed Hamiltonians with quadratic dependence on momentum and spatially periodic potential with single well in each period, as well as time dependence of homogeneous perturbation can be realized by any time periodic function. The reason is the universality of the separatrix destruction mechanism in these potentials affected by time-periodic perturbation Sagdeev .

Tunneling plays an important role in gauge field theories (instanton physics BPST ). Experimental discovery of QCD instantons for example is an important problem 22 . Moreover it is known that classical gauge field theories are inherently chaotic 20 . Therefore the study of chaos assisted instanton tunneling in gauge field theories based on chaos criterion in quantum field theory 23  is also of essential interest.

Acknowledgements. One of us (A.V.K.) gratefully acknowledges the grant of the World Federation of Scientists, National Scholarship Programme – Belarus.


text:
# Chemical-potential standard for atomic Bose-Einstein condensates

## 1 Introduction

The realization of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute atomic gases  has opened the possibility of investigating the macroscopic behaviour of coherent quantum matter in a new class of physical systems different from superconductors and helium liquids. Together with vortex formation, the Josephson effect between weakly coupled Bose condensates is probably the most characteristic signature of superfluidity. Initially predicted  and observed  in the context of superconductivity, the Josephson effect has also been observed in superfluid 3He , a fact that underlies the fundamental nature of quantum behaviour at the macroscopic scale. Atomic Bose-Einstein condensates (BECs) have it in common with superconductors and superfluids that their most remarkable properties are derived from the existence of a macroscopic wave function. Because of the profound analogies between these gauge-symmetry broken systems, the possibility of observing the Josephson effect in trapped atomic gases was early recognized . Although some preliminary evidence for the existence of the Josephson effect in atomic gases already exists , it is fair to say that, compared with its superconducting and superfluid counterparts, the exploration of the physics of weakly linked atomic condensates is still in its infancy. Given the potential richness and the convenient tunability of BEC setups, it is clear that decided progress must be made to investigate this whole new class of problems. At present however, an important limitation is that the technology of atom circuits (also called “atomtronics”) is still moderately developed, although a bright future can already be foreseen . In this sense, proposals that do not rely on the feasibility of controlled atom transport are particularly welcome.

One of the most remarkable properties of superconducting devices is the existence of Shapiro resonances. When two weakly coupled superconductors are subject to a voltage difference that is the sum of a dc component $`V`$ and a periodic signal $`v\mathrm{sin}(2\pi ft)`$, a continuous range of nonzero dc currents are possible if

$$V=\frac{h}{2e}kf,$$
(1)
where $`2e`$ is the Cooper pair charge, $`h`$ is Planck’s constant, and $`k`$ is an integer . A more common setup is one in which, due to the existence of a large impedance in series, an external current source is applied. If the external current consists of a dc contribution and a weak ac perturbation of frequency $`f`$, the Josephson link displays a dc $`V`$-$`I`$ characteristic with voltage plateaus at values satisfying the resonance condition (1). The height of the Shapiro steps linking the voltage plateaus provides a method to measure the constant of nature $`2e/h`$ with such precision and universality  that, since 1972, the reversed view has been adopted whereby $`2e/h`$ is assumed to be known and Equation (1) is used to define a standard unit of voltage .

In this paper we address the question of whether it is possible to prepare a BEC Josephson junction (BJJ) that satisfies the resonance condition (1) in a stable form. Another way of phrasing the problem is whether macroscopic self-trapping of a large population imbalance  may be stabilized against dissipation by an oscillating perturbation. A condensate in a time-dependent trap , and particularly a double condensate , has been shown to provide a convenient test ground for quantum chaos. Here we face a different regime which predominantly involves regular motion with dissipation. The challenge is to identify the conditions under which dissipation can be exploited to let the system evolve towards one of the stable resonance islands.

At present we have a limited understanding of the dissipation mechanisms operating in a BJJ which render its macroscopic phase-number dynamics non-conservative. We know that contributions may arise at least from incoherent exchange of normal atoms , creation of quasiparticles by the fluctuating condensate , or spontaneous atom losses . As long as the net atom loss stays relatively small, its effect on the phase dynamics is similar in many respects to that of incoherent particle exchange, both yielding Ohmic dissipation under a wide range of circumstances.

We wish to stress that the physics discussed in this paper applies both to double-well condensates, displaying the external Josephson effect, and to optically coupled two-component atomic condensates, which exhibit the internal Josephson effect . A central concept in the forthcoming discussion is the application of a time-dependent external potential. This may be achieved by the application of suitably designed time-dependent magnetic fields or dipole forces. Another essential ingredient, not considered in Ref. , is that the Josephson current can counteract the dissipative current, thereby permitting the existence of stationary Shapiro resonances. Moreover, by providing an effective friction to the phase dynamics, the dissipative current ensures that the system gets arbitrarily close to the exact resonance at sufficiently long times.

We want to remark that no fundamental reason prevents the possibility of exploring this novel approach to Shapiro resonances in the context of superconductors. There, capacitive couplings might be used to control or measure voltage differences.

Section 2 is devoted to a quantitative formulation of the problem. We know that each phase-locked solution generates an attractive basin in phase space. We raise the question of how dissipation can be exploited to let the system land successfully on that region never to escape from it except for quantum tunnelling decay. The solution is offered in Section 3, where we investigate the dissipative dynamics in phase space. Later, in Section 4, we provide an estimate of the probability that a system prepared with a large chemical potential difference evolves in such a way that, in the process of decaying, it is trapped in a classically stable well. The stochasticity comes from the intrinsically random nature of the choice of phase made by the double condensate system shortly after the connection . Section 5 is devoted to the effect of quantum fluctuations, which may cause macroscopic tunnel decay. The combined analysis of Sections 25 yields a set of constraints that must be fulfilled to achieve an optimal realization of the predicted Shapiro resonances. A concluding discussion is provided in Section 6.

## 2 Formulation of the problem

We consider $`N`$ Bose-condensed atoms in a double-well trapping potential $`V(x,\xi )`$ that depends on a harmonically time-dependent control parameter $`\xi (t)=\xi _0\mathrm{cos}(\mathrm{\Omega }t)`$. In a situation sufficiently close to equilibrium, a split condensate is formed which can be described within a two-mode approximation. Thus, we use the for the field operator the ansatz $`\psi (x)=\phi _A(x)a+\phi _B(x)b`$, where the orbital functions $`\phi _{A,B}`$ are normalized to unity. This yields the two-mode Hamiltonian

$$H=\frac{\mathrm{}\omega _R}{2}\left(a^{}b+b^{}a\right)+E_A(N_A,\xi )+E_B(N_B,\xi ).$$
(2)
Here, $`\omega _R`$ denotes the effective Rabi frequency of the two-mode problem, which is proportional to the Josephson coupling energy . It is important to note that, in the case of optically coupled two-component BECs (internal Josephson effect), $`\omega _R`$ does not generally coincide with the Rabi frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_R`$ governing atomic transitions. Rather, one has $`\omega _R=\mathrm{\Omega }_Rs_{AB}`$, where $`s_{AB}x\phi _A^{}\phi _B`$ . It is only when the trapping configuration and the interactions are such that $`\phi _A(x)=\phi _B(x)`$, that the two frequencies become identical. The Gross-Pitaevskii energy of fragment $`i`$,

$$E_i(N_i,\xi )=N_ix\phi _i^{}(x)\left(\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\mathrm{\Delta }+V(x,\xi )+\frac{gN_i}{2}|\phi _i(x)|^2\right)\phi _i(x),$$
(3)
$`i=A,B`$, has inherited a time-dependence from the control-parameter $`\xi (t)`$.

For an analysis of the system in its classical limit, we replace in the Heisenberg equations of motion the operators $`a`$, $`b`$ by $`\sqrt{N_A}e^{i\varphi _A}`$, $`\sqrt{N_B}e^{i\varphi _B}`$ and expand the Gross-Pitaevskii energies for small $`\xi `$ and small number imbalance compared with the equilibrium values $`N_A^0`$ and $`N_B^0`$ (usually taken to be $`N/2`$). For the variables $`\varphi (\varphi _A\varphi _B)`$ and $`z(N_AN_B)/N2n/N`$, with time measured in units of $`1/\omega _R`$, this yields

$`\dot{\varphi }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{z}{\sqrt{1z^2}}}\mathrm{cos}\varphi +\mathrm{\Lambda }z+\epsilon \mathrm{cos}(\mathrm{\Omega }t)=\mathrm{\Delta }\mu /\mathrm{},`$ (4)
$`\dot{z}`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{1z^2}\mathrm{sin}\varphi \gamma \dot{\varphi },`$ (5)
with the scaled driving amplitude

$$\epsilon =\frac{\xi _0}{\mathrm{}\omega _R}\left[\frac{^2E_A(N_A,\xi )}{\xi N_A}\frac{^2E_B(N_B,\xi )}{\xi N_B}\right]_{N_A=N_B=N/2,\xi =0}$$
(6)
and the effective interaction constant

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{N}{2\mathrm{}\omega _R}\left[\frac{^2E_A(N_A,0)}{N_A^2}+\frac{^2E_B(N_B,0)}{N_B^2}\right]_{N_A=N_B=N/2}.$$
(7)
Equations (4), (5) can also be obtained from the classical non-rigid pendulum Hamiltonian  (hereafter energies are expressed in units of $`\mathrm{}\omega _R`$)

$$H(z,\varphi ,\lambda )=\sqrt{1z^2}\mathrm{cos}\varphi +\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Lambda }z^2+\epsilon z\mathrm{cos}(\mathrm{\Omega }t),$$
(8)
where $`(z,\varphi )`$ are canonically conjugate coordinates. For a simplification, we have assumed a symmetric situation with $`E_A(N/2,\xi )=E_B(N/2,\xi )`$ — the generalization is of course straightforward and results in an additional phase drift. The last term in the equation of motion (5) has been introduced phenomenologically to describe a dissipative current, i.e. an incoherent exchange of atoms. For high temperatures, $`k_BT\mathrm{\Delta }\mu `$, this current is Ohmic, i.e. proportional to the chemical potential difference, $`\dot{n}=G\mathrm{\Delta }\mu `$ . Following the reasoning by Josephson , the chemical potential difference is given by the time derivative of the relative phase, $`\dot{\varphi }=\mathrm{\Delta }\mu /\mathrm{}`$, and thus we obtain the dissipative term in equation (5) with $`\gamma =2\mathrm{}G/N`$ 111At first sight there seems to be an ambiguity as to whether dissipation should come as $`\gamma \dot{\varphi }`$ or, rather, $`\gamma ^{}z`$. That the former is the correct approach can also be inferred from a careful study of quantum dissipation models . In the present context, however, the choice is without practical consequences.. We will also analyze the more general case in which $`\dot{n}`$ may not be a linear function of $`\dot{\varphi }`$, a situation which is likely to appear at low temperatures.

In order to put the central discussion into the proper context, it is convenient to review the dynamics of the relative phase after two independently prepared condensates are connected . Before the connection, the phase is completely undefined, which means that the Fock state of fixed particle number is in a coherent superposition of different phase states. Upon connection, various mechanisms involving quasiparticle dynamics intervene to destroy the coherence between the different phase states. As a result, the reduced density matrix of macroscopic phase-number system becomes quasi-diagonal in the phase representation, which is to say that the phase is effectively measured among a menu of values uniformly distributed between 0 and $`2\pi `$. After this quick definition of the phase, a phase-number Gaussian wave packet forms that evolves semiclassically in the parabolic tight-binding lattice formed by the different number eigenstates. Due to the interaction term, the system experiences a tilted lattice and, thus, undergoes Bloch oscillations, which may be viewed as the ac Josephson response to an approximately constant $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mu `$ created by the number imbalance with the possible concurrence of other factors. Its trajectory follows one of the running solutions in phase space diagram shown in Figure 1a. Thus, the system oscillates around a nonzero number average $`\overline{z}`$ displaying the so-called macroscopic quantum self-trapping (MQST) . However, these oscillations are not stable, since the fluctuating condensate atom number in each well couples to the many-quasiparticle field and experiences dissipation. Thus the energy stored in the macroscopic degree of freedom decreases and $`\overline{z}`$ decays slowly towards its equilibrium value .

In the presence of an ac driving, the situation may change qualitatively, since classically stable resonance islands form in phase space for values of $`z,\varphi `$ such that

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }\overline{z}=k\mathrm{\Omega },\overline{z}/t=0,$$
(9)
where $`k`$ is an integer (see Figure 1b). Here, the bars indicate the time average over fast Bloch or external driving oscillations, of frequencies $`k\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, respectively, and the time derivative is meant over a longer time scale. In general, the system displays running solutions weakly oscillating around an average value $`\overline{z}`$ which slowly decays because of dissipation. Such a decaying trajectory may or may not be trapped in one of the attractive basins around the Shapiro resonances.

For a provisional answer to the central question formulated above, we integrate numerically the equations of motion (4) and (5) in the Josephson regime ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }1`$; we take $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=10^4`$), where the BEC Josephson junction displays, in the absence of dissipation, stable running MQST solutions. When starting with an initial imbalance $`z(0)`$ that lies above a resonance island, we find two qualitatively different types of solutions: The first type (lower curve in Figure 2) is what one would typically expect, namely that, owing to the Ohmic current, the imbalance decays until it leaves the MQST regime and ultimately exhibits damped plasma oscillations. Except for the small kink displayed when crossing the resonance zone, the dynamics is qualitatively the same as in the undriven case. However, for the same parameters but a different initial phase, there exist also solutions with an intriguing behaviour (see upper curve in Figure 2): There, the system gets trapped in the resonance island and the transient decay comes to a standstill instead of continuing towards the true equilibrium solution ($`z=0`$). At long times, the number imbalance $`z`$ oscillates with amplitude $`\epsilon `$ around a non-zero value $`z_1=\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. We will show that then the average chemical potential difference (in scaled units) is precisely a multiple of the driving frequency. More specifically, we find

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\mu =k\mathrm{\Omega }+\epsilon \mathrm{cos}(\mathrm{\Omega }t).$$
(10)
We wish to remark that the BEC setup considered here differs substantially form its superconducting analogs in that there the stabilization of a voltage difference at the Shapiro resonance is achieved with the concourse of an externally imposed current, i.e., in an experiment a current source is needed. Here by contrast, the stabilization of a chemical-potential difference cannot rely on such external current sources which for BECs are not (yet) available. As a drawback, the present type of “voltage” standard can be obtained only at the price that a single run of the experiment does not warrant a stable solution. In the following, we provide a detailed analysis of this type of Shapiro resonances, estimating their parameter dependence and, eventually, the probability that they can be spontaneously realized.

## 3 Realization of phase-locked solutions

Our central interest lies in the existence and the stability of so-called phase-locked solutions, i.e., solutions $`\varphi (t)`$ that have only small fluctuations around a long-time average $`\overline{\varphi }k\mathrm{\Omega }t`$. Then, since the main chemical-potential difference between the two condensate fragments comes from the interaction energy, the average number imbalance $`\overline{z}`$ settles down at a value $`z_kk\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. This motivates the ansatz

$`\varphi `$ $`=`$ $`k\mathrm{\Omega }t+{\displaystyle \frac{\epsilon }{\mathrm{\Omega }}}\mathrm{sin}(\mathrm{\Omega }t)+\delta \varphi ,`$ (11)
$`z`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{k\mathrm{\Omega }}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}+\alpha \mathrm{cos}(k\mathrm{\Omega }t)+\delta z,`$ (12)
where $`\alpha `$ denotes the yet unknown amplitude of the fast residual Bloch oscillations that can be appreciated in the inset of Figure 2. We would like to choose $`\alpha `$ such that the resulting $`\delta \varphi `$ and $`\delta z`$ display only slow, decaying oscillations around a stationary solution $`\delta \varphi =\mathrm{const}.`$, $`\delta z=0`$ to which they tend at long times. In other words, $`\alpha `$ should be such that, in the absence of $`\delta z`$ and with $`\delta \varphi `$ replaced by a constant, equations (11), (12) correctly capture the asymptotic system dynamics.

The equations of motion for $`\delta \varphi `$ and $`\delta z`$ are obtained by inserting (11), (12) into the original equations (4), (5). The resulting system of equations involves rapidly oscillating coefficients of period $`2\pi /\mathrm{\Omega }`$. It can be shown that, if $`\alpha =1/k\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }1`$, then $`\delta \varphi `$ and $`\delta z`$ vary more slowly than those coefficients (a result which we have confirmed by numerical studies), so that the different time-scales can be separated consistently and all time-dependent coefficients can be replaced by their time-averages. On the other hand, we are interested in the case of two condensate fragments which are comparable in size ($`|z|1`$). Thus we neglect within this analytic discussion the momentum shortening and replace the square root in the Hamiltonian (8) by unity . Finally we obtain the equations of motion

$`{\displaystyle \frac{}{t}}\delta \varphi `$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\delta z,`$ (13)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{}{t}}\delta \varphi `$ $`=`$ $`J_k(\epsilon /\mathrm{\Omega })\mathrm{sin}(\delta \varphi )\gamma k\mathrm{\Omega }\gamma \mathrm{\Lambda }\delta z,`$ (14)
which describe a dissipative particle in the static tilted washboard potential sketched in Figure 3. They can be obtained from the Hamiltonian

$$H(\delta \varphi ,\delta z)=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Lambda }\delta z^2J_k(\epsilon /\mathrm{\Omega })\mathrm{cos}(\delta \varphi )+\gamma k\mathrm{\Omega }\delta \varphi $$
(15)
together with the dissipative force $`F_{\mathrm{diss}}=\gamma \mathrm{\Lambda }\delta z`$. The new canonical coordinates $`\delta z`$ and $`\delta \varphi `$ represent momentum and position, respectively, and $`J_k`$ denotes the $`k`$-th Bessel function of the first kind. We emphasize two differences between these equations and the undriven rigid pendulum Hamiltonian: First, there is a tilt $`\gamma k\mathrm{\Omega }`$ which originates from a constant dissipative current caused by a finite number imbalance. Despite its physical origin, it appears formally as a conservative force. Second, the Josephson coupling energy for the phase shift $`\delta \varphi `$ is renormalized by a factor $`J_k(\epsilon /\mathrm{\Omega })`$ which, for $`\epsilon \mathrm{\Omega }`$, renders it much smaller than the original Josephson energy. Correspondingly, the plasma frequency is renormalized by a factor $`\sqrt{J_k(\epsilon /\mathrm{\Omega })}`$222If we had relaxed the assumption $`|z|1`$, then $`J_k(\epsilon /\mathrm{\Omega })`$ would have appeared multiplied by a factor $`\sqrt{1\overline{z}^2}`$. However, one must remember that, if $`|z|`$ were to become comparable to unity, then the two-mode approximation might have to be revised.. Once $`\delta \varphi `$ is trapped within one specific well, it exhibits damped plasma oscillations with the renormalized frequency until it ultimately comes to rest. In this stationary solution one has $`\delta \dot{\varphi }=\delta \dot{z}=0`$, which is possible thanks to the cancellation of the first two terms in the r.h.s. of Equation (14). Therefore, one finds from Equation (11) and the Josephson relation $`\dot{\varphi }=\mathrm{\Delta }\mu /\mathrm{}`$ the chemical potential difference (10).

Having mapped the long-time dynamics of the originally time-dependent situation to an equivalent static problem, we are now able to derive the conditions under which phase-locked solutions exist. This results in the restrictions of the parameters summarized in Table 1. Obviously, the effective washboard potential in the Hamiltonian (15) possesses minima only for $`\gamma k\mathrm{\Omega }<J_k(\epsilon /\mathrm{\Omega })`$ which amounts for small driving amplitudes $`\epsilon \mathrm{\Omega }`$ to $`\gamma k\mathrm{\Omega }(\epsilon /2\mathrm{\Omega })^k`$. This is most easily satisfied for $`k=1`$, where the condition for the existence of wells reads $`\epsilon >2\gamma \mathrm{\Omega }^2`$. Since on the other hand, the driving should be weak, $`\epsilon \mathrm{\Omega }`$, both conditions on the driving amplitude $`\epsilon `$ can be fulfilled simultaneously only for sufficiently small dissipation, $`\gamma 1/\mathrm{\Omega }`$.

Also the interaction strength $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ obeys restrictions, which are obtained in the following way: Physically, the idea behind our scheme is to counterbalance a dissipative current with the help of ac driving, thereby stabilizing a MQST solution against friction. The condition for operating clearly in a regime where MQST dominates is $`2/\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\overline{z}`$ . On the other hand, the two condensate fragments should not differ too much in size, thus, $`\overline{z}1`$. Since we aim at stabilizing the imbalance $`\overline{z}=\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, fulfilling both conditions requires a sufficiently large interaction strength, typically $`\mathrm{\Lambda }10^3`$.

A further physical reason for operating the Bose-Josephson junction in the (interaction-dominated) Josephson limit stems from an important property of phase-locked solutions, namely, that generally the centre of an attractive basin is not truly at rest, but follows the trajectory of a particle in the absence of driving and dissipation . In the Josephson regime, such a behaviour corresponds to the MQST solutions exhibiting Bloch oscillations with amplitude $`\alpha =1/\mathrm{\Lambda }\overline{z}`$ around an average value $`\overline{z}`$, as can be appreciated in Equation (12). At resonance, their relative amplitude becomes $`\alpha /\overline{z}=1/\mathrm{\Lambda }\overline{z}^2=\mathrm{\Lambda }/\mathrm{\Omega }^2`$. Ideally, for the realization of stable phase-locked solutions, this amplitude should be small, as is the case in the Josephson regime ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }1`$). On the contrary in the (non-interacting) Rabi regime ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }<1`$) , the undamped and undriven pendulum exhibits large number (Rabi) oscillations around $`z=0`$, i.e. there is no MQST. This results in large oscillations of any attractive basin which render BJJs in the Rabi regime useless for the present purposes.

We conclude this section with a comparison between Shapiro resonances and another well-known, apparently similar dynamical phenomenon. It has been shown  that for a high-frequency driving with $`\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Delta }\mu /\mathrm{}`$, the Josephson energy acquires a factor $`J_0(\epsilon /\mathrm{\Omega })`$ and that, consequently, the coherent exchange of atoms is brought to a standstill if $`\epsilon /\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is chosen as a zero of the Bessel function $`J_0`$. Such an effect amounts to an interacting version of the so-called coherent destruction of tunnelling (CDT) predicted for single particles in bistable potentials . We emphasize that the present phenomenon is different in two respects: First, CDT takes place at zeros of Bessel functions and, thus, requires large driving amplitudes, while here, the driving amplitude is much lower. Second, CDT fades out under the influence of dissipation, while in our case, moderate dissipation is essential for the convergence towards a phase-locked solution.

## 4 Locking probability

After investigating which is the parameter regime that permits stable phase-locked solutions, we turn to a remaining intriguing question: What is the probability that such a solution is hit by starting with a random initial phase? To give a crude estimate for the answer, we employ again the analogy to the dissipative motion in a tilted washboard potential.

Let us assume that we start out of resonance with an imbalance $`z_1<z<z_2`$, with $`z_k=k\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, that corresponds to $`\delta z>0`$, i.e., to a particle moving uphill in the tilted washboard of Figure 3. Having only finite energy, the particle will bounce in one specific well. At the entry point, the energy will be in the range $`[E_\mathrm{b},E_\mathrm{b}+2\pi \gamma k\mathrm{\Omega }]`$, where $`E_\mathrm{b}`$ is the potential energy at the top of the lower barrier. While moving within the well during one cycle, the particle dissipates the energy

$$E_{\mathrm{diss}}F_{\mathrm{diss}}\varphi 2\pi \gamma \mathrm{\Lambda }\sqrt{2\epsilon /\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Omega }}.$$
(16)
Here, we have estimated the maximum value of the dissipative force $`F_{\mathrm{diss}}=\gamma \mathrm{\Lambda }\delta z`$ \[cf. Equation (14)\] from the maximum kinetic energy $`\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Lambda }\delta z^22J_k(\epsilon /\mathrm{\Omega })\epsilon /\mathrm{\Omega }`$ for $`k=1`$ and $`\gamma \epsilon /\mathrm{\Omega }^2`$. Assuming for the particle’s phase space trajectory the shape of an ellipse, yields the r.h.s. of Equation (16). If the initial energy minus the dissipated energy lies below the barrier, the particle will end up at rest in the well. By assuming that the random initial phases translate into equally distributed initial energies, we find that this happens with probability

$$w=\frac{E_{\mathrm{diss}}}{2\pi \gamma \mathrm{\Omega }}\sqrt{\frac{2\epsilon \mathrm{\Lambda }}{\mathrm{\Omega }^3}},$$
(17)
if $`E_{\mathrm{diss}}<2\pi \gamma \mathrm{\Omega }`$, and $`w=1`$ otherwise. Ideally, one would like to have $`w=1`$ to ensure phase locking in all runs. However, it is easy to show from the constraints in Table 1 that this would require $`\mathrm{\Omega }\epsilon `$, which, for reasons already indicated, is not of physical interest. Thus one must content oneself with identifying a range of parameters that make the probability of landing in a resonance non-negligible.

One might conceive situations where the control of the relative particle number before the connection (as well as of the interaction parameters) were so good that the system could be forced to be within the attractive basin from the start. While designing $`z(0)`$ to be very close to the resonance value $`\overline{z}=\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ would surely increase the probabilities of relaxing towards the Shapiro resonance, we wish to emphasize here that success can never be fully guaranteed because of the intrinsically random nature of the initial phase $`\varphi (0)`$, as can be clearly inferred from inspection of Figure 1b.

To confirm the analytical estimate (17) for the locking probability, we have integrated numerically the equations of motion (4) and (5) starting with a number imbalance $`z(0)=1.5\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, and a random initial phase $`\varphi (0)`$. The parameters have always been chosen such that $`\epsilon \mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\gamma 1/\mathrm{\Omega }`$ according to the requirements derived in the last section. Figure 4 compares the analytical estimate (17) to the fraction of numerical runs that converge to a phase-locked solution. The numerical and the analytical result agree well in the regime $`\mathrm{\Omega }30`$. For $`\mathrm{\Omega }=100`$, the locking probability typically assumes values of order 10%. We attribute the worse agreement between theory and simulation for $`\mathrm{\Omega }30`$ to the fact that, in such a range, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ becomes so small that the requirement $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Omega }^2`$ (see Table 1) can no longer be satisfied if, as is the case in Figure 4, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is constrained to be $`\mathrm{\Omega }/z_1`$ with $`z_1=0.1`$. An extreme case of disagreement is found for the lowest frequency considered when $`\epsilon =0.1\mathrm{\Omega }`$.

The Ohmic dissipation which we have assumed in our previous analysis is only justified for temperatures well above the chemical potential difference . For a typical condensate however, the chemical potential is of the same order as the temperature and, thus, the dissipative current may not follow a linear law. Therefore, as a last item within the classical analysis, we consider the more general dissipative current $`\dot{z}|_{\mathrm{diss}}=g(z)`$, which might depend on various parameters like, e.g., the interaction strength and the temperature. Using the ansatz (12), we linearize $`g(z)g(z_k)g^{}(z_k)\delta z`$ and repeat the analysis from above. We find for $`k=1`$ again the locking probability (17) but with an additional factor $`z_1g^{}(z_1)/g(z_1)=z_1[\mathrm{ln}g(z_1)]^{}`$, $`z_1=\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. On the other hand, the slope of the washboard, i.e. the average dissipative current, acquires a factor $`g(z_1)`$. For very low temperatures $`k_BT\mathrm{\Delta }\mu `$, for instance, the quasiparticle-excitation decay mechanism discussed in Ref.  yields $`g(z)z^2`$, and therefore the locking probability is enhanced by a factor of 2, but still is of the same order.

## 5 Quantum fluctuations

The classical treatment of the Bose-Josephson junction given above, has its limitations due to quantum fluctuations of the number $`n`$ and the phase $`\varphi `$. They come from the commutation relation $`[n,e^{i\varphi }]=e^{i\varphi }`$ which amounts for small phase uncertainty to

$$[z,\varphi ]=2i/N.$$
(18)
This leads basically to two constraints for the washboard potential: First, the potential wells of a washboard potential are quantum mechanically metastable since a particle will tunnel out at a rate

$$\kappa =\omega _0e^{2\pi E_0/\mathrm{}\omega _0}.$$
(19)
To justify the classical treatment from above, $`1/\kappa `$ must be larger than all other time scales of the problem. A second, related point is that the phase-space region corresponding to the metastable well must support sufficiently many quantum states to treat both the number and the phase as continuous classical variables. For a well of depth $`E_0`$ with curvature $`\omega _0^2`$, the number of quantum states can be estimated as $`m=E_0/\mathrm{}\omega _0`$. From both arguments, we conclude that the ratio of the potential depth and the energy quantum of a small oscillation at the bottom of the well determines whether we operate in the classical limit $`E_0\mathrm{}\omega _0`$.

To determine the connection between $`E_0`$, $`\mathrm{}\omega _0`$ and the non-standard commutation relation (18) and our scaled parameters for $`k=1`$, we have to accomplish the replacements

$$E_0\frac{\epsilon }{\mathrm{\Omega }},\mathrm{}\frac{2}{N},\omega _0^2\frac{\epsilon \mathrm{\Lambda }}{2\mathrm{\Omega }}.$$
(20)
This results in

$$\frac{E_0}{\mathrm{}\omega _0}=N\sqrt{\frac{\epsilon }{2\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Lambda }}},$$
(21)
which is essentially the ratio between the Josephson coupling energy and the renormalized plasma frequency in the metastable well. For typical parameters used above ($`\epsilon =0.01\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=10\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }100`$), a condensate consisting of $`N10^5`$ atoms supports $`m100`$ states and yields an escape rate that is practically zero. Therefore, we do not expect any relevant quantum correction.

## 6 Conclusions

We have investigated a realistic setup that may provide the basis for a standard of chemical potential difference between weakly connected atomic Bose-Einstein condensates. Due to the still rudimentary development of atom circuit technology, we have focused on schemes that do not require the coupling to a an external circuit, thus staying away from straightforward analogues of well-tested superconducting devices. In particular, we have investigated the possibility of connecting two separate condensates in the presence of ac driving in such a way that, as the system relaxes towards equilibrium, it has an appreciable probability of being trapped in a Shapiro resonance for which $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mu `$ is exactly an integer multiple of $`hf`$, with $`f`$ the driving frequency. If the resolution of the imaging process is good enough, a frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }=2\pi f`$ can be found satisfying simultaneously

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Delta }z<\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Lambda }.$$
(22)
While the second inequality ensures a small number imbalance (see Table 1), the first one expresses the experimental ability to resolve two different Shapiro plateaus, $`\mathrm{\Delta }z<z_{k+1}z_k=\mathrm{\Omega }/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. Therefore, under any reasonable visibility conditions, it should be possible to identify the integer ratio $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mu /hf`$, i.e., we can know the precise Shapiro step where the double condensate has become locked. Thus, we see that the main requirement of a precision measurement is satisfied, namely, that, with the help of an accurately controlled frequency, a poor measurement of a physical quantity (the atom number imbalance) enables a fine measurement of another physical quantity (the chemical potential difference).

Instead of being a hindrance, dissipation provides here a crucial help, since it allows the system to spontaneously relax towards a stable resonance where the chemical potential difference is guaranteed to have a precise value. We have identified a number of parameter constraints that must be satisfied in order to have an optimum control of the Shapiro resonance. These include the need to have a weak driving signal, the operation within the collective Josephson regime, the need to keep average number imbalance small, the requirement of even smaller Bloch oscillations, the necessity to optimize the probability of landing in the desired Shapiro step out of a random initial phase, and the robustness against escape by quantum tunnelling from the metastable state.

Fortunately, this set of constraints does still allow for a window of realistic parameters within which accurate chemical potential differences could be realized. Let us for instance consider $`N=10^6`$ 23Na atoms in a split trap with frequency $`\omega _{\mathrm{ho}}=2\pi \times 100\mathrm{Hz}`$. The bulk properties of the condensate are readily estimated within the Thomas-Fermi approximation to yield the chemical potential $`\mu 70\mathrm{}\omega _{\mathrm{ho}}`$ and the mean field energy $`E_A(N)\mathrm{}N^{7/5}\times 0.01\mathrm{s}^1`$. Estimating the Josephson coupling energy, respectively the Rabi frequency, is more tedious and relies sensitively on the assumptions made for the shape and the size of the barrier. We assume here a Gaussian shape of width $`6\mu \mathrm{m}`$ and height of $`1.05\mu `$ such that for a driving amplitude $`\epsilon =0.01\mathrm{\Omega }`$, the top of the barrier lies always above the instantaneous chemical potential of both wells. Along the lines of Refs. , we obtain the effective action $`S_0=1.7\mathrm{}`$ and, thus, the Rabi frequency $`\omega _R2\pi \times 0.05\mathrm{Hz}`$. This finally yields the effective interaction $`\mathrm{\Lambda }10^4`$ that we have assumed above. The (bare) Josephson plasma frequency is approximately $`\omega _{\mathrm{JP}}=2\pi \times 5\mathrm{Hz}`$; for the resonant solution in Figure 2, phase locking sets in after $`5\mathrm{s}`$.

One might wonder what may be the use of a “voltage” standard in the absence of an atom circuit. First of all, no fundamental reason prevents the use of the present scheme in future atom circuits. Then, this concept will have to be tested against ideas more directly borrowed from the technology of superconductors. Second, already within the currently limited possibilities of condensate transport, the realization of a Shapiro resonance may provide a convenient playground for the investigation of novel BEC scenarios. For instance, it seems possible to extend the experimental work of Ref.  to include an external ac driving that locks a pair of wells into resonance. The static behaviour of that pair of condensates should contrast with the dynamic behaviour of atoms in neighbouring wells. That would provide a most direct test of the Josephson effect in atomic condensates. Third, a fine control of the chemical potential may open the possibility of detailed checks of our current understanding of the novel many-body problem posed by trapped quantum gases. Quite likely, the effect of interactions will be easily isolated from that of gravity or other well-controlled external fields. Finally, there is the hope that the present work may provide the basis for more efficient or practical concepts that will make the emergent “atomtronics” a precise technology.

This work has been supported by the Dirección General de Investigación Científica y Técnica under Grant No. BFM2001-0172, and by the Ramón Areces Foundation. We acknowledge travel support from the European Science Foundation under the program BEC 2000+.

## References