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# Chandra detection of the X-ray counterpart of the high magnetic field radio pulsar J1119-6127 in the supernova remnant G292.2-0.5

## 1 Introduction

For over three decades the Crab has been viewed as the paradigm for young pulsars: a fast rotating neutron star with surface dipole magnetic field strength of 1012 G, injecting a relativistic magnetized wind of particles into its surroundings. The interaction of this wind with the surrounding medium creates a synchrotron nebula, referred to as a pulsar wind nebula (PWN). PWNe provide a unique laboratory that probes the properties of their powering engines, the physics of relativistic pulsar winds and their interaction with the interstellar medium (see e.g. Safi-Harb 2002 for a review). Recent observations have shown that a good fraction of young pulsars exhibits properties unlike the Crab. In spite of their youth, they have much larger spin periods and dipole magnetic fields (see e.g. Camilo et al. 2000). The search for their X-ray counterparts and any PWNe associated with them sheds light on their high-energy properties and the way these pulsars deposit their energies into their surroundings.

The radio pulsar (PSR) J1119–6127 was discovered in the Parkes multi-beam pulsar survey (Camilo et al. 2000). It has a rotation period of 407ms, characteristic age of 1600 yrs, surface magnetic field strength of 4.1$`\times `$1013 G, and spin-down luminosity $`\dot{E}`$ of 2.3$`\times `$1036 erg s-1. This is an interesting and unusual object: although it is extremely young, it displays a relatively large period and magnetic field compared to Crab-like pulsars. Furthermore, no radio emission from a PWN was found in spite of the search conducted with the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA). Its observed upper limit is below what might at first be expected from the pulsar’s characteristics (Crawford et al. 2000). The ATCA observation also identified a non-thermal shell of $`15^{}`$ in diameter surrounding the pulsar classified as a new supernova remnant (SNR), G292.2–0.5. Previous X-ray observations, performed with the $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$ and $`\mathrm{𝑅𝑂𝑆𝐴𝑇}`$ satellites (Pivovaroff et al. 2001), showed extended emission associated with the radio SNR, as well as a hard point-like $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$ source offset $``$$`1\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}5`$ from the radio pulsar. The large offset made their association uncertain.

In this paper, we report the detection of the X-ray counterpart of the radio pulsar and show the first evidence for a PWN associated with it. In §2, we describe the observation and data analysis. In §3, we derive the distance using our spectral fits to the X-ray source and SNR interior, then discuss the X-ray properties of this system in comparison with other pulsars with similar spin and magnetic field properties. We also show that the previously reported $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$ source is most likely the unresolved counterpart of the radio pulsar, contaminated by emission from its surroundings.

## 2 Observation and Data Analysis

The field around pulsar J1119–6127 was observed with $`\mathrm{𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑎}`$ on 2002 March 31–April 1. The coordinates of the X-ray source detected with $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$ were positioned at the aimpoint of the back-illuminated S3 chip of the Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer (ACIS). The CCD temperature was –120$`\mathrm{°}`$C with a frame readout time of 3.2 sec in “very faint” mode. We applied the CTICORRECTIT tool to the original event 1 raw data (Townsley et al. 2000) in order to correct for charge transfer inefficiency. The data were then calibrated using standard CIAO 2.2 routines. The resulting effective exposure time was 47 ks.

Figure 1 shows the $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$ (left) and $`\mathrm{𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑎}`$ (right) images of G292.2–0.5. The 2.0–10.0 keV $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$ image has been smoothed using a Gaussian with $`\sigma `$ = $`45^{\prime \prime }`$111See Pivovaroff et al. (2001) for a detailed analysis of the $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$ data. The $`\mathrm{𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑎}`$ image was obtained as follows: the data were divided into individual images in the soft (0.5–1.15 keV, red), medium (1.15–2.3 keV, green), and hard (2.3–10.0 keV, blue) bands. Each image was adaptively smoothed using a Gaussian with $`\sigma `$=$`1^{\prime \prime }`$ for significance of detection $`>`$5 and up to $`\sigma `$=$`10^{\prime \prime }`$ for significance down to 3. A broadband (0.5–10.0 keV) background image was produced using the blank-sky datasets available in CALDB v2.12. The resulting background image was divided into the same energy bands and then subtracted from its corresponding (source + background) image. The individual background-subtracted images were finally combined to produce the image shown in Figure 1. This image shows several resolved X-ray sources surrounded by diffuse emission from the interior of the remnant.

### 2.1 PSR J1119–6127

In Figure 2 (left) we show a close-up image of the ACIS field around the radio pulsar J1119–6127. We find an X-ray source at $`\alpha `$J2000 = 11h19m14$`\stackrel{\mathrm{s}}{\mathrm{.}}`$4 and $`\delta `$J2000 = –61$`\mathrm{°}`$$`27^{}`$49$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$7, with a 90% error radius of 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$3. This source is the brightest one in the field and it lies 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$7 away from the coordinates of the radio pulsar ($`\alpha `$J2000 = 11h19m14$`\stackrel{\mathrm{s}}{\mathrm{.}}`$30 and $`\delta `$J2000 = –61$`\mathrm{°}`$$`27^{}`$49$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5, 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$3 error, Camilo et al. 2000). From the positional coincidence of the X-ray source with the radio pulsar, the low probability of a chance alignment ($``$1$`\times `$10-4), the evidence of a PWN associated with it and the nature of its spectrum (see below), we believe this source to be the X-ray counterpart of PSR J1119–6127.

Within a radius of $`3\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}4`$ centered at the X-ray coordinates and including the point source and extended component, we obtained 285 background subtracted events in the 0.5–10.0 keV band translating to a count rate of (6.0 $`\pm `$ 0.4)$`\times `$10-3 cts s-1. Pile-up effects are then negligible. We fit the spectrum with XSPEC222http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/xanadu/xspec/index.html in the 0.5–10.0 keV band, using a minimum of 15 counts per bin. An absorbed power law model provided a better fit than thermal models. The best-fit spectral parameters are summarized in Table 1 and the spectrum is shown in Figure 2 (right). The corresponding unabsorbed fluxes are (1.4$`{}_{0.8}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+2.6}`$)$`\times `$10-13 ergs cm-2 s-1 (0.2–2.4 keV) and (1.3$`{}_{0.8}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+2.4}`$)$`\times `$10-13 ergs cm-2 s-1 (0.5–10.0 keV). All errors throughout the paper are at the 90% confidence level unless otherwise specified. We note that by examining Figure 2 (right), we find residuals at $``$1.4 keV indicating that the spectrum could be partly thermal. However, these residuals become insignificant when extracting a spectrum from a smaller region. The poor statistics did not allow us to fit multi-component models. A detailed investigation of this emission will have to await a deeper exposure.

As shown in Figure 2 (left), the pulsar has an associated extended X-ray component aligned nearly north-south. In order to compare its spatial characteristics with $`\mathrm{𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑎}`$’s point-spread-function (PSF), we performed a 2-D spatial fit to the data using the GAUSS2D function in $`\mathrm{𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑎}`$ v2.2. First, images of the source in the soft (0.5–1.15 keV), medium (1.15–2.15 keV) and hard (2.15–10.0 keV) energy bands were created. The number of counts in these energy images was 25, 170, and 90, respectively. Corresponding normalized PSF images at an off-axis angle of 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$28 and energies characteristic of the source’s energy histogram (0.85 keV, 1.7 keV and 3.0 keV) were made and used as convolution kernels when fitting. From this fit, the low energy image yielded a FWHM value fully consistent with the PSF ($``$0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$8), while the medium band image had a slightly larger value ($``$0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$9). The hard band image was best described by an elliptical gaussian function with FWHM of $``$0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$9$`\times `$1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$2, confirming the extended nature of the source. We rule out trailing in the S3 chip as an origin for this feature since the read-out direction is at an angle of $``$35$`\mathrm{°}`$ measured counter-clockwise from the almost north-south direction of the extended emission.

In order to further characterize the morphology of this extended emission, we smoothed the above energy images using a Gaussian with $`\sigma `$ = 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 and then normalized them. The contamination by the surrounding SNR in these images is small ($`<`$7% of total). We then subtracted the normalized soft image (consistent with a point source) from the normalized hard image. Figure 3 shows the resulting image, which reveals structures that appear to be consistent with torus- and jet-like features surrounding the pulsar. Such features have been observed around young rotation-powered pulsars (e.g. Lu et al. 2002) and are believed to be associated with the deposition of the pulsar’s energy into its surroundings.

We estimate a total of 41 background-subtracted counts from an annulus centered at the X-ray coordinates with radius 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$2–3$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$4 (see Fig. 3, right). (The inner radius was chosen to be $``$1.5 times the PSF so the contamination from the point source would be less than 15%. The outer radius includes the emission detected from the extended component.) This corresponds to a significance of detection $`\sigma `$$``$5.5 and contributes $``$14% to the total count rate from the point source and extended component. From the 41 counts quoted above, 14 are present in the medium energy band (1.15–2.15 keV) and 25 in the high energy band (2.15–10.0 keV). A spectral analysis of the extended emission is not possible with the available number of counts and has to await a deeper exposure. We note however that, unlike the point source, the extended emission is not detected in the soft band (see Fig. 3, left). This leads us to conclude that the extended emission appears to be harder than the point source (assuming both have the same column density).

### 2.2 SNR G292.2–0.5

We defer a detailed study of the emission from the SNR and the newly identified point sources to a follow-up paper. Here, we briefly summarize the results of our spectral fits targeted to derive the column density needed to constrain the distance to the system (see §3.1). A spectrum of the SNR’s interior was extracted from the S3 chip. The point sources were excluded and source-free regions were used as background. A single component non-equilibrium ionization (NEI) model provided an acceptable fit. The spectral parameters derived from our best fit VPSHOCK model are: $`N_H`$=(5.8$`\pm `$1.0)$`\times `$1021 cm-2, $`kT`$=36$`\pm `$10 keV and $`n_et`$=(5.1$`\pm `$1.0)$`\times `$109 cm-3 s, with a $`\chi _\nu ^2`$(dof)=1.04 (278). A two-component NEI thermal and non-thermal model provided an equally acceptable fit, with the non-thermal model well described by a power law with a hard photon index ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$$``$1). Regardless of the model, we found an $`N_H`$ value similar to the one quoted above. This value is consistent with, but better constrained than, the one derived for the pulsar and its PWN (see Table 1). It is also intermediate between the $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$ values derived for the eastern and western sides of the remnant, $``$14$`\times `$1021 cm-2 and $``$2$`\times `$1021 cm-2, respectively (Pivovaroff et al. 2001).

## 3 Discussion

### 3.1 Distance

The extinction per unit distance in the direction of the system can be estimated to be $`E_{BV}/D`$ $``$ 0.2 mag kpc-1 (Lucke 1978). We can then use the relation $`N_H/E_{BV}`$ = 5.55$`\times `$1021 cm-2 mag-1 to estimate the distance. From our $`N_H`$ values from Table 1 and §2.2, we obtain a distance of 5.4–12.6 kpc for the pulsar and 4.0–6.3 kpc for the remnant. A distance of 4–8 kpc was then adopted for the system. The upper limit is determined from the location of the source with respect to the Carina spiral arm (Camilo et al. 2000).

### 3.2 PSR J1119–6127 and its PWN

The analysis described in §2.1 allowed us to identify the X-ray counterpart of PSR J1119–6127 and its PWN. Using the spectral model outlined in Table 1, we derive a 0.5–10.0 keV X-ray luminosity for the point source and PWN of $`L_X`$ = (5.5$`{}_{3.3}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+10}`$)$`\times `$1032D$`{}_{6}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}`$ ergs s-1, where D6 is the distance in units of 6 kpc. The conversion efficiency of $`\dot{E}`$ into $`L_X`$ is then $`ϵ_{psr+pwn}`$ = ($`L_X`$/$`\dot{E}`$)$``$(2.4$`{}_{1.5}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+4.5}`$)$`\times `$10-4D$`{}_{6}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}`$. This value is somewhat on the low end of the efficiencies exhibited by other pulsars associated with SNRs (e.g. Safi-Harb 2002).

In Table 2, we summarize the properties of J1119–6127 and two other pulsars with similar spin properties. PSR J1846–0258 lies within $`1^{}`$ of the center of SNR Kes 75 and PSR B1509–58 lies close to the center of SNR G320.4–1.2. All three pulsars spin slowly ($`P`$$`>`$100 ms) and have large inferred magnetic fields ($`B`$$`>`$1$`\times `$1013 G) compared to other young, Crab-like pulsars. However, their observed X-ray properties are different from those of J1119–6127. While PSR J1846–0258 exhibits the highest X-ray efficiency (even when compared to all other Crab-like pulsars, it has one of the highest $`ϵ`$ values), J1119–6127 exhibits the lowest value ($`ϵ_{psr+pwn}`$ $``$ 0.001, using the upper limits on the luminosity and distance). Furthermore, both J1846–0258 and B1509–58 exhibit very similar spectral properties, with the measured photon indices of the X-ray pulsars being flatter than those of their associated PWNe. On the other hand, as noted above, our analysis of PSR J1119–6127 suggests the opposite trend, with the photon index of the point source being steeper than that of the extended feature. (We here caution the reader that this conclusion is based on the small number of counts available). Therefore, it seems that their peculiar spin properties and high magnetic fields cannot account in an obvious way for the differences in their X-ray properties.

### 3.3 Relation to AX J1119.1–6128.5

The nature of the X-ray source AX J1119.1–6128.5, detected with $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$’s Gas Imaging Spectrometer (GIS), is also of interest. This source does not have a $`\mathrm{𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑎}`$ point-source counterpart (see Fig. 4). The coordinates of AX J1119.1–6128.5 were reported to be $`\alpha `$J2000 = 11h19m03$`\stackrel{\mathrm{s}}{\mathrm{.}}`$4 and $`\delta `$J2000 = –61$`\mathrm{°}`$$`28^{}`$$`30^{\prime \prime }`$, with an error radius of $`24^{\prime \prime }`$ (Pivovaroff et al. 2001). This represents an offset of $`87^{\prime \prime }`$ from PSR J1119–6127. We have re-examined the $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$ data and found a similar offset. Using an aperture of 2$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 centered on the $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$ source, a background-subtracted count rate of $``$0.004 s-1 in the 3.0–10.0 keV range was reported with the GIS. The count rate obtained with $`\mathrm{𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑎}`$ using the same region, which includes emission from the pulsar, PWN and surrounding SNR, is consistent with the above GIS count rate. We then conclude that AX J1119.1–6128.5 represents the unresolved pulsar counterpart contaminated by its surrounding emission. Finally, the large offset between AX J1119.1–6128.5 and the pulsar can be attributed to a combined effect of $`\mathrm{𝐴𝑆𝐶𝐴}`$’s limited resolution and additional positional errors (e.g. Ueda et al. 2000 and Gotthelf et al. 2000).

## 4 Conclusions

Thanks to the sensitivity and resolution offered by $`\mathrm{𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑎}`$, we have detected the X-ray counterpart of PSR J1119–6127 associated with G292.2–0.5, and resolved a $`3^{\prime \prime }`$$`\times `$$`6^{\prime \prime }`$ extended diffuse emission that represents the first evidence for its PWN. Additional deep observations of this system are needed to: 1) better constrain the pulsar parameters, 2) study in detail the morphology of the PWN, 3) determine its spectral properties independently from the point source, and 4) address the nature of the hard X-ray emission from the interior of G292.2–0.5. A timing observation will also allow the search for pulsations from the X-ray source. Our observation illustrates the need for $`\mathrm{𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑎}`$ to unveil small PWNe that could be associated with high-magnetic field radio pulsars and to resolve their powering engines. In addition, our study suggests that the X-ray properties of PSR J1119–6127 are different from those of other pulsars with similar spin and magnetic field properties, and therefore this class of pulsars merits further study.

The authors thank the referee, Fernando Camilo, for his invaluable comments that improved the paper. This research made use of NASA’s Astrophysics Data System (ADS) and the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC) operated by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. The authors acknowledge support by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada.


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# Information-Theoretic Comparison of Quantum Many-Body Systems

(May, 2003)

## Abstract

An information measure inspired by Onicescu’s information energy and Uffink’s information measure (recently discussed by Brukner and Zeilinger) are calculated as functions of the number of particles $`N`$ for fermionic systems (nuclei and atomic clusters) and correlated bosonic systems (atoms in a trap). Our results are compared with previous ones obtained for Shannon’s information entropy, where a universal property was derived for atoms, nuclei, atomic clusters and correlated bosons. It is indicated that Onicescu’s and Uffink’s definitions are finer measures of information entropy than Shannon’s.

Onicescu  introduced the concept of information energy $`E`$ as a finer measure of dispersion distributions than that of Shannon’s information entropy . So far, only the mathematical aspects of this concept have been developed, while the physical aspects have been neglected .

The information energy for a single statistical variable $`x`$ with the normalized density $`\rho (x)`$ is defined by

$$E(\rho )=\rho ^2(x)𝑑x$$
(1)
For a Gaussian distribution of mean value $`\mu `$, standard deviation $`\sigma `$ and normalized density

$$\rho (x)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi }\sigma }e^{\frac{(x\mu )^2}{2\sigma ^2}}$$
(2)
relation (1) gives

$$E=\frac{1}{2\pi \sigma ^2}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}e^{\frac{(x\mu )^2}{\sigma ^2}}𝑑x$$

Thus

$$E=\frac{1}{2\sigma \sqrt{\pi }}$$
(3)
Therefore, the greater the information energy $`E`$, the narrower the Gaussian distribution. $`E`$ does not have the dimension of energy, but it has been connected with Planck’s constant appearing in Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation .

For a 3-dimensional spherically symmetric density distribution $`\rho (r)`$ the obvious generalization of (1) is

$$E_r=\rho ^2(r)4\pi r^2𝑑r$$
(4)
and

$$E_k=n^2(k)4\pi k^2𝑑k$$
(5)
in position- and momentum-space respectively, where $`n(k)`$ is the density distribution in momentum-space.

$`E_r`$ has the dimension of inverse volume, while $`E_k`$ of volume. Thus the product $`E_rE_k`$ is dimensionless and is a measure of the concentration (or the information content) of the density distribution of a quantum system. As seen from (3) $`E`$ increases as $`\sigma `$ decreases (or the concentration increases) and Shannon’s information entropy (or uncertainty) $`S`$ decreases. Clearly, Shannon’s information $`S`$ and information energy $`E`$ are reciprocal. In order to be able to compare them, we define the quantity

$$S_E=\frac{1}{E_rE_k}$$
(6)
as a measure of the information content of a quantum system in both position and momentum spaces.

In place of Shannon information, Brukner and Zeilinger  propose the quantity

$$I=𝒩\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}(p_i\frac{1}{n})^2$$
(7)
from which they derive their notion of information content of a discrete probability distribution $`p_1,p_2,\mathrm{},p_n`$. The quantity $`_{i=1}^n(p_i\frac{1}{n})^2`$ is one of the class of measures of the concentration of a probability distribution given by Uffink . For a continous 3-dimensional density distribution $`\rho (r)`$, relation (7) is extended as ($`𝒩=1`$)

$$I_r=\left(\rho (r)\stackrel{~}{\rho }(r)\right)^24\pi r^2𝑑r$$
(8)
and

$$I_k=\left(n(k)\stackrel{~}{n}(k)\right)^24\pi k^2𝑑k$$
(9)
in position- and momentum space respectively, $`\stackrel{~}{\rho }(r)`$ is the equivalent uniform distribution defined according to the relation

$$\stackrel{~}{\rho }(r)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\rho _0\hfill & 0<r<R_U\hfill \\ 0\hfill & r>R_U\hfill \end{array}$$
(10)
where $`\rho _0`$=constant and $`R_U`$=$`R_{\mathrm{uniform}}`$ are fixed by the relation

$$r^2_U=r^2_{\rho (r)}$$
(11)
where

$$r^2_U=_0^{R_U}\rho _0r^24\pi r^2𝑑r$$
(12)
and

$$r^2_{\rho (r)}=_0^{\mathrm{}}\rho (r)r^24\pi r^2𝑑r$$
(13)
while

$$R_U=\sqrt{\frac{5}{3}<r^2>_{\rho (r)}}$$
(14)
and

$$\rho _0=\frac{3}{4\pi R_U^3}$$
(15)
$`\stackrel{~}{n}(k)`$ is the equivalent uniform distribution in momentum-space, defined in a similar way. Thus we define a measure of information content by the relation

$$S_I=\frac{1}{I_rI_k}$$
(16)
which gives (6) putting $`\stackrel{~}{\rho }(r)=\stackrel{~}{n}(k)=0`$.

We calculate $`S_E`$ and $`S_I`$ as functions of the number of particles $`N`$ for three quantum many-body systems, where $`\rho (r)`$ and $`\eta (k)`$ are calculated numerically:

1. Nuclei, using the Skyrme III parametrization of the nuclear field . Here $`N`$ is the number of nucleons in nuclei.
2. Atomic clusters, employing a Woods-Saxon potential parametrized by Ekardt . Here $`N`$ is the number of valence electrons.
3. A correlated bosonic system (atoms in a trap) . Here $`N`$ is the number of atoms in the trap.

In Fig.1 we plot $`S_E`$ as a function of $`N`$ for nuclei and clusters and in Fig.2 $`S_I(N)`$ for the same systems. In Fig.3 we plot $`S_E(N)`$ and in Fig.4 $`S_I(N)`$ for a correlated bosonic system. It is seen that $`S_E`$ depends linearly on $`N`$ for both nuclei and atomic clusters. Also $`S_I`$ shows a similar trend (a power of $`N`$) for nuclei and clusters. However the dependence $`S_E(N)`$ and $`S_I(N)`$ is different for correlated bosons compared with nuclei and clusters.

Our fitted expressions are:

$$S_E(\text{clusters})=143.420N,S_E(\text{nuclei})=73.883N\text{(Fig.1)}$$

$$S_I(\text{clusters})=431.576N^{1.719},S_I(\text{nuclei})=260.275N^{1.554}\text{(Fig.2)}$$

We can compare with the universal relation $`S(N)=a+b\mathrm{ln}N`$ ($`a,b`$ are constants depending on the system) obtained recently  for Shannon’s information entropy for fermionic systems (atoms, nuclei and atomic clusters) and correlated bosonic systems  (atoms in a trap). It was seen  that $`S(N)`$ shows the same dependence on $`N`$ for all the systems considered i.e. nuclei, clusters, atoms and correlated bosons.

It is conjectured that nuclei and atomic clusters are equivalent from an information-theoretic point of view in the following sense: under any definition of information content (e.g. Shannon, Onicescu or Uffink), the dependence of information shows a similar trend (linear on $`\mathrm{ln}N`$ for Shannon, linear on $`N`$ for Onicescu and a power of $`N`$ for Uffink). However, the similarity breaks down for bosons. This indicates that $`S_E`$ and $`S_I`$ distinguish between fermions and correlated bosons i.e. they are finer measures of infomation than Shannon’s $`S`$. Our results may contribute to the recent debate between Brukner-Zeilinger and Timpson for a possible inadequacy of the Shannon information


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# Net charge fluctuation and string fragmentation

## I Introduction

Study of Event-by-Event fluctuation reveals dynamics in relativistic heavy-ion collisions. With the increase of particle multiplicity statistically significant measurements of E-by-E fluctuations became possible for the first time in $`Pb+Pb`$ collisions at 158A GeV/c rol ; afa0 ; app ; afa  and recently in $`Au+Au`$ collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{nn}}`$ =130 GeV phe ; star . Many theoretical studies based on hadronic transport models ble ; liu ; cap ; bop ; sa2  and effective models vol ; bay ; hei  were carried out trying to understand the effects of different dynamic processes on the E-by-E fluctuations. However, experimental data show that non-statistical contributions to the E-by-E fluctuation of average transverse momentum, $`k/\pi `$ ratio, and net charge multiplicity are small app ; afa ; phe .

The charged particle ratio fluctuation was recently proposed as a signal of QGP formation jeo ; asa . The thermal model predicts that the magnitude of net charge fluctuation is $``$4 for a pion gas, $``$3 for a resonance pion gas (pion from $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ decays), and $``$0.75 for massless noninteracting quarks and gluons because the unit of charge in the QGP phase is 1/3 while it is 1 in the hadronic phase. Therefore, if the initial fluctuation survives hadronization, a measurement of the charge fluctuation would be able to tell whether a QGP phase is formed in the early stage of relativistic heavy-ion collisions. A review on E-by-E fluctuation can be found in sum .

A crucial question here is how hadronization affects the charge fluctuation. Hadronization belongs to the non-perturbative regime and can not be solved from a first principle theory. The best knowledge of our understanding about hadronization has been implemented into two phenomenological models, string fragmentation lund  and cluster model clu . In the string fragmentation, the parton cascade processes cease when the transverse momenta of emitted partons (ordered by their $`p_T`$) become smaller than a given cut, $`p_T^{min}`$ 1 GeV/c. After that, a string is formed with a color triplet quark and a color anti-triplet antiquark (or diquark and anti-diquark) on each end of the string and gluons from the parton cascade distributed as ‘kinks’ along the string. The formed string fragments into hadrons through quark- antiquark pairs (diquark and anti-diquark pairs) production from the QCD vacuum. In the cluster model, at the end of the perturbative phase of parton cascade evolution, each gluon is forcibly splite into a quark-antiquark pair. Color singlet clusters are formed from the final quark-antiquark pairs (distinct from those in the gluon splitting), which have a minimal separation in coordinate and momentum space. The clusters subsequently decay independently into hadrons.

In elementary collisions, like in $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`pp`$, the string is a well -established object due to confinement force between quarks. However, in AA collisions, if a deconfined state is formed in the early stage of a collision, it is conceivable that the concept of string may become irrelevant any more since quarks are no longer bound together by the string-like color force. In this case, a coalescence picture of hadronization in the cluster model seems more applicable.

The net charge fluctuation was investigated using Monte-Carlo generators based on both string and cluster fragmentation in qinghui . It was found that VNIb generator vnib , which is based on cluster fragmentation, yields a net charge fluctuation close to that for a thermal QGP gas, a factor of 2 smaller than that from the generators based on string fragmentation. It was argued that the difference may be due to the higher gluon density in VNIb. However, another possibility is that the net charge fluctuation in the parton phase can not survive string fragmentation, but can survive coalescence type of hadronization. In order to test this possibility one needs to compare net charge fluctuations calculated before string fragmentation in the partonic phase and after string fragmentation in the hadronic phase. In addition, the net charge fluctuations may also be affected by the decays of resonances and by rescatterings among hadrons produced during hadronization. These can be investigated in a dynamic model, JPCIAE.

In this paper a dynamic simulation based on the JPCIAE model was used to study the charge fluctuation in $`Au+A`$u collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{nn}}`$=130 GeV. In this calculation, the net charge fluctuations are calculated for the quark-gluon phase before parton fragmentation and for directly-produced pions and pions from $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ decays in the hadronic phase after string fragmentation. The results of this study are compared with the corresponding predictions of the thermal model. The simulations show that although the simulated net charge fluctuation of quark-gluon phase is close to that from the thermal model discrepancies are seen between the dynamic simulations and the thermal model predictions for pion gas and resonance pion gas from $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ decays. It is found that the net charge fluctuation in the hadronic phase from JPCIAE is nearly a factor of $`45`$ larger than one for the quark-gluon phase. The results indicate that the charge fluctuation in the partonic phase may not survive the hadronization (string fragmentation) as implemented in JPCIAE.

## II Charge Fluctuations

The deviation of a physical variable $`x`$ from its average value per event $`<x>`$ and its variance are defined as rei

$$\delta x=x<x>,$$
(1)
and

$$<(\delta x)^2>=<x^2><x>^2,$$
(2)
respectively. Suppose $`xR=N_+/N_{}`$ to be the ratio of positively to negatively charged particle multiplicity, the corresponding variance is then

$$<(\delta R)^2>=<R^2><R>^2.$$
(3)
Similarly, the variance of net charge multiplicity ($`Q=N_+N_{}`$) reads,

$$<(\delta Q)^2>=<Q^2><Q>^2,$$
(4)
However, what are used to study charge fluctuation in literature is

$$D_R<N_{ch}><(\delta R)^2>,$$
(5)
or

$$D_Q\frac{<(\delta Q)^2>}{<N_{ch}>},$$
(6)
In above equations $`N_{ch}=N_++N_{}`$ refers to the total charge multiplicity. When
$`<N_{ch}><Q>`$, a relation follows approximately jeo

$$D_R4D_Q.$$
(7)
Two corrections have to be made in order to compare experimental data or dynamic simulations with the thermal model predictions. One correction, $`C_y`$, is done for the finite rapidity bin size and another correction, $`C_\mu `$, is for finite net charge. $`C_y`$ and $`C_\mu `$ are introduced in urqmd  as

$`C_y=1{\displaystyle \frac{<N_{ch}>_{\mathrm{\Delta }y}}{<N_{ch}>_{total}}}.`$ (8)
$`C_\mu ={\displaystyle \frac{<N_+>_{\mathrm{\Delta }y}^2}{<N_{}>_{\mathrm{\Delta }y}^2}}.`$ (9)
The corrected net charge fluctuation is denoted by

$$\stackrel{~}{D_Q}=\frac{D_Q}{C_yC_\mu },$$
(10)
for instance.

## III Model Calculations and Discussion

The JPCIAE model is a transport model for AA collisions in which each hadron- hadron collision, when its center-of-mass energy is larger than a given cut, is carried out by PYTHIA sjo1 , otherwise by conventional two-body interactions cugn ; bert ; tai1 . In PYTHIA, a string is stretched out after a collision with quarks and gluons being distributed alone the string, and the string later fragments into hadrons based on the Lund string fragmentation scheme. The gluons are produced through hard QCD scattering and bremsstrahlung radiation. After one hadron-hadron collision, a formation time is given to produced hadrons. A hadron is only allowed to collide with other hadrons after it is formed. The hadron-hadron collisions will go on until no more collision would take place in the system. In the current version of PYTHIA produced partons do not rescatter with each other, unlike produced hadrons. Because both the partonic and hadronic phase are included in PYTHIA, it provides us a good dynamic tool to study the charge fluctuation for quark-gluon phase, pion gas and resonance pion gas from $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ decays. More importantly, we could use JPCIAE to investigate whether the charge fluctuation in the partonic phase can survive the hadronization (string fragmentation) processes. We refer to sa1  for more details about the JPCIAE model.

In line with the thermal model calculations, several dynamic simulations were performed first for 10% most central $`Au+Au`$ collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{nn}}`$= 130 GeV based on the JPCIAE model for quark-gluon phase, the pion gas, and the resonance pion gas from $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ decays. The calculation of charge fluctuation for the quark-gluon phase is done before hadronization (string fragmentation), in which diquarks (anti-diquarks) are split into quarks (antiquarks) randomly, and the fractional charge of a quark (antiquark) is counted in its multiplicity and the gluon contribution in charge multiplicity is assumed to be 2/3 jeo . For the pion gas, only directly produced pions from string fragmentation are counted in the calculation of charge fluctuation, in contrast to the pion gas from $`\rho `$, $`\omega `$ decays.

Fig. 1 gives the simulated net charge fluctuation in Au+Au collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{nn}}`$=130 GeV as a function of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\eta `$ for 4$`D_Q`$ (left panel) and for 4$`\stackrel{~}{D_Q}`$ (right panel). The squares, circles, and triangles in this figure are the results for quark-gluon phase, pion gas (denoted by ”directly produced pions”), and the pion gas from $`\rho `$, $`\omega `$ decays, respectively. One sees in this figure that the charge fluctuation from the dynamic simulation is very close to the thermal model prediction for the quark-gluon phase, but our result for the pion gas from $`\rho `$, $`\omega `$ decays is higher than the thermal model calculation. The JPCIAE result for the directly produced pions is consistent with the thermal model calculation only in the region of small $`\mathrm{\Delta }\eta `$ and it increases rapidly with increasing $`\mathrm{\Delta }\eta `$.

In the left panel of Fig. 2 the net charge fluctuation of ”directly produced pions” are compared with the result of ”directly produced hadrons” from JPCIAE. One sees that the charge fluctuation for ”directly produced hadrons” is smaller than that for ”directly produced pions”, which is due to the constraint of charge conservation in string fragmentation when all hadrons are included. The result of ”pions from $`\rho `$, $`\omega `$ decay” is compared, in the right panel of Fig. 2, with the result of ”decay hadrons” (decay products from all unstable hadrons). One observes here that both results are close to each other, indicating that the correlation between positively and negatively charged hadrons from all unstable hadrons is similar.

The net charge fluctuation as a function of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\eta `$ from the JPCIAE simulations with (open circles) and without rescattering (open triangles) for $`Au+Au`$ collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{nn}}`$=130 GeV is compared with each other in Fig.(3). The JPCIAE result for the quark-gluon phase (solid squares) is also plotted for comparison. The results show that the rescattering effect on charge fluctuation is small. It is also shown in the right panel of Fig.(3) that the default JPCIAE results are nearly a factor of 4$``$5 larger than that for the quark-gluon phase.

In summary, we have performed dynamic simulations based on JPCIAE model for the quark-gluon phase, the pion gas, and the resonance pion gas from $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ decays for 10% most central $`Au+Au`$ collisions at $`\sqrt{s_{nn}}`$=130 GeV. Our results indicate that although the simulated net charge fluctuation of the quark-gluon phase is close to the thermal model prediction discrepancies are found between the dynamic simulation and the thermal model for the pion gas and resonance pion gas from $`\rho `$ and $`\omega `$ decays. It is also found that JPCIAE results of net charge fluctuation are nearly a factor of $`45`$ larger than that from the simulation for the quark-gluon phase. Our results thus indicate the charge fluctuation does not survive hadronization (string fragmentation) as implemented in JPCIAE.

Finally, the financial supports from NSFC (10135030 and 10075035) in China and DOE in USA are acknowledged.


text:
# Ground-state properties of closed-shell nuclei with low-momentum realistic interactions

## I Introduction

A fundamental problem in nuclear theory has long been the calculation of the bulk properties of closed–shell nuclei, such as their binding energy and charge radius, starting from realistic nucleon–nucleon ($`NN`$) potentials. Potentials like CD–Bonn cdbonn , Nijmegen stoks94 , Argonne $`v_{18}`$ wiringa95 , and the new chiral potential of Ref. mach03  reproduce the $`NN`$ scattering data and the observed deuteron properties very accurately, but, because of their strong repulsion at short distances, none of them can be used directly in nuclear structure calculations.

A traditional approach to this problem is the Brueckner-Goldstone (BG) theory Day67 , where the Goldstone perturbative expansion is re-ordered summing to all orders a selected class of diagrams, the ladder diagrams. This implies replacing the bare interaction ($`V_{NN}`$) vertices by the reaction matrix ($`G`$) ones and omitting the ladder diagrams. Within this framework, one has the well known Brueckner–Hartree–Fock (BHF) theory when the self–consistent definition is adopted for the single–particle (SP) auxiliary potential and only the first–order contribution in the BG expansion is taken into account. The BHF approximation gives therefore a mean field description of the ground state of nuclei in terms of the $`G`$ matrix, the latter taking into account the correlations between pairs of nucleons. However, owing to the energy dependence of $`G`$, this procedure is not without difficulties. An important issue is the choice of the SP energies for states above the Fermi surface, which are not uniquely defined towner .

Calculations for finite nuclei within the BHF approach lead usually to insufficient binding energy as well as too small charge radii sch91 . In this context, extensions of the conventional BHF approach have been proposed to account for long–range correlations gad02 . It is worth mentioning that alternative approaches have been developed, as for instance the correlated basis function method fabrocini00  and the coupled cluster method heisenberg99 , in both of which correlations are directly embedded into the wave functions. A comprehensive review of the various methods is given in Ref. muther00 , which also includes a discussion of calculations for nuclear matter as well as for finite nuclei. An other effort in this direction is the unitary model–operator approach of Suzuki and Okamoto suzuki94 .

Recently, a new technique to renormalize the short–range repulsion of a realistic $`NN`$ potential by integrating out its high momentum components has been proposed bogner01 ; bogner02 . The resulting low–momentum potential, which we call $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$, is a smooth potential that preserves the low–energy physics of $`V_{NN}`$ and is therefore suitable for being used directly in nuclear structure calculations. We have employed $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ derived from modern $`NN`$ potentials to calculate shell–model effective interactions by means of the $`\widehat{Q}`$–box plus folded diagram method. Within this framework, several nuclei with few valence particles have been studied covello02 ; coraggio02 ; coraggio02a , leading to the conclusion that $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ is a valid input for realistic shell-model calculations.

The main purpose of this paper is to show that this potential may also be profitably used for the calculation of ground state properties of doubly closed nuclei. To this end, we have employed the Goldstone expansion which, given the smooth behavior of $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$, does not require any rearrangement. As a first step of our procedure, we solve the Hartree–Fock (HF) equations for $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$. Then, using the obtained self–consistent field as auxiliary potential, we calculate the Goldstone expansion including diagrams up to third order in $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$.

Here, we present the results obtained for 16O and 40Ca starting from the new realistic $`NN`$ potential of Entem and Machleidt mach03  based on chiral perturbation theory at the next-to-next-to-next-to-leading order (N3LO; fourth order). This potential is an improved version of the earlier chiral $`NN`$ potential mach02  (known as Idaho potential) constructed by the same authors, which includes two-pion exchange contributions only up to chiral order three. We have recently employed the latter potential in shell-model calculations for various two-particle valence nuclei coraggio02 .

The paper is organized as follows. In Sec. II we first describe the main features of the derivation of $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$, then outline the essentials of our calculation. In Sec. III we present our results and compare them with the experimental data. Some concluding remarks are given in Sec. IV.

## II Method of calculation

The first step in our approach is to integrate out the high-momentum components of $`V_{NN}`$. According to the general definition of a renormalization group transformation, the decimation must be such that the low-energy observables calculated in the full theory are preserved exactly by the effective theory. Once the relevant low-energy modes are identified, all remaining modes or states have to be integrated out.

For the nucleon-nucleon problem in vacuum, we require that the deuteron binding energy, low-energy phase shifts, and low-momentum half-on-shell $`T`$ matrix calculated from $`V_{NN}`$ must be reproduced by $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$.

The full-space Schrödinger equation may be written as

$$H\mathrm{\Psi }_\mu =E_\mu \mathrm{\Psi }_\mu ;H=H_0+V_{NN},$$
(1)
where $`H_0`$ is the unperturbed Hamiltonian, namely, the kinetic energy. The above equation can be reduced to a model-space one of the form

$$PH_{\mathrm{eff}}P\mathrm{\Psi }_\mu =E_\mu P\mathrm{\Psi }_\mu ;H_{\mathrm{eff}}=H_0+V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}},$$
(2)
where $`P`$ denotes the model-space, which is defined by momentum $`kk_{\mathrm{cut}}=\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`k`$ being the relative momentum and $`k_{\mathrm{cut}}`$ a cut-off momentum.

The half-on-shell $`T`$ matrix of $`V_{NN}`$ is

$$T(k^{},k,k^2)=V_{NN}(k^{},k)+$$

$$+_0^{\mathrm{}}q^2𝑑qV_{NN}(k^{},q)\frac{1}{k^2q^2+i0^+}T(q,k,k^2),$$
(3)
and the effective low-momentum T matrix is defined by

$$T_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}(p^{},p,p^2)=V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}(p^{},p)+$$

$$_0^\mathrm{\Lambda }q^2𝑑qV_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}(p^{},q)\frac{1}{p^2q^2+i0^+}T_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}(q,p,p^2).$$
(4)
Note that for $`T_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ the intermediate states are integrated up to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$.

It is required that, for $`p`$ and $`p^{}`$ both belonging to $`P`$ ($`p,p^{}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$), $`T(p^{},p,p^2)=T_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}(p^{},p,p^2)`$. In Refs. bogner01 ; bogner02  it has been shown that the above requirements are satisfied when $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ is given by the folded-diagram series

$$V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}=\widehat{Q}\widehat{Q^{}}\widehat{Q}+\widehat{Q^{}}\widehat{Q}\widehat{Q}\widehat{Q^{}}\widehat{Q}\widehat{Q}\widehat{Q}+\mathrm{},$$
(5)
where $`\widehat{Q}`$ is an irreducible vertex function, in the sense that its intermediate states must be outside the model space $`P`$. The integral sign represents a generalized folding operation krenc80 , and $`\widehat{Q^{}}`$ is obtained from $`\widehat{Q}`$ by removing terms of first order in the interaction.

The above $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ can be calculated by means of iterative techniques. We have used here an iteration method proposed in Ref. andre96 , which is particularly suitable for non-degenerate model spaces. This method, which we refer to as Andreozzi-Lee-Suzuki (ALS) method, is an iterative method of the Lee-Suzuki type, which converges to the lowest $`d`$ eigenvalues of $`H`$, $`d`$ being the dimension of the $`P`$ space. Since the $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ obtained by this technique is non-hermitian, we have made use of the simple and numerically convenient hermitization procedure suggested in Ref. andre96 . We have verified that the deuteron binding energy and the phase shifts up to the cut-off momentum $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ are preserved by $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$.

An important question in our approach is what value one should use for the cut-off momentum. A discussion of this point as well as a criterion for the choice of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ can be found in Ref. bogner02 . According to this criterion, we have used here $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=2.1\mathrm{fm}^1`$.

We have found it appropriate, however, to check on the sensitivity of our results to moderate changes in the value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. It has turned out that they change very little when letting $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ vary from $`2.0`$ to $`2.2\mathrm{fm}^1`$. For instance, at the second order in the Goldstone expansion (see next section), the binding energy per nucleon for 16O is 7.29 and 7.12 MeV for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=2.0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=2.2\mathrm{fm}^1`$, respectively.

As already mentioned in the Introduction, our starting point is the N3LO potential mach03 . From this potential we derive the corresponding $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ and use it directly in a HF calculation. The HF equations are then solved for 16O and 40Ca making use of a harmonic–oscillator basis. We assume spherical symmetry, which implies that the HF SP states $`|\alpha `$ have good orbital and total angular momentum. Therefore, they can be expanded in terms of oscillator wave functions $`|\mu `$,

$$|\alpha =\underset{\mu }{}C_\mu ^\alpha |\mu ,$$
(6)
where the sum is over the principal quantum number only. The expansion coefficients $`C_\mu ^\alpha `$ are determined by solving self–consistently the HF equations

$$\underset{\mu ^{}}{}\mu |t+U|\mu ^{}C_\mu ^{}^\alpha =ϵ_\alpha C_\mu ^\alpha ,$$
(7)
where $`t`$ is the kinetic energy and the HF potential $`U`$ is defined as

$$\mu |U|\mu ^{}=\underset{\alpha _h}{}\mu \alpha _h|V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}|\mu ^{}\alpha _h,$$
(8)
with the index $`\alpha _h`$ referring to occupied states in the ground–state HF Slater determinant.

Once Eq. (7) has been solved, the ground–state properties of the nucleus can be calculated. In particular, the total energy has the well-known expression

$$E_{\mathrm{HF}}=\frac{1}{2}\underset{\alpha _h}{}\left[\alpha _h|t|\alpha _h+ϵ_{\alpha _h}\right].$$
(9)
In our calculations the sum in the expansion (6) has been extended up to $`N=5`$ terms. We have verified that this truncation is sufficient to ensure that the HF results do not significantly depend on the variation of the oscillator constant $`\mathrm{}\omega `$. This is illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2, where we show the behavior of the HF ground–state energy of 16O and 40Ca versus $`\mathrm{}\omega `$ for different values of $`N`$. The results for $`N=5`$ are quite stable. In our calculations the values of $`\mathrm{}\omega `$ have been derived from the expression $`\mathrm{}\omega =45A^{1/3}25A^{2/3}`$ blomqvist68 , which reproduces the rms radii in an independent–particle approximation with harmonic–oscillator wave functions. This expression gives $`\mathrm{}\omega =14`$ and 11 MeV for 16O and 40Ca, respectively. In solving Eq. (7), the Coulomb potential has been added to $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ for protons.

We use the HF basis to sum the Goldstone expansion including contributions up to third order in $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$. In Fig. 3 we report the first–, second–, and third–order diagrams goldstone57 . The intermediate states involved in the evaluation of these diagrams are those obtained from the lowest 10 and 11 h.o. major shells for 16O and 40Ca, respectively. Our results show convergence for these large spaces: for example, the 16O binding energy per nucleon in second order approximation is 7.03, 7.22, and 7.30 MeV when considering 9, 10, and 11 major shells, respectively. Similar diagrams have been used to calculate the corrections to the rms radius. As is well known, retaining only the first-order term in this expansion yields the HF results.

To conclude, it is worth stressing that using the Goldstone expansion in terms of $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ one has to include also diagrams (b) and (c). This is not the case of the BG approach, where these diagrams are already contained in diagram (a) through the $`G`$ matrix.

## III Results

In Table I, the calculated binding energy per nucleon and the rms charge radius for both 16O and 40Ca are compared with the experimental data audi93 ; devries87 ; nadjakov94 . This Table contains the HF results as well as the values obtained including second– and third–order contributions. We see that the renormalization of the short range repulsion through $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ is sufficient to yield positive HF binding energies, albeit too small as compared to the experimental values. We also see that the HF approximation significantly underestimates the rms radii. This evidences the role of higher–order contributions in the Goldstone expansion to account for correlations beyond the mean field. The binding energies and radii calculated including diagrams up to third order are very satisfactory. In fact, the binding energies gain about 4 and 3 MeV for 16O and 40Ca, respectively, while the radii increase by about 0.4 and 0.8 fm coming quite close to the experimental values.

A discussion of the convergence properties of the perturbative series is now in order. To this end, the HF potential energy, the second– , and third–order corrections have to be compared. In 16O the HF potential energy per nucleon is $`V^{(1)}=23.5`$ MeV, which is obtained by subtracting from the total HF energy the contribution of the kinetic term. Thus for the ratio of the second– to first–order term we obtain $`V^{(2)}/V^{(1)}=0.17`$, while the ratio $`V^{(3)}/V^{(2)}`$ is 0.08. Similarly, for 40Ca we have $`V^{(1)}=33.7`$ MeV, $`V^{(2)}/V^{(1)}=0.09`$, and $`V^{(3)}/V^{(2)}=0.03`$. On these grounds, we may conclude that the convergence of the series is fairly rapid and that higher–order contributions are negligible.

For the sake of completeness, in Tables II and III we report the HF single-hole energies as well as the energies of the low-lying particle states of 16O and 40Ca. In Tables IV and V the calculated occupation probabilities for states up to the Fermi level are reported.

## IV Concluding remarks

In this work, starting from the chiral N3LO potential mach03 , we have performed calculations for the ground-state properties of the doubly closed nuclei 16O and 40Ca making use of the Goldstone expansion. This has been done within the framework of a new approach bogner01 ; bogner02  to the renormalization of the short-range repulsion of realistic $`NN`$ potentials, wherein a low-momentum potential $`V_{lowk}`$ is constructed which preserves the low-energy physics of the original potential. We consider a main achievement of our study to have shown that $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ is suitable for being used directly in the Goldstone expansion. Namely, unlike the traditional BHF approach, there is no need to first calculate the $`G`$ matrix. We have seen that taking into account higher-order contributions (essentially the second-order terms) of $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ in the Goldstone expansion yields very good results for the binding energy and charge radius of 16O and 40Ca.

In this context, it is worth emphasizing that the idea of bypassing the $`G`$-matrix approach to nuclear structure calculations is not new tabakin64 ; elliott68 . From this viewpoint, the present study comes close in spirit to the early work carried out at the MIT kerman66 ; kerman67 ; bassichis67  in the mid 1960’s. There the Tabakin’s separable nonlocal $`NN`$ potential tabakin64  was used in HF calculations and then the second-order correction to the binding energy was evaluated, obtaining quite satisfactory results. It is indeed very gratifying that our results based on the use of the $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ derived from the modern N3LO potential come significantly closer to the experimental data. It should be noted that our results are quite good also when compared to those of recent BHF calculations gad02 , where different modern $`NN`$ potentials have been used and long-range cortrelations have been considered within the framework of the Green function approach.

In summary, we may conclude that the results of the present study, together with those of our recent shell-model calculations, show that the $`V_{\mathrm{low}\mathrm{k}}`$ approach provides a simple and reliable way of “smoothing out” the repulsive core contained in the modern $`NN`$ potentials before using them in microscopic nuclear structure calculations.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported in part by the Italian Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca (MIUR) and by the U.S. DOE Grant No. DE-FG02-88ER40388. We would like to thank R. Machleidt for providing us with the matrix elements of the N3LO potential.


text:
# MEASURING PRIMORDIAL NON-GAUSSIANITY IN THE COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Measurement of statistical properties of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) is a direct test of inflation. Simple models of inflation predict Gaussian primordial fluctuations generated by ground-state quantum fluctuations of a scalar field (Guth & Pi, 1982; Starobinsky, 1982; Hawking, 1982; Bardeen et al., 1983; Mukhanov et al., 1992).

Non-linearity (Salopek & Bond, 1990, 1991; Gangui et al., 1994; Gupta et al., 2002), interactions of scalar fields (Allen et al., 1987; Falk et al., 1993), or deviation from the ground state (Lesgourgues et al., 1997; Martin et al., 2000; Contaldi et al., 1999; Gangui et al., 2002) can generate weak non-Gaussianity. Acquaviva et al. (2003) and Maldacena (2003) have calculated the 2nd-order perturbations during inflation to show that simple inflation based on a slowly rolling scalar field cannot generate detectable non-Gaussianity with the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) or the Planck experiments; thus, any detection of the primordial non-Gaussianity strongly constrains inflation models, and sheds light on physics in the early universe. For example, isocurvature fluctuations (Linde & Mukhanov, 1997; Peebles, 1997; Bucher & Zhu, 1997), features in a scalar-field potential (Kofman et al., 1991; Wang & Kamionkowski, 2000), or a “curvaton” mechanism (by which late-time decay of a scalar field generates curvature perturbations from isocurvature fluctuations (Mollerach, 1990; Lyth & Wands, 2002)) can generate stronger, potentially detectable, non-Gaussianity. The second-order gravity also contributes to non-Gaussianity (Luo & Schramm, 1993; Munshi et al., 1995; Pyne & Carroll, 1996; Mollerach & Matarrese, 1997), and there is a possibility that we can detect it with the Planck experiment.

Many of the non-Gaussian models are written as a parametrized form for the curvature perturbations $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$,

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(𝒙)=\mathrm{\Phi }_L(𝒙)+f_{NL}\left[\mathrm{\Phi }_L^2(𝒙)\mathrm{\Phi }_L^2(𝒙)\right],$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_L`$ are Gaussian linear perturbations. Note that $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\mathrm{\Phi }_H`$ in Bardeen (1980). A similar model may also apply to isocurvature perturbations, $`S`$ (Bartolo et al., 2002). This ansatz provides a model quantifying the amplitude of the primordial non-Gaussianity. An exact prediction of this model for the CMB bispectrum exists (Komatsu & Spergel, 2001), while an approximate one for the trispectrum (Okamoto & Hu, 2002). Non-linearity in inflation gives $`f_{NL}𝒪(10^1)`$, the second-order gravity gives $`f_{NL}𝒪(1)`$, and isocurvature fluctuations, features, or curvatons can give $`f_{NL}1`$ depending on models.

The bispectrum measured by COBE (Komatsu et al., 2002) and MAXIMA (Santos et al., 2003) experiments found $`\left|f_{NL}\right|10^3`$ (68%). Using the methods described in this paper, the WMAP data (Bennett et al., 2003b) have improved the constraint significantly to obtain $`58<f_{NL}<134`$ (95%) (Komatsu et al., 2003). While the trispectrum measured on the COBE data has shown no evidence for cosmological non-Gaussianity (Komatsu, 2001; Kunz et al., 2001), no quantitative limit on $`f_{NL}`$ has been obtained. The trispectrum can be as sensitive to $`f_{NL}`$ as the bispectrum (Okamoto & Hu, 2002); however, we need more accurate predictions using the full radiation transfer function. The trispectrum has not yet been measured on the WMAP data. The deficit in $`C^2(\theta )`$ on $`\theta 60^{}`$ (Spergel et al., 2003) might be a sign of a significant trispectrum on large angular scales.

Measuring $`f_{NL}`$ from nearly full-sky experiments is challenging. The bispectrum analysis requires $`N^{5/2}`$ operations ($`N^{3/2}`$ for computing three $`l`$’s and $`N`$ for averaging over the sky) where $`N`$ is the number of pixels ($`N3\times 10^6`$ for WMAP, $`5\times 10^7`$ for Planck). Even though an efficient algorithm exists, the trispectrum still requires $`N^3`$ (Komatsu, 2001).

Although we measure the individual triangle configurations of the bispectrum (or quadrilateral configurations of the trispectrum) at first, we eventually combine all of them to constrain model parameters such as $`f_{NL}`$, as the signal-to-noise per configuration is nearly zero. This may sound inefficient. Measuring all configurations is enormously time consuming. Is there any statistic which already combines all the configurations optimally, and fast to compute? Yes, and finding it is the main subject of this paper. A physical justification for our methodology is as follows. A model like equation (1) generates non-Gaussianity in real space, and central-limit theorem makes the Fourier modes nearly Gaussian; thus, real-space statistics should be more sensitive. On the other hand, real-space statistics are weighted sum of Fourier-space statistics, which are often easier to predict. Therefore, we need to understand the shape of Fourier-space statistics to find sensitive real-space statistics, and for this purpose it is useful to have a specific, physically motivated non-Gaussian model, compute Fourier statistics, and find optimal real-space statistics.

## 2 RECONSTRUCTING PRIMORDIAL FLUCTUATIONS FROM TEMPERATURE ANISOTROPY

We begin with the primordial curvature perturbations $`\mathrm{\Phi }\left(𝒙\right)`$ and isocurvature perturbations $`S\left(𝒙\right)`$. If we can reconstruct these primordial fluctuations from observed CMB anisotropy, $`\mathrm{\Delta }T(\widehat{𝒏})/T`$, then we can improve sensitivity to primordial non-Gaussianity. We find that the harmonic coefficients of CMB anisotropy, $`a_{lm}=T^1d^2\widehat{𝐧}\mathrm{\Delta }T(\widehat{𝒏})Y_{lm}^{}(\widehat{𝒏})`$, are related to the primordial fluctuations as

$$a_{lm}=b_lr^2𝑑r\left[\mathrm{\Phi }_{lm}(r)\alpha _l^{adi}(r)+S_{lm}(r)\alpha _l^{iso}(r)\right]+n_{lm},$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{lm}(r)`$ and $`S_{lm}(r)`$ are the harmonic coefficients of the fluctuations at a given comoving distance, $`r=\left|𝒙\right|`$. A beam function $`b_l`$ and the harmonic coefficients of noise $`n_{lm}`$ represent instrumental effects. Since noise can be spatially inhomogeneous, the noise covariance matrix $`n_{lm}n_{l^{}m^{}}^{}`$ can be non-diagonal; however, we approximate it with $`\sigma _0^2\delta _{ll^{}}\delta _{mm^{}}`$. We thus assume the “mildly inhomogeneous” noise for which this approximation holds. The function $`\alpha _l(r)`$ is defined by

$$\alpha _l(r)\frac{2}{\pi }k^2𝑑kg_{Tl}(k)j_l(kr),$$
(3)
where $`g_{Tl}(k)`$ is the radiation transfer function of either adiabatic ($`adi`$) or isocurvature ($`iso`$) perturbations.

Next, assuming that $`\mathrm{\Phi }\left(𝒙\right)`$ dominates, we try to reconstruct $`\mathrm{\Phi }\left(𝒙\right)`$ from the observed $`\mathrm{\Delta }T(\widehat{𝒏})`$. A linear filter, $`𝒪_l(r)`$, which reconstructs the underlying field, can be obtained by minimizing variance of difference between the filtered field $`𝒪_l(r)a_{lm}`$ and the underlying field $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{lm}(r)`$. By evaluating

$$\frac{}{𝒪_l(r)}\left|𝒪_l(r)a_{lm}\mathrm{\Phi }_{lm}(r)\right|^2=0,$$
(4)
one obtains a solution for the filter as

$$𝒪_l(r)=\frac{\beta _l(r)b_l}{𝒞_l},$$
(5)
where the function $`\beta _l(r)`$ is given by

$$\beta _l(r)\frac{2}{\pi }k^2𝑑kP(k)g_{Tl}(k)j_l(kr),$$
(6)
and $`P(k)`$ is the power spectrum of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. Of course, one can replace $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ with $`S`$ when $`S`$ dominates. We use a calligraphic letter for a quantity that includes effects of $`b_l`$ and noise such that $`𝒞_lC_lb_l^2+\sigma _0^2`$, where $`C_l`$ is the theoretical power spectrum that uses the same cosmological model as $`g_{Tl}(k)`$.

Finally, we transform the filtered field $`𝒪_l(r)a_{lm}`$ back to pixel space to obtain an Wiener-filtered, reconstructed map of $`\mathrm{\Phi }(r,\widehat{𝒏})`$ or $`S(r,\widehat{𝒏})`$. We have assumed that there is no correlation between $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ and $`S`$. We will return to study the case of non-zero correlation later (§ 3.2).

Figure 1 shows $`O_l(r)`$ as a function of $`l`$ and $`r`$ for (a) an adiabatic SCDM ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=1`$), (b) an adiabatic $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.3`$), (c) an isocurvature SCDM, and (d) an isocurvature $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM. Note that we plot $`O_l(r)=\beta _l(r)/C_l`$ where $`C_l`$ does not include beam smearing or noise. While we have used $`P(k)k^3`$ for both adiabatic and isocurvature modes, specific choice of $`P(k)`$ does not affect $`O_l`$ very much as $`P(k)`$ in $`\beta _l`$ in the numerator approximately cancels out $`P(k)`$ in $`C_l`$ in the denominator. On large angular scales (smaller $`l`$) the Sachs–Wolfe (SW) effect makes $`O_l`$ $`3`$ for adiabatic modes and $`5/2`$ for isocurvature modes of the SCDM models (Sachs & Wolfe, 1967). For the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM models the late-time decay of gravitational potential makes this limit different. Adiabatic and isocurvature modes are out of phases in $`l`$.

The figure shows that $`O_l`$ changes the sign of the fluctuations as a function of scales. This indicates that acoustic physics at the last scattering surface modulates fluctuations so that hot spots in the primordial fluctuations can be cold spots in CMB for example. Therefore, the shape of $`O_l`$ “deconvolves” the sign change, recovering the phases of fluctuations. This is an intuitive reason why our cubic statistic derived below \[Eq. (9)\] works, and it proves more advantageous to measure primordial non-Gaussianity on a filtered map than on a temperature map.

This property should be compared to that of real-space statistics measured on a temperature map. We have shown in Komatsu & Spergel (2001) that the skewness of a temperature map is much less sensitive to the primordial non-Gaussianity than the bispectrum, exactly because of the cancellation effect from the acoustic oscillations. The skewness of a filtered map, on the other hand, has a larger signal-to-noise ratio, and a more optimal statistic like our cubic statistic derived below (§ 3) can be constructed. Other real-space statistics such as Minkowski functionals or peak-peak correlations may also be more sensitive to the primordial non-Gaussianity, when measured on the filtered maps; we are investigating these possibilities.

Unfortunately, as $`g_{Tl}`$ oscillates, our reconstruction of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ or $`S`$ from a temperature map alone is not perfect. While $`O_l`$ reconstructs the primordial fluctuations very well on large scales via the Sachs–Wolfe effect, $`O_l0`$ on intermediate scales ($`l50`$ for adiabatic and $`l100`$ for isocurvature), indicating loss of information on the phases of the underlying fluctuations. Then, toward smaller scales, we recover information, lose information, and so on. Exact scales at which $`O_l0`$ depend on $`r`$ and cosmology. A good news is that a high signal-to-noise map of the CMB polarization anisotropy will enable us to overcome the loss of information, as the polarization transfer function is out of phases in $`l`$ compared to the temperature transfer function, filling up information at which $`O_l0`$. In the other words, the polarization anisotropy has finite information about the phases of the primordial perturbations, when the temperature anisotropy has zero information.

## 3 FAST CUBIC STATISTICS

### 3.1 Primordial Non-Gaussianity

Using two functions introduced in the previous section, we construct a cubic statistic optimal for the primordial non-Gaussianity. We apply filters to $`a_{lm}`$, and then transform the filtered $`a_{lm}`$’s to obtain two maps, $`A`$ and $`B`$, given by

$`A(r,\widehat{𝒏})`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{lm}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _l(r)b_l}{𝒞_l}}a_{lm}Y_{lm}(\widehat{𝒏}),`$ (7)
$`B(r,\widehat{𝒏})`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{lm}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\beta _l(r)b_l}{𝒞_l}}a_{lm}Y_{lm}(\widehat{𝒏}).`$ (8)
The latter map, $`B(r,\widehat{𝒏})`$, is exactly the $`𝒪_l`$-filtered map, an Wiener-filtered map of the underlying primordial fluctuations. We then form a cubic statistic given by

$$𝒮_{prim}4\pi r^2𝑑r\frac{d^2\widehat{𝒏}}{4\pi }A(r,\widehat{𝒏})B^2(r,\widehat{𝒏}),$$
(9)
where the angular average is done on full sky regardless of sky cut. We find that $`𝒮_{prim}`$ reduces exactly to

$$𝒮_{prim}=\underset{l_1l_2l_3}{}\frac{_{l_1l_2l_3}^{obs}_{l_1l_2l_3}^{prim}}{𝒞_{l_1}𝒞_{l_2}𝒞_{l_3}},$$
(10)
where

$$_{l_1l_2l_3}B_{l_1l_2l_3}b_{l_1}b_{l_2}b_{l_3},$$
(11)
and $`B_{l_1l_2l_3}^{obs}`$ is the observed bispectrum with the effect of $`b_l`$ corrected while $`B_{l_1l_2l_3}^{prim}`$ the theoretical one for $`f_{NL}=1`$ (Komatsu & Spergel, 2001),

$$B_{l_1l_2l_3}^{prim}2I_{l_1l_2l_3}r^2𝑑r\left[\beta _{l_1}(r)\beta _{l_2}(r)\alpha _{l_3}(r)+\beta _{l_3}(r)\beta _{l_1}(r)\alpha _{l_2}(r)+\beta _{l_2}(r)\beta _{l_3}(r)\alpha _{l_1}(r)\right],$$
(12)
where

$$I_{l_1l_2l_3}\sqrt{\frac{(2l_1+1)(2l_2+1)(2l_3+1)}{4\pi }}\left(\begin{array}{ccc}l_1& l_2& l_3\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right).$$
(13)
It is straightforward to derive equation (10) from (9) using equation (12).

The denominator of equation (10) is the variance of $`_{l_1l_2l_3}^{obs}`$ in the limit of weak non-Gaussianity (say $`\left|f_{NL}\right|10^3`$) when all $`l`$’s are different: $`_{l_1l_2l_3}^2=𝒞_{l_1}𝒞_{l_2}𝒞_{l_3}\mathrm{\Delta }_{l_1l_2l_3}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{l_1l_2l_3}`$ is 6 for $`l_1=l_2=l_3`$, 2 for $`l_1=l_2l_3`$ etc., and 1 otherwise. The bispectrum configurations are thus summed up nearly optimally with the approximate inverse-variance weights, provided that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{l_1l_2l_3}`$ is approximated with $`1`$. The least-square fit of $`_{l_1l_2l_3}^{prim}`$ to $`_{l_1l_2l_3}^{obs}`$ can be performed to yield

$$𝒮_{prim}f_{NL}\underset{l_1l_2l_3}{}\frac{(_{l_1l_2l_3}^{prim})^2}{𝒞_{l_1}𝒞_{l_2}𝒞_{l_3}}.$$
(14)
This equation gives an estimate of $`f_{NL}`$ directly from $`𝒮_{prim}`$.

The most time consuming part is the back-and-forth harmonic transformation necessary for pre-filtering \[Eqs. (7) and (8)\], taking $`N^{3/2}`$ operations times the number of sampling points of $`r`$, of order 100, for evaluating the integral \[Eq. (9)\]. This is much faster than the full bispectrum analysis which takes $`N^{5/2}`$, enabling us to perform a more detailed analysis of the data in a reasonable amount of computational time. For example, measurements of all bispectrum configurations up to $`l_{max}=512`$ take 8 hours to compute on 16 processors of an SGI Origin 300; thus, even only 100 Monte Carlo simulations take 1 month to carry out. On the other hand, $`𝒮_{prim}`$ takes only 30 seconds to compute, 1000 times faster. When we measure $`f_{NL}`$ for $`l_{max}=1024`$, we speed up by a factor of 4000: 11 days for the bispectrum vs 4 minutes for $`𝒮_{prim}`$. We can do 1000 simulations for $`l_{max}=1024`$ in 3 days.

### 3.2 Mixed Fluctuations

The $`𝒪_l`$-filtered map, $`B`$, is an Wiener-filtered map of primordial curvature or isocurvature perturbations; however, this is correct only when correlations between the two components are negligible. On the other hand, multi-field inflation models (Langlois, 1999; Gordon et al., 2001) and curvaton models (Lyth & Wands, 2002; Moroi & Takahashi, 2001) naturally predict correlations. The current CMB data are consistent with, but do not require, a mixture of the correlated fluctuations (Amendola et al., 2002; Trotta et al., 2001; Peiris et al., 2003). In this case, the Wiener filter for the primordial fluctuations \[Eq. (5)\] needs to be modified such that $`𝒪_l(r)=\beta _l(r)b_l/𝒞_l\stackrel{~}{\beta }_l(r)b_l/𝒞_l`$, where

$`\stackrel{~}{\beta }_l^{adi}(r)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi }}{\displaystyle k^2𝑑k\left[P_\mathrm{\Phi }(k)g_{Tl}^{adi}(k)+P_C(k)g_{Tl}^{iso}(k)\right]j_l(kr)},`$
$`\stackrel{~}{\beta }_l^{iso}(r)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi }}{\displaystyle k^2𝑑k\left[P_S(k)g_{Tl}^{iso}(k)+P_C(k)g_{Tl}^{adi}(k)\right]j_l(kr)},`$
for curvature ($`adi`$) and isocurvature ($`iso`$) perturbations, respectively. Here $`P_\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is the primordial power spectrum of curvature perturbations, $`P_S`$ of isocurvature perturbations, and $`P_C`$ of cross correlations.

As for measuring non-Gaussianity from the correlated fluctuations, we use equation (1) as a model of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$\- and $`S`$-field non-Gaussianity to parameterize them with $`f_{NL}^{adi}`$ and $`f_{NL}^{iso}`$, respectively. We then form a cubic statistic similar to $`𝒮_{prim}`$ \[Eq. (9)\], using $`A(r,\widehat{𝒏})`$ and a new filtered map $`\stackrel{~}{B}(r,\widehat{𝒏})`$ which uses $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }_l(r)`$. We have two cubic combinations: $`A_{adi}\stackrel{~}{B}_{adi}^2`$ for measuring $`f_{NL}^{adi}`$ and $`A_{iso}\stackrel{~}{B}_{iso}^2`$ for $`f_{NL}^{iso}`$, each of which comprises four terms including one $`P_\mathrm{\Phi }^2`$ (or $`P_S^2`$), one $`P_C^2`$, and two $`P_\mathrm{\Phi }P_C`$’s (or $`P_SP_C`$’s). In other words, the correlated contribution makes the total number of terms contributing to the non-Gaussianity four times more than the uncorrelated-fluctuation models (see (Bartolo et al., 2002) for more generic cases).

### 3.3 Point Source Non-Gaussianity

Next, we show that the filtering method is also useful for measuring foreground non-Gaussianity arising from extragalactic point sources. The residual point sources left unsubtracted in a map can seriously contaminate both the power spectrum and the bispectrum. We can, on the other hand, use multi-band observations as well as external template maps of dust, free-free, and synchrotron emission, to remove diffuse Galactic foreground (Bennett et al., 2003a). The radio sources with known positions can be safely masked.

The filtered map for the point sources is

$$D(\widehat{𝒏})\underset{lm}{}\frac{b_l}{𝒞_l}a_{lm}Y_{lm}(\widehat{𝒏}).$$
(15)
This filtered map was actually used for detecting point sources in the WMAP maps (Bennett et al., 2003a). Using $`D(\widehat{𝒏})`$, the cubic statistic is derived as

$$𝒮_{src}\frac{d^2\widehat{𝒏}}{4\pi }D^3(\widehat{𝒏})=\frac{3}{2\pi }\underset{l_1l_2l_3}{}\frac{_{l_1l_2l_3}^{obs}_{l_1l_2l_3}^{src}}{𝒞_{l_1}𝒞_{l_2}𝒞_{l_3}}.$$
(16)
Here, $`B_{l_1l_2l_3}^{src}`$ is the point-source bispectrum for unit white-noise bispectrum, $`B_{l_1l_2l_3}^{src}=I_{l_1l_2l_3}`$. ($`b_{src}=1`$ in Komatsu & Spergel (2001).) When covariance between $`B_{l_1l_2l_3}^{prim}`$ and $`B_{l_1l_2l_3}^{src}`$ is negligible as is the case for WMAP and Planck (Komatsu & Spergel, 2001), we find

$$𝒮_{src}\frac{3b_{src}}{2\pi }\underset{l_1l_2l_3}{}\frac{(_{l_1l_2l_3}^{src})^2}{𝒞_{l_1}𝒞_{l_2}𝒞_{l_3}}.$$
(17)
We omit the covariance only for simplicity; including it is simple (Komatsu & Spergel, 2001; Komatsu et al., 2002). Again $`𝒮_{src}`$ measures $`b_{src}`$ much faster than the full bispectrum analysis, constraining effects of residual point sources on CMB sky maps. Since $`𝒮_{src}`$ does not contain the extra integral over $`r`$, it is even 100 times faster to compute than $`𝒮_{prim}`$. This statistic is particularly useful because it is sometimes difficult to tell how much of $`C_l`$ is due to point sources. Komatsu et al. (2003) have used $`𝒮_{src}`$ (i.e., $`b_{src}`$) to measure $`C_l`$ due to the unsubtracted point sources.

### 3.4 Incomplete Sky Coverage

Finally, we show how to incorporate incomplete sky coverage and pixel weights into our statistics. Suppose that we weight a sky map by $`M(\widehat{𝒏})`$ to measure the harmonic coefficients,

$$a_{lm}^{obs}=T^1d^2\widehat{𝒏}M(\widehat{𝒏})\mathrm{\Delta }T(\widehat{𝒏})Y_{lm}^{}(\widehat{𝒏}).$$
(18)
A full-sky $`a_{lm}`$ is related to $`a_{lm}^{obs}`$ through the coupling matrix $`M_{ll^{}mm^{}}d^2\widehat{𝒏}M(\widehat{𝒏})Y_{lm}^{}(\widehat{𝒏})Y_{l^{}m^{}}(\widehat{𝒏})`$ by $`a_{lm}^{obs}=_{l^{}m^{}}a_{l^{}m^{}}M_{ll^{}mm^{}}`$. In this case the observed bispectrum is biased by a factor of $`d^2\widehat{𝒏}M^3(\widehat{𝒏})/(4\pi )`$; thus, we need to divide $`S_{prim}`$ and $`S_{src}`$ by this factor. If only sky cut is considered, then this factor is a fraction of the sky covered by observations (Komatsu et al., 2002).

We have carried out extensive Monte Carlo simulations of non-Gaussian sky maps computed with equation (2). Appendix A of Komatsu et al. (2003) describes the simulations in detail. We find that $`𝒮_{prim}`$ reproduces input $`f_{NL}`$’s accurately both on full sky and incomplete sky with modest Galactic cut and inhomogeneous noise expected for WMAP, i.e., the statistic is unbiased. We cannot however make a sky cut very large, e.g., more than 50% of the sky, as for which the covariance matrix of $`_{l_1l_2l_3}`$ is no longer diagonal. The cubic statistic does not include the off-diagonal terms of the covariance matrix \[see Eq. (10)\]; however, it works fine for WMAP sky maps for which we can use more than 75% of the sky. Also, we have found that equation (17) correctly estimates $`b_{src}`$ using simulated realizations of point sources (see Appendix B of Komatsu et al. (2003)). As for uncertainty in the cubic statistics, Figure 2 shows that errors of $`f_{NL}`$ from $`𝒮_{prim}`$ and $`b_{src}`$ from $`𝒮_{src}`$ are as small as those from the full bispectrum analysis (see descriptions in Appendix).

## 4 CONCLUSION

Using the method described in this paper, we can measure non-Gaussian fluctuations in a nearly full-sky CMB map much faster than the full bispectrum analysis without loss of sensitivity (see Appendix). Our fast statistics allow us to carry out extensive Monte Carlo simulations characterizing effects of realistic noise properties of experiments, sky cut, foreground sources, and so on. A reconstructed map of the primordial fluctuations, which plays a key role in our method, potentially gives other real-space statistics more sensitivity to primordial non-Gaussianity. As we have shown our method can be applied to the primordial non-Gaussianity arising from inflation, gravity, or correlated isocurvature fluctuations, as well as the foreground non-Gaussianity from radio point sources, all of which can be important sources of non-Gaussian fluctuations on the forthcoming CMB sky maps.

## Appendix A PERFORMANCE OF CUBIC STATISTICS

We have extensively tested our cubic statistics using Monte Carlo simulations of CMB sky with realistic noise properties and various galaxy masks. More specifically, we have used WMAP 1-year noise properties in V band (Bennett et al., 2003b) and straight masks in Galactic coordinates with $`|b|_{cut}=0`$, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and $`80^{}`$. (I.e., $`|b|_{cut}<b<|b|_{cut}`$ has been masked.) Figure 2 shows uncertainty in $`f_{NL}`$ and $`b_{src}`$ obtained from 300 Gaussian simulations using the cubic statistics (diamonds) for different galaxy masks. The solid lines show the minimum variance which would be expected for the full bispectrum analysis. These lines have been computed by $`\sqrt{F_{ii}^1/f_{sky}}`$, where $`F_{ij}`$ is the Fisher matrix (Komatsu & Spergel, 2001) and $`f_{sky}`$ is a fraction of sky surviving the mask. We find that the cubic statistics perform remarkably well, giving errors as small as the full bispectrum analysis for all masks, for simulations of the CMB signal only and CMB with homogeneous noise. (The homogeneous noise has r.m.s. noise which matches the average noise in V band.) However, the statistics perform a bit worse in the presence of inhomogeneous noise – this is because we are using a simple uniform weighting ($`M(\widehat{𝒏})=0`$ for the masked pixels and $`M(\widehat{𝒏})=1`$ otherwise) rather than the optimal $`C^1`$ weighting. Since noise in some pixels are much larger than average, our statistics are affected by those noisier pixels. It is not straightforward to implement $`C^1`$ weighting (which is non-diagonal) in our cubic statistics, but we continue to investigate a way to take into account inhomogeneous noise in our method.


text:
# Crossover from random-exchange to random-field critical behavior in Ising models.

## Abstract

We compute the crossover exponent $`\varphi `$ describing the crossover from the random-exchange to the random-field critical behavior in Ising systems. For this purpose, we consider the field-theoretical approach based on the replica method, and perform a six-loop calculation in the framework of a fixed-dimension expansion. The crossover from random-exchange to random-field critical behavior has been observed in dilute anisotropic antiferromagnets, such as FexZn1-xF2 and MnxZn1-xF2, when applying an external magnetic field. Our result $`\varphi =1.42(2)`$ for the crossover exponent is in good agreement with the available experimental estimates.

The most studied experimental realizations of random-field Ising systems are dilute anisotropic antiferromagnets in a uniform magnetic field applied along the spin ordering axis . A simple lattice model is provided by the Hamiltonian

$$=J\underset{<ij>}{}\rho _i\rho _js_is_jH\underset{i}{}\rho _is_i,$$
(1)
where $`J>0`$, the first sum extends over all nearest-neighbor sites, $`s_i=\pm 1`$ are the spin variables, and $`\rho _i`$ are uncorrelated quenched random variables, which are equal to one with probability $`p`$ (the spin concentration) and zero with probability $`1p`$ (the impurity concentration). In the absence of an external field, i.e. $`H=0`$, the critical behavior of dilute Ising systems (above the percolation point of the spins) belongs to the universality class of the random-exchange Ising model (REIM), which differs from the standard Ising one. See, e.g., Refs.  for recent reviews. The applied uniform field $`H`$ gives rise to a different critical behavior corresponding to the universality class of the random-field Ising model (RFIM). See e.g. Refs.  for recent reviews on RFIM.

For $`t(TT_N)/T_N0`$, $`T_N`$ being the Néel temperature in zero field, and $`H0`$ the singular part of the free energy can be written as

$$=|u_t|^{2\alpha }f\left(H^2|u_t|^\varphi \right),$$
(2)
where $`u_tt+a_1H^2+a_2t^2`$ is the scaling field associated with the temperature, $`\alpha `$ is the specific-heat exponent of the REIM, $`f(x)`$ is a scaling function, and $`\varphi `$ is the corresponding crossover exponent. As a consequence of the crossover scaling (2), the critical temperature in the presence of the external field $`H`$ is given by

$$T_c(H)T_N+cH^{2/\varphi }aH^2,$$
(3)
for sufficiently small $`H`$. Experimental measurements on dilute antiferromagnets yielded rather precise estimates: $`\varphi =1.42(3)`$ obtained for FexZn1-xF2 , $`\varphi =1.43(3)`$ for MnxZn1-xF2 , and $`\varphi =1.41(5)`$ for FexMg1-xCl2 .

On the theoretical side, a computation of $`\varphi `$ was presented in Ref.  using the field-theoretical $`ϵ`$ expansion. We recall that in the REIM the $`ϵ`$ expansion is actually an expansion in powers of $`\sqrt{ϵ}`$. The exponent $`\varphi `$ was computed to $`O(ϵ)`$ , obtaining

$$\varphi /\gamma =1+0.16823ϵ^{1/2}0.22666ϵ+O(ϵ^{3/2}),$$
(4)
where $`\gamma `$ is the REIM susceptibility exponent. Apart from showing that $`\varphi \gamma `$, where $`\gamma 1.34`$ (see, e.g., Refs. ), this series does not yield a reliable estimate of $`\varphi `$ for three-dimensional systems. This is generically true for the $`\sqrt{ϵ}`$ expansion of any critical exponent of the REIM .

In this paper we determine the crossover exponent $`\varphi `$ using an alternative field-theoretical method based on a fixed-dimension expansion in powers of appropriate zero-momentum quartic couplings, which we compute to six loops. As we shall see, the analysis of the series provides a quite precise estimate of $`\varphi `$,

$$\varphi =1.42(2),$$
(5)
in good agreement with experiments. This result was already anticipated in Ref. .

The field-theoretical approach is based on an effective Landau-Ginzburg-Wilson $`\phi ^4`$ Hamiltonian that can be obtained by using the replica method , i.e.

$$_{\phi ^4}=d^3x\left\{\frac{1}{2}\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left[(_\mu \phi _i)^2+r\phi _i^2\right]+\frac{1}{4!}\underset{i,j=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left(u_0+v_0\delta _{ij}\right)\phi _i^2\phi _j^2\right\},$$
(6)
where $`\phi _i`$ is an $`N`$-component field. The critical behavior of the REIM is expected to be described by the stable fixed point of the Hamiltonian $`_{\phi ^4}`$ in the limit $`N0`$ for $`u_0<0`$ . The most precise field-theoretical results for the critical exponents have been obtained by analyzing the fixed-dimension expansion in powers of the zero-momentum quartic couplings $`u,v`$ related to $`u_0,v_0`$ (i.e. $`u=Z_uu_0/m`$ and $`v=Z_vv_0/m`$ where $`Z_{u,v}=1+O(u,v)`$), which have been computed to six loops . We refer the reader to Ref.  for notations and definitions.

In the presence of a spatially uncorrelated random field $`h(x)`$ with zero average and variance $`h^2`$, one may still apply the replica method. Averaging the replicated random field term

$$d^3xh(x)\underset{i}{}\phi _i(x)$$
(7)
over the Gaussian distribution of the field, one obtains a new term proportional to

$$h^2d^3x\underset{i,j}{}\phi _i(x)\phi _j(x),$$
(8)
that must be added to the Hamiltonian $`_{\phi ^4}`$ . This term causes the crossover from the REIM to the RFIM. Thus, the REIM-to-RFIM crossover exponent is determined by the $`N0`$ limit of the renormalization-group (RG) dimension $`y_T`$ of the quadratic operator

$$T_{ij}=\phi _i\phi _j,ij.$$
(9)
In order to evaluate $`y_T`$ and the corresponding crossover exponent $`\varphi =y_T\nu `$, we define a related RG function $`Z_T`$ from the one-particle irreducible two-point function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_T^{(2)}`$ with an insertion of the operator $`T_{ij}`$, i.e.

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_T^{(2)}(0)_{ij,kl}=Z_T^1A_{ijkl},$$
(10)
where $`A_{ijkl}=\delta _{ik}\delta _{jl}+\delta _{il}\delta _{jk}`$ so that $`Z_T(0)=1`$. Then, we compute the RG function

$$\eta _T(u,v)=\frac{\mathrm{ln}Z_T}{\mathrm{ln}m}|_{u_0,v_0}=\beta _u\frac{\mathrm{ln}Z_T}{u}+\beta _v\frac{\mathrm{ln}Z_T}{v},$$
(11)
where $`\beta _u`$ and $`\beta _v`$ are the $`\beta `$-functions. The exponent $`\eta _T`$ is given by the value of $`\eta _T(u,v)`$ at $`u=u^{}`$, $`v=v^{}`$, where ($`u^{}`$,$`v^{}`$) is the REIM stable fixed point. Finally, the REIM-to-RFIM crossover exponent is obtained by using the RG scaling relation

$$\varphi =\left(2+\eta _T\eta \right)\nu =\gamma +\eta _T\nu ,$$
(12)
where $`\gamma `$, $`\nu `$, and $`\eta `$ are REIM critical exponents.

We computed the function $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{(T,2)}(0)`$ to six loops. The calculation is rather cumbersome, since it requires the evaluation of 563 Feynman diagrams. We handled it with a symbolic manipulation program, which generates the diagrams and computes the symmetry and group factors of each of them. We used the numerical results compiled in Ref.  for the integrals associated with each diagram. The resulting six-loop series of $`\eta _T(u,v)`$ is

$`\eta _T(\overline{u},\overline{v})={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\overline{u}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{16}}\overline{u}^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{18}}\overline{u}\overline{v}0.0357673\overline{u}^30.0483240\overline{u}^2\overline{v}0.00421548\overline{u}\overline{v}^2`$ (13)
$`+0.0343748\overline{u}^4+0.0762616\overline{u}^3\overline{v}+0.0416943\overline{u}^2\overline{v}^2+0.00896116\overline{u}\overline{v}^3`$ (14)
$`0.0408958\overline{u}^50.121377\overline{u}^4\overline{v}0.104778\overline{u}^3\overline{v}^20.0373712\overline{u}^2\overline{v}^30.00527015\overline{u}\overline{v}^4`$ (15)
$`+0.0597048\overline{u}^6+0.227662\overline{u}^5\overline{v}+0.287108\overline{u}^4\overline{v}^2+0.17231\overline{u}^3\overline{v}^3`$ (16)
$`+0.0552124\overline{u}^2\overline{v}^4+0.00759654\overline{u}\overline{v}^5+\mathrm{},`$ (17)
where $`\overline{u}`$ and $`\overline{v}`$ are the rescaled couplings $`\overline{u}=u/(6\pi )`$ and $`\overline{v}=3v/(16\pi )`$, and the dots indicate higher-order terms. In our analysis we also considered the series $`\varphi (\overline{u},\overline{v})`$ corresponding to $`\varphi `$, which can be obtained by using Eq. (12) and the series of the RG functions $`\gamma (\overline{u},\overline{v})`$ and $`\nu (\overline{u},\overline{v})`$ corresponding to the critical exponents $`\gamma `$ and $`\nu `$, cf. Ref. .

In order to obtain an estimate of $`\eta _T`$ and $`\varphi `$, the corresponding six-loop series must be resummed and then evaluated at the fixed-point values $`u^{}`$, $`v^{}`$. Although the perturbative expansion is not Borel summable , various resummation schemes have been proposed and employed, obtaining rather reliable results for the critical exponents, see, e.g., Refs. . We analyzed $`\eta _T(\overline{u},\overline{v})`$ and $`\varphi (\overline{u},\overline{v})`$ by using the resummation methods outlined in Ref.  and the estimates $`u^{}=18.6(3)`$ and $`v^{}=43.3(2)`$ obtained by Monte Carlo simulations in Ref. , which turn out to be more precise than those obtained from the zeroes of the $`\beta `$-functions computed to six loops.

We obtained $`\eta _T=0.095(30)`$ from the analysis of $`\eta _T(\overline{u},\overline{v})`$, $`\varphi =1.43(3)`$ from $`\varphi (\overline{u},\overline{v})`$, and $`\varphi =1.42(2)`$ from $`1/\varphi (\overline{u},\overline{v})`$. The errors are related to the spread of the results obtained by using different resummation methods and different resummation parameters within each method, see Ref.  for details. Using the available estimates of the critical exponents (e.g., $`\gamma =1.342(6)`$, $`\nu =0.683(3)`$ and $`\eta =0.035(2)`$ from Monte Carlo simulations , $`\gamma =1.330(17)`$, $`\nu =0.678(10)`$ and $`\eta =0.030(3)`$ from the analysis of the six-loop field-theoretical expansions ), the above-reported result for $`\eta _T`$ and the RG scaling relation (12) give $`\varphi =1.41(2)`$. From these results we arrive at the final estimate reported in Eq. (5), which is in good agreement with the available experimental results obtained for various uniaxial anisotropic antiferromagnets.