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# Magneto-optical Kerr effect in 𝐸𝑢_{1-𝑥}𝐶𝑎_𝑥𝐵₆

## Abstract

We have measured the magneto-optical Kerr rotation of ferromagnetic $`Eu_{1x}Ca_xB_6`$ with x=0.2 and 0.4, as well as of $`YbB_6`$ serving as the non-magnetic reference material. As previously for $`EuB_6`$, we could identify a feature at 1 $`eV`$ in the Kerr response which is related with electronic transitions involving the localized 4f electron states. The absence of this feature in the data for $`YbB_6`$ confirms the relevance of the partially occupied 4f states in shaping the magneto-optical features of $`Eu`$-based hexaborides. Disorder by $`Ca`$-doping broadens the itinerant charge carrier contribution to the magneto-optical spectra.

Recent investigations of the magneto-optical (MO) properties of $`EuB_6`$, a ferromagnet with a Curie temperature $`T_C`$ of 15.5 $`K`$, as a function of temperature and magnetic field, provided a variety of results which, in particular, revealed an intimate link between the electronic properties and the bulk magnetization ref1 ; ref2 ; ref3 . Most informative in this respect were results from measurements of the polar Kerr rotation $`\theta _K`$, which is directly related to variations of the electronic excitation spectrum upon spontaneous and field induced magnetic order. Kerr rotation spectroscopy also yields information on electronic transitions involving both localized electronic orbits as well as itinerant charge carriers. The $`\theta _K`$ spectra of $`EuB_6`$ exhibit two particular features ref3 . The first, situated in the infrared spectral range at approximately 0.3 $`eV`$, is a resonance which increases in magnitude and shifts to higher energies with either decreasing temperature or increasing magnetic field. At all temperatures and fields this resonance coincides with the plasma edge feature of the optical reflectivity $`R(\omega )`$ (Refs. ref1,  and ref2, ) and is giant at low temperatures and high magnetic fields, i.e., of about 11 degree of rotation at 2 $`K`$ and 7 $`T`$ (Ref. ref3, ). The second feature in $`\theta _K(\omega )`$ is a signal at 1 $`eV`$, which also grows with decreasing temperature or increasing magnetic field, but does not shift in energy ref3 .

The resonance at 0.3 $`eV`$ is caused by the response of the itinerant charge carriers to magnetism, while the Kerr resonance at 1 $`eV`$ is associated with the MO response of the 4f-5d interband transitions ref3 ; ref4 . A phenomenological analysis, based on the classical Lorentz-Drude dispersion theory adapted to the Kerr rotation phenomenon ref4 , revealed that the giant Kerr rotation pinned to the reflectivity plasma edge is indeed the consequence of an interplay between the response of the localized 4f-states and the itinerant charge carriers, a suggestion previously put forward by Feil and Haas ref5 ; ref51 . The polar Kerr rotation at 1 $`eV`$ correlates directly with the bulk magnetization $`M(H)`$, confirming that the magnetic moments are essentially due to the localized f-electrons of the $`Eu^{2+}`$ ions ref3 ; ref4 ; ref6 . It is thus clear that Kerr spectroscopy allows for distinguishing between the roles of itinerant and localized electrons with respect to magnetic properties of a metal.

In order to confirm this scenario and its interpretation, we have repeated this type of experiments on material of the $`Eu_{1x}Ca_xB_6`$ series and on $`YbB_6`$. It is well established that replacing $`Eu`$ in $`EuB_6`$ by isoelectronic $`Ca`$ changes both the magnetic and the transport properties of these hexaborides ref7 ; paschen . Not surprisingly, the Curie temperature $`T_C`$ decreases significantly with increasing $`Ca`$ content. $`YbB_6`$ was chosen because it provides the possibility to probe the MO response of an essentially non magnetic hexaboride with divalent cations. In $`YbB_6`$, $`Yb`$ enters in its divalent configuration with all the 14 f orbits occupied and thus without ionic magnetic moment ref8 .

In our measurements of the Kerr rotation in the polar configuration, i.e., with the light beam oriented parallel to the magnetic field, linearly polarized light, a superposition of left (LCP) and right (RCP) circularly polarized components of equal magnitude, is reflected from the sample at a given temperature between 2 and 10 $`K`$ and in external magnetic fields from 0 to 10 $`T`$ (Refs. ref3,  and refsam, ). The polarization plane of the reflected light, with respect to that of the incident light, is rotated by a field and temperature dependent angle $`\theta _K`$. This is a consequence of the differing absorptions for the two circular polarizations. The Kerr angle is given by

$$\theta _K=\frac{1}{2}\left(\mathrm{\Delta }_+\mathrm{\Delta }_{}\right)=Im\left(\frac{\stackrel{~}{n}_+\stackrel{~}{n}_{}}{\stackrel{~}{n}_+\stackrel{~}{n}_{}1}\right)$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\pm `$ are the phases of the complex reflectance $`r_\pm (\omega )=\rho _\pm e^{i\mathrm{\Delta }_\pm }`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{n}_\pm =n_\pm ik_\pm `$ are the complex refraction indices for LCP ($``$) and RCP (+) light, respectively ref3 ; ref4 ; refsam . The relation between $`\theta _K`$ and the refraction indices in eq. (1) is strictly valid only for Kerr rotations not exceeding 15 degrees, which is the case here refsam .

The single-crystalline samples of $`Eu_{1x}Ca_xB_6`$, as well as $`YbB_6`$ were prepared by solution growth from $`Al`$ flux, using the necessary high-purity elements as starting materials. All samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction, dc-transport and thermodynamic experiments probing thermal properties ref7 . From magneto-transport data on $`Ca`$-doped $`EuB_6`$, the presence of $`Al`$ inclusions in the samples can be excluded ref7 . We have investigated two specimens with 20$`\%`$ and 40$`\%`$ $`Ca`$-content and Curie temperatures $`T_C`$ of $`5.3K`$ and 4.5 $`K`$, respectively ref7 ; paschen .

Figure 1 summarizes $`\theta _K(\omega )`$ at 2 $`K`$ and 7 $`T`$ for 20$`\%`$ and 40$`\%`$ $`Ca`$-doping. For the purpose of comparison we also display $`\theta _K(\omega )`$ for $`EuB_6`$ (Ref. ref3, ), measured under the same experimental conditions. The most obvious observation is that by $`Ca`$-doping the huge resonance at about 0.3 $`eV`$ is essentially wiped out, whereas the feature at about 1 $`eV`$ retains its shape and amplitude and shifts only slightly in energy. This feature in $`\theta _K(\omega )`$ is absent in the results comment  obtained for $`YbB_6`$, as may be seen in the inset of Fig. 1. Figure 2 emphasizes the field and temperature dependence of the 1 $`eV`$ resonance of the $`Eu`$-based compounds with x=0.2 and 0.4. The general trend is the same for both samples and bears similarities with the results ref3 ; ref4  for x=0. The 1 $`eV`$ feature increases in magnitude with decreasing temperature and increasing field, but does not exhibit a shift of the resonance frequency. The increase in magnitude tends to saturate at low temperatures and high magnetic fields.

Magneto-optical reflectivity data, to be presented and discussed elsewhere ref9 , indicate that $`Ca`$-doping induces an enhancement of the scattering rate for itinerant charge carriers, in accordance with dc transport results ref7 . This in turn leads to a so-called overdamped behaviour of the reflectivity, particularly at high temperatures and low fields. The sluggish onset of the $`R(\omega )`$ plasma edge behaviour in $`Ca`$-doped $`EuB_6`$ is apparent in Fig. 3b, where $`R(\omega )`$ at 10 $`K`$ and 7 $`T`$ for the binary compound ref3  is also shown for comparison. The $`R(\omega )`$ plasma edge in $`Eu_{1x}Ca_xB_6`$ for $`x0`$ extends over some range in $`\omega `$ around 0.3 $`eV`$ and the considerable blue-shift of the edge, as observed for $`EuB_6`$ (Refs. ref1,  and ref2, ) with decreasing temperature or increasing field, is absent ref9 .

As we have recently demonstrated ref4 ; refsam , the extended Lorentz-Drude model wooten  is quite successful, in reproducing the MO features of $`EuB_6`$. Therefore, for the analysis of the data presented here we have adopted the same approach as that employed in Ref. ref4, . It turns out that for the samples of the $`Eu_{1x}Ca_xB_6`$ series with $`x0`$, two Drude components are necessary to account for the low frequency electrodynamic response ref9 . Only one of the Drude terms is really relevant for determining the dc ($`\omega 0`$) transport properties and it also dominates the temperature and magnetic field dependences of $`\sigma _1(\omega )`$ at low frequencies. The second Drude-type contribution accounts for the spectral weight background in $`\sigma _1(\omega )`$. The scattering rate of the first Drude term is rather small but temperature and field dependent, while the one of the second Drude term is large, and temperature and field independent ref9 . The essence of the present discussion is not really affected by the way by which the metallic component in the optical properties is fitted. For the reproduction of the optical data in the spectral range above 1 $`eV`$, which are dominated by interband transitions, four Lorentz harmonic oscillators (h.o.) had to be considered. The four h.o.’s are at 1 and 1.5 $`eV`$ for 20$`\%`$ $`Ca`$-doping, at 0.8 and 1.3 $`eV`$ for 40$`\%`$ $`Ca`$-doping, and at 3.4 and $`11eV`$ for both $`Ca`$-contents ref11 . The energy splitting of the h.o.’s around 1 $`eV`$ is consistent with the experimentally verified splitting of the f-states lang .

Since above 2.5 $`eV`$ no temperature and magnetic field dependence of the optical properties were detected, the parameters of the Lorentz h.o.’s at 3.4 and 11 $`eV`$ were established at 10 $`K`$, in order to fit the measured reflectivity $`R(\omega )`$ as well as all the optical functions up to 12 $`eV`$. For the fits to the Kerr rotation data in the relevant energy interval (0.23-4 $`eV`$), these latter parameters were then fixed for all temperatures and magnetic fields. The parameters of the Drude components and of the two h.o.’s necessary for describing the 1 $`eV`$ feature in $`\theta _K`$ were, however, allowed to vary as a function of temperature and field ref11 . The overall features of the MO properties and particularly their temperature and magnetic field dependences can be reproduced quite accurately. Figure 3 exemplifies the fit quality for the sample with 20$`\%`$ $`Ca`$-content at 10 $`K`$ and two selected fields. Similarly good fits (not shown here) were obtained refsam  for $`Eu_{1x}Ca_xB_6`$ with x=0.4. Figure 3 also demonstrates that the same set of parameters ref11  can equally well account for the fits of $`\theta _K(\omega )`$, the reflectivity $`R(\omega )`$ and the real part $`\sigma _1(\omega )`$ of the optical conductivity. Another information that may be obtained from Fig. 3 is the correspondence between the 1 $`eV`$ signal in $`\theta _K(\omega )`$ and the related interband absorption, manifested by the broad feature in $`R(\omega )`$ and a shoulder in $`\sigma _1(\omega )`$ at the same energy.

The reduced number of 4f states upon $`Ca`$-doping is manifest in the zero-field $`\sigma _1(\omega )`$ curves of $`Eu_{1x}Ca_xB_6`$ in the spectral range around 1 $`eV`$. The shoulder in $`\sigma _1(\omega )`$ at 1 $`eV`$ (inset of Fig. 3c), associated with the 4f-5d interband transitions ref3 ; ref4 ; kimura , decreases with $`Ca`$-doping. The total absence of the 1 $`eV`$ feature in $`\theta _K(\omega )`$ for the non-magnetic reference material $`YbB_6`$ (inset of Fig. 1) confirms the validity of the interpretation of this feature. A Kerr rotation is only encountered, if the absorption coefficients for LCP and RCP light are unequal. This situation is not expected for $`YbB_6`$ with fully occupied 4f electron shells of the $`Yb^{2+}`$ ions.

The calculated $`\theta _K(\omega )`$ (Fig. 3a) exhibits no sharp resonance in the spectral range of the reflectivity plasma edge (Fig. 3b) and no blue-shift of the same, neither within nor below the experimentally accessible range for the measurements of $`\theta _K(\omega )`$ (thin dotted line in Fig. 3a). Thus it agrees with the experimentally observed $`\theta _K(\omega )`$. In $`EuB_6`$ the sharp onset of the $`R(\omega )`$ plasma edge and its blue shift ref2  were unambiguously correlated with the $`\theta _K`$ resonance at about 0.3 $`eV`$ (Ref. ref3, ). This interpretation was supported by the Lorentz-Drude fit even for energies extending to below the experimental limit of the Kerr spectrometer ref3 ; ref4 . The overdamped behaviour of the $`R(\omega )`$ plasma edge of $`Ca`$-doped $`EuB_6`$ (Fig. 3b) suppresses the necessary resonance conditions, as postulated by Feil and Haas ref5 , for a giant response in $`\theta _K(\omega )`$. Based on magnetotransport data it was suggested that in $`Ca`$-doped $`EuB_6`$ the formation of magnetic domain walls is favored by the disorder on the cation sublattice ref7 . This is probably reflected in the large damping (scattering rate) of the itinerant charge carriers. Upon $`Ca`$-doping the sharp onset of the $`R(\omega )`$ plasma edge and the related Kerr resonance, as observed for $`EuB_6`$ (Refs. ref2, ; ref3, ; ref4, ), are broadened and wiped out, respectively.

The relevant quantity of the Kerr spectroscopy, which is selectively sensitive to spin-polarized states, is the relative distribution of spectral weight, i.e., the unequal absorption coefficients, involved in the optical transitions for RCP and LCP light. It is parameterized by the so-called weight factors $`f^\pm `$ (Refs. ref4,  and refsam, ) which shape the dispersion-like curve of $`\theta _K(\omega )`$ at 1 $`eV`$. We have introduced the quantity

$$\sigma _j^z=|(f^+f^{})/(f^++f^{})|=|f^+1|,$$
(2)
with the condition that $`f^++f^{}=2`$, because of the sum rule constraints. For $`EuB_6`$ we have demonstrated ref4 ; refsam  that $`\sigma _j^z`$ is phenomenologically related to the magnetization $`M(H)`$, thus acting as the MO counterpart of the moment polarization. Inspection of the $`f^\pm `$ factors ref11  for the h.o.’s describing the 1 $`eV`$ feature and a similar analysis in terms of $`\sigma _j^z`$ for the $`Ca`$-doped $`EuB_6`$ (Fig. 4) confirm that the 1 $`eV`$ feature in $`\theta _K(\omega )`$ is again associated with the MO response of the 4f electron states which are also responsible for the magnetization of the system ref6 . In fact, $`\sigma _j^z(H)`$ mimics the trend of the magnetization (Fig. 4), just as for $`EuB_6`$ (Ref. ref4, ). As for $`EuB_6`$, the strongly scattered itinerant charge carriers in the $`Ca`$-doped compounds are hardly polarized (i.e. $`f^\pm 1`$), indicating once more their minor role in shaping the magnetization. The flat $`\theta _K`$ spectrum in $`YbB_6`$ at 1 $`eV`$ implies $`f^\pm =1`$ and consequently $`\sigma _j^z=0`$, known as a so-called diamagnetic situation with respect to the Kerr rotation refsam .

Taken together, our MO data on $`Eu_{1x}Ca_xB_6`$ and $`YbB_6`$ indicate one successful way for achieving large Kerr rotations. Essential are electronic excitations out of incompletely filled 4f electron orbitals. Their effect may significantly be enhanced by excitations of itinerant electrons but it is required that the corresponding scattering relaxation rate is low enough to ascertain a steep slope at the onset of the Drude plasma edge in the reflectivity, thus confirming an earlier suggestion of Feil and Haas ref5 .

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors wish to thank A. Perucchi, G.A. Wigger and R. Monnier for fruitful discussions. This work has been supported by the Swiss National Foundation for the Scientific Research.


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# Charge separation effects in magnetized electron-ion plasma expansion into a vacuum

## Abstract

Charge separation effects in the expansion of magnetized relativistic electron-ion plasmas into a vacuum are examined using 2-1/2-dimensional particle-in-cell plasma simulations. The electrostatic field at the plasma surface decelerates electrons and accelerates ions. A fraction of the surface electrons are trapped and accelerated by the pondermotive force of the propagating electromagnetic pulse, a mechanism we call the DRPA (diamagnetic relativistic pulse accelerator). This charge separation is enhanced as the initial plasma temperature is decreased. The overall energy gain of the plasma particles through the expansion strongly depends on the initial plasma temperature. Moreover, the electrons become relatively less energized and the ions more energized as the plasma temperature decreases.

Several kinds of plasma expansions have been investigated over the past few decades. A model of free plasma expansion into a vacuum is interesting for studies related to experiments of ion jetsdena79 ; mora03 . Structures and instabilities of plasmas expanding into a vacuum which contains a uniform ambient magnetic field have also been examined by theoretical and numerical methods. Those studies are relevant to laser-plasma experimentsokad81 ; ripi87  and space plasma phenomenasydo83 ; wins88 ; sgro89 . Also plasma injection into a magnetic field has been theoretically investigatedpete82 .

Recently, Liang et al.lian03 ; lian032  have studied a new type of plasma expansion, in which a magnetized relativistic plasma freely expands into a vacuum with no external magnetic field. This model of expansions potentially can be applied to a variety of astrophysical phenomena, such as gamma-ray burstslian032  or astrophysical jets. When relativistic plasmas which contain a strong transverse magnetic field are suddenly released, an EM pulse forms and begins to propagate into the vacuum. Simultaneously, a portion of the surface plasma is trapped and accelerated by the EM pulse via the pondermotive force. Through the expansion, the field energy of the EM pulse is converted into the directed kinetic energy of the surface particles. This new mechanism of plasma acceleration is called the diamagnetic relativistic pulse accelerator (DRPA) lian03 .

Electrons and ions behave differently in the expansion process. Because of their much smaller mass, the surface electrons soon outrun the ions and charge separation occurs. In this Letter, using the results of plasma full particle simulations, we discuss charge separation effects on plasma energization in the relativistic magnetized plasma expansion into a vacuum.

In our particle simulation codenish03 , we use a two-and-a-half-dimensional explicit simulation scheme based on the particle-in-cell method for time advancing of plasma particles. The grid separations are uniform, $`\mathrm{\Delta }x=\mathrm{\Delta }z=\lambda _e`$, where $`\lambda _e`$ is the electron inertial length defined by $`c/\omega _{pe}`$ ($`c`$ is the speed of light and the electron plasma frequency is $`\omega _{pe}=\sqrt{e^2n_0/ϵ_0m_e}`$; $`e`$ is elementary charge, $`n_0`$ is the initial electron density, and $`ϵ_0`$ is the dielectric constant of vacuum). The ratio of the electron Larmor frequency to the electron plasma frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_e/\omega _{pe}`$ (where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_e=eB_0/m_e`$; $`B_0`$ is the background magnetic field) is set equal to 10 in these simulations. The ion-electron mass ratio is $`m_i/m_e=100`$ and the charge ratio is $`q_i/e=1`$. The simulation domain on the $`xz`$ plane is $`L_x/2xL_x/2`$ and $`L_z/2zL_z/2`$. To prevent large violations of Gauss’s law due to numerical noise, Marder’s method for the electric field correctionmard87  is adopted at every time step in the code.

We use a doubly periodic system in $`x`$ and $`z`$ directions, and the system length is $`L_x=240\mathrm{\Delta }x=2400c/\mathrm{\Omega }_e`$ and $`L_z=120\mathrm{\Delta }z=1200c/\mathrm{\Omega }_e`$. Initially, the electron (ion) distributions are assumed to be a relativistic (non-relativistic) Maxwellian respectively with spatially uniform temperature. The spatial distribution of the initial plasma has a slab form with the lengths $`6\mathrm{\Delta }x\times 120\mathrm{\Delta }z`$, and the plasma slab is located in the center of the system. The background magnetic field $`𝑩_0=(0,B_0,0)`$ initially exists only inside the plasma. Since the system length in the $`x`$ direction is enough large, no plasma particles and waves can cross the $`x`$ boundaries during this calculations (until $`t\mathrm{\Omega }_e=1000`$).

We describe here the results of two simulations; one with initial temperatures of $`k_BT_e=k_BT_i=5MeV`$ and one with initial temperatures of $`k_BT_e=k_BT_i=100keV`$. The qualitative evolution of the $`5MeV`$ temperature case is illustrated in Figure 5 of Ref.lian03 . A pulse of fast electrons moves rapidly away from the ions in the $`x`$-direction, carrying an imbedded electromagnetic pulse ($`B_y>0`$, $`E_z<0`$) with them which permits them to $`E\times B`$ drift. Behind this pulse the $`B_y`$ and $`E_z`$ are relatively weak, and the expanding ions lag well behind the electron pulse. This charge separation leads to an $`E_x`$ in the region between the electron pulse and the fastest ions.

Spatial profiles of the EM field and the plasma density at $`t\mathrm{\Omega }_e=600`$ are displayed in Figure 1 for the $`100keV`$ temperature case. In Fig. 1(a), the EM pulse is propagating in the positive $`x`$ direction. The electrostatic field $`E_x`$

shown in Fig. 1(c) is generated by the charge separation between electrons and ions. As shown in Fig. 1(d), electrons are distributed spatially more extensively than ions because of the larger mobility of electrons. In the case of electron-positron expansion lian03 , there is no difference in the density distributions of electrons and positrons. Consequently, both electrons and positrons are equally energized by the DRPA. But in the present electron-ion case, only electrons can follow and get energized by the EM pulse, while the ions are accelerated in a secondary manner by the charge-separation electric field.

Phase plots $`p_x/m_ecx`$ of (e) electrons and (f) ions at $`t\mathrm{\Omega }_e=600`$ in the $`100keV`$ temperature case are also shown in Fig. 1. In Fig. 1(e), electrons are decelerated in the region $`300<x/(c/\mathrm{\Omega }_e)<600`$, where the electric field $`E_x`$ exists. The surface electrons in the vicinity of $`x600c/\mathrm{\Omega }_e`$ are strongly energized by the EM pulse. Since some of the expanding electrons are reflected at the potential wall of the electrostatic field at $`x300c/\mathrm{\Omega }_e`$, a loop structure in phase space can be seen. On the contrary, the front ions in this region are accelerated by $`E_x`$ and the averaged kinetic energy of the front ions tends to increase with time. The front ions are not affected by the DRPA since the ions cannot follow the EM pulse.

Hence, we obtain an interesting result regarding particle energization in the electron-ion plasma expansion: the surface electrons expanding in phase with the EM pulse are accelerated by the DRPA, but a portion of the front electrons are also decelerated by the electrostatic field $`E_x`$ caused by the charge separation, while the front ions are always accelerated by $`E_x`$. Here, we showed only the $`100keV`$ temperature case in Fig. 1. See Ref.lian03  for the profiles of the $`5MeV`$ case.

Temporal evolutions of each energy component through the expansion are shown in Figure 2 for two cases with (a)$`k_BT_e=k_BT_i=5MeV`$ and (b)$`k_BT_e=k_BT_i=100keV`$. Note that in case (a) the initial plasma $`\beta `$ (=plasma pressure/magnetic pressure)$`=0.216`$ while in case (b) $`\beta =0.02`$, so the plasma is strongly magnetic-dominated. During $`0<t\mathrm{\Omega }_e<80`$, roughly corresponding to the light crossing time of the initial plasma slab, the system evolves from the initial magnetostatic configuration into two counter-propagating EM pulses loaded with plasma. In this early phase, the magnetic energy decreases and the electric energy increases until the two are almost equal. After $`t\mathrm{\Omega }_e80`$, the field energy decays and is converted into the directed kinetic energy of plasma particles. In Figs. 2(a) and (b), we observe the monotonic increase of the total kinetic energy of the ions at all times. The total electron energy, however, decreases from $`t\mathrm{\Omega }_e=80`$ to 400 in the $`k_BT=5MeV`$ case, and hardly changes after $`t\mathrm{\Omega }_e=400`$ in Fig. 2(a). Even for the $`100keV`$ case of Fig. 2(b),

though the total electron energy increases monotonically, we see that the rate of increase of electron energy is much smaller than that of the ion energy. In addition, the decrease of the total electron kinetic energy in Fig. 2(a) is mainly caused by the deceleration due to the electrostatic field $`E_x`$ (we described the details in Figure 1). The same thing happens also in Fig. 2(b). But because the initial thermal energy of electrons is less than the directed kinetic energy given by the DRPA, the overall kinetic energy of electrons increases monotonically for the $`100keV`$ plasma.

In Figure 3, the peak value of $`E_x`$ for different initial temperatures are shown as a function of time. The electrostatic field $`E_x`$ peaks in the vicinity of the ion front. At the early phase of the plasma expansion ($`t\mathrm{\Omega }_e180`$ in Fig. 3), the field $`E_x`$ is formed by the charge separation. After that period, the density difference between electrons and ions is gradually reduced by ion acceleration and electron deceleration due to $`E_x`$. As a result of this, the field $`E_x`$ becomes weaker. A plasma tends to be spatially broader as its temperature becomes higher. Accordingly, the higher the plasma temperature, the smaller the density difference between electron and ion becomes. That is why the peak value of $`E_x`$ in the case of the $`100keV`$ temperature plasma tends to be larger than that of the $`5MeV`$ temperature plasma in Fig. 3.

Let us evaluate quantitatively how the field $`E_x`$ influences particle energization. Fig. 4 displays the momentum distribution of the front electrons at three different times for initial plasma temperatures of (a) $`k_BT=5MeV`$ and (b) $`k_BT=100keV`$. The front electrons are accelerated by the DRPA and simultaneously decelerated by the electrostatic field as the expansion proceeds. The energy gain of these electrons seems to be positive and the kinetic energy continues to increase as time elapses, as shown in Fig. 4.

This means that the acceleration process dominates the deceleration process overall for the front electrons. Figs. 4(a) and 4(b) show that the electron energy gain depends on the initial plasma temperature. The electric field induced by charge separation tends to be smaller when the plasma temperature is higher. Thus, the front electrons are more strongly decelerated in the low temperature case, and the energy gain of the electrons becomes large when the temperature is high.

Figure 5 displays the momentum distribution of the ions in the expansion front for (a) $`k_BT=5MeV`$ and (b) $`k_BT=100keV`$ plasmas. Contrary to the case of electrons, the peak value of the distribution becomes smaller as the initial temperature increases \[The peak values are $`p_x140m_ec`$ in Fig. 5(a) and $`p_x170m_ec`$ in Fig. 5(b), respectively\]. The front ions are accelerated only by the electrostatic field of the charge separation. The energy gain of the front ions tends to be large when the plasma temperature is low since the electric field becomes small as the temperature increases.

In summary, we have examined charge separation effects in expanding electron-ion plasmas in the context of the diamagnetic relativistic pulse accelerator (DRPA). When the magnetized electron-ion plasma expands into a vacuum with no external magnetic field, only the surface electrons are efficiently accelerated by the DRPA. Because of the difference of the mobility between electrons and ions, charge separation occurs and generates a strong electrostatic field. This electric field accelerates the front ions and decelerates some of the front electrons. The initial plasma temperature affects the charge separation effect. As the temperature increases, the electric field caused by the charge separation becomes small. Therefore, electrons in high temperature plasmas are energized by the DRPA more efficiently compared to electrons in low temperature plasmas. On the contrary, ions are energized by charge separation more efficiently in the low temperature case.

###### Acknowledgements.

The work of KN and SPG was performed under the auspices of the U. S. Department of Energy (DOE) and was supported by the DOE Office of Basic Energy Sciences, Division of Engineering and Geosciences, the LDRD Program at Los Alamos, and the Sun-Earth Connections Theory Program of NASA. EL was supported by NASA Grant NAG5-7980 and LLNL Contract B510243.


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# Eta electroproduction on nuclei in the nucleon resonance region

## I Introduction

Photon and electron induced reactions provide a useful tool to probe particle properties in the nuclear medium. In the nucleon resonance region, meson production can be used to learn about the in-medium properties of nucleon resonances. Among other processes, measurements of eta photoproduction were performed krusche\_eta ; yorita\_eta  in order to obtain information about the $`S_{11}(1535)`$. This channel is particularly interesting because of the strong coupling between the eta and the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ in the energy region from the $`\eta N`$ threshold up to invariant masses of about 1.6 GeV. In photoproduction the momentum transfer and the mass of the created resonance are directly related to each other: In the vacuum, a $`S_{11}`$ with pole-mass of $`\mu =1.535`$ GeV can only be excited by a real photon with energy $`E_\gamma 0.787`$ GeV; inside the nucleus this condition is somewhat softened due to Fermi motion.

Only recently, we have calculated $`\eta `$ photoproduction on different nuclei in the region of the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ photo\_eta . The agreement with the available data is good when a momentum dependent resonance potential is applied. We have found collisional broadening for the $`S_{11}`$ of only about 30 MeV that had almost no visible effect on the cross section. It is therefore interesting to see whether this holds over a larger range of resonance momenta. For a review of photon induced processes within our model we refer to effe\_pion ; lehr\_electro ; photo\_eta .

In electroproduction experiments, the electron interacts with the nucleus by the exchange of a single virtual photon (one-photon exchange approximation). This yields an additional degree of freedom, because photon energy and momentum can now be chosen independently from each other. Therefore, the resonance self energy can be probed over a full range of mass and momentum. Electroproduction of mesons in the resonance region at low $`Q^20.8`$ GeV2 was already addressed in the framework of the coupled-channel BUU model in lehr\_electro .

A disadvantage of electron induced processes is the decrease of the cross sections with increasing $`Q^2`$. Especially the resonant structure becomes less pronounced due to the $`Q^2`$ dependence of the photocoupling helicity amplitudes (see e.g. stoler ). In addition, Fermi motion becomes the more effective the larger $`Q^2`$ is lehr\_electro , resulting in a smearing of the resonant structure over a wide energy range and an even stronger decrease of the cross section maxima.

In this work we calculate eta electroproduction on nuclei within a semi-classical coupled-channel BUU transport model; the same model was used in photo\_eta  to calculate photon induced eta production. In this work, we investigate eta production mechanisms in electroproduction in the kinematical regime accessible at JLab and compare with findings from eta photoproduction. This makes it possible to study the transition from low resonance momenta at $`Q^2=0`$ to larger momenta at $`Q^2=3.6`$ GeV2, i.e. probing the momentum regime of a pole-mass resonance from 0.8 GeV up to more than 3 GeV.

In Sec. II we briefly discuss the BUU model, our approach to the $`\gamma ^{}N\eta N`$ reaction and the treatment of the final state interactions (FSI). In Sec. III we qualitatively compare differences between eta photo- and electroproduction.

## II The Model

We treat the electron-nucleus reaction in the one-photon exchange approximation. Therefore, the process can be described in the same way as in photoproduction. The model then contains two aspects: the reaction of the (virtual) photon with the nucleus and the treatment of the final state interactions (FSI).

### II.1 The photon-nucleon reaction

For the elementary reaction, we assume that the photon is absorbed by a single nucleon. In the nucleon resonance region the relevant processes are

$$\gamma ^{}NP_{33}(1232),\gamma ^{}NS_{11}(1535),\gamma ^{}NF_{15}(1680),\gamma ^{}NN\pi ,\gamma ^{}NN\pi \pi .$$
(1)
For photoproduction, also the $`D_{13}(1520)`$ has to be taken into account effe\_pion , but the helicity amplitude of this resonance decreases rather quickly with increasing $`Q^2`$ stoler , especially compared to the $`S_{11}`$, so that its contribution to the second resonance region becomes small for $`Q^23`$ GeV2. Moreover, the $`D_{13}`$ couples only very weakly, if at all, to the eta pdg ; penner . As an input for our model, we need cross sections for the different channels displayed in (1). Unlike the case of photoproduction, where a large body of data can be exploited effe\_pion , at finite $`Q^2`$ only few processes have been measured. We present calculations for $`Q^2=2.4`$ and 3.6 GeV2, because we then can use the recently measured cross sections for the primary reaction $`\gamma ^{}p\eta p`$ by Armstrong *et al.* armstrong\_eta . We assume that in the considered energy regime the reaction proceeds by the excitation and subsequent decay of a $`S_{11}(1535)`$ resonance; background contributions are negligible armstrong\_eta . Therefore, we use a Breit-Wigner parametrization similar to that applied in eta photoproduction photo\_eta :

$$\sigma _{\gamma p\eta p}=\left(\frac{k_0}{k}\right)^2\frac{s\mathrm{\Gamma }_\gamma (\sqrt{s})\mathrm{\Gamma }_{S_{11}\eta p}(\sqrt{s})}{(sM_{S_{11}}^2)^2+s\mathrm{\Gamma }_{S_{11}X}^2(\sqrt{s})}\frac{2m_N}{M_{S_{11}}}|A_T|^2,$$
(2)
with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\gamma =k/k_0`$ and the total and partial resonance widths $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{S_{11}X}(\sqrt{s})`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{S_{11}\eta N}(\sqrt{s})`$. For the latter two we use the parametrizations from manley ; effe\_dilep . $`k=k(\sqrt{s})`$ denotes the photon center of mass (cm) momentum and $`k_0=k(M_{S_{11}})`$, where $`M_{S_{11}}`$ is the resonance pole mass. The transversal photocoupling helicity amplitude $`A_T`$ is determined from the fit to the exclusive data in armstrong\_eta ; it thus contains the form factor of the resonance. The longitudinal contribution to the resonant cross section is neglected, which is a reasonable assumption stoler . The obtained values are shown in Tab. 1 and are in line with the findings in armstrong\_eta .

In Fig. 1 we show the parametrization in comparison with the data. The agreement is very good. Note that the energy dependence of the curves is strongly influenced by the energy parametrization of the resonance widths.

It is not sufficient to account only for this direct process, because via the FSI all other elementary channels may contribute to eta production. Due to the absence of data for the other exclusive channels in (1) it is difficult to determine the respective contributions unambiguously. For the total cross section $`\gamma ^{}pX`$ we make use of the data compilation by Brasse *et al.* brasse76 . The cross section $`\gamma ^{}pS_{11}X`$ can be obtained from (2) by substituting the partial decay width in the numerator with the total width:

$$\sigma _{\gamma ^{}pS_{11}X}=\sigma _{\gamma ^{}pS_{11}\eta p}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{S_{11}X}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{S_{11}\eta p}}.$$
(3)
The remaining resonance contributions of the $`P_{33}(1232)`$ and the $`F_{15}(1680)`$ are determined by making Breit-Wigner parametrizations according to Eq. (2). The used transversal helicity amplitudes are also displayed in Tab. 1. The $`P_{33}`$ amplitudes are close to those cited in stoler . For the $`F_{15}`$ much larger values (factor of $`2`$) were necessary in order to saturate the whole resonant structure in the third resonance region suggested by the inclusive data in brasse76 . The background contributions $`\gamma ^{}pN\pi `$ and $`N\pi \pi `$ were fixed by absorbing the remaining strength after summing all contributions incoherently to the total cross section.

In the neutron sector, there is no experimental information at all. Therefore, we use the same cross sections as for the protons, except for the channel $`\gamma ^{}nS_{11}`$. Here we use, as in photoproduction, the relation $`\sigma _n=2/3\sigma _p`$ photo\_eta ; krusche\_deut .

We want to stress that the data situation does not allow a more refined separation of the total cross section into the different channels. On the other hand, the very important primary eta source $`\gamma ^{}pS_{11}\eta p`$ is well under control and the total cross section also is described by our parametrization. Moreover, the details of the separation of strength into the different pionic channels do not influence the more qualitative issues we will discuss in Sect. III.

The vacuum cross sections $`\sigma _{\gamma ^{}N}`$ discussed so far are connected to the experimentally measured cross sections for the electron-nucleon reaction. Using the Hand convention hand , we have

$$\frac{d\sigma }{d\mathrm{\Omega }dE^{}}=\mathrm{\Gamma }\sigma _{\gamma ^{}N}=\frac{\alpha }{2\pi ^2}\frac{E^{}}{E}\frac{k_\gamma }{Q^2}\frac{1}{1\epsilon }\sigma _{\gamma ^{}N}.$$
(4)
Here $`E`$, $`E^{}`$ and $`\epsilon `$ are the energies of the incoming and outgoing electrons and the degree of longitudinal polarization of the virtual photons, respectively. $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ refers to the scattering angle of the electrons in the lab frame and $`k_\gamma =(sm_N^2)/(2m_N)`$ denotes the equivalent photon momentum, where $`\sqrt{s}`$ is the cm energy of the $`\gamma ^{}N`$ pair.

In order to measure the excitation function of the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ as a function of the photon energy at fixed $`E`$ and $`Q^2`$, one has to vary the electron scattering angle and the energy of identified outgoing electrons. The eta data on the proton armstrong\_eta  were obtained at fixed electron scattering angle, so that actually a certain finite $`Q^2`$ range was covered. This was accounted for by correcting the data accordingly. We use electron energies $`E=3.2`$ and 4 GeV for $`Q^2=2.4`$ and 3.6 GeV2, respectively, as in armstrong\_eta .

The nucleons are distributed in the nucleus according to a Woods-Saxon distribution. We apply the local density approximation with local Fermi momenta to generate the momentum distribution if the nucleons. For the binding of the nucleons we use a density and momentum dependent potential described in photo\_eta . As a result, the kinematics of the nucleons and hence the cm energy of the initial photon-nucleon pairs differ from the vacuum case.

The kinematical situation in the considered processes is such that shadowing effects in the photon-nucleus reaction are negligible.

### II.2 The BUU model and final state interactions

The aspect of the FSI is treated within a coupled-channel BUU transport model, which is based upon the BUU equation. This equation describes the evolution of the phase space density $`F_i`$ of a certain particle type $`i`$:

$$\left(\frac{}{t}+\stackrel{}{}_pH\stackrel{}{}_r\stackrel{}{}_rH\stackrel{}{}_p\right)F_i(\stackrel{}{r},\stackrel{}{p},\mu ;t)=I_{\text{coll}}[F_N,F_\pi ,F_{P_{33}(1232)},F_\eta ,\mathrm{}]$$
(5)
The left-hand side describes the particle propagation under the influence of a Hamilton function $`H=\sqrt{(\mu _i+S_i)^2+p_i^2}`$, which in the case of baryons includes an effective scalar potential $`S_i`$. Besides the nucleon, our model contains nucleon resonances and the relevant mesonic degrees of freedom $`\pi `$, $`\eta `$, $`\rho `$, … We use the set of 29 nucleon resonances and parameters from Manley and Saleski manley . The collisional integral on the right-hand side accounts for the coupling to the phase space densities of other particles due to reactions such as collisions, decay and resonance formation. The collision reactions are usually of binary type. The eta meson couples to the three resonances $`S_{11}(1535)`$, $`S_{11}(1650)`$ and $`F_{17}(1990)`$. As already described above, we only account for the first of these resonances in the $`\gamma ^{}N`$ reaction. Relevant FSI for eta production may be $`NRNN`$, $`NRNR^{}`$, $`mNR`$.

The reactions at large $`Q^2`$ with large momentum transfer in the elementary reaction involve collisions in the FSI partially with invariant masses above 2 GeV. For such reactions we use the string model Fritiof fritiof  to determine the particle content of the final states and the kinematics. Relevant final states in the considered energy range contain mainly the $`\eta `$ and $`\eta ^{}`$ along with nucleons, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ resonances and pions. For more model details we refer to photo\_eta ; effe\_dilep ; effe\_cebaf .

## III Results

We now present our results for the reaction $`e^{40}\text{Ca}e^{}\eta X`$ for $`Q^2=2.4`$ and 3.6 GeV2 and compare with eta photoproduction $`\gamma ^{40}\text{Ca}\eta X`$. We do not take into account any medium modifications for resonances.

In Fig. 2 we discuss the influence of the FSI on pion and eta photo- and electroproduction. First, we focus on the calculations obtained without FSI (dashed curves). That is, only the effects of Fermi motion, Pauli blocking and nuclear binding on the elementary reaction are studied. In the case of pions (left panels) the whole resonance region is shown. It is seen that the resonant structure, clearly visible in photoproduction, is totally washed out at larger values of $`Q^2`$. In particular, the peak of the first resonance region has disappeared. The remaining, flat contribution of the $`P_{33}(1232)`$ is shown as dotted curves. The behavior is caused by the strong decrease of the resonance helicity amplitudes compared to the background processes and the more effective Fermi smearing at large $`Q^2`$. This is demonstrated in Fig. 3, where the the cm energy of the primary photon-nucleon pair is shown for different values of $`Q^2`$. Here the photon energy in each case is chosen such that a cm energy of $`M_{S_{11}}=1.535`$ GeV is obtained for a nucleon at rest. It is seen that the spectrum becomes very broad for $`Q^2=3.6`$ GeV2, covering actually the whole resonance region, wheras the spectrum at $`Q^2=0`$ is confined to the second resonance region. Therefore, at fixed photon energy a much wider cm energy range is probed than in photoproduction.

In eta production, the resonance peak structure of the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ is visible in Fig. 2 for each $`Q^2`$ value, because no other processes contribute to this channel in the absence of FSI.

When the FSI are turned on (solid curves), we observe at $`Q^2=0`$, that the curves drop for both pions and etas: The particles that stem from the elementary reaction can be absorbed. In the pionic channel this happens by collisional reactions such as $`NRNN`$ (see effe\_pion ; lehr\_electro ), whereas in the eta channel this is only of small importance photo\_eta . Here the main absorption mechanism is $`\eta NR\pi N`$.

With increasing $`Q^2`$, the picture changes drastically: The curves for the pions are larger than the results without FSI for photon energies $`2`$ GeV. For $`Q^2=3.6`$ GeV2 this happens already at the beginning of the first resonance region. The reason is that the particles stemming from the elementary reaction (1) are produced at larger momentum transfer ($`q_\gamma 2.6`$ GeV for $`Q^2=2.4`$ GeV2 and $`q_\gamma 3.3`$ GeV for $`Q^2=3.6`$ GeV2 on top of the $`S_{11}`$ resonance peak). Therefore the background pions and decay products of the resonances are capable of producing even more particles in the FSI. This effect is missing in photoproduction, where the pion kinetic energies are not large enough at lower photon energies. The result is that the particle loss by absorption, which is of course also present at finite $`Q^2`$, becomes dominant.

In eta production we observe the same effect. For the higher $`Q^2`$ values the curves with and without FSI lie essentially on top of each other in the threshold region. For $`Q^2=3.6`$ GeV2 the effect is even more pronounced. Note also that at finite $`Q^2`$ the cross section close to the threshold is larger than in the calculations without FSI due to secondary processes. Such contributions are also absent in photoproduction.

In Fig. 4 we analyze the origin of the observed etas again for photo- and electroproduction. It is seen that with increasing $`Q^2`$ the relative importance of the primarily produced etas (from the reaction $`\gamma NS_{11}\eta N`$) decreases. This is partially caused by the decrease of the helicity amplitudes and the Fermi smearing already mentioned. On the other hand, the contribution of secondary etas produced in the FSI increase and become more important for $`Q^2=3.6`$ GeV2. It is remarkable that the production mechanism changes to such a degree. This also influences the information content of eta production with respect to the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ properties in medium, because one is less sensitive to the resonances produced in the first reaction.

In Fig. 5 we discuss the different sources the detected eta actually stem from. The processes $`\gamma N`$, $`\pi N`$, $`\eta NS_{11}`$ and $`BBS_{11}N`$ denote etas resulting from the decay of $`S_{11}`$ resonances that were produced in such reactions. The ’high energy’ contributions denote etas resulting from baryon-baryon or baryon-meson collisions at larger energies determined by the Fritiof model either directly or by the decay of $`S_{11}`$ and $`\eta ^{}`$ resonances produced in such events or elastic scattering at higher energies. We see that the main contribution still consists of etas that did not get absorbed and re-emitted after their first production via the $`S_{11}`$ decay. However, as already described above, at higher $`Q^2`$ secondary processes become more important, especially the high energy contributions and reactions from $`\pi N,\eta NS_{11}`$. The latter are also responsible for the subthreshold contributions for energies below the threshold of the $`\gamma NS_{11}`$ channel.

## IV Summary

We have calculated eta production in photon and electron induced reactions on nuclei for several values of $`Q^2`$. This is of particular interest, because at large $`Q^2`$ the physics of the resonance region (i.e. reactions with invariant masses below 2 GeV) is mixed with FSI at larger energies than encountered in photoproduction.

We have found that the FSI mechanisms change with increasing $`Q^2`$ from an essentially absorptive character at $`Q^2=0`$ to a source of relevant contributions. This is due to the increasing momentum transfer in the elementary reaction and an opening of secondary eta production channels in the FSI. It is clear that the inclusion of such side-feeding effects is important for the interpretation of eta electroproduction in terms of possible in-medium modifications of the $`S_{11}(1535)`$ resonance. Furthermore, we have found that the FSI also lead to an increase of the cross sections for pion and eta production. A similar effect has been seen in high-energy photo production of $`K^+`$ effe\_cebaf  and of $`\rho `$ mesons falter\_rho  on nuclei.

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by DFG.


text:
# The X-ray, optical and radio evolution of the GRB 030329 afterglow and the associated SN2003dh

## 1 Introduction

The trigger for GRB 030329 was made by HETE-II on 29 March 2003, 11:37:14.67 UT. Information promptly disseminated via the GRB Coordinates Network (GCN) by Vanderspek et al. (2003) prompted observations by a huge number of telescopes providing coverage in the X-ray, optical, IR, sub-millimetre and radio wavebands. The R band magnitude at 1.5 hours was 12.6 making it the brightest optical GRB afterglow seen at this epoch. The GRB lasted 25 seconds and had a peak flux of $`7\times 10^6`$ ergs cm-2 s-1 (30-400 keV) and a total fluence of $`1.2\times 10^4`$ ergs cm-2, placing it in the top 0.2% of the observed fluence distribution. The redshift was determined as z=0.1685 by Greiner et al. (2003) and subsequently the isotropic energy released in the GRB has been estimated to be $`E_{iso}9\times 10^{51}`$ ergs (30-400 keV) (Hjorth et al., Price et al., Uemura et al. 2003).

## 2 Afterglow spectrum of a fireball shock

Here we summarise the continuum afterglow spectrum expected to arise from the standard fireball shock model (Mèszàros 2002 and references therein). An initial energy $`E_{52}=E/10^{52}`$ ergs is released very rapidly forming a fireball of $`e^+`$ $`e^{}`$ and gamma-rays which expands at extreme relativistic velocity (Lorentz factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) into a surrounding medium of density $`n_0`$ forming a relativistic shock. A diminishingly small fraction of electrons is accelerated by repeated diffusion across the shock producing a power-law energy spectrum $`N_e(\gamma _e)\gamma _e^p`$. As the relativistic electrons spiral in the co-moving magnetic field we expect to see synchrotron radiation. A frequency $`\nu _m`$ is associated with the minimum electron energy $`\gamma _{e,min}`$ produced by the acceleration process. There will be some corresponding (very) high frequency $`\nu ^{}`$ associated with the maximum electron energy $`\gamma _{e,max}`$. A cooling-break frequency, $`\nu _c`$, corresponds to the electron energy for which the synchrotron lifetime is comparable with the expansion time. The detailed form of the spectrum expected is described by Sari, Piran and Narayan (1998). At some early time $`t_0`$, $`\nu _m=\nu _c`$. For $`t<t_0`$ the electrons cool rapidly so that $`\nu _m>\nu _c`$ and for $`t>t_0`$ they cool slowly such that $`\nu _m<\nu _c`$. All the follow up observations of GRB 030329 fall into the latter regime. In the frequency range $`\nu _m<\nu <\nu _c`$ the spectrum, $`F(\nu )\nu ^\beta `$, has an index $`\beta `$ directly related to the electron index $`p`$, $`\beta =(p1)/2`$. For $`\nu >\nu _c`$ the spectrum is steeper, $`\beta p/2`$. Below the peak, $`\nu <\nu _m`$, we expect $`\beta +1/3`$ with the index increasing further to $`\beta +2`$, at $`\nu _a`$ the self-absorption break, as the optical depth increases at low frequency.

Because the fireball is expanding relativistically with Lorentz factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, the spectrum observed is blue-shifted. As the shock is arrested by the surrounding medium $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ decreases and the spectrum becomes redder. At early times we only see a small fraction of the radiating electrons because of relativistic beaming and only a small fraction of the expanding shock is visible. As $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ decreases the relativistic beaming angle opens up and if the expansion is isotropic the observed flux at the peak, $`F_m`$, remains constant while the frequency of the peak changes as a power-law, $`\nu _mt^{3/2}`$. The self-absorption break, $`\nu _a`$, remains constant but the cooling break also varies as a power law, $`\nu _ct^{1/2}`$. Wijers & Galama (1999) provide full expressions for the expected synchrotron spectrum parameters in terms of energy per steradian $`\epsilon _{52}=E_{52}/4\pi `$, ambient interstellar density $`n_0`$ cm-3, $`X`$ the hydrogen mass fraction of the ambient medium, $`p`$ the electron power-law index, $`\chi _p`$ and $`\varphi _p`$ the dimensionless peak location and peak flux which are functions of $`p`$, $`ϵ_e`$ the electron energy fraction (wrt the energy density of nucleons), $`ϵ_B`$ the magnetic energy density fraction (again wrt the energy density of nucleons), the redshift $`z`$ of the GRB and finally $`h_{70}=H_0/70`$ km s-1 Mpc-1.

If the relativistic outflow is collimated in a jet with open angle $`\theta _j`$ then the evolution of the spectrum is modified (Rhoads 1997, 1999; Sari, Piran & Halpern 1999; Frail et al. 2001; Panaitescu & Kumar 2001b). At time $`t_j`$, when $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^1\theta _j`$, we expect to see an achromatic break in the decay of the afterglow because we can see the edge of the jet structure and because the material has time to expand sideways. After the break the decay of the peak flux, peak frequency, the cooling break and the self-absorption break are modified, $`F_mt^1`$, $`\nu _mt^2`$, $`\nu _c=const.`$ and $`\nu _at^{1/5}`$. The details of the changes in the decay indices depends on the density profile of the surrounding medium and the time dependence of the jet spreading assumed. The energy losses of the emitting electrons and the observed spectral form is also expected to be modified by inverse Compton scattering (Panaitescu & Kumar 2001a, Sari & Esin 2001).

If $`F_mt^{\alpha _f}`$, $`\nu _mt^{\alpha _m}`$ and $`F(\nu )\nu ^{\beta _0}`$ then the flux at a frequency $`\nu _m<\nu <\nu _c`$ has a temporal variation given by:

$$F_\nu t^{\alpha _f\alpha _m\beta _0}$$
(1)
If $`\nu _ct^{\alpha _c}`$ then for frequencies $`\nu >\nu _c`$ the spectral form is $`F(\nu )\nu ^{\beta _1}`$ and the temporal variation is $`F_\nu t^{\alpha _f\alpha _m\beta _0\alpha _c(\beta _1\beta _0)}`$. The change in spectral index across the cooling break is $`\beta _1\beta _0=p/2+(p1)/2=1/2`$ so at frequencies above the cooling break we have:

$$F_\nu t^{\alpha _f\alpha _m\beta _0+\alpha _c/2}$$
(2)
Table 1 lists the temporal indices of the peak flux and break frequencies expected before $`t_0`$ and before and after the jet break (Sari, Piran & Halpern 1999).

## 3 Multi-frequency data

To calculate a reliable estimate of the physical parameters of a GRB afterglow under the fireball shock model we must measure $`F_m`$, $`\nu _m`$, $`\nu _c`$ and $`\nu _a`$. However, this is not easy to do directly. Most studies of GRB afterglows to date have concentrated on the interpretation of light curves in a single waveband, in some cases augmented by sparse multi-frequency data. Much attention has been given to the study of decay breaks in light curves. These may correspond to a jet break (if achromatic) or a spectral break passing through a given pass band as the afterglow reddens. In order to extrapolate the decay behaviour in a single waveband we must have a reliable model for the decay, especially after a jet break when the details depend on the structure of the surrounding medium and the expansion at the edge of the jet.

The afterglow of GRB 030329 was particularly bright and has therefore been subjected to extensive temporal and spectral observational coverage. We have gathered together published photometric data from the afterglow in the radio, sub-millimetre, IR, optical and X-ray energy bands. We have re-analysed the data from the XMM observations yielding flux and spectral index estimates consistent with Tiengo et al. 2003c. Table 2 summarises all the X-ray measurements with the fluxes quoted in Jy at 1 keV. The RXTE results are taken from Tiengo et al. (2003c).

The optical fluxes were calculated assuming a Galactic reddening correction of E(B-V)=0.025 mag. (Burenin et al. 2003b, Matheson et al. 2003).

Fig. 1 shows the evolution of the afterglow in the three main energy bands.

We have performed a multi-frequency fit using the fireball shock model in a similar manner to Harrison et al. (2001), Panaitescu & Kumar (2001a,2002,2003), Frail et al. (2003) and Yost et al. (2003). The coverage of the present data for GRB 030329 is much greater in time and frequency than for any previous burst and therefore the fitting is constrained at a far higher level. The solid lines in Fig. 1 show the best fit afterglow model which is described in detail below. A clear temporal break is seen in the decay curves of each waveband. Table 3 lists the decay indices before ($`\alpha _0`$) and after ($`\alpha _1`$) the break time ($`t_b`$) estimated using simple power-law fits.

The optical light curve suffers an initial break at $`0.5`$ days steepening to $`\alpha _1=1.84`$ as indicated in Table 3 but at $`1`$ day it flattens off to $`\alpha _2=0.73`$, finally turning over again at $`3`$ days to $`\alpha _3=1.35`$.

Optical spectroscopy indicates that between 1 and 10 days an optical SN was emerging from the baseline afterglow of the GRB (Stanek et al. 2003b). Fig. 2 shows the measured values of the optical and X-ray spectral indices. The optical BVRI index is $`\beta _0=0.66\pm 0.01`$ at 0.25 days (Burenin et al. 2003b) and gradually reddens for $`t>1.0`$ days as the SN component starts to dominate. The evolution of the optical spectrum is analysed in greater detail by Matheson et al. (2003). Their data and analysis confirm the gradual change in spectral index for $`1<t<5`$ days followed by a more dramatic change for $`t>6`$ days as shown in Fig. 2. The weighted mean of the four X-ray measurements is $`\beta _X=1.13\pm 0.06`$. The solid lines are the predicted indices from the best fit afterglow model (see below) and the dotted line indicates the gradual change of the optical index which starts at $`1`$ day.

The difference between the optical and X-ray spectral indices for $`t<1.0`$ days is $`0.47\pm 0.06`$ consistent with the expected change across the cooling break frequency, $`\nu _c`$, $`\beta _1\beta _0=0.5`$. Before $`t_b=0.57`$ days in the X-ray light curve the temporal index is $`\alpha _0=1.2\pm 0.1`$ which is consistent with the expected value before the jet break of $`\alpha _m\beta _0+\alpha _c=1.3`$ calculated using equation 2 if $`\beta _0=0.7`$. Similarly the optical temporal index $`\alpha _0=0.87\pm 0.05`$ is consistent with the expected value $`\alpha _m\beta _0=1.0`$ from equation 1. The slightly low optical value probably arises because the curvature of the afterglow spectrum produces a smaller value of $`\beta _0`$ near the peak. The temporal decay indices of the X-ray and optical light curves immediately after $`t_b`$ are very similar, $`\alpha _11.8`$. If we interpret $`t_b`$ as the jet break $`t_j`$ we can use equations 1 and 2 to predict $`\alpha _1=2.4`$ for both X-rays ($`\nu >\nu _c`$) and optical ($`\nu <\nu _c`$) since $`\alpha _c=0`$ for $`t>t_j`$. Although the X-ray and optical light curves are decaying at the same rate this rate is somewhat less than expected for $`t>t_j`$. This maybe because $`\alpha _f0.5`$ (see below) rather than $`\alpha _f1.0`$, as listed in Table 1, or $`\alpha _m`$ did not change from $`3/2`$ to $`2`$ as expected.

The optical data for $`t<0.1`$ days and $`0.6<t<1.0`$ days, the earliest 8.46 GHz measurement (Berger et al. 2003a), the earliest 1.288 GHz measurement (Rao et al. 2003a,b) and all the X-ray data were fitted using a $`\chi ^2`$ statistic constructed from $`\mathrm{log}F(\nu ,t)`$ and the expected fireball shock spectrum including a jet break. The X-ray data are particularly important because they cover a wide temporal window and are not expected to include flux from any supernova component or the host galaxy. The radio and optical data for $`t>1.0`$ days were excluded from the fit because the rise in these two wavebands was probably augmented by flux from the detected SN. The optical data in the range 0.1-0.6 days were excluded because an optical bump in this range resulted in a higher $`\chi ^2`$ value. This small optical bump is noticeable in the original plot of the optical data presented by Uemura et al. (2003). A total of 207 data points gave $`\chi ^2=275`$. With 8 free parameters in the model there were 199 degrees of freedom and the $`\chi _\nu ^2=1.38`$. If the optical data in the range 0.1-0.6 days were included the reduced Chi-squared increased, $`\chi _\nu ^2=2.64`$. The best fit parameter values and estimated 90% confidence limits are given in Table 4. These parameter values are not significantly changed if we include the optical data 0.1-0.6 days. It is remarkable the standard fireball shock model is a good fit for all wavebands (X-ray, optical and radio) for $`t<1`$ day and the agreement continues up to $`t60`$ days in X-rays. Furthermore the model provides an excellent fit to the measured spectral indices in the optical ($`t<1`$ day) and X-rays as indicated in Fig. 2.

The $`n_{sm}`$ parameter was used to smooth the broken power-law sections in the way described by Beuermann et al. (1999). This produces the curvature required to fit the early optical light curve and is responsible for the slight rise in the optical spectral index at early epochs as shown in Fig. 2. Explicitly, the model spectrum consists of four power-law sections combined using a smoothing parameter:

$$F(\nu ,t)=(F_0^{n_{sm}}+F_1^{n_{sm}}+F_2^{n_{sm}}+F_3^{n_{sm}})^{1/n_{sm}}$$
(3)
where $`F_i=k_i\nu ^{\beta _i}`$. The breaks between the sections occur at $`\nu _a`$, $`\nu _m`$, $`\nu _c`$ which evolve with $`t`$ as indicated in Table 1. The order of the break frequencies depends on $`t`$ because they evolve at different rates. The power-law indices for $`t>t_0`$ are given in section 2. If the model is used for $`t<t_0`$ then we set $`\beta _2=1/2`$ but this does not effect the data fitting and only applies when the model is used at very early times. The normalisations $`k_i`$ are calculated to give a continuous curve with a peak value $`F_m`$ (before smoothing). The effect of the smoothing is only seen close to the breaks as indicated in the model curves plotted in Fig. 4.

The temporal decay index of $`F_m`$ after the jet break, $`\alpha _f=0.48`$, is determined by the last three X-ray data points and the optical measurements $`0.6<t<1.0`$ days. This result is consistent with the analysis presented by Tiengo et al. (2003c) but identifies the X-ray temporal decay index $`\alpha _1=1.8`$ with the decay in the peak flux of the fireball spectrum. Fig. 3 shows the residuals about the peak flux ($`F_m`$) of the best fit model. The last three X-ray data values clearly define the peak decline after the jet break. Fig. 3 also includes the optical data for $`0.1<t<0.6`$ and $`t>1.0`$ which were excluded from the fitting procedure. The faint optical bump with a peak at $`0.25`$ days and the dramatic rise in the optical flux just after $`t=1.0`$ day are apparent.

Figure 4 shows a series of four snap shots of the evolution of the spectrum. In the lower panels at 1.26 and 2.5 days the optical and higher frequency radio measurements are starting to lift away from the underlying afterglow component. The absorption break $`\nu _a`$ is the least constrained parameter because it is only determined by the radio measurements included at 0.63 and 2.5 days. All plots cover a flux range of $`10^7`$ to $`0.1`$ Jansky and $`3\times 10^8`$ to $`10^{18}`$ Hz.

We attempted to find an acceptable fit including the later optical and radio data. It was possible to get a fit without including a jet break but this predicted an X-ray flux a factor of $`20`$ greater than observed for $`t>30`$ days and a factor of $`3`$ smaller than the observed for $`t<1`$ day and, furthermore, the residuals for the optical data over the period $`0.5<t<3.0`$ days were unacceptably large. At the same time the radio measurements were poorly represented. In particular the mean flux densities at 3.9, 7.7 and 11.2 GHz from Trushkin et al. (2003) gave spectral indices which contradict the expected trend. Scintillation is expected to introduce variability in the observed radio fluxes. For the Galactic coordinates $`l_{II}=217`$, $`b_{II}=+60.7`$ of GRB 030329 the rms variability expected at 8.5 GHz is $`30\%`$ with a time scale of a few hours (Walker 1998) consistent with the errors used at this frequency. The variability will be larger at 1.288 GHz but the flux used in the fitting from Rao et al. (2003a,b) for 31 March 2003 is the average from 8 hours observation with 2-sigma error bars. We conclude that the best fit of the afterglow model is not susceptible to scintillation.

Figure 5 shows the residual optical and radio flux seen over and above the best fit fireball shock model. The model is an excellent fit to the optical data $`t<0.2`$ days and $`0.6<t<1.0`$ days and the very early radio points. However there is highly significant additional flux seen in both the radio and optical which does not fit the standard model (see also Tiengo et al. 2003c).

## 4 Physical parameters

We have used the formulation of Wijers & Galama (1999) to calculate the physical parameters of the afterglow. We assumed a hydrogen mass fraction $`X=0.7`$ and used the $`p=2.25`$ value to estimate $`\varphi _p=0.62`$ and $`\chi _p=0.56`$ on the plots provided by Wijers & Galama (1999). The results are listed in Table 5.

The $`\theta _j`$ and $`E_{50}`$ values were derived from the formula given by Sari, Piran and Halpern (1999) which specifies the jet break as the time when lateral adiabatic expansion of the jet becomes apparent. The ranges of physical parameters given in Table 5 were estimated from the 90% confidence ranges of the fit parameters given in Table 4. In fact the ranges are dominated by the uncertainty in $`\nu _a`$.

The index $`\alpha _f=0.48`$ for the temporal evolution of $`F_m`$ for $`t>t_j`$ is the only afterglow parameter which does not conform to the standard model. If the expansion after the jet break is adiabatic the we expect $`\alpha _f1`$. This result suggests that either the edge of the jet is not well defined (the jet has a broad smooth profile rather than a sharp edge, Panaitescu & Kumar 2003) or something is confining the expected expansion.

Using the afterglow model we can extrapolate back to the epoch of the GRB. From the best fit values of $`\nu _m`$ and $`\nu _c`$ we find $`t_0=5\times 10^4`$ days (43 seconds) which is only $`18`$ secs after the burst faded. Using the full radiative evolution values for $`t<t_0`$ from Table 1 we get a total fluence in the 25 second burst of $`1.1\times 10^4`$ ergs cm-2 which is remarkably close to the measured estimate of $`1.2\times 10^4`$ ergs cm-2. The $`F_m`$ value must have remained constant from 25 seconds to the break at 0.47 days as expected from the standard model. The afterglow model gives $`\epsilon 6.8\times 10^{52}`$ ergs per steradian for the shock, while the fluence from the GRB was $`\epsilon _{52\gamma }0.07`$. Hence we estimate that $`1\%`$ of the explosion energy was radiated as $`\gamma `$-rays in the GRB.

The spectral analysis used to derive the physical parameters in Table 5 assumes that the afterglow spectrum is dominated by synchrotron emission, ignoring any contribution from self-Compton emission from the relativistic shock. Inverse Compton (IC) scattering is expected to modify the high-energy tail of the spectrum producing a characteristic bump in the X-ray and $`\gamma `$-ray energy bands. Using the formulation of Sari & Esin (2001) we can use the physical shock parameters in Table 5 to estimate the photon energy at which the synchrotron and IC component fluxes are the same. The result is $`>50`$ keV for all epochs. Therefore the bulk of any IC emission is expected to be above the RXTE and XMM energy band and hence unobserved. IC cooling is expected to be important at early times in the afterglow evolution even if it is not observed directly. In the fast cooling stages IC scattering increases the radiation losses by a factor $`(ϵ_e/ϵ_B)^{1/2}12`$ thereby delaying the transition to the slow cooling regime to $`t_00.15`$ hours. However this is still well before the first optical observations of GRB 030329 were made. IC cooling continues to be important for $`t>t_0`$ while the fireball (or jet) is relativistic. After the system has proceeded through the jet break and ceases to be highly relativistic the efficiency of IC cooling drops rapidly and ceases to be important. Since we observe a break which is probably the jet break at $`t0.5`$ days we can be confident that our results are not compromised by IC emission.

## 5 Origin of the excess flux

There are two optical bumps in the residuals plot Fig. 5. The solid lines in the plots are simple power fits used to estimate the peak positions and integrated fluxes. The first R-band peak has a maximum at 0.23 days, a FWHM of 0.06 days (5% peak flux range 0.14 to 0.35 days), and an integrated flux of 5.5 Jy secs corresponding to a total energy of $`1.4\times 10^{48}`$ ergs in the optical waveband ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\nu 4\times 10^{14}`$ Hz). The rise time is only $`0.09`$ days and the maximum flux is $`6\times 10^4`$ Jy corresponding to $`R_{mag}16.8`$. The second R-band peak is a much longer. It has a maximum at 1.7 days, a FWHM of 2.0 days (5% peak flux range 0.9 to $``$28 days), and an integrated flux of 234 Jy secs corresponding to a total of $`5.9\times 10^{49}`$ ergs in the optical waveband. Again, the rise time of $`0.8`$ days is remarkably short, the maximum flux is $`4.5\times 10^4`$ Jy corresponding to $`R_{mag}17.1`$. It is interesting that the spectral index of the optical spectrum starts to redden at $`1`$ day (see Fig. 2) at the onset of this second R-band peak. Although the maximum flux for the two optical peaks is similar, because the afterglow is decaying rapidly the first R-band peak represents only a small increase over and above the underlying afterglow, $`5\%`$, while the second peak corresponds to a large increase of $`100\%`$.

A single broad radio peak (7.7, 8.5 and 15.2 GHz data points) is also shown plotted in Fig. 5. It has a maximum of $`0.035`$ Jy (at $`8`$ GHz) at $`20`$ days corresponding to the time of emergence of the full SN spectrum, Hjorth et al. (2003). The peak luminosity is $`3\times 10^{31}`$ ergs s-1 Hz-1. The properties of the first and second R-band peaks and the radio peak are summarised in Table 6.

There are a number of possible explanations for the excess flux seen over and above the standard fireball shock. We will discuss them under three headings; Afterglow effects - modifications to the standard afterglow shock model; Dust echoes - scattering of afterglow radiation back into our line of sight; SN/Hypernova - optical and radio flux from a stellar explosion. A key feature of the observed residuals is that they are not seen in X-rays and they are not the same in the optical and radio. The first R-band peak is a short flash while the second R-band peak is a longer outburst and the radio peak reaches a maximum at a much later time than the second R-band peak.

### 5.1 Afterglow effects

If the ISM about the progenitor were inhomogeneous (varying density $`n_0`$) then we might expect to see rapid and noticeable deviations from a smooth power-law decay. Such an effect was considered by Wang & Loeb (2000) and has been used to explain variations seen in several afterglows (e.g. GRB 011211, Holland et al, 2002; Jakobsson et al, 2003; GRB 021004, Lazzati et al, 2003; Holland et al, 2003). For $`t<t_j`$ (Nakar, Piran and Granot 2003) and below the cooling break ($`\nu <\nu _c`$, usually the optical regime) the flux is expected to be $`F_\nu n^{(p+1)/4}`$ whilst for $`\nu >\nu _c`$ (the X-ray regime) the flux is only weakly dependent on density. Therefore the first peak in the R-band flux, which corresponds to a very modest increase $`\mathrm{\Delta }F_\nu 5\%`$, could easily be due to a small increase in ambient density. However, for $`t>t_j`$ the opposite is true (Nakar, Piran and Granot 2002). Here we expect a change in density to increase the X-ray flux more than the optical. It is therefore most unlikely that the second R-band peak, which corresponds to an increase of the optical afterglow flux by $`100\%`$ and is not accompanied by a similar large increase in the X-ray flux, is caused by a rise in ambient density.

Refreshed shocks due to sustained activity in the central engine have been used to explain the observed lightcurve of GRB 021004, which was unusually flat for the first few hours, and shows correlated X-ray and optical changes (Fox et al., 2003). This model has also been invoked for GRB 030329 (Granot, Nakar and Piran 2003). Refreshed shocks should be seen as correlated outbursts in the X-ray and optical decays although the fractional increase seen in optical and X-ray is not expected to be the same (Sari & Mèszàros 2000). At the same time we might also expect to see a change in the X-ray and optical spectra. Because of the sparse X-ray coverage we cannot rule out the possibility that the optical excess arises from refreshed shocks and any associated small increase in the X-ray flux was unfortunately missed. However, the fit of the standard model to the available X-ray data is very good and we see no change in X-ray spectral index. We think it is unlikely that all the excess optical flux arises from refreshed shocks. There is variability in the excess flux of the second peak and at least three more re-brightenings were identified by Granot, Nakar and Piran (2003) at $`t2.6`$ days, $`t3.3`$ days and $`t5.3`$ days. They favour refreshed shocks as the most likely explanation for these features. However, analysis of millimeter observations presented by Sheth et al. (2003) shows that there is no short-lived millimeter emission associated with bumps in the optical light curve indicating that central engine of the GRB was not injecting energy on these timescales.

A further possibility is that we are observing lateral structure within the jet rather than axial structure imposed by the ambient medium. This possibility is investigated by Granot & Kumar (2003), Kumar & Granot (2003) and Salmonson (2003). However such structure is expected to modify the overall evolution of the light curve producing, for example, a late temporal break in the afterglow decay and is not expected to produce rapid variations or bursts.

We conclude that at least the second optical bump is not due to afterglow effects.

### 5.2 Dust Echoes and Scattering

Dust echos were considered to be a possible explanation of late time bumps in the light curves of some GRBs (Waxman & Draine, 2000). In this scenario dust close to the burst is sublimed by the prompt X-ray and EUV radiation, whilst dust beyond the sublimation radius absorbs the energy and then re-radiates it at longer wavelengths. Bumps or flares are expected to occur at late times after the GRB (the the exact times being a function of the sublimation radius of the burst, and of course the assumed beaming geometry). Because dust sublimes at $`2000`$K the bumps are necessarily very red and are unlikely to have significant flux in the optical band. We do not consider them a viable explanation of the bumps in GRB 030329.

Esin & Blandford (2000), and subsequently Reichart (2001), take a different approach in which the scattering of the initial optical flash by the dust is responsible for a bump in the afterglow light curve. Reichart (2001) finds that for values of $`\theta _j5`$ degrees, and small sublimation radii the echo can reach maximum in less than one day, consistent with the first R-band peak. If the efficiency of the reflection/scattering process is $`0.1`$ it is unlikely that these models can explain the second R-band peak which has a very large integrated energy implying a huge initial burst.

### 5.3 SN/Hypernova

At $`z=0.1685`$ GRB 030329 provides a unique opportunity to probe the early behaviour of any associated SN. There is overwhelming evidence that the spectroscopic signature of a SN Type Ic forms part of the optical afterglow of GRB 030329 (Hjorth et al. 2003). This supernova has been designated SN2003dh (Stanek et al. 2003a, Garnavich et al. 2003). The expansion velocity measured at 10 days was $`36,000\pm 3,000`$ km s-1, larger than any previously know SN and it is therefore worthy of the title hypernova. Crude spectroscopic dating concludes that the SN was coincident with GRB 030329 $`\pm 2`$ days (Hjorth et al. 2003). Using the spectroscopic evidence alone Matheson et al. (2003) conclude that SN2003dh emerges at $`t>6`$ days. The photometric evidence (after subtraction of the standard afterglow component) and the onset of the changes in optical spectrum for $`t>1.0`$ days (see Fig. 2) indicate that the optical flux associated with SN2003dh is detected earlier than this.

Any premaximum display of variability in the SN lightcurve including the shock breakout and structure introduced as the shock propagates through the layered structure of the star may be visible. Indeed, the short first R-band peak followed by the extended second R-band peak shown in Fig. 5 are very similar to the model light curves of Type Ib SN models shown by Ensman & Woosley (1998), although the time scale is a factor of 6-10 faster. Models of Type Ic SNe by Nakamura et al. (2001) indicate that the peak of the luminosity for such events should occur in the range 10-15 days. The peak of the main outburst in Fig. 5 is at $`t1.7`$ days, much earlier than predicted from the models. SN1998bw peaked at $`M_V=19.35`$, $`M_R=19.36`$ (Galama et al. 1998). Scaling this to z=0.1685 gives $`R_{mag}=20.22`$, therefore the peak of the long optical outburst in Fig. 5 $`R_{mag}=17.1`$ is $`18`$ times brighter than SN1998bw, having $`M_V22.5`$.

The SN 1b models of Ensman & Woosley (1988) produce a main peak FWHM of 25 days as observed for SN1983N (the only event for which good data are available), which is only possible for the lower mass models (Wolf-Rayet = 4-6 M, orig mass = 15-20 M). More massive models create broader peaks, as do less powerful explosions. A smaller ejected mass gives a lower duration because the radioactive luminosity diffuses out quicker. However a small ejected mass results in a dim SN since it is powered by the ejected Ni. In modelling SN 1998bw Nakamura et al. (2001) show that the main peak width is proportional to the ejected mass $`M_{ej}^{3/4}`$ and the explosion energy $`E^{1/4}`$, while the velocities scale as $`M_{ej}^{1/2}`$ and $`E^{1/2}`$. These relationships point to either a low ejected mass or a high powered explosion in GRB 030329 or both. The FWHM of 1998bw was $`29`$ days and the ejection velocity at 10 days is $`26,000`$ km s-1. This is fit with $`E=5\times 10^{52}`$ ergs and $`M_{ej}=10`$ M by Nakamura et al. (2001). Scaling from this we estimate the energy and mass of SN2003dh as $`E=5\times 10^{51}`$ ergs and $`M_{ej}=0.6`$ $`M_{}`$. This is a significantly lower ejected mass than considered by Ensman & Woosley (their values were based on there being a He envelope present).

Sheth et al. (2003) and Berger et al. (2003b) suggest that the observed excess radio and millimeter flux (and by implication excess optical flux) from GRB 030329 arises from a second slower and wider jet-like outflow. The shock in such an outflow would generate a spectrum similar to the standard model illustrated in Fig. 4 but with the absorption break and peak shifted to much lower frequencies. This could account for the broad radio and optical excess but would not generate a significant X-ray flux, consistent with the analysis presented above. It might also explain the change in the optical spectral index which starts at t=1 day. However it would not account for the very fast optical flux increase seen at the onset of the second optical peak. This would require a large extra injection of energy at t=1 day, similar in kind to a refreshed shock, rather than a slower, wider outflow launched at t=0. The duration and timing of the radio peak are very similar to known RSNe. However, the peak luminosity of $`3\times 10^{31}`$ ergs s-1 Hz-1 is a factor of $`10^4`$ higher than typical Type Ib/c RSNe (Weiler et al. 2002) but very similar to the radio afterglows seen for GRB 991208, $`2\times 10^{31}`$ ergs s-1 Hz-1, and for GRB 970508, $`9\times 10^{30}`$ ergs s-1 Hz-1 (Frail, Waxman & Kulkarni 2000) at 5 GHz. This, again, clearly indicates that the hypernova in GRB 030329 was indeed a powerful event.

The combination of a rapid first peak and a very bright second peak is not predicted by standard models of SNe. The second peak is too bright and reaches peak too quickly to be entirely fuelled by the radioactive decay of a large mass of 56Ni (Woosley & Heger 2003). If the excess flux is directly associated with the hypernova then it arises from the injection of energy from some other source. Both the optical and radio maxima were very bright compared with previously observed SNe/hypernovae. This may be due to the geometry of the explosion rather than just a very large explosion energy. The ejecta could be beamed and/or the visible envelope of the expanding photosphere might be flattened. Since the hypernova was concurrent with a GRB this seems reasonable although we know of no detailed models which address such a scenario.

## 6 Conclusion

The high quality and extensive coverage of data available from GRB 030329 has enabled us to calculate the physical parameters of the event with high precision and has revealed important details about the concurrent hypernova SN2003dh.

The GRB released an energy of $`1.9\times 10^{50}`$ ergs into a jet with open angle $`3`$ degrees and about $`1\%`$ of this energy was radiated away as $`\gamma `$ rays. The jet propagated in a medium with $`n_0=1`$ cm-3 and the shock generated an relativistic electron spectrum with index $`p=2.25`$. The electron and magnetic field energy densities in the shock were $`ϵ_e=0.24`$ and $`ϵ_B=0.002`$. A jet break occurred at $`0.5`$ days after which the peak flux of the afterglow, $`F_m`$, decayed with $`\alpha _f=0.5`$.

It is likely that the lightcurves shown in Fig. 5 are directly associated with the hypernova SN2003dh. This event had the spectroscopic signature of a SN 1c by 8-10 days but the fast rise and decline in the optical, the very bright optical peak and the large radio excess are not standard SN 1c properties. The excess optical and radio flux probably arise from an afterglow powered by a central engine such as the disk wind component proposed by Woosley & Heger (2003) but injection of energy at $`t1`$ day is required to explain the sudden emergence of the second optical peak.

## 7 Acknowledgements

We thank Makoto Uemura for supplying the early optical data from Uemura et al. (2003) promptly following publication. We also thank the ESA XMM-Newton team for their support of GRB science in scheduling the XMM target of opportunity observations. AL and KLP acknowledge the support of PPARC studentships.