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# High-Precision Optical Measurement of the 2S Hyperfine Interval in Atomic Hydrogen

Also at P.N. Lebedev Physics Institute, Moscow, Russia\] Also at D.I. Mendeleev Institute for Metrology, St. Petersburg, Russia\] Also at Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany\]

## Abstract

We have applied an optical method to the measurement of the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval in atomic hydrogen. The interval has been measured by means of two-photon spectroscopy of the $`1S2S`$ transition on a hydrogen atomic beam shielded from external magnetic fields. The measured value of the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval is equal to $`\mathrm{177\; 556\; 860}(15)`$ Hz and represents the most precise measurement of this interval to date. The theoretical evaluation of the specific combination of $`1S`$ and $`2S`$ hyperfine intervals $`D_{21}`$ is in moderately good agreement with the value for $`D_{21}`$ deduced from our measurement.

The frequency of the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval $`f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(2S)`$ has been measured twice during the last 50 years by driving the magnetic-dipole radio-frequency transition in a hydrogen thermal beam Kusch ; Hessels . The relative accuracy of these measurements ($`150300`$ ppb) exceeds the accuracy of the theoretical prediction for the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval which is restricted by an insufficient knowledge of the proton structure. However, the specific combination of the $`1S`$ and $`2S`$ hyperfine intervals

$$D_{21}=8f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(2S)f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(1S)$$
(1)
can be calculated with high precision due to significant cancellations of nuclear structure effects (see Karsh1  and references therein). As the $`1S`$ hyperfine splitting in hydrogen $`f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(1S)`$, known experimentally to several parts in $`10^{13}`$ (see e.g. Ramsey ), does not restrict the accuracy of (1), it is possible to compare the experimentally measured $`2S`$ hyperfine interval with $`f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(2S)`$ deduced from the theoretical $`D_{21}`$ value. The quantum-electrodynamics theory (QED) for the state-dependent contribution to the $`nS`$ hyperfine splitting can thus be tested to the level up to $`\alpha ^4`$ and $`\alpha ^3m_e/m_p`$. This test is limited only by the experimental uncertainty.

The recent theoretical value of $`D_{21}^{\mathrm{theor}}`$ is equal to $`\mathrm{48\; 953}(3)`$ Hz and corresponds to a $`2S`$ hyperfine interval of $`f_{\mathrm{HFS}}^{\mathrm{theor}}(2S)=\mathrm{177\; 556\; 838.1}(4)`$ Hz Karsh1 . In 1956 Heberle, Reich, and Kusch measured $`f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(2S)`$ for the first time Kusch . Their result was equal to $`\mathrm{177\; 556\; 860}(50)`$ Hz which is in an agreement with $`f_{\mathrm{HFS}}^{\mathrm{theor}}(2S)`$. In 2000 Rothery and Hessels Hessels  improved the accuracy and obtained the value of $`\mathrm{177\; 556\; 785}(29)`$ Hz. We have performed a totally independent optical measurement of $`f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(2S)`$. The result of our measurement is $`\mathrm{177\; 556\; 860}(15)`$ Hz which is up to now the most precise value for the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval in atomic hydrogen. Both recent results are in a moderately good agreement (within $`2\sigma `$) with the theoretical value.

For the measurement of the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval in atomic hydrogen we have applied $`1S2S`$ two-photon spectroscopy to a cold hydrogen atomic beam which is shielded from magnetic fields. Using a high-finesse cavity as a frequency flywheel we deduce the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval as the frequency difference between two extremely stable laser light fields which excite the respective transitions between the different hyperfine sublevels of the $`1S`$ and $`2S`$ states in atomic hydrogen. The differential measurement cancels some important systematic effects typical for two-photon spectroscopy on atomic beams. Applying this optical method, we achieve a level of accuracy which is nearly 2 times better than the accuracy of the recent radio-frequency measurement Hessels . Along with the previous optical Lamb shift measurement Hbook , our present measurement demonstrates the perspectives of precision optical methods in fields where traditionally radio-frequency techniques have been used.

The hydrogen spectrometer setup, described in detail elsewhere Huber , has been modified by magnetic compensation and shielding systems and an optional differential pumping system Fischer . A dye laser operating near 486 nm is locked to an ultra-stable reference cavity made from ULE by means of the Pound-Drever-Hall lock. The drift of the cavity, suspended in a vacuum chamber with a two-stage active temperature stabilization system, is typically 0.5 Hz/s.

The frequency of the dye laser light is doubled in a $`\beta `$-barium borate crystal, and the resulting UV radiation near 243 nm is coupled into a linear enhancement cavity inside a vacuum chamber. Atomic hydrogen, produced in a radio-frequency discharge at a pressure of around 1 mbar, flows through teflon tubes to a copper nozzle cooled to 5 K with a helium flow-through cryostat. Hydrogen atoms thermalize in inelastic collisions with the cold walls of the nozzle. The atomic beam escapes from the nozzle coaxially to the mode of the enhancement cavity. On their way through the laser field some atoms are excited via Doppler-free two-photon absorption from the ground state to the metastable $`2S`$ state. In the detection region, these atoms are quenched in a small electric field and emit Lyman-$`\alpha `$ photons which are counted by a photomultiplier. Slow atoms are selected by time resolved spectroscopy Huber  so that the second-order Doppler shift and the time-of-flight broadening are reduced, yielding typical linewidths around 2 kHz at 121 nm both for the $`1S(F=0)2S(F=0)`$ (singlet) and $`1S(F=1)2S(F=1)`$ (triplet) transition lines.

A turbo pump evacuates the main volume of the vacuum system to $`5\times 10^5`$ mbar. The excitation region, separated from the main volume by a non-magnetic metal housing, is differentially pumped by a large cryopump. Two small holes in the front and back walls of the housing allow the excitation light to enter and exit this high vacuum zone and collimate the atomic beam. With hydrogen atoms escaping from the cold nozzle, the pressure in the excitation region is typically 3$`\times 10^8`$ mbar. An additional lockable opening in the housing allows to measure at a worse pressure of $`1.5\times 10^7`$ mbar. By increasing the temperature of the cryopump, it is also possible to work at even higher pressures up to $`5\times 10^6`$ mbar. All parts adjacent to the hydrogen beam are covered with graphite to reduce stray electric fields in the excitation region which would quench the hydrogen $`2S`$ population and shift the transition frequencies due to the DC Stark effect.

To reduce the magnetic field along the excitation region we use a two-stage magnetic shielding setup together with external compensation coils. We have measured the residual field inside the first shielding stage made from 100 $`\mu `$m thin $`\mu `$-metal foil which encloses the entire excitation region, the detector, and the nozzle to be less than 20 mG. Inside this shielding, 1 mm thick $`\mu `$-metal tubes located along the enhancement cavity axis cover about 90% of the whole excitation path of the hydrogen atoms. The evaluated averaged shielding factor of the second shielding stage is more than 20.

An external magnetic field shifts the magnetic sublevels of the hydrogen $`1S_{1/2}`$ and $`2S_{1/2}`$ states according to the Breit-Rabi equation Bethe . For two-photon processes, allowed transitions obey the selection rules $`\mathrm{\Delta }F=0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_F=0`$. In our experiment, we excite two-photon transitions from different magnetic sublevels of the hydrogen ground state to corresponding sublevels of the $`2S`$ state. In small magnetic fields, when the triplet splitting vanishes, the 2S hyperfine interval is given by

$$f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(2S)=f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(1S)+f(1,\pm 1\mathrm{or}0)f(0,0),$$
(2)
where the symbol $`f(F,m_F)`$ denotes the transition frequency between sublevels with quantum numbers $`(n=1,F,m_F)`$ and $`(n=2,F,m_F)`$ at 121 nm. A magnetic field $`H`$ shifts $`f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(2S)`$ approximately as $`10\times H^2`$ kHz/$`\mathrm{G}^2`$.

The dye laser is locked to a TEM00 mode of the reference cavity. Its frequency can be changed by means of a double-passed broadband AOM placed between the laser and the cavity. The frequency shift corresponding to 121 nm is 8 times higher in absolute value than the frequency shift of the synthesizer driving the AOM. The factor 8 arises due to the double-passed AOM, the optical frequency doubling, and the two-photon excitation of the hydrogen atoms. The intensity of the light used to lock the laser to the reference cavity is stabilized. All synthesizers providing the radio frequencies in our experiment are locked to the 10 MHz signal of a commercial HP5071A cesium frequency standard (specified Allan standard deviation $`5\times 10^{12}`$ within one second). The standard introduces a negligible error to the measured value.

During 16 days of measurements we have recorded about 2000 hydrogen spectra for the triplet and singlet transitions. A single spectrum consists of about 30 data points, each measured for 1 second. For our fitting procedure we have chosen the spectra recorded at a delay time of $`810\mu `$s (time between the blocking of the excitation light and the start of photon counting), for which the spectrum asymmetry is considerably reduced. A typical count rate for the triplet transition in its maximum is 350, while the averaged ratio between triplet and singlet count rates is $`3.25\pm 0.03`$. We ascribe the deviance of this value from 3 to different recombination rates in the nozzle for hydrogen atoms in the singlet and triplet ground states.

One measurement run consists of $`26`$ hydrogen spectra recorded one after another within approximately 5 minutes. After each run, we change the frequency of the laser light to excite the other transition. During a measurement day, we have switched about 50 times between the triplet and singlet transitions. The intensity of the excitation light is monitored after the enhancement cavity and has been kept as constant as possible during the whole day of measurement.

As the laser is locked to the same mode of the cavity, the cavity drift is the same for both singlet and triplet transitions. To determine the drift, we have fitted each hydrogen spectrum with a Lorentzian function in the time and frequency domains. A part of a day drift data set is shown on Fig.1. To reduce the effect of a nonlinear cavity drift, the drift data are fitted stepwise within the short time periods (about 20 minutes each) covering 2 singlet and 2 triplet runs. During this time period the drift can be well approximated linearly, and we have fitted the data by means of linear regression with the same slope. The fit procedure has been performed analytically delivering the slope (cavity drift), offset frequency, and corresponding errors. According to the hydrogen level scheme and the measurement technique, the offset frequency is equal to $`\left[f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(1S)f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(2S)\right]/8`$. From this, the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval and the $`D_{21}`$ difference can be calculated using the precise experimental value for $`f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(1S)`$.

A numerical simulation of the two-photon excitation process in the hydrogen beam shows that the maximum of the excitation probability distribution for the delayed atoms is shifted in space towards the first half of the excitation region where the residual magnetic fields are the smallest. A conservative estimation of a shift arising from the less shielded paths in the direct vicinity of the nozzle and the detector gives a value of 0.5(0.5) Hz.

An external electric field $`E`$ mixes the 2$`S_{1/2}`$ level with the adjacent 2$`P_{1/2}`$ and 2$`P_{3/2}`$ levels, shifting its energy. While in first order perturbation theory the $`1S`$ level is not shifted in a DC electrical field, the $`2S`$ $`F=0`$ and $`F=1`$ levels are shifted differently because of their different energy spacing from the $`2P`$ levels. According to a calculation of the DC Stark shift with the hyperfine structure taken into consideration, the shift of the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval is equal to $`1100E^2`$ Hz $`\mathrm{cm}^2/\mathrm{V}^2`$. The stray electrical fields within the excitation region of our setup are estimated to be below 30 mV/cm Huber  corresponding to a shift of $`1`$ Hz.

The AC Stark shift of a two-photon transition scales inversely to the energy difference between real levels (in our case $`1S`$ and $`2S`$ levels) and virtual levels Beausoleil . The hyperfine intervals are on the order of one GHz, while virtual energy levels are about $`3/8\mathrm{Ry}`$ away from both $`1S`$ and $`2S`$ levels. Therefore, the differential AC Stark shift of the hyperfine components in the hydrogen atom is about $`10^6`$ of the AC Stark shift of the $`1S2S`$ transition frequency. The typical AC Stark shift of the $`1S2S`$ transition in our experiment is on the level of 500 Hz, corresponding to a negligible differential shift of the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval assumed that the light intensity is kept constant.

However, inevitable small fluctuations of the 243 nm light intensity cause different AC Stark shifts of each hydrogen spectrum. We have corrected for the intensity fluctuations, using the experimental value of 2.6 Hz/mW for the $`1S2S`$ AC Stark shift Niering , which shifts the final value of the $`2S`$ interval by 2 Hz. Besides correction, we have added a conservative 2 Hz error to the error budget, which may arise from the evaluation of the light intensity circulating in the enhancement cavity.

Due to the second-order Doppler effect the measured line shape of the two-photon transition is not symmetric, and the line center is shifted. For both singlet and triplet transitions, the excited atoms are from the same atomic beam, and the same velocity class is selected by the precisely defined delay time. Therefore, the second-order Doppler effect cancels for the differential measurement of the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval. We have evaluated different velocity classes of hydrogen atoms corresponding to different delay times and observe essentially no effect on the evaluated $`2S`$ hyperfine interval. As an independent test we have fitted a theoretically simulated lineform for the delay time of $`810\mu `$s with a Lorentzian function and found that the possible error of the line center definition is less than 2 Hz. This error is also added to the error budget.

According to Jamieson , the interaction cross section for atomic hydrogen in the $`2S`$ state is different for triplet and singlet states, and the pressure shift of the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval is comparable to the pressure shift of the $`2S`$ triplet level. The previous $`2S`$ hyperfine interval measurement Hessels  indicates for a pressure shift of $`31(24)`$ MHz/mbar, which is of the same order of magnitude as the pressure shift of the $`1S(F=1,m_F=\pm 1)2S(F=1,m_F=\pm 1)`$ transition in hydrogen which is $`8(2)`$ MHz/mbar McIntyre ; Kleppner .

We have performed four sets of measurements at different background gas pressures. The data are plotted on Fig.2, each point representing an averaged result. Points a, b, c have been measured with approximately the same hydrogen flow through the nozzle, whereas point d is the result of a one day measurement with two times increased hydrogen flow. Within the available range of pressures, we observe no clear systematic dependence of the 2S hyperfine interval frequency on the background gas pressure. However, there is some scatter of the data. The estimated 2S triplet shift due to background gas pressure is $`8(2)`$ MHz/mbar. In the final averaging of the data points a, b and c, we correct for such a shift, but add a conservative 10 Hz error to the error budget.

As mentioned above, we have measured for one day in the differential pumping configuration with the hydrogen flow increased 2 times (point d on Fig.2) to investigate the effect of a pressure shift in the hydrogen beam. Slow atoms interact more frequently with the rest of the beam than the atoms of average thermal velocity, therefore the pressure shift should be different for them. We have evaluated the $`2S`$ hyperfine intervals for all delay times and find some non-systematic difference on the level of 5 Hz. Accounting for the worse statistics of this day of measurement, we have added an error of 10 Hz for the possible pressure shift in the hydrogen beam.

One of the main processes causing the data scattering is a nonlinear drift of the laser frequency on the time scale of 30 min. This process does not cancel in our fit procedure, and has to be averaged. During the 16 days of measurement the cavity drift can be considered as random and we expect no systematic shift due to it. Fig.3 represents the distribution of the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval data without the data of point d. The distribution is symmetrical and can be approximated with a Gauss function of 140 Hz width. Statistical averaging yields a value for $`f_{\mathrm{HFS}}(2S)`$ of $`\mathrm{177\; 556\; 860}(3)`$ Hz.

The effects which contribute errors and shifts to the $`2S`$ hyperfine interval in our measurement are summarized in Table 1. Fig.4 represents the $`D_{21}`$ values corresponding to the several $`2S`$ hyperfine interval measurements in atomic hydrogen as well as the present theoretical value Karsh1 . The 15 Hz error, compared to the $`\mathrm{2\; 466}`$ THz frequency of the $`1S2S`$ interval, corresponds to the resolution of our system on the $`6\times 10^{15}`$ level. The error rivals the 20 Hz error of the radio-frequency $`2S`$ hyperfine interval measurement in deuterium deuterium , which can also be performed optically.

Our current measurement along with other precision experiments on the hyperfine structure of $`1S`$ and $`2S`$ levels in hydrogen and $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}_{}^{+}`$ ion Prior  offers a test of QED on level of accuracy comparable to tests on pure leptonic atoms such a muonium and positronium Karsh1 .

The participation of N.K. in this work was supported by the Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung. The work of S.G.K. was supported in part by RFBR grant # 03-02-16843. The authors wish to thank A. Pahl for calculations concerning the DC Stark effect and Eric Hessels for useful discussions.


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# EU DataGRID testbed management and support at CERN

## I Introduction

The EU DataGRID (EDG) project EDG  started in January 2001 and is now entering its third and last year of activity. The goal of the project is the development of a consistent set of services to create a distributed computing grid, as defined in TheGRID .To test the system under development, a distributed testbed was created involving at first the five main partners of the project (CERN, INFN, IN2P3, PPARC, and NIKHEF). This testbed was then extended to more and more sites, to a total which now exceeds 20 centers all over Europe.

Since the beginning of the project, CERN has been in a very central position, from development to final deployment of the software on the main testbed. In this paper we will describe our experience as managers of the CERN testbed site.

## II Description of EDG services

The current (as of March 2003) release of the EDG middle-ware includes a set of services which implement, even if in a non-definitive way, all the basic services needed to create a grid. In this section we will give an overview of these services.

### II.1 Authentication

User and node authentication complies with the Grid Security Infrastructure (GSI), as defined in GSI , and is based on the openSSL implementation of the Public Key Infrastructure (PKI).

### II.2 Authorization

Access to resources is authorized through a simple map file which associates each authorized user certificate with a dynamically assigned local account.

The list of authorized certificates is available from a small number of LDAP servers, each managed by a different Virtual Organization (VO). As a consequence, the current authorization structure is very coarse grained and can only distinguish either between two individual users or between users belonging to different VO’s.

### II.3 Resource Access

Physical access to local resources, i.e. submission of jobs to a local batch system or transfer of a file to/from a local storage server, uses the gatekeeper service provided by the GLOBUS GLOBUS  project with the addition of EDG specific extensions, and the GSI-enabled GridFTP server, also from GLOBUS.

### II.4 Storage Management

Storage management is still at a quite early stage of development and includes a file replication service (GDMP GDMP ), which at CERN is interfaced to CASTOR, the local MSS service CASTOR , and an LDAP-based Replica Catalog, which will be described later in some detail.

### II.5 Information Services

Information about available resources is distributed via a hierarchical Grid Information Service (GIS), also using LDAP as the base protocol.

### II.6 Resource Management

This is the intelligence of the grid: a Resource Broker (RB) scans job requirements, chooses the best matching site using information from the GIS and delivers the job to the corresponding gatekeeper.

To accomplish this task, the top RB server uses several subordinate services: Job Submission Server (JSS) Job Parsing Server (JPS), CondorG CondorG , …

### II.7 Logging and Bookkeeping

The Logging and Bookkeeping (LB) service stores a state-transition based history of each job handled by the grid.

### II.8 Monitoring and Accounting

Monitoring of the correct functioning of each EDG service and of the grid as a whole is foreseen for the final version of the EDG software but no integrated monitoring system was available at the time of the report. The same applies for a detailed accounting of resource utilization.

Ad hoc solutions for both services were in operation and varied from site to site.

### II.9 Node Installation

One of the goals of the EDG project is to provide automatic tools to manage large computing centers in the LHC era. Most testbed sites used an automatic node installation and management tool, the Local Configuration System (LCFG LCFG ), which will be described later in this paper.

## III EDG testbeds at CERN

Due to its central position within the project, CERN hosts several parallel testbeds, used for different tasks.

### III.1 Application testbed

On this testbed the latest “stable” version of the EDG middle-ware is installed. This testbed is open for all users participating to the project and is used for several different tasks:

* programmed “stress tests” to evaluate the behavior of the middle-ware on a medium scale distributed testbed;
* data production tests by all application groups, including all LHC experiments, bio-medical applications, and earth observation projects;
* demonstrations and tutorials of EDG middle-ware functionalities. Incidentally we can note that these activities, targeted at increasing the public visibility of the project, often posed problems to the site managers: given the current maturity level of the software, to avoid putting the demonstration at risk a constant surveillance of the testbed was required for the whole duration of the same and no other activities (test, normal usage) could take place. Recently an independent testbed, specific for demonstrations, has been set up.

The number of sites participating to this testbed grew from the original 5 sites to the current 20 and is constantly growing. CERN hosted most of the central services (the top node of the information system, Replica Catalogs for two VO’s, two of the main RB’s, …) and connected to the middle-ware a PBS-based batch system with a number of Worker Nodes which went up to over 100 in periods of intense activity.

As only software versions which passed a preliminary extensive test were installed here, this testbed underwent a relatively small number of software updates, mostly required for security patches, installation of new applications on behalf of the experimental groups, and modifications to the access permissions. On the other hand, being aimed at production tests, this testbed required a fairly large amount of manpower due to the instability of the software: most of the main services needed a complete restart at least once per day and, at the same time, a lack of management tools and experience made troubleshooting very hard.

### III.2 Development testbed

On this testbed all EDG software versions are integrated and tested. In order to keep response and update time as short as possible, only the five main sites participate to this testbed.

Aimed at functionality testing, the number of nodes in this testbed was fairly small compared to the application testbed. At CERN only up to 10 nodes were used for the development testbed.

Update activity on this testbed was continuous, often requiring installation of several versions in a single day. To facilitate troubleshooting, developers had direct access to most service nodes. On several occasions this induced some traceability problems as it was not always easy to get a complete description of what the developer did to fix a bug, especially if this included node configuration changes.

### III.3 Integration testbed

Last April, a new testbed was created to perform the (still ongoing) integration of version 2.0 of the EDG middle-ware.

This testbed is composed of about 20 nodes and has characteristics very similar to the development testbed: continuous deployment of test versions, free access to developers, frequent re-installation of the nodes.

On this testbed, the EDG middle-ware was first ported to the RedHat 7.3 version of Linux and to the 2.2.4 version of the GLOBUS toolkit, in its VDT 1.1.8 VDT  manifestation.

Since the integration phase for EDG 2 started, most of the EDG manpower and hardware resources at CERN were diverted to this testbed so that, at the time of writing, the CERN development testbed has been completely dismantled and the application testbed has been reduced to just a Storage Element (SE) node providing access to the CASTOR MSS.

### III.4 Developers’ testbeds

Before a new version of one of the services is allowed to be merged with the rest of the middle-ware on the development or integration testbed, it must be tested for basic functionality in standalone mode. To this end we set up several “reduced” testbeds, including only software components needed to test one of the services at a time.

Each of these testbeds consisted of only two or three nodes but there were continuous requests for the creation of topologies centered on any one of the services.

### III.5 Testbed infrastructure

To support all these testbeds, CERN provided an infrastructure based on some standard CERN computer center services with the addition of a few EDG specific services:

* 5 data servers, with a total of 2.5 TB of mirrored disk storage, offered NFS-based storage capabilities for EDG users’ home directories, shared areas for the batch system (the gass\_cache area described later) and generic storage for data production tests;
* one of the EDG SE’s was interfaced to the CASTOR MSS;
* as many of the EDG developers and users could not be provided with a CERN AFS account, we set up a NIS service for all EDG users;
* a Certification Authority (CA) CERNCA  was set up specifically for EDG usage and provided personal and host certificates for CERN users. This CA is now evolving toward a CERN-wide service.
* an LCFG server, including a private DHCP server, was setup to support node installation and configuration.

The whole testbed infrastructure was then interconnected to the standard CERN LAN with 100 Mbps or, in the case of data servers, 1 Gbps Ethernet lines.

## IV EDG releases

Before March 2002, no real software release procedure was in place. This led to several problems mostly related to the tracing of hand-made modifications on the configuration of the nodes and the installation of private executables by the developers. In turn, this resulted in misalignment among the five participating sites and in huge difficulties in collecting a set of software packages and configuration settings to create a consistent version of the EDG middle-ware.

In spite of the difficulties and with a lot of hard work from all the people involved, we were able to converge to the first real release of the EDG software, version 1.1.2, which was then used in some key demonstrations of functionalities in March 2002.

To improve the situation, a strict release procedure was defined:

* all new rpms are first delivered to the Integration Team which takes care of inserting them in a new CVS-based tentative release tag;
* this tentative tag is first installed on the CERN development testbed and a predefined set of basic tests is applied;
* the five core sites install the same tag and a new set of tests, centered on distributed functionalities, is applied;
* the tag is installed on the application testbed where scalability tests and generalized use can begin.

If at any of these stages the tests fail, the tag is rejected and bug reports are sent back to the relevant developers.

To improve flexibility, application software only needed at the final stage of testing to create a realistic environment is not required to follow this procedure and can be installed upon request of the main application groups. Also, basic OS security patches and support for new CA’s can be applied at need.

Thanks to this procedure, the release of new versions of the code proceeded in a much smoother way and had its finest day last November when all EDG sites successfully moved from version 1.2.3 to the non-downward-compatible version 1.3.0 in only one day.

## V Node installation

One of the key issue to implement the release procedure described in the previous section is the possibility of installing and configuring service nodes located at geographically remote sites according to a predefined and continuously changing set of instructions.

To this end EDG adopted and extended the Local Configuration System (LCFG) developed at the University of Edinburgh.

This tool uses a human-readable description of the basic configuration of the Linux OS and sends it in XML format to an agent on the node for installation. There a set of scripts, called “objects”, use this description to actually modify the system configuration files.

LCFG can easily be extended by providing additional objects which can configure any new functionality or service one may want to add.

After a slow start, more and more objects were created to effectively configure all EDG specific services. Today only very few hand configuration steps are still needed to create an EDG-enabled site and even these will be soon completely automated.

Even if LCFG has proved to be the most valuable instrument to keep the EDG release procedure in track, we found a few drawbacks which had to be taken into account before adopting this tool:

* new objects have to be carefully designed in order not to interfere with other objects;
* some basic limitations of the standard objects have to be taken into account, e.g. hard disks can only be partitioned using the four primary partitions;
* no feedback about the installation or update process is sent back to the LCFG server: this required the creation of ad hoc tools to do some basic checks and a lot of manual work in case of problems;
* LCFG wants to have total control of the machine configuration, from basic OS functions to application level. This means that, in its basic version, LCFG is not suited to install, for example, the EDG middle-ware on top of an already installed node. Recently a modified version of LCFG, called LCFGliteLCFGlite , was developed to handle this case;
* due to its structure, LCFG does not cope well with OS settings which may change outside of its control. An example are user passwords: if users change their passwords, LCFG will change them back to a predefined value. To solve this problem, we moved all user accounts to a non-LCFG-managed NIS server and left only system accounts under local LCFG control;
* as each modification to the node configuration must be first inserted into the configuration description file on the main server, using LCFG to manage nodes used by developers for their first tests might substantially slow down the fast rate of changes. Also, if a developer modifies any configuration file by hand, this might be changed back by LCFG, thus introducing a lot of entropy into the process.

To overcome part of these shortcomings, the EDG WP4 group is currently finalizing an alternative tool which will replace LCFG.

In parallel with LCFG, we used the network boot capabilities of recent NIC’s and the syslinux tool syslinux  to bootstrap the initial installation procedure of the nodes directly from the network. It was then sufficient to start a private DHCP server on the LCFG server to get the whole node installation and configuration automatically accomplished.

To improve the situation even further, we implemented a system to remotely reset nodes using a serial line controlled relay system connected to the reset switch of the motherboards and we used multi serial line boards to collect all consoles to a few central servers, thus allowing a completely web-based control of each node. A report on this project was presented at this conference in Andras .

After all the described tools were in place and after an initial period of adaptation and tuning, the large number of rapidly changing nodes needed for the EDG deployment became much more manageable and our visits to the CERN computer center decreased to almost nil.

## VI Middle-ware

The complexity and novelty of the EDG project made the list of problems encountered in the integration and testing phases particularly long. Here we briefly list some of the main issues which emerged in the process and describe in more detail the problems which have interesting aspects from the system- and site-manager point of view.

As noted previously, many of the middle-ware services were and still are quite fragile, needing frequent restarts. In addition to this, the fault patterns tend to be very complex, often involving several services at the same time, thus making the troubleshooting process quite hard and the learning curve very steep. This state of affairs, normal for an R&D project of this size, was worsened by the fact that the overall architectural design of the project concentrated on defining service functionalities and their interaction but often neglected to deal with the resource management aspects of the problem.

As a consequence, we had many problems in dealing with otherwise normal aspects of storage management: adding new disk space was very tricky, as well as moving file around within the available disk space. Also, no tools to handle scratch space on either batch or service nodes were foreseen, and it was very easy to see a whole disk fill up bringing the node, and often with it the whole grid, to a grinding halt. Log files, one of the main tools to perform troubleshooting and system checking, were most of the time hard to interpret, often lacked some fundamental information (the time tag!), and for a few services did not exist at all.

Another aspect which was not sufficiently taken into account in the first development of the software was that of scalability: several services, even if they correctly implemented all basic functionalities, could not scale beyond a minimal configuration. Examples of this could be found in the Resource Broker, which, due to a known limitation of the CondorG system, was not able to handle more than 512 jobs at the same time, and the Replica Catalog, which had problems if more than O(1000) files (this number depends on the average length of the file name) were listed as a single collection. Even the Information Service started malfunctioning as soon as the number of sites connected to the grid increased from the initial five.

Parallel to scalability problems, we encountered problems related to more traditional aspects of distributed system programming: all along the development and integration process, besides the usual memory leak bugs, we saw port leaks, file leaks, even i-node leaks. These problems were often related to lower levels of the software and led to non obvious fault patterns which needed a long time to debug.

A problem which haunted us in the early phases of the project was the lack of control in the packaging process: executables which worked correctly when compiled by hand by developers, suddenly started misbehaving when inserted into a standard rpm package for deployment. This was most of the time due to differences in libraries on private machines. To reduce this risk, an auto-build system was created and is now in operation: developers are required to set their packages so that they can be compiled on the official auto-build node and only packages created by this system are accepted for release.

Before going into the details of some of the listed problems, we should note that the experience from the first phase of the project was very valuable to define the priorities for the new and final release of the EDG software, currently in the integration phase, so that most of the problems and inconsistencies found during the deployment of the first version of the software were addressed and solved, thus improving stability, scalability, and manageability of the whole system.

### VI.1 The gass\_cache area

Due to the internal structure of the GRAM protocol, defined by the GLOBUS project to handle job submission and information passing in a grid-enabled batch system, a disk area, known as the gass\_cache area, must be shared between the gatekeeper (the borderline node between the grid and the batch system) and all the worker nodes of the batch system.

According to the GRAM protocol, each job which is submitted to the batch system creates a large number ($`100`$) of tiny files in the gass\_cache area. If the job ends in an unclean way, very often these files are not erased. In addition, due to a bug in the implementation, even if the job ends correctly, the gass\_cache area is not completely cleaned.

Given the small size of the files, often not exceeding 100 bytes, these two problems create a steady leak of i-nodes on the shared area so that, even if this area appears to be almost empty, the GRAM protocol suddenly stops working as no more files can be created. Being at the heart of the job submission system of the grid, problems with the GRAM protocol manifest themselves in a whole set of different and apparently uncorrelated malfunctions of several subsystems: the first few times it took us a long time to find where the problem lay.

Even knowing the real source of the problem, fixing it requires a long time to clean up the huge number of leftover i-nodes, time during which the local batch system is not visible from the grid, and the loss of any job running on the batch system at the time.

As there is no easy way to map the internal structure of the gass\_cache area to the jobs which are currently running on the batch system, and no tool to do this was provided, either by GLOBUS, or by EDG, it is not possible to create a clean up daemon which keeps an eye on the shared area and cleans up files which are not longer needed.

### VI.2 Storage management issues

As already noted, the first version of the EDG middle-ware did not contain a complete and integrated model for grid-wide storage management but only a set of low level tools and services which could be used to partially interface storage servers to the grid.

The principal tools were:

* a GSI-enabled ftp server;
* GDMP GDMP , a replication-on-demand service
* a basic Replica Catalog (RC), with the cited limitations in the number of files it can manage;
* a set of user level commands to copy files to and from a data server, to trigger file replication between data servers, and to register files to the RC;
* a basic interface to mass storage systems like CASTOR and HPSS.

A constraint in the way the RC was organized had unforeseen consequences on the possibility of setting up and organizing a storage system which are worth examining in some detail.

The RC is a simple database, in its first implementation based on the OpenLDAP OpenLDAP  package, which contains a collection of logical file names (LFN), used to uniquely identify a given file, and for each of them one or more physical file names (PFN) which point to the physical location of each replica of the logical file. By design, the PFN was obtained from the LFN by appending it to the path of the grid-enabled area assigned to the corresponding VO on a given storage system.

As an example, let’s assume that a simulation job submitted by a physicist belonging to the Atlas VO produces a file with LFN prod/feb2003/simu001.fz. If a copy of this file is stored on a SE at CERN, it will have a PFN like //lxshare0384.cern.ch/flatfiles/atlas/prod/
feb2003/simu001.fz where:

* lxshare0384.cern.ch is the node name of the SE
* /flatfiles/atlas is the path to the disk area assigned to Atlas

This apparently harmless limitation had heavy implications in the usage of storage systems: for the file replication system to work in a user transparent way within the whole grid, the disk area on each SE must either consist of a single big partition, which merges all physical disk systems available to the node, or all SE’s must have exactly the same disk partition structure.

To understand this, assume that at CERN the prod/feb2003 path corresponds to a mount point of a 100 GB disk (the standard organization of CERN disk servers) so that only Atlas can use it. At, e.g., RAL the prod/feb2003 path might not exist yet, so if a user wants to replicate the file there he/she must first create it. At RAL this path will end up on a partition which depends on the disk layout of the local SE and which may very well not have enough disk space to hold the replicated file, even if the SE itself has plenty of free disk space on other partitions.

This problem was particularly annoying at CERN when we tried to set up a central SE where the CMS collaboration could collect all simulated data produced on the grid during its “stress test”. To allow for automatic replication from the other sites, we had to carefully plan the partition layout on the central SE, taking into account how much data would be produced on average at each site participating to the test, and then ask the CMS production group to store their data using different paths according to which site the data were being produced at. The final system worked fine but it was very far from the expected transparent replication of data within the grid.

### VI.3 Resource Broker issues

As explained above, the Resource Broker (RB) is the central intelligence of the grid, taking care of interpreting user requests expressed in the Job Description Language (JDL) and mapping them to the available resources using the Grid Information Service.

Due to its central role, the RB interacts with most of the grid services in many different and complex ways. A malfunction in the RB is then very visible from the user point of view as jobs are no longer accepted and it can have bad effects on all services with which it interacts. A lot of effort was put into fixing problems but it is still the most sensitive spot in the grid.

To improve reliability in job submission, several RB’s have been set up at different sites, thus increasing the scalability of the grid in terms of the maximum number of jobs accepted and giving users some back-up access points to the grid in case the local RB gets stuck with a problem.

Due to the large number of low-level services it uses, several problems can show up in the RB, thus affecting the functioning of the whole grid. One of these is the corruption of the job requests database. This is related to a non-thread-safe low level library used by the postgres database which, on dual-processor nodes, can lead to data corruption.

When this problem occurs, all RB daemons appear to run correctly but newly submitted jobs end up in a waiting status. All the daemons must then be stopped, the whole postgres database cleaned up, and then the RB can be restarted. In the process, all active jobs being controlled by the RB are lost. During normal usage of the system, this problem occurs on average once per day per RB node.

It must be noted that a solution to this problem is already available and will be deployed with version 2 of the EDG middle-ware.

## VII Conclusions

EDG testbeds have been in operation for almost two years, always providing continuous and indispensable feed-back to EDG developers. LHC experiments and the other project partners were able to get a first taste of a realistic grid environment in preparation for future large scale deployments.

Being one of the most advanced grid projects currently in operation, most of the problems and inadequacies of the EDG middle-ware were hard to isolate and to fix, mostly due to lack of previous experience.

Several new problems related to resource management in a gridified environment were isolated and are being or will be addressed in the final version of the EDG software and related projects like LCG LCG .

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors wish to thank the EU and the national funding agencies for their support of this work.


text:
# Neutrinos from the pulsar wind nebulae

## 1 Introduction

The possibility that hadronic processes can contribute to the observed $`\gamma `$-ray emission from the PWNe has been considered in recent years by e.g. Cheng et al. (1990) and Aharonian & Atoyan (1996). Following these works and earlier results (e.g. Berezinsky & Prilutsky 1978), we discussed a model for the production of radiation in hadronic processes with the application to the very young PWNe (Protheroe, Bednarek & Luo 1998, Beall & Bednarek 2002). In these papers, the $`\gamma `$-ray and/or neutrino fluxes were estimated from the interaction of nuclei, injected by the pulsar, with the matter and soft radiation of the supernova remnant during its early phase of development, i.e. within the first few years. A general model like this has recently become very popular, finding its application in the estimation of neutrino fluxes from the $`\gamma `$-ray bursts in terms of the supranova model (e.g. Guetta & Granot 2002, Razzaque, Meszaros & Waxman 2002, Dermer & Atoyan 2003), which postulate the formation of a very fast pulsar during the supernova explosion (Vietri & Stella 1998). In another paper the contribution of nuclei from the pulsar to the $`\gamma `$-ray (and neutrino) spectrum was also calculated for the best known example of the older supernova remnant, i.e. the Crab Nebula (Bednarek & Protheroe 1997). Recently, the neutrino flux from the Crab Nebula has been independently estimated by Amato, Guetta & Blasi (2003). The authors predict the few to several neutrino events in a 1 km2 detector per year from this source.

Recently we have considered a more general model for the hadronic and leptonic processes inside the PWNe, which are based on the proposition that a significant part of the pulsar rotational energy is taken by relativistic nuclei (Arons and collaborators, e.g. Arons 1998). Our purpose was to calculate the $`\gamma `$-ray spectra from the well-known PWNe. From the comparison of the calculations with the observations of these $`\gamma `$-ray nebulae, we derived some free parametrs of the considered model in order to predict the $`\gamma `$-ray and neutrino fluxes from other nebulae, which may become potential targets for the next generation of $`\gamma `$-ray and neutrino telescopes. The calculations of the $`\gamma `$-ray spectra from leptonic and hadronic processes were reported in the accompanying paper by Bednarek & Bartosik (2003, BB03). The neutrino spectra are calculated in the present paper. Most of the earlier calculations of the $`\gamma `$-ray fluxes from the PWNe, which refer mainly to the Crab Nebula (e.g. De Jager & Harding 1992, Aharonian & Atoyan 1995, De Jager et al. 1996a, Hillas et al. 1998), were done based only on the leptonic origin for this emission. The calculations of the $`\gamma `$-ray fluxes from other nebulae are available only for a few objects, e.g. nebulae around PSR 1706-44 (Aharonian, Atoyan & Kifune 1997), PSR 1509-58 (Du Plessis et al. 1995), Vela pulsar (De Jager et al. 1996b).

The neutrino fluxes from a few PWNe have recently been re-scaled from the observed TeV $`\gamma `$-ray fluxes by Guetta & Amato (2002), based on the simple assumption that in all these nebulae the $`\gamma `$-rays above 2 TeV are produced in a decay of $`\pi ^o`$, which originate in hadronic processes. This assumption is in contradiction to the popular opinion on the relative importance of the leptonic and hadronic processes in PWNe and also with the results presented in this paper.

## 2 The model for high energy processes in the pulsar wind nebula

The details of the model for high energy processes in the PWNe are described in our first paper (BB03). For consistency we repeat here its main features. The evolution of the supernova remnant, containing energetic pulsar, is described following the main points of the picture considered soon after the discovery of pulsars by Ostriker & Gunn (1971) and Rees & Gunn (1974). Let us assume that when the explosion occurs the expansion velocity of nebula at its inner radius is $`V_{0,\mathrm{SN}}`$ and its initial mass is $`M_{0,\mathrm{SN}}`$. However this expension velocity can increase due to the additional supply of energy to the nebula by the pulsar and can also decrease due to the accumulation of the surrounding matter. We take these processes into account when determining the radius of the nebula at the specific time, t, by using the energy conservation,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{M_{\mathrm{SN}}(t)V_{\mathrm{SN}}^2(t)}{2}}={\displaystyle \frac{M_{0,\mathrm{SN}}V_{0,\mathrm{SN}}^2}{2}}+{\displaystyle _0^t}L_{\mathrm{em}}(t^{})𝑑t^{},`$ (1)
where

$`L_{\mathrm{em}}(t)=B_\mathrm{s}^2R_\mathrm{s}^6\mathrm{\Omega }^4/6c^31.3\times 10^{45}B_{12}^2P_{\mathrm{ms}}^4\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1,`$ (2)
is the pulsar energy loss on emission of dipole electromagnetic radiation, $`\mathrm{\Omega }=2\pi /P`$, and the period of the pulsar $`P=10^3P_{\mathrm{ms}}`$ s changes with time according to

$`P_{\mathrm{ms}}^2(t)=P_{0,\mathrm{ms}}^2+2\times 10^9tB_{12}^2,`$ (3)
where $`P_{0,\mathrm{ms}}`$ is the initial period of the pulsar and $`B=10^{12}B_{12}`$ G the strength of its surface magnetic field. The expanding nebula increases the mass from the surrounding medium according to

$`M_{\mathrm{SN}}(t)=M_{0,\mathrm{SN}}+{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}\pi \rho _{\mathrm{sur}}R_{\mathrm{Neb}}^3(t),`$ (4)
where $`\rho _{\mathrm{sur}}`$ is the density of the surrounding medium and $`R_{\mathrm{Neb}}`$ is the outer radius of expanding envelope at the time, t, which depends on the expansion history of the nebula,

$`R_{\mathrm{Neb}}={\displaystyle _0^t}V_{\mathrm{SN}}(t^{})𝑑t^{}.`$ (5)
The expansion velocity of the nebula, $`V_{\mathrm{SN}}(t)`$, and its density of matter, $`\rho _{\mathrm{Neb}}=3M_{\mathrm{SN}}(t)/4\pi R_{\mathrm{Neb}}^3(t)`$, at the time t have been found by solving the above set of Eqs. (1-5) numerically.

The pulsar loses energy in the form of relativistic wind which extends up to the distance $`R_{\mathrm{sh}}`$. At this distance, the pressure of the wind is balanced by the pressure of the expanding nebula. We estimate the location of this shock at the time, t, by comparing the wind energy flux, determined by $`L_{\mathrm{em}}`$ (Eq. 2), with the pressure of the outer nebula, determined by the supply of energy to the nebula by the pulsar over the whole of its lifetime (Rees & Gunn 1974),

$`{\displaystyle \frac{L_{\mathrm{em}}(t)}{4\pi R_{\mathrm{sh}}^2c}}{\displaystyle \frac{_0^tL_{\mathrm{em}}(t^{})𝑑t^{}}{\frac{4}{3}\pi R_{\mathrm{Neb}}^3}}.`$ (6)
The assumption that the pulsar wind ram pressure is balanced by the total pressure inside the nebula is different from that made in the previous paper (BB03) in which the wind pressure is balanced only by the magnetic field pressure. In fact this modification changes the location of the pulsar wind shock for very young nebulae but do not have influence on the calculated neutrino fluxes from them since the escape conditions of heavy nuclei from the nebula do not change significantly.

Knowing how magnetic field depends on the distance from the pulsar in the pulsar wind zone, we can estimate the strength of the magnetic field at the shock region from

$`B_{\mathrm{sh}}=\sqrt{\sigma }B_{\mathrm{pul}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{R_{\mathrm{pul}}}{R_{\mathrm{lc}}}}\right)^3{\displaystyle \frac{R_{\mathrm{lc}}}{R_{\mathrm{sh}}}},`$ (7)
where $`\sigma `$ is the ratio of the magnetic energy flux to the particle energy flux from the pulsar at the location of the pulsar wind shock, $`R_{\mathrm{pul}}`$ and $`B_{\mathrm{pul}}`$ are the radius and the surface magnetic field of the pulsar, respectively. The evolution of $`\sigma `$ with the parameters of the pulsar is found by interpolating between the values estimated for the Crab pulsar, $`0.003`$, and for the Vela pulsar, $`1`$ (see Eq. 16 and below in Bednarek & Protheroe 2002 for details).

It is likely that a significant part of the rotational energy of the pulsar, transfered through the shock radius $`R_{\mathrm{sh}}`$ is in the form of relativistic heavy nuclei. In fact, such an assumption can explain morphological features of the Crab Nebula and also the appearance of extremely energetic leptons inside the nebula accelerated as a result of the rezonant scattering of positrons and electrons by heavy nuclei (Hoshino et al. 1992, Gallant & Arons 1994). From the normalization to the observations of the Crab pulsar, Arons and collaborators ( e.g. see Arons 1998) postulate that the Lorenz factors of iron nuclei in the pulsar’s wind should be

$`\gamma _10.3Ze\mathrm{\Phi }_{\mathrm{open}}/m_\mathrm{i}c^2,`$ (8)
where $`m_\mathrm{i}`$ and $`Ze`$ are the mass and charge of the iron nuclei, $`c`$ is the velocity of light, and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{\mathrm{open}}=\sqrt{E_{\mathrm{em}}/c}`$ is the total electric potential drop across the open magnetosphere. Eq. (8) postulates that the pulsar with a specific period and a surface magnetic field accelerates nuclei monoenergetically. As assumed in the Gallant & Arons (1994) model for the Crab Nebula, the nuclei take a significant part, $`\chi `$, of the total rotational energy lost by the pulsar. The calculations of neutrino rates from the PWMe, presented below, are done for the value of $`\chi =0.8`$. In the next section we integrate the injection spectra of nuclei over the activity period of the pulsar in order to obtain the equilibrium spectrum of the nuclei inside the nebula at a specific time after pulsar formation.

## 3 Production of neutrinos by nuclei

The nuclei injected into the nebula suffer adiabatic energy losses, due to the expansion of the nebula, and rare collisions with the matter of the nebula. The most energetic nuclei can diffuse out of the nebula. We include all these energy loss processes for the nuclei (adiabatic losses, fragmentation, escape) following Bednarek & Protheroe (2002), and BB03, to calculate the equilibrium spectra of different types of nuclei inside the nebula at the specific time after pulsar formation (see Sect. 4.1 and Fig. 2 in BB03 for example equilibrium spectra of nuclei inside the nebula).

The nuclei, with the equilibrium spectra, interact with the matter of the supernova remnant and produce neutrinos via decay of pions. We estimate the neutrino spectra by simple re-scaling of the $`\gamma `$-ray spectra calculated for these hadrons, applying the scaling brake model proposed by Wdowczyk & Wolfendale (1987). The number of produced neutrinos is on average two times larger than the number of $`\gamma `$-rays (the multiplicity of charged pions in respect to the neutral pions is larger by this factor) and the average energies of neutrinos are a factor of two lower than the $`\gamma `$-rays. As an example, we show in Fig. 1 the spectra of muon neutrinos (and antineutrinos) produced at a different times, $`10^2`$ yr, $`3\times 10^2`$ yr, $`10^3`$ yr, $`3\times 10^3`$ yr, and $`10^4`$ yr after the formation of the pulsar at the distance of 2 kpc. The initial parameters of the pulsar are: the period 15 ms and the surface magnetic field $`4\times 10^{12}`$ G, and the initial parameters of the nebula (supernova remnant) are: the mass $`3M_{}`$ and the velocity 2000 km s-1. It is assumed that supernova exploded in the medium with a typical density of 0.3 cm-3. We also show the atmospheric neutrino background (ANB) expected within 1o of the source as calculated by Lipari (1993). As expected, the intensities of neutrino spectra strongly depend on the age of the nebula due to the lower densities of matter inside the nebula. The spectra also shift to lower energies due to the adiabatic energy losses of nuclei, more efficient escape of higher energy nuclei from the nebula, and lower energies of the freshly injected nuclei inside the nebula by older pulsars. In Fig. 2 we show also the expected neutrino event rate in a 1 km2 detector from pulsars with different parameters. The predicted event rates are above 1 per year if the age of the pulsar (and nebula) is shorter than $`10^33\times 10^3`$ yrs.

## 4 Expected neutrino rates from specific nebulae

We calculate the expected neutrino spectra at the Earth and the neutrino event rates in a 1 km2 detector from the PWNe for which the $`\gamma `$-ray fluxes have been calculated in our previous paper (BB03). The initial parameters of the nebulae and the pulsars for these sources have been taken as applied in calculations of $`\gamma `$-ray fluxes.

To estimate the neutrino rates we applied the muon neutrino detection probabilities by the 1 km2 detector calculated by Gaisser & Grillo (1987). The neutrinos arriving to the detector from the nadir direction can partially be absorbed by the Earth. This effect is significant for neutrinos with energies $`>100`$ TeV. We take it into account by applying the neutrino absorption coefficients calculated by Gandhi (2000). These absorption effects are not very important in the case of most of the considered objects.

### 4.1 The Crab Nebula

The observed parameters of the Crab Nebula and the pulsar (the present radius $`23`$ pc, the expansion velocity 2000 km s-1, the period $`33.4`$ ms) can be fitted by assuming that: (1) the pulsar was born with the initial period of 15 ms, the surface magnetic field $`3.8\times 10^{12}`$ G, as derived from the observed period and period derivative with the assumption that the pulsar loses most of its energy on the dipole electromagnetic radiation; (2) the parent Crab Nebula supernova has $`3M_{}`$ (consistent with the observed density of matter inside the nebula), and expends with the initial velocity of 2000 km s-1 at the distance of 1830 pc from the Crab Nebula (Davidson & Fesen 1985). For the applied parameters, we successfully described the observed $`\gamma `$-ray spectrum from the Crab Nebula (see BB03) as a self-consistent composition of the $`\gamma `$-ray spectra produced by leptons ($`<10`$ TeV) and hadrons ($`>10`$ TeV).

The muon neutrino and antyneutrino spectrum from the Crab Nebula, calculated for the above parameters, is above the atmospheric neutrino background within $`1^\mathrm{o}`$ of the source (see Fig. 3). However the neutrino rate in the 1 km2 detector, about one event per year, is relatively low (see Table 1). This rate is similar to the neutrino rate predicted in our earlier calculations (Bednarek & Protheroe 1997), which are based on somewhat deferent assumptions. In that model we assumed that neutrinos are produced in the interactions of nucleons with the matter of expanding supernova remnant. The nucleons were dissolved from the heavy nuclei during their propagation in the inner pulsar magnetosphere.

### 4.2 The Vela Supernova Remnant

The Vela pulsar is inside the compact nonthermal nebula with the radius of $`7^{}`$ and the extended Vela Supernova Remnant (Vela SNR) with the radius of $`3.5^\mathrm{o}`$. The observed parameters of the pulsar allow us to estimate its surface magnetic field, $`4.5\times 10^{12}`$ G, and the characteristic age of 11.300 yrs. We model the Vela SNR assuming that the initial parameters of this object were similar to the Crab Nebula, i.e. the initial pulsar period of 15 ms, the mass of Vela SNR of 3 M and the expansion velocity of 2000 km s-1. The distance to the Vela pulsar is taken to be $`300`$ pc (Caraveo et al. 2001), although the older literature suggested the value of 500 pc (e.g. Cha, Sembach & Danks 1999). For these parameters of the pulsar and nebula, we estimate its real age to be $`6000`$ yrs, consistent with the observed dimensions of the nebula.

The muon neutrino spectrum, calculated from the Vela SNR, is just on the level of ANB within $`1^\mathrm{o}`$ around the source (Fig. 3). The expected neutrino event rate is similar to the Crab Nebula neutrino event rate (Table 1), but the neutrinos from the Vela SNR are less energetic. Moreover, due to the very large size of the Vela SNR on the sky, $`3.5^\mathrm{o}`$, the expected ANB for this source may be about an order of magnitude higher than marked in Fig. 3. Therefore the observation of a neutrino signal from the Vela SNR is unlikely.

### 4.3 The Nebula around PSR 1706-44

The pulsar PSR 1706-44, and its nebula (G 343.1-2.3), show close similarities to the Vela pulsar and SNR. It has also been reported at TeV $`\gamma `$-ray energies (Kifune et al. 1995, Chadwick et al. 1998). These pulsars have similar characteristic ages and present periods. However, due to the lower surface magnetic field of the PSR1706-44, equal to $`3.1\times 10^{12}`$ G, and a longer period, 102 ms, the real age of the pulsar has to be closer to its characteristic age 17.400 yrs. As in the previous modelling we assume that the initial period of this pulsar is also 15 ms and the expansion velocity of the nebula 2000 km s-1. For these parameters of the pulsar and nebula, the consistency with the observed parameters of this object is reached for its real age 16.000 yrs. The distance to PSR 1706-44 is taken 1.8 kpc (Taylor & Cordes 1993).

The neutrino spectra calculated from PSR 1706-44 are about two orders of magnitude below the ANB (Fig. 3), and the predicted neutrino event rate in a 1 km2 detector, $`4\times 10^3`$ per year, do not allow their detection in a reasonable time. These small values are due to the significantly larger distance and higher real age of PSR 1706-44 in comparison to the Vela pulsar.

### 4.4 The Nebula 3C58 around PSR J0205+6449

The pulsar PSR J0205+6449 and its nebula 3C58 is sometimes identified with the historic supernova in 1181 yr (Thorsett et al. 1992). However, in such a case, using the required initial period of the pulsar of $`60`$ ms and the expension velocity of the nebula of $`5000`$ km s-1 (to fit the observed dimensions of the nebula), we were not able to describe successfully the observed electromagnetic spectrum from this source in the broad energy range (BB03).

Therefore, in order to fit the observed electromagnetic spectrum, we followed another proposition for the parameters of this pulsar and nebula: the age of 5000 yrs (Bietenholz et al. 2001), which is consistent with the characteristic age (Murray et al. 2002), initial period of 15 ms, and expansion velocity of 1000 km s-1 (Fesen 1983). These values allow to fit the present parameters of this system. The surface magnetic field of this pulsar is estimated to be $`3.6\times 10^{12}`$ G and its distance on 3.2 kpc (Roberts et al. 1993). However for these parameters, the neutrino spectrum from PSR J0205+6449 is about two orders of magnitude below the ANB (Fig. 3), and the predicted neutrino event rate (see Table 1) is not detectable.

### 4.5 The Nebula MSH15-52 around PSR 1509-58

The pulsar PSR 1509-58, with the characteristic age of $`1700`$ yr, and its complex nebula MSH15-52, are sometimes identified with the historic supernova SN 185 (Thorsett 1992). The distance to these objects is put in the range 4.2 kpc (kinematics of H I, Caswell et al. 1975) up to 5.9 kpc (dispersion measure, Taylor & Cordes 1993). We apply the value of 5.2 kpc. The pulsar has the present period of $`150`$ ms, and the surface magnetic field of $`1.5\times 10^{13}`$ G. Its present parametrs can be explained by assuming that the initial pulsar period was 15 ms and its real age is close to its characteristic age. However, in order to fit the observed dimensions of the nebula, $`5^{}\times 10^{}`$, we have to assume that the expansion velocity of the bulk matter in this nebula is 5000 km s-1, which is much higher than that applied in the modelling of other nebulae.

The neutrino spectrum calculated from this nebula is about two orders of magnitude below the ANB (Fig. 3) and the expected neutrino event rate in 1 km2 detector is very low (Table 1). However this source has been marginally detected by the CANGAROO telescope at TeV energies (Sako et al. 2000). We were not able to describe such a high level of the $`\gamma `$-ray emission from MSH15-52 by only leptonic processes (BB03). However, the thermal, optical nebula RCW 89, containg $`H_\alpha `$ line-emitting filaments with the density of $`5\times 10^3`$ cm-3, coincide with the NW component of the remnant MSH15-52 (Seward et al. 1983). Therefore, if the nuclei, injected by the pulsar are captured by these high density filaments, then the reported level of $`\gamma `$-ray emission from this object can be explained by the $`\gamma `$-rays produced in interactions of nuclei with the matter with average density of $`300`$ cm-3. Then, the accompanying neutrino emission is comparable to the ANB (Fig. 3), and the expected neutrino event rate in a 1 km2 detector is close to 1 event per year.

### 4.6 The Nebula CTB80 around PSR 1951+32

The pulsar PSR 1951+32 has a short period, 39.5 ms, a large characteristic age of $`1.1\times 10^5`$ yr, and a relatively weak surface magnetic field of $`4.9\times 10^{11}`$ G. It lies inside the supernova remnant CTB80, which consists of a $`10^{}\times 6^{}`$ compact nebula and shell-like extended component with a diameter of $`30^{}`$. The estimated dynamic age of the nebula $`9.6\times 10^4`$ yr (for the distance 2.5 kpc) matches the characteristic age of the pulsar (Koo et al. 1990). Therefore in our modelling, we assume that these objects are at the distance of 2.5 kpc and have the real age close to the pulsar characteristic age. The observed parameters of the pulsar and nebula are consistent with the initial period of the pulsar of 15 ms and the expansion velocity of the nebula 2000 km s-1. The neutrino spectrum calculated for the above parameters is also orders of magnitudes below the ANB (Fig. 3), and the predicted neutrino event rate is below the sensitivity of a 1 km2 neutrino detector (Table 1).

The nebula CTB80 is sometimes regarded as the remnant of the recent supernova in the year 1408, found in Chinese records (Strom et al. 1980, Wang & Seward 1984). If this is the case, then the initial period of the pulsar has to be very close to the one observed and the energy lost by the pulsar is very low. Assuming the expansion velocity of the nebula qeual to 1000 km s-1, to fit the observed dimension of the compact nebula, the expected neutrino event rate in this case is about an order of magnitude higher than estimated above (see the number in brackets in Table 1), but still below the sensitivity of the future neutrino detectors.

## 5 Conclusion

According to the model discussed here for the high energy processes in PWNe, in which most of the observable $`\gamma `$-ray emission originates in leptonic processes and the accompanying hadronic processes contribute only to the higher energy part of the spectrum, only young PWNe (with the age $`<13\times 10^3`$ yr and at the typical distance of 2 kpc) should be detected by a 1 km2 neutrino detector with the rate above 1 event per yr, i.e. above the atmospheric neutrino background within $`1^\mathrm{o}`$ of the source. Between all considered PWNe, which are observed in the TeV $`\gamma `$-rays, contains a young $`\gamma `$-ray pulsar, or are considered as likely objects for TeV $`\gamma `$-ray detection, only neutrinos from the Crab Nebula should be observed by the 1 km2 with the event rate of 1 per yr. The neutrino event rate from the Vela SNR is comparable to that of the Crab nebula, but due to significantly lower energies of neutrinos and a much larger solid angle of the source on the sky, the signal from this object may not be extracted from the atmospheric neutrino background. The neutrino spectra from other considered nebulae (pulsars): G 343.1-2.3 (PSR 1706-44), MSH15-52 (PSR 1509-58), 3C58 (PSR J0205+6449), and CTB80 (PSR 1951+32), are significantly below the ANB, and the expected neutrino event rate is far below the sensitivity of a 1 km2 neutrino detector in a reasonable time of observation.

The neutrino rates, calculated in terms of the model for the high energy processes in PWNe considered here, are lower than those obtained by Guetta and Amato (2002), who rescaled the observed $`\gamma `$-ray fluxes above 2 TeV to the neutrino fluxes by simply assuming that all this $`\gamma `$-ray emission originates in hadronic processes. This assumption is in contradiction to the widely accepted leptonic model for the origin of the bulk emission from the WPNe. According to Guetta and Amato (2002), Crab , Vela, PSR1706-44, and PSR1509-58, should be easily detected by the 1 km2 neutrino detector during one year. We have calculated the ratio of the neutrino luminosity to the $`\gamma `$-ray luminosity above 1 TeV for the PWNe with reported TeV $`\gamma `$-ray emission. This ratio is equal to $`L_\nu /L_\gamma 58\%`$ (the Crab Nebula), $`22\%`$ (the Vela Nebula), and $`0.5\%`$ (the nebula around PSR1707-44). Only in the case of the Crab Nebula the predicted neutrino luminosity should be close to the observed TeV $`\gamma `$-ray luminosity above 1 TeV. The neutrino fluxes can be comparable to the observed $`\gamma `$-ray fluxes even for relatively old nebulae if the high density medium is present close to the PWNa. As an example in Bednarek & Bartosik (2003), we consider the case of MSH15-52 (PSR 1509-58) which is close to the high density medium (Seward et al. 1983). For this PWNa the ratio $`L_\nu /L_\gamma `$ is $`77\%`$.

In the case of all considered nebulae we assumed that the pulsars are born with the initial periods of 15 ms, as derived for the Crab pulsar. In fact, pulsars with shorter periods can also explain the main observed parameters of these nebulae. If the initial periods of these pulsars are significantly shorter then the expected neutrino event rate increases. As an example, in Fig. 2 we consider the case of the pulsar with the period of 5 ms which produces the neutrino event rate by a factor of 2-3 higher than predicted for the 15 ms pulsar, for the nebulae older than $`10^3`$ yr. Therefore, significant reduction of the initial period of the pulsar does not influence the main conclusions of the paper concerning the detection of neutrinos from specific nebulae by a 1 km2 detector.

We assumed that the density of a medium in which the supernova exploded is 0.3 cm-3. The pulsars surrounded by young supernova remnants, with similar parameters to the ones considered here, should produce much higher fluxes of neutrinos if they exploded in the high density medium. For example, the presence of the cloud with the average density of 300 particles cm-3 close to MSH15-52 (PSR 1509-58) should allow detection of neutrinos and explain the marginal detection of TeV $`\gamma `$-rays from this object (Sako et al. 2000), as a result of radiation produced during interactions of hadrons with the matter.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work is supported by the Polish KBN grants No. 5P03D 025 21 and PBZ-KBN-054/P03/2001.


text:
# Thermodynamic non-additivity in disordered systems

## I Introduction

The non-extensive thermodynamics results from a generalization of the standard Gibbs-Boltzmann (GB) statistics. The non-extensive formalism has been applied to the description of a variety of physical systems. In some cases, related to disordered systems (e.g. anomalous diffusion in porous media or surface growth), it has resulted in quantitative implications, which are difficult to obtain in the framework of the classical GB approach.

In the spirit of the information theory approach the non-extensivity is usually introduced starting with a postulation of the entropy measure. For instance, Tsallis proposed the following form

$$S_q^T=\frac{1(d\sigma )[p(\sigma )]^q}{q1}$$
(1)
where $`p(\sigma )`$ is a probability to find a state $`\sigma `$, with $`(d\sigma )p(\sigma )=1`$. Here $`q`$ is an index, corresponding to a given statistics. Simultaneously $`q`$ is a measure of the thermodynamic non-additivity. Although in general the non-extensivity should be distinguished from the non-additivity, quite often these two terms are being used as synonymous. If the state $`\sigma `$ is characterized by the energy $`\epsilon (\sigma )`$, then, based on the entropy maximization under a constraint for a generalized internal energy, one obtains a power law for the probability

$$p(\sigma )=\frac{[1(1q)\beta \epsilon (\sigma )]^{1/(1q)}}{(d\sigma )[1(1q)\beta \epsilon (\sigma )]^{1/(1q)}}$$
(2)
We do not discuss here how the above distribution modifies with different constraints  for the internal energy as well as the internal specificities  of the Tsallis theory and its mathematical consistency. For any constraint in the limit $`q1`$ one recovers the standard GB results: $`S_{GB}=(d\sigma )p(\sigma )\mathrm{ln}p(\sigma )`$ and the exponential form for $`p(\sigma )`$. Note that the Tsallis form is not unique in having $`S_{GB}`$ as a limit. As an alternative example, one can consider the Renyi form, which is however additive.

Despite of many efforts towards deriving the Tsallis-type entropy starting from basic assumptions, up to now it is not clear which physical systems are ”naturally” non-extensive, and thus require the Tsallis-type statistics as an essential tool. In particular, the physical meaning of the $`q`$ parameter  as well as a relation of $`S_q^T`$ to an underlying dynamics  are still under discussion. Also the thermodynamic consistency of the non-extensive formalism has recently been criticized. Therefore, a derivation of the power-law entropy (like $`S_q^T`$) instead of postulating it, would be much helpful in resolving these problems.

In this paper we investigate the conditions and assumptions at which the non-extensive thermodynamics can be recovered using the tools of the standard statistical mechanics, applied to systems which, because of their complexity, require more than the usual Hamiltonian description. This is in the spirit of the Beck-Cohen approach, who have shown that a non-GB distribution (including the Tsallis one) could appear in systems with fluctuating intensive quantities. Our purpose is to recover the Tsallis-type entropy, which is a generating functional for the power-like probability distribution, but not to construct the distribution itself. This establishes a relation between the information theory and the statistical mechanics in application to systems which are out of the conventional GB equilibrium. In particular we focus on disordered systems since their description involves two essential ingredients: a Hamiltonian and a distribution function. In fact, Tsallis has already commented on a formal similarity of the non-extensive formalism and the replica trick, suitable for the systems with a quenched disorder. Therefore it is tempting to realize the condition at which such systems exhibit the non-extensive behavior. This would allow us to make a link between the system dynamics (the Hamiltonian), its complexity (the probability distribution) and the magnitude of the entropic $`q`$-parameter.

## II Replica approach to disordered systems

From a dynamical point of view disordered systems (like porous materials or spin glasses) can be viewed as those consisting of many subsystems, whose equilibration times are much different. Then, considering the static (or ”equilibrium”) properties, the slower subsystem, say $`\{\sigma \}`$, is quenched with a given probability distribution $`P(\sigma )`$, while the faster one, say $`\{s\}`$ is governed by a Hamiltonian $`H=H_R+H[\sigma ,s]`$. In the case of spin glasses the counterparts of $`\{s\}`$ and $`\{\sigma \}`$ systems are the spin variables and the random fields (or exchange constants), respectively. It is essential that the Hamiltonian contains a reference part $`H_R`$, which gives a characteristic energy scale reflecting the way of quenching (e.g. the cooling rate and the correspondent temperature gap).

For a given configuration $`\{\sigma \}`$ one can calculate the partition function

$$Z(\sigma )=𝒵/Z_R=(ds)e^{\beta H[\sigma ,s]}$$
(3)
where $`Z_R=e^{\beta H_R}`$ and $`\beta =1/kT`$. Then all the thermodynamic characteristics are known. For instance, the free energy excess

$$F(\sigma )=H_R=\frac{1}{\beta }\mathrm{ln}Z(\sigma )$$
(4)
and the internal energy excess

$$U(\sigma )=𝒰H_R=\frac{d}{d\beta }\mathrm{ln}Z(\sigma )$$
(5)
determine the thermodynamic entropy

$$S_T(\sigma )=\beta [U(\sigma )F(\sigma )]$$
(6)
Then all the relevant thermodynamic quantities can be obtained by averaging the quenched ones. For instance, the average free energy is given by

$$F=\overline{F(\sigma )}=(d\sigma )P(\sigma )F(\sigma )$$
(7)
Note that, in contrast to the conventional equilibrium, now we have two entropies - the thermodynamic entropy

$$S_T=(d\sigma )P(\sigma )S_T(\sigma )$$
(8)
and the one related to the information on the probability distribution

$$S_I=(d\sigma )P(\sigma )\mathrm{ln}P(\sigma )$$
(9)
Instead of the direct averaging of the logarithm in (7) it is convenient to introduce the replica trick, which is based on the representation

$$\mathrm{ln}Z(\sigma )=\underset{n0}{lim}\frac{[Z(\sigma )]^n1}{n}$$
(10)
It is equivalent to making $`n`$ noninteracting copies of the system. Nevertheless the copies are not completely independent because the probability distribution $`P(\sigma )`$ is the same for all of them. Then the problem reduces to the evaluation of the moments $`\overline{[Z(\sigma )]^n}`$, which is expected to be a simpler task. Note, however, that such a procedure is not just a trick. In fact, the behavior of one system (e.g. a spin glass) is interpreted as a limiting case of another system (the one with $`n0`$). Such that the quenched average is expressed through a ”weighted” annealed average for a more complex system, involving an extension of the phase space. The systems with $`n0`$ were considered  in application to the spin glasses and neural networks. In the context of spin models such a system can be viewed as a collection of $`n`$ domains of interacting spins with a common probability distribution $`P(\sigma )`$. Note, however that due to the limiting procedure in eq. (10) the replica index $`n`$ can be non-integer\- i.e. at least for $`0n1`$ it must vary continuously. Sherrington has investigated the critical behavior of such replica magnets, driven by the inter- and intra-replica interaction. Moreover, Derrida has shown , that there is a mapping between the random walk, the random energy model and the replica results for non-zero $`n`$.

Based on the discussion above we allow $`n`$ to be finite. The $`\sigma `$-dependent functions, like $`F(\sigma )`$, obey the standard statistical thermodynamics, since $`\sigma `$ is a parameter (although known only statistically at the level of $`F(\sigma )`$ evaluation). The average free energy is now $`n`$-dependent

$$F_n=\overline{F_n(\sigma )}=\frac{1}{\beta }(d\sigma )P(\sigma )\frac{[Z(\sigma )]^n1}{n}$$
(11)
The internal energy $`U_n`$ can be found as a counterpart of the internal energy (5) and the average internal energy

$$U_n=\frac{1}{\beta }(d\sigma )P(\sigma )[Z(\sigma )]^{n1}𝑑Z(\sigma )/𝑑\beta $$
(12)
can be rearranged to the form

$$U_n=(d\sigma )P(\sigma )[Z(\sigma )]^nU(\sigma )$$
(13)
If $`\sigma `$-dependent quantities obey the standard thermodynamic relation $`F(\sigma )=U(\sigma )S_T(\sigma )/\beta `$, then the counterpart of the entropy is given by

$$S_n=(d\sigma )P(\sigma )\left[\frac{[Z(\sigma )]^n(1+n\beta U(\sigma ))1}{n}\right]$$
(14)
## III Mapping on the Tsallis theory

Starting from eq. (14) and replacing $`n`$ by $`1q`$ we can rearrange the correspondent thermodynamic entropy $`S_q`$ to the Tsallis construction

$$S_q=\frac{1(d\sigma )[\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )]^q}{q1}$$
(15)
where $`\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )`$ is given by

$$\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )=\left[P(\sigma )[Z(\sigma )]^{1q}\{1+(1q)\beta U(\sigma )\}\right]^{1/q}$$
(16)
At this level our calculations are purely formal, and $`S_q`$ is equivalent to $`S_n`$. In order to obtain $`S_q`$ coherently with the Tsallis conjecture we have to associate $`\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )`$ with a probability distribution. Then we naturally impose two restrictions:

$$\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )0;(d\sigma )\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )=1$$
(17)
From the positivity condition we have

$$q1+\frac{1}{\beta U(\sigma )}$$
(18)
which is equivalent to the cut-off condition in the Tsallis approach.

In order to realize the meaning of $`q1`$ we expand $`\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )`$, given by eq. (16), around $`q=1`$ up to the second order

$`\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )=P(\sigma )P(\sigma )D(\sigma )(q1)+`$ (19)
$`P(\sigma )\left[D(\sigma )+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(D^2(\sigma )\beta ^2U^2(\sigma )\right)\right](q1)^2`$ (20)
where $`D(\sigma )=S_T(\sigma )+\mathrm{ln}P(\sigma )`$. Therefore, we see that the probability distribution differs from $`P(\sigma )`$ as long as $`q1`$. Moreover, the magnitude of $`q`$ is coupled to the $`\sigma `$-dependent thermodynamics and to a shape of $`P(\sigma )`$.

From the normalization condition we obtain

$$\mathrm{\Delta }S(q1)+\left[\mathrm{\Delta }S+\mathrm{\Sigma }\right](q1)^2=0$$
(21)
where

$$\mathrm{\Delta }S=(d\sigma )P(\sigma )D(\sigma )=S_TS_I$$
(22)
is the difference of the thermodynamic and the information entropies and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is given by

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }=\frac{1}{2}(d\sigma )P(\sigma )\left[D^2(\sigma )\beta ^2U^2(\sigma )\right]$$
(23)
Then solving eq. (21) with respect to $`q`$ we obtain the result

$$q1=\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }S}{\mathrm{\Delta }S+\mathrm{\Sigma }}$$
(24)
suggesting that small deviations of $`q`$ from $`1`$ are determined by the difference $`\mathrm{\Delta }S`$ of the thermodynamic and the information entropies. Comparing eqs.(8) and (9) we can easily demonstrate that these two entropic impacts are equal only if the probability distribution is consistent with the thermodynamic fluctuations: $`P(\sigma )\mathrm{exp}(\beta S_T(\sigma ))`$. Therefore, $`\mathrm{\Delta }S`$ (and consequently $`q`$) can be viewed as a measure of the deviation from the conventional thermodynamic equilibrium. Similar conjectures were drawn in ref. , discussing the fluctuations within the Tsallis statistics. Since the sign of $`\mathrm{\Delta }S`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is not fixed, then from eq. (24) we can have both $`q>1`$ and $`q<1`$. Nevertheless, $`q`$ is related to the replica index $`n`$ through $`n=1q`$. Therefore, if $`n0`$ (as it is usually assumed in the spin glass theories), then we deal with $`q1`$.

On the other hand $`\mathrm{\Delta }S`$ depends explicitly on the thermodynamic parameters and on a shape of the quenching distribution. Therefore, there is a mapping of the replica approach with a non-zero replica index $`n=1q`$ onto the Tsallis theory, provided that the replica index varies coherently with the system thermodynamics and the probability distribution. This conclusion agrees with the results obtained within the incomplete information theory which suggests that the $`q`$ parameter is related to the thermodynamic quantities. In the case when the thermodynamic parameters are fixed, the magnitude of $`q`$ is related to the parameters of the probability distribution. If, for instance, $`P(\sigma )`$ is of the gaussian form, then the width of this distribution determines the fluctuation $`\overline{\sigma ^2}\overline{\sigma }^2`$. In other words the magnitude of $`q`$ is related to the fluctuation of the parameters in the quenching distribution. In some sense, this result is coherent with the one obtained for the generalized exponential distribution.

## IV Incomplete information

As is discussed above, due to fact that $`q1`$, we deal with the weighted annealed averaging (see eq. (14)). That is, in contrast to the usual quenching ($`q=1`$) we have a nonvanishing feed-back effect on $`\{\sigma \}`$-distribution from the thermodynamics of $`\{s\}`$-subsystem (see eq. (19)). As a result we operate with the probability distribution $`\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )`$, involving the thermodynamic quantities, instead of $`P(\sigma )`$ which corresponds to the case when $`\{\sigma \}`$-subsystem remains unchanged. This situation is similar to what is reported for partially annealed systems.

Taking the porous materials as an example, we can associate $`P(\sigma )`$ with the empty matrix (e.g. pore size distribution) and $`\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )`$ \- with the matrix in the presence of an adsorbed fluid. In general, the latter changes the matrix properties. For instance, by the analogy with the intercalation system, we can expect a change of the matrix volume upon the fluid absorption. Moreover, quite often the adsorbates induce a new ordering of the substrates or facilitate their disordering depending upon the specificities of the adsorbate-substrate interaction. Therefore, because of a complicated fluid-matrix coupling, our information on the pore size distribution could be incomplete

$$(d\sigma )P(\sigma )=1;(d\sigma )\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )=\mathrm{\Lambda }1$$
(25)
where $`1\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ can be considered as a degree of lost information. In this case we can rearrange (14) to the following form

$$S_q=(d\sigma )\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )\frac{[\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )]^{q1}1}{q1}$$
(26)
where $`\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )`$ should be found from (if $`q1`$)

$`[\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )]^q\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )=`$ (27)
$`P(\sigma )\left[[Z(\sigma )]^{1q}\{1+(1q)\beta U(\sigma )\}1\right]`$ (28)
For small $`|1\mathrm{\Lambda }|`$ the distribution $`\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )`$ should exhibit small deviations from that given by eq. (16). Therefore, we determine $`\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )`$ perturbatively, taking eq. (16) as a zeroth approximation. Then, expanding around $`q=1`$, we find that the linear approximation is the same as that in eq. (19)

$$\mathrm{\Pi }(\sigma )=P(\sigma )P(\sigma )D(\sigma )(q1)$$
(29)
From the incomplete normalization condition (25) we obtain

$$q=1+\frac{1\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\mathrm{\Delta }S}$$
(30)
which demonstrates that the entropic index $`q`$ is related to the degree of lost information ($`1\mathrm{\Lambda }`$). In the limit $`\mathrm{\Lambda }1`$ we must retain the quadratic term in (29) and then we recover our previous result (24).

## V Conclusion

A relation between the non-extensive Tsallis statistics and the replica formalism for disordered systems is discussed. The key specificity of this kind of systems is the splitting into subsystems with different levels of description, i.e. the Hamiltonian and the probability distribution. Due to this one necessarily operates with two entropic impacts: the thermodynamic and the information entropies. It is shown that there is a mapping of the replica approach to disordered systems on the Tsallis theory with $`q1`$, if the average thermodynamic entropy differs from the information entropy related to the probability distribution. In the case of incomplete information the entropic index deviates from unity proportionally to the degree of lost information. Therefore, the magnitude of $`q`$ depends on the thermodynamic parameters as well as on a shape of the distribution. This conclusion is coherent with the results of other studies  discussing the meaning of the $`q`$ index in the Tsallis approach.

Our results suggest that a similar mapping can be expected for other systems which are out of the thermodynamic equilibrium (at least in its traditional meaning). Then the problem involves additional relevant quantities, related to a deviation from the conventional equilibrium. For instance, the deviation could be induced by the heat bath properties , by fluctuations of intensive thermodynamic parameters, or by finite sizes (no thermodynamic limit).

It should be emphasized that the non-additive nature of the system discussed here does not depend on the approximations made. From the every formulation of the problem we have two entropies $`S_I`$ and $`S_T`$. If we consider a ”total” entropy $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ as a measure of our uncertainty on the system state, then it is clear that $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ cannot be written as an additive combination of $`S_I`$ and $`S_T`$ because these two are not independent. Therefore it would be interesting to find a way of solving this more general problem without introducung model arguments.

## VI Acknowledgment

The authors are much grateful to A. Le Mehaute, L. Nivanen and Q. A. Wang for helpful discussions.