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# First detection of doubly deuterated hydrogen sulfide1footnote 11footnote 1This research has been supported by NSF grant AST-9980846 to the CSO.

## 1 Introduction

Deuterium-bearing molecules have become the target of many observations in recent years and several models have been developed to account for them (e.g. Tielens, 1983; Roberts & Millar, 2000a, b). Twenty-six such molecules have been detected to date in interstellar clouds. The interest in this topic lies in the unusual chemistry at work in the cold regions where CO is apparently strongly depleted (Bacmann et al., 2002, 2003) and in the general question of how much deuterium is trapped in the cold, dense phase of the ISM (Phillips & Vastel, 2002).
The study of doubly deuterated interstellar molecules has been very active in the last few years, since the surprising discovery of a large amount ($``$ 5%) of doubly deuterated formaldehyde (D2CO) in the low mass protostar IRAS 16293-2422 (Ceccarelli et al., 1998; Loinard et al., 2000). This is more than one order of magnitude higher than in Orion KL, where D2CO was first detected by Turner (1990). This first discovery was followed by many other studies which confirmed the presence of large amounts of D2CO (e.g. Ceccarelli et al., 2002) as well as doubly deuterated ammonia (ND2H) (e.g. Roueff et al., 2000; Loinard et al., 2001). Gas phase chemical models account relatively well for the observations of the abundances of singly deuterated molecules, but may not be able to completely reproduce the large deuterations observed for multiply deuterated molecules. The large deuterations could also be a product of active chemistry on the grain surfaces as predicted by Tielens (1983): deuteration during the mantle formation phase followed by evaporation of the mantles ices resulting from the heating of the newly formed star, with injection into the gas phase of the deuterated species (e.g. Ceccarelli et al., 2001).
Recently, the detection of a triply deuterated molecule (ND3) extended the observational framework. Until now, the possibility for detecting triply deuterated molecules seemed so remote that their lines were omitted in the spectroscopic catalogs for astrophysics. The ground-state rotational transition at 309.91 GHz of ND3 has been detected with the CSO towards the Barnard 1 cloud (Lis et al., 2002) and the NGC 1333 IRAS 4A region (Van der Tak et al., 2002), with abundance ratios \[ND3\]/\[NH3\] $``$ 10-3 and \[ND3/H2\] $``$ 10-11. The process at work, chemical fractionation, takes place in cold gas where the deuterium substituted molecule is favored due to the lower vibrational uncertainty energy of the heavier molecule. The chemical process requires the presence of H$`{}_{}{}^{+}{}_{3}{}^{}`$ which is usually limited by reactions with molecules such as CO. However, in these cold ($``$ 10 K) regions of the interstellar medium, molecules such as CO accrete onto grain surfaces to form mantles, so allowing the gas phase process of deuterium fractionation to take place (Bacmann et al., 2003). In time, the material of the mantle will suffer its own low temperature deuterium fractionation (Tielens, 1983; Rodgers & Charnley, 2002). Thus the grains may be important, both in enabling the gas phase process through depletion of reactive molecules and also by their own surface chemistry. For the latter to be effective, the deuterated molecules on the grain surface must be released, by some external energetic process, back into the gas phase, when they can be detected. The gas phase mechanism has recently received a boost from the recognition that inclusion of the more highly deuterated species D2H+ and D$`{}_{}{}^{+}{}_{3}{}^{}`$ (Phillips & Vastel, 2002) in the chemical calculations, increases at least by a factor of 2 the gas phase D/H ratio (Roberts et al., 2003).
The identified most abundant components of the molecular mantles found on interstellar dust grains are H2O and CO (for references, see Teixeira & Emerson, 1999). The large range of condensation temperatures (see Nakagawa, 1980) spanned by H2O (Tc $``$ 90 K) and CO (Tc $``$ 16 K) suggests that molecules with intermediate condensation temperatures could also be present in the grain mantles. For example, H2S has a condensation temperature of $``$ 39 K (Nakagawa, 1980). This molecule and other sulfur-bearing molecules have been observed in the gas phase in cold, dark clouds where high-temperature processes should not be important (Minh et al., 1989; Irvine et al., 1989; Fuente et al., 1990): x(H2S) = 3 $`\times `$ 10-9 at the SO peak of L134N, $`<`$ 5 $`\times `$ 10-10 at the cyanopolyyne peak towards TMC1 and $``$ 7 $`\times `$ 10-10 towards the NH3 peak position of TMC1. These values can be compared to the range 10-11 \- 10-10 obtained for steady-state gas-phase models (Millar & Herbst, 1990; Millar et al., 1997). Therefore, it poses a problem for gas phase chemistry. The gas-phase reactions proposed for the formation of H2S are endothermic (see Section 3) and other mechanisms such as shock chemistry or high temperature chemistry are unlikely to be important in dark clouds. Grain surface reactions have then been suggested as an alternative pathway to H2S molecule formation (Duley et al., 1980).
Because sulfur is chemically similar to oxygen, it is tempting to study this molecule to gain insight to the H2O deuteration processes. Like H2O, it is possible that H2S originates on grain surfaces, where it was formed by accretion and hydrogenation of sulfur atoms during core formation (Tielens & Allamandola, 1987).

## 2 Observations and results

The comparison between H2S, HDS and D2S would be useful for a complete study of the deuteration processes. In this letter, we report the observations of the HDS and D2S ground transitions, accessible at the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory (CSO). This observatory is a 10.4 meter single-dish antenna located on top of Mauna Kea in Hawaii. At 240 GHz, the telescope has an FWHM beam size of 31′′. The observations of these molecules were carried out between March 2002 and September 2002. Weather conditions were average with zenith opacities between 0.05 and 0.2 at 225 GHz.
The frequency of the observed lines is 244555.58 MHz for HDS (10,1 \- 00,0) with Eu = 11.7 K, and 237903.6752 MHz for the ortho line of D2S (11,1 \- 00,0) with Eu = 11.4 K. These are the lowest lying transitions for the two molecules. The sample of sources observed includes three class 0 (NGC1333-IRAS2; NGC1333-IRAS4A; IRAS16293-2422) and three dense cores (Barnard 1; the peak of emission in DCO+$``$ 2 in the star-forming molecular cloud L1689N, Lis et al., 2002; the peak of emission in DCO+$``$ 2 near the young stellar object IRAS4A in the NGC1333 complex, Lis et al. in preparation).
The observation towards IRAS16293-2422 was made in position switching mode with the reference position located at $`\delta \alpha `$ = -180$`\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\delta `$ = 0$`\mathrm{}`$ from the nominal center whose coordinates are quoted in Table 1. Positions 180$`\mathrm{}`$ or 240$`\mathrm{}`$ were observed using the chopping secondary mirror for the other sources. The main beam efficiency at 240 GHz is equal to 70$`\%`$. The spectra obtained towards these sources are presented in Figure 1 and the measured parameters in Table 2.
The upper limits on the lines, when not detected, are derived following the relation:

$$3\sigma (K)=3\times RMS(K)\times \sqrt{\frac{2\times binsize(kms^1)}{\mathrm{\Delta }v(kms^1)}}$$
(1)
and are reported in Table 2. From the observed line strengths given in Table 2, we can estimate the ratios between the D2S and HDS column densities in the observed sources. We estimated the optical depth from the observed line intensity using the formula: $`T_{mb}=[J_\nu (T_{ex})J_\nu (T_{bg})](1e^\tau )`$ where $`J_\nu (T)=(h\nu /k)/(e^{h\nu /kT}1)`$ is the radiation temperature of a blackbody at a temperature T, and Tbg is the cosmic background temperature of 2.7 K. We found that the lines are optically thin, even at a low temperature of 10 K. The formula which connects the integrated intensity of a rotational transition with the number of emitting molecules is, for an optically thin transition and neglecting the background radiation:

$$T_{mb}𝑑v=\frac{A_{ul}hc^3}{8\pi k\nu ^2}N_u$$
(2)
and, assuming the system is in LTE:

$$N_u=\frac{g_u}{Q(T_{ex})}exp\left(\frac{E_u}{kT_{ex}}\right)N_{tot}$$
(3)
The Einstein A coefficient is 1.3 $`\times `$ 10-5 s-1 for HDS (10,1 \- 00,0) (JPL catalog) and we computed a value of 5.0 $`\times `$ 10-5 s-1 for D2S (11,1 \- 00,0). Q(Tex) is the partition function $`_ig_ie^{E_i/kT_{ex}}`$ equal to 3.1 for HDS (10,1 \- 00,0), and 21.6 for D2S (11,1 \- 00,0) using an excitation temperature of 10 K. This temperature, taken as a kinetic temperature is that at which chemical fractionation should be efficient. The observed transitions are obviously not enough to calculate the excitation temperature in each source. Nevertheless, it is possible to estimate a reliable value for the excitation temperature using the kinetic temperature of the gas found in the literature. Menten et al. (1987) (respectively Bachiller et al., 1990) derived a kinetic temperature in L1689N (respectively B1) of $``$ 12 K based on their ammonia observations. Blake et al. (1995) estimated Tk between 20 and 40 K for the core of IRAS4A based on their CS and H2CO observations. Ward-Thompson et al. (1996) found that Tk lies in the range of 15-20 K for IRAS2 from their infall model. Van Dishoeck et al. (1995) estimated a rotational temperature of $``$ 12 K from two HDS lines towards IRAS16293. In the three last sources, the Class 0 sources, temperature gradients are known to be present, and the quoted estimates refer to the outer regions of the envelopes of these sources. Very likely the present HDS and D2S observations probe in fact those external regions too. In the following, we will assume that Tex is the same for HDS and D2S, namely that the 2 molecules originate in the same region. Luckily enough, the calculation of the N(D2S)/N(HDS) ratio does not depend so much on the excitation temperature in the 10 - 50 K range, as the energy levels compared are similar.
D2S has para and ortho forms. The observed 11,1 \- 00,0 transition is the lowest line in the ortho ladder. To derive the D2S/HDS ratio, the D2S column density was calculated for the ortho levels only, and then extrapolated to a total column density assuming an ortho to para ratio of 2. The derived D2S/HDS ratios have been computed using equations (1 - 3) and are reported in Table 3.

## 3 Chemistry of D2S

Hydrogen sulfide is traditionally believed to form on the grain surfaces, since gas phase reactions in cold gas are not efficient enough to account for the observed H2S abundances (e.g. Tielens & Allamandola, 1987; Minh et al., 1989). In dense clouds sulfur is believed to be mostly neutral and initiates the chain reaction:

$$S\stackrel{H_3^+}{}HS^+\stackrel{H_2}{}H_3S^+\stackrel{e^{}}{}H_2S$$
(4)
H3S+ is thought to be the precursor to the H2S molecule, via a dissociative recombination. The reaction is important because all the normal SHn+ \+ H2 $``$ SHn+1+ \+ H reactions are highly endothermic (Millar et al., 1986) and cannot occur in cold interstellar clouds. Nevertheless, even at low temperatures, the rate coefficient of H3S+ production is very low ($``$ 4 $`\times `$ 10-15 cm3s-1 at 10 K, Herbst et al., 1989), limiting the production of H2S molecules in cold clouds. On the contrary, sulfur is expected to easily react with H on grain surfaces and thereby form the volatile hydride H2S (Tielens & Allamandola, 1987). In the same vein, formaldehyde and methanol are believed to be formed via active grain chemistry with successive hydrogenations of CO, stored on the grain mantles, and eventually released into the gas, for instance during the collapse phase, when the heating of newly formed protostars evaporates the CO-rich ices.
If the deuteration of the three ices (H2S, H2CO and CH3OH) occurs when the ices are formed and if it is dominated by pure statistics (i.e. by the random distribution of D atoms), the deuteration ratios would assume the following values (detailed discussion in Rodgers & Charnley, 2002): F(H2S) = (HDS/H2S)2/(D2S/H2S) = 4, F(H2CO) = (HDCO/H2CO)2/(D2CO/H2CO) = 4, F(CH3OH) = (CH2DOH/CH3OH)2/(CHD2OH/CH3OH) = 3. Observed values different from these would indicate either different chemical pathways or chemical reactions on the grain surfaces which favor D over H (or vice-versa) substitutions. Note that the modified rate approach and Monte Carlo method by Caselli et al. (2002) to explain deuteration fractionation on interstellar grains indeed confirm the above values -assuming that the chemistry of S is similar to that of O on the grain surfaces.
Our sample includes IRAS16293-2422, where the singly and doubly deuterated forms of both formaldehyde and methanol have been observed (Ceccarelli et al., 1998; Loinard et al., 2000; Parise et al., 2002). The observed values are: F(H2CO) = 0.4 and F(CH3OH) = 4. Combining the present D2S/HDS upper limit (Table 3) with the HDS/H2S value found by Van Dishoeck et al. (1995, HDS/H2S$`0.1`$) gives: F(H2S) $``$ 0.5. It seems hence that while methanol and hydrogen sulfide are consistent with the hypothesis of the random distribution of D’s and formation on the grain surfaces, formaldehyde is definitively off. The use of the F factors has the great advantage to highlighting what chemical mechanism is responsible for the observed deuteration (Rodgers & Charnley, 2002), but obviously overlooks the details of it.
We computed in Table 3 the column densities for the HDS molecule. Assuming that the HDS/H2S is around 10%, the value found for formaldehyde and other molecules presenting a large degree of deuteration, one would obtain H2S abundances in the range (0.2 - 2) $`\times `$ 10-9. This value has been computed with an H2 column density about 2.8 $`\times `$ 1023 cm-2 for L1689N(DCO+) (Lis et al., 2002), 2 $`\times `$ 1023 cm-2 for IRAS16293 (Van Dishoeck et al., 1995), 1.3 $`\times `$ 1023 cm-2 for B1 (Hirano et al., 1999) and 3.1 $`\times `$ 1023 cm-2 for IRAS4A (Van der Tak et al., 2002). We don’t know yet the actual value for the H2 column density towards IRAS4A(DCO+). We can say that the computed H2S abundance seems higher than the range of 10-11 \- 10-10 estimated for steady-state gas-phase models (Millar & Herbst, 1990; Millar et al., 1997), and it would be a strong evidence that grains, and not gas, are producing H2S. Of course, this is a rough estimate, and observations for the H2S molecule have already been planned in order to derive more accurate values.
The diagonal line in Fig. 2 shows the predicted D2S/HDS as function of the atomic D/H ratio in the accreting gas, assuming that D2S/HDS is equal to D2O/HDO, as computed by Caselli et al. (2002). The argument that the surface chemistries of sulfur and oxygen are similar can be challenged by the fact that D2O has not yet been detected in the interstellar medium. But the search for D2O has not yet been carried out towards the same objects where D2S has been detected, and it will be interesting indeed to check whether the two molecules, D2S and D2O, have very different abundances with respect to their respective main isotopomers. In the model presented by Caselli et al. (2002), surface chemistry can convert a high atomic D/H ratio in the gas to high abundance ratios for singly, doubly or triply deuterated isotopomers, especially at high gas densities (105 cm-3) and low temperatures (10 K). The observed values in B1 and NGC1333-IRAS4A(DCO+) and upper limits of Table 3 are consistent with previous determinations of the required atomic D/H ratio in the accreting gas of $`0.2`$ \- 0.3 found in the case of IRAS16293-2422 (Parise et al., 2002).
We conclude that, based on the observations so far available, hydrogen sulfide, formaldehyde and methanol are very likely formed on the grain surfaces, and the deuteration occurs during the formation of the mantles. What remained problematic to explain up to very recently is the relatively large value of the atomic D/H ratio required to achieve the observed large deuteration fractionation in the three molecules. In fact until very recently, no gas-phase chemical model predicted such large values of atomic D/H (e.g. Roberts & Millar, 2000a, b). However, the current year has seen the detection of an extremely large abundance of H2D+ in the pre-stellar core L1544 (Caselli et al., 2003), 10 times larger than prediction from previous chemical model. This detection, together with the previous observations of the doubly and triply deuterated molecules, has stimulated a radical revision of the chemical gas phase models. Phillips & Vastel (2002) pointed out that the H$`{}_{}{}^{+}{}_{3}{}^{}`$ chemistry should include D2H+ and D$`{}_{}{}^{+}{}_{3}{}^{}`$, as well as the expected H2D+. Roberts et al. (2003) showed that inclusion of the doubly and triply deuterated forms of H$`{}_{}{}^{+}{}_{3}{}^{}`$ would increase the atomic D/H ratio in CO depleted gas to the levels 0.1 - 1, required by the D2CO, CHD2OH and the present D2S observations. In conclusion, this work supports the hypothesis that formaldehyde, methanol and hydrogen sulfide are indeed formed on the grain surfaces, during the cold pre-stellar core phase, where the CO depleted gas possesses large atomic D/H ratios.


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# STATUS OF THE H.E.S.S. EXPERIMENT

## 1 Introduction

The detection of high-energy gamma rays in ground-based experiments opened a new window for the exploration of non-thermal processes in the Universe. Unlike the charged component of the cosmic radiation, detected gamma rays point back to their origin. This property makes them an excellent tool for locating the sources of the cosmic radiation where hadron acceleration is likely accompanied by gamma ray emission. The measured energy spectra of sources test our understanding of stellar objects and theoretical models of the acceleration mechanisms. Among others, active core regions of galaxies and remnants of supernovae explosions are discussed as acceleration sites. The first source of TeV gamma radiation, the Crab nebula, was discovered in 1989. To date, a handful of TeV gamma sources are known to exist.

## 2 The Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Technique

High-energy gamma rays and hadrons hitting the Earth’s atmosphere create extended air showers. The shower development starts in a height of about 25 km and the shower maximum is reached at a height of around 8 km. The charged secondary particles in the shower produce Cherenkov light that forms a light pool with about 240 m diameter on the ground (Fig. 1 (left)). This light can be detected in clear moonless nights by so-called Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes (IACTs) placed in the light pool. The telescopes use a spherical mirror to map the shower image onto a digital camera. Analysis of the camera image allows to infer the type, energy and direction of the primary particle.

## 3 The H.E.S.S. Experiment

The H.E.S.S. experiment  applies the so-called stereoscopic observation mode where the same shower is recorded under different angles by more than one telescope in the light pool. This technique allows for better reconstruction of shower directions and improved separation of gamma-induced showers from the more irregular hadronic showers.

The H.E.S.S. experiment is located at 1800 m above sea level in the Khomas Highland of Namibia which was chosen for its good optical conditions and favourable climate. In its first phase, the experiment will consist of four IACTs located on the corners of a 120 m square. Each telescope (Fig. 1 (right)) is movable in azimuth and altitude and has a focal length of 15 m. The spherical mirror (diameter 15 m) is made up of 380 individual mirrors with a diameter of 60 cm. The total mirror area is 107 m2 per telescope. The camera has a diameter of 1.5 m and a 5 field of view. It consists of 960 photo-multiplier tubes each of which covering 0.16. The camera houses all the required trigger and readout electronics.

The sensitivity of the H.E.S.S. experiment is expected to be an order of magnitude better than that of existing IACT systems. Sources with 1 % of the flux of the Crab nebula will be detectable. The energy threshold is about 100 GeV and the energies of primary particles can be reconstructed with an accuracy of 20 %. The resolution of shower directions is 0.1 per event.

## 4 Status

The first H.E.S.S. telescope was commissioned in June 2002. At the time of writing, two of the four Phase I telescopes are used for routine data-taking and a central trigger is being commissioned. The full system with four telescopes is expected to be complete and operational in early 2004.

Since June 2002, H.E.S.S. has recorded data both in single telescope mode and in stereoscopic observation mode. Clear signals are observed for the Crab nebula  and the active galactic nucleus PKS 2155–304 . The latter observation confirms the earlier detection by the Durham experiment . The analysis of other sources is in progress.

## 5 Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung under the contract number 05 CH2KHA/1.


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# Untitled Document

Entropy bounds in two dimensions

S. Mignemi e-mail: smignemi@unica.it

Dipartimento di Matematica, Università di Cagliari

viale Merello 92, 09123 Cagliari, Italy

and

INFN, Sezione di Cagliari

ABSTRACT

We discuss entropy bounds for a class of two-dimensional gravity models. While the Bekenstein bound can be proved to hold in general for weakly gravitating matter, the analogous of the holographic bound is not universal, but depends on the specific model considered.

It was observed by Bekenstein , that the entropy $`S`$ contained in a weakly gravitating system must satisfy the bound $`S2\pi ER`$, where $`R`$ is the linear size and $`E`$ the energy of the system. This bound can be deduced from the generalized second law of black hole thermodynamics by means of a gedanken experiment known as Geroch process, and is known to be satisfied by all reasonable weakly gravitating matter systems. In particular, it is saturated by the Schwarzschild black hole. The validity of the Bekenstein bound for any $`D>2`$ was later proved by Bousso .

A different bound, which is believed to hold also for strongly gravitating systems is the holographic bound, $`S\frac{A}{4}`$, where $`A`$ is the area of a surface enclosing the system . This bound is justified by the observation that $`A/4`$ is the maximum entropy that can be contained in a region, before the matter collapses to a black hole.

In this letter we discuss the possibility of extending these bounds to $`D=2`$. This is motivated by the need of exploring the universality of the previous bounds on more general gravitational theories than general relativity . Two-dimensional gravity offers a possibility for this, since it gives rise to several different models with varied physical properties. Moreover, in 2D the holographic bound cannot be defined in terms of area, since in that case the horizon of a black hole reduces to a point. Also, in ref. , it was observed that, in contrast with higher dimensions, two-dimensional black holes in general do not satisfy the Bekenstein bound . This fact was explained making recourse to the invariance of some two-dimensional models under dilatations. We shall prove that in any case, if one restricts to weakly gravitating matter, the Bekenstein bound holds and is a universal property independent of the specific model. On the contrary, we show that a bound of holographic type does not hold in general, but is necessarily model dependent.

It is well known that gravity cannot be introduced in a unique way in two dimensions. This is due to the fact that the Einstein action is trivial in 2D, and therefore one is forced to introduce a scalar field $`\eta `$ (dilaton) in order to write an action principle for two-dimensional gravity. This field admits an arbitrary potential, which gives rise to an infinity of different models .

In the following we shall consider for definiteness a special class of these models, with action

$$I=d^2x\sqrt{g}e^{2\varphi }[R4k(\varphi )^2+\mathrm{\Lambda }e^{2h\varphi }],$$
$`(1)`$
where $`k`$ and $`h`$ are two arbitrary parameters. In order to have well defined black hole solutions, we require that $`k>1`$, $`h>(k+2)`$. The action (1) is rather general and includes as special cases many of the best known models. For $`h=0`$ it reduces to the models studied in , while for $`k=0`$ gives rise to the models of . The case $`h=0`$, $`k=0`$ is the JT model .

The field equations derived from (1) admit the solution

$$ds^2=V(x)dt^2+V^1(x)dx^2,e^{2\varphi }=e^{2\varphi _0}|x|^{\frac{1}{1+k}},$$
$`(2)`$
where

$$V(x)=\frac{(1+k)^2}{2+k+h}\left(\mathrm{\Lambda }|x|^{\frac{2+2k+h}{1+k}}m|x|^{\frac{k}{1+k}}\right),$$
$`(3)`$
and $`m`$ is a parameter. For positive $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`m`$, these solutions describe black holes with a horizon at

$$x_0=\left(\frac{m}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right)^{\frac{1+k}{2+k+h}}.$$

The constant $`e^{2\varphi _0}`$ is arbitrary and its inverse corresponds to the two-dimensional Newton constant. We shall set it to 1 without loss of generality. It is evident that varying the parameters $`h`$ and $`k`$ one can obtain a large variety of models with rather different physical properties.

The mass $`M`$, temperature $`T`$ and entropy $`S`$ of the black holes (2)-(3) can be defined as in , and are are given by

$$M=\frac{1+k}{2+k+h}\frac{m}{2},T=\frac{1+k}{4\pi }\left(\mathrm{\Lambda }m^{1+k+h}\right)^{\frac{1}{2+k+h}},S=2\pi \left(\frac{m}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right)^{\frac{1}{2+k+h}}.$$
$`(4)`$
If one identifies the size of the black hole $`R`$ with $`x_0`$ and its energy $`E`$ with $`M`$, it results that

$$2\pi ERm^{\frac{3+2k+h}{2+k+h}}S^{3+2k+h},$$

and clearly one can always violate the Bekenstein bound.

This can be seen as a consequence of the unusual thermodynamical properties of 2D black holes. In fact, splitting a two-dimensional black hole into black holes of smaller mass can be entropically favoured . This is evident from the expression (4) for the entropy, if $`k+h>1`$.

For our considerations, it is also instructive to write the entropy as a function of the black hole length, as

$$S=2\pi x_0^{\frac{1}{1+k}}.$$
$`(5)`$
If $`k>0`$, the entropy of $`N`$ black holes contained in a given portion of space of size $`R`$ is greater than that of a single black hole of the same size by a factor $`N^{\frac{k}{1+k}}`$. Hence, by increasing the number $`N`$ of black holes one can apparently store an arbitrary amount of entropy in a given region. This behaviour may be seen as a consequence of the repulsive nature of the potential (3) at short distances for positive $`k`$. It must be noted however that in this case the system of $`N`$ black holes is unstable, since the black holes will tend to move away from each other. As we shall show, in order to obtain the correct entropy bounds, one must therefore take into account the interaction between the $`N`$ black holes.

Although in 2D the Bekenstein bound is not valid for a collection of black holes , it still holds for weakly gravitating matter. This can be shown by slightly modifying the proof based on the Geroch process given in ref. , in such a way to avoid any reference to the black hole area. The proof relies on classical general relativity and the generalized second law and neglects quantum effect .

Consider a weakly gravitating system of total energy $`E`$ and linear size $`R`$. Move the system towards a black hole of radius much greater than $`R`$, described by a metric in the Schwarzschild gauge (2), with arbitrary $`V(x)`$ having a simple zero at $`x=x_0`$. Lower slowly the system until it is just outside the horizon and finally drop it in.

The mass added to the black hole is given by the energy $`E`$ of the system, redshifted according to the position of the center of mass at the drop-off point, i.e. at a distance $`R`$ from the horizon. Near the horizon the metric can be approximated as

$$V(x)\frac{dV}{dx}|_{x=x_0}(xx_0)=4\pi T(xx_0),$$

where we have used the standard definition of temperature $`T=\frac{1}{4\pi }\frac{dV}{dx}|_{x=x_0}`$. Denoting $`y=xx_0`$, the proper distance $`l`$ from the horizon is given by

$$l=\frac{dy}{\sqrt{4\pi Ty}}=2\sqrt{\frac{y}{4\pi T}}.$$

It follows that the redshift factor is

$$\chi (l)\sqrt{V(l)}2\pi Tl.$$

The mass added to the black hole is therefore

$$\delta M=E\chi (l)|_R=2\pi TR,$$

and the black hole entropy increases by

$$\delta S=\frac{dS}{dM}\delta M=\frac{\delta M}{T}=2\pi ER,$$

where we have used the thermodynamical relation $`T^1=dS/dM`$. By the generalized second law this increase must at least compensate for the lost matter entropy, and hence

$$S_{matt}2\pi ER.$$

This proof is valid in any dimensions $`D2`$ and is independent of the specific action or solution, being based uniquely on the definition of a horizon and of the thermodynamical quantities and the generalized second law.

This is an indication of the universality of the Bekenstein bound and may be a sign of its independence from other kind of entropy bounds such that the holographic bound, which in 2D cannot be formulated straightforwardly and is model-dependent.

Indeed, let us now try to define a two-dimensional entropy bound which is valid also for strongly gravitating systems, as black holes. Of course, a holographic bound cannot be defined as in higher dimensions, due to the lack of an area in 2D. However, in analogy to higher dimensions, one can attempt to define a bound as the minimum entropy necessary for the formation of a black hole in a region of size $`R`$. In fact, if the entropy of the matter contained in a given region exceeded that of a black hole of the same size, adding matter till the formation of a black hole would violate the generalized second law .

From (5), one gets therefore, for a single black hole,

$$S_{matt}2\pi R^{\frac{1}{1+k}}.$$

One may object that, as discussed above, for positive $`k`$ it is possible to store $`N`$ black holes in the same amount of space, which would therefore contain a larger amount of entropy. However, these black holes repel each other, and such configuration cannot be stable. Neglecting the backreaction, we may assume that a stable configuration can be approximated when the distance between the black holes minimizes the potential $`V(x)`$. For a black hole of mass $`m/N`$, $`V`$ has a minimum at

$$x_m=\left(\frac{k}{2+2k+h}\frac{m}{N\mathrm{\Lambda }}\right)^{\frac{1+k}{2+k+h}}.$$

Hence, a system of $`N`$ black holes of mass $`m/N`$ in equilibrium will have size $`RNx_m`$ and entropy

$$S2\pi \left(1+\frac{2+k+h}{k}\right)^{\frac{1}{2+k+h}}R^{\frac{1}{1+k}}.$$

It follows that also in this case one can introduce a bound $`S_{matt}<2\pi \alpha R^{\frac{1}{1+k}}`$, for a given constant $`\alpha `$. The results of this letter seem to support the view that while the Bekenstein bound is inherent to the definition of black hole thermodynamics in any metric theory of gravity, the existence of a holographic bound depends also on the dynamics of the specific model of gravity. This is not in contrast with the holographic principle , since it is reasonable to assume that the boundary dynamics depends on the theory that governs the bulk.

References

 J. Bekenstein, Phys. Rev. D23, 287 (1981).  R. Bousso, JHEP 0104, 035 (2001).  G. ’t Hooft, hep-th/9310026; L. Susskind, J. Math. Phys. 36, 6377 (1995).  M. Cadoni, P. Carta and S. Mignemi, Nucl. Phys. B632, 383 (2002).  For a recent review, see D. Grumiller, W. Kummer and D.V. Vassilevich, Phys. Rep. 369, 327 (2002).  J.P.L. Lemos and P.M. Sá, Phys. Rev. D49, 2997 (1994); M. Cadoni and S. Mignemi, Nucl. Phys. B427, 669 (1994).  S. Mignemi, Phys. Rev. D50, 4733 (1994); Ann. Phys. 245 23 (1996).  C. Teitelboim, in Quantum Theory of gravity, S.M. Christensen, ed. (Adam Hilger, Bristol, 1984); R. Jackiw, ibidem.  V.P. Frolov, Phys. Rev. D46, 5383 (1992).  R.B. Mann and T.G. Steele, Class. Quantum Grav. 9, 475 (1992); P.T. Landsberg and R.B. Mann, Class. Quantum Grav. 10, 2373 (1993).  W.G. Unruh and R.M. Wald, Phys. Rev. D25, 942 (1982).


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# Suppressing Weak Ising Couplings: Tailored Gates for Quantum Computation

## Abstract

I describe the use of techniques based on composite rotations to develop controlled phase gates in which the effects of weak Ising couplings are suppressed. A tailored composite phase gate is described which both suppresses weak couplings and is relatively insensitive to systematic errors in the size of strong couplings.

Quantum computers  are extremely vulnerable to the effects of errors, and there has been considerable interest in correcting random errors arising from decoherence processes  and, more recently, in stabilising logic gates against systematic errors, which arise from reproducible imperfections in the system used to implement quantum computations. In the context of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) quantum computation  systematic errors can be reduced using composite rotations (composite pulses) , which have been applied to both single qubit gates  and the two qubit controlled phase-shift gate .

Here I consider a related but distinct problem: the design of composite phase gates which automatically suppress evolution under small Ising couplings. This is useful, as many proposed implementations involve extended networks of Ising couplings. Typically in such systems the nearest neighbour interactions are large, and form the basis of two qubit gates, while next-nearest neighbour interactions are much weaker. Frequently such interactions are too weak to be useful, but too strong to simply be ignored: it is, therefore, useful to develop sequences which are capable of distinguishing between small and large couplings, effectively suppressing small couplings. Ideally such sequences should also be robust to small errors in the size of the large couplings.

As described previously  it is straightforward to convert a robust single qubit gate into a robust controlled phase-shift gate; as single qubit gates are much easier to study it makes sense to adopt this approach. A composite rotation comprises a series of rotations applied in sequence, such that the overall effect in the absence of errors is the desired rotation, while in the presence of systematic errors the effect of these errors largely cancels out. With some approaches to designing composite rotations it can be difficult to ensure that both requirements are simultaneously true, but this problem can be side-stepped using a method due to Wimperis , in which the composite rotation is constructed by combining a simple rotation with a complex series of additional rotations, which in the absence of errors does nothing. This approach guarantees that the composite rotation will behave correctly in the absence of errors, while allowing error tolerance to be developed by tweaking the do-nothing sequence. Note that although these composite rotations are developed in the context of NMR they are applicable to other implementations of quantum computation based on Ising couplings .

Single qubit gates are transformations in SU(2), and so can be conveniently represented by quaternions . The composite quaternion for a composite rotation can be obtained by multiplying the quaternions for the individual rotations, and then expanding the result as a Maclaurin series in the fractional error. As an example consider the BB1 sequence  for reducing the effects of errors in rotation rates (traditionally called pulse length errors in NMR): the simple pulse $`\theta _x`$ is replaced by the composite pulse sequence

$$(\theta /2)_x180_{\varphi _1}360_{\varphi _2}180_{\varphi _1}(\theta /2)_x$$
(1)
where the phase angles $`\varphi _1`$ and $`\varphi _2`$ are chosen to make the rotation error tolerant. If the rotation errors are parameterised using the fractional error in the rotation rate, $`g`$, then the simple rotation shows first order errors in $`g`$, but these can be removed by choosing $`\varphi _2=3\varphi _1`$ and

$$\varphi _1=\pm \mathrm{arccos}\left(\frac{\theta }{4\pi }\right).$$
(2)
Remarkably this approach also removes the errors which are second order in $`g`$.

The BB1 approach can easily be adapted to tackle the new problem: developing a composite rotation which has only minimal effect when the rotation rate is very small. (When converted to its two qubit equivalent, this will create a controlled phase-shift gate which effectively suppresses evolution under small Ising couplings). This can be achieved by comparing the composite quaternion with the null quaternion

$$𝗊_\mathrm{𝟢}=\{1,\{0,0,0\}\}$$
(3)
and then replacing the Maclaurin series expansion with a Taylor series expansion around the point $`g=1`$. As observed previously , the $`z`$-component of the composite quaternion is automatically correct, while the first order $`y`$-component can be removed by choosing $`\varphi _2=\varphi _1`$. Finally $`\varphi _1`$ must be chosen to zero the first order $`x`$-component, and is once again given by Eq. 2.

The results of this composite rotation (which will be called NB1 for reasons that will become clear later) for the case $`\theta =90^{}`$ are shown in Fig. 1. This shows the fidelity $`F`$ of simple and composite rotations as a function of the fractional error in the rotation rate $`g`$. Note that for single qubit gates the propagator and quaternion fidelities are the same . An ideal composite rotation would show broad plateaus of height $`1`$ at $`g=1`$ in plot (a), indicating effective suppression of small couplings, and at $`g=0`$ in plot (b), indicating robust evolution under large couplings. Clearly the NB1 composite rotation is effective at suppressing evolution around $`g=1`$, but it achieves this at the expense of reducing the robustness of the sequence in the low-error region, around $`g=0`$. This is not particularly surprising, and becomes even less so on the discovery that this composite rotation is in fact essentially identical to the first narrowband excitation family (NB1) described by Wimperis . (The only difference is that the new version has been time symmetrised, by placing the correction pulses half way through the main pulse, rather than at the start).

As two interesting composite rotations (BB1 and NB1) are in fact rediscoveries of results by Wimperis, it seems sensible to examine his other results to see what else might be found. He describes  two other families of broadband and narrow band pulses, BB2 and NB2, but these are not suitable for quantum computing. He also describes two families of “passband” composite rotations, PB1 and PB2, and remarkably PB1 is exactly the sequence we are seeking (PB2 is not suitable for quantum computing). The time symmetrised version takes the form

$$(\theta /2)_x360_{\varphi _1}720_{\varphi _2}360_{\varphi _1}(\theta /2)_x$$
(4)
with $`\varphi _2=\varphi _1`$ and

$$\varphi _1=\pm \mathrm{arccos}\left(\frac{\theta }{8\pi }\right).$$
(5)
The performance of the PB1 sequence is shown in Fig. 2. This sequence is in some sense a compromise between NB1 and BB1: it performs worse than NB1 near $`g=0`$ and worse than BB1 near $`g=1`$, but outperforms a simple pulse in both domains, exactly as desired.

Finally I return to the problem of converting a single qubit PB1 composite rotation into the desired two qubit controlled phase-shift gate, which both suppresses small couplings and is robust to small errors in coupling strengths. The controlled phase-shift gate is equivalent to the Ising coupling gate , and a robust Ising gate can be built as described previously . After combining and cancelling extraneous pulses, the final sequence for the case $`\theta =\pi /2`$ (which forms the basis of the controlled-not gate) is shown in Fig. 3. For two qubit gates the natural definition of the fidelity is given by the propagator fidelity , but for two qubit gates of this kind, which are essentially equivalent to single qubit gates, the propagator fidelity is once again equivalent to the quaternion fidelity .

Following previous work , I assume that an infidelity ($`1F`$) of $`10^6`$ can be tolerated in a quantum logic gate. A useful measure of the practicality of an Ising coupling gate is then provided by the maximum fractional error $`ϵ`$ in the coupling constant $`J`$ before this tolerance is exceeded . Another useful measure, indicating the ability of the gate to suppress small couplings, is the largest fractional coupling $`\delta `$ which cannot simply be neglected. On these measures the simple Ising gate does not perform well: it requires that $`J`$ be controlled to better than 0.2% ($`ϵ<0.0018`$) and the limit on small couplings is the same ($`\delta <0.0018`$). The BB1 gate corrects well for small errors in $`J`$, permitting errors of up to 10% ($`ϵ<0.1015`$), but is even more sensitive to small couplings, requiring $`\delta <0.0009`$. As might be guessed from the symmetry of the two plots in Fig. 2 the performance of NB1 is exactly the opposite, allowing small couplings to be effectively suppressed ($`\delta <0.1015`$), but at the cost of increased sensitivity to errors ($`ϵ<0.0009`$). Finally the PB1 sequence is a compromise between NB1 and BB1, with $`\delta <0.0648`$ and $`ϵ<0.0648`$.

For most purposes the PB1 sequence provides the most practical Ising gate currently known: at an infidelity of $`10^6`$ it can tolerate errors of more than 6% in coupling constants, but it also permits small couplings, with strengths up to 6% of the coupling being used to implement a gate, to be neglected. If even higher fidelities are required then these bounds will of course be reduced, but the relative improvement provided by the PB1 sequence will be even greater.

I thank S. Benjamin for helpful conversations and the UK EPSRC for financial support.


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# Quantum phase transition in easy-axis antiferromagnetic integer-spin chains.

## Abstract

Antiferromagnetic Heisenberg integer-spin chains are characterized by a spin-liquid ground state with no long-range order, due to the relevance of quantum fluctuations. Spin anisotropy, however, freezes quantum fluctuations, and the system is magnetized in the presence of a sufficiently large easy-axis anisotropy. We numerically investigate the case $`S=1`$, by means of the density-matrix renormalization group, and find that the freezing of the spin liquid into a Néel spin solid, with increasing easy-axis anisotropy, is a continuous quantum phase transition. Numerical evidence indicates that the transition is not in the two-dimensional Ising universality class.

Quantum fluctuations play a crucial role in antiferromagnetic (AFM) Heisenberg spin chains, as they are strong enough to suppress magnetic long-range order at zero temperature. Despite the common absence of a spontaneous staggered magnetization in the ground state, the physical properties are, however, different for integer and half-integer spin $`S`$ hal . Indeed, half-integer-spin chains are characterized by a gapless excitation spectrum, power-law spin-spin correlations, and a divergent linear response to a staggered magnetic field, and are therefore usually considered as nearly ordered. The spectrum of integer-spin chains is instead gapped in the thermodynamic limit, with a finite linear response to staggered magnetic fields. The ground state is a spin liquid with finite spin-spin correlation length, and the gap to the first excited state is usually called Haldane gap.

In this paper we present a numerical investigation of integer-spin (namely $`S=1`$) chains, for which the presence of different energy scales makes a unified theoretical approach problematic varietheo . This difficulty is mirrored by a richer variety of physical regimes with respect to half-integer-spin chains. Physical effects which freeze quantum fluctuations are expected to destroy the spin-liquid phase, possibly leading to a magnetization. In a previous paper noi  two of us focused on the freezing of the spin liquid induced by a staggered magnetic field, and found that the nature of the spin-liquid ground state entails a peculiar non-monotonic dependence of the staggered magnetization on the system size in the region of small fields (i.e., whose characteristic energy scale is smaller than the Haldane gap), and that the full freezing of quantum fluctuations into a polarized Néel “crystal” is only achieved at fields larger than the exchange coupling constant, with a large crossover region at intermediate fields.

Here, as another effect suppressing quantum fluctuations, we consider an anisotropy in the AFM coupling. Since the Haldane gap is small with respect to the exchange coupling, a small (but finite) anisotropy is expected to freeze the spin liquid. Thus a zero-temperature phase transition to an ordered phase should take place upon increasing the anisotropy. We will focus on easy-axis anisotropy: When the anisotropy is large, the system approaches the Ising limit, magnetized along the easy axis. Since the two limiting fixed points, which correspond to the disordered and fully ordered phases, are characterized by different dynamical exponents $`z`$, the issue arises of determining the evolution from the $`z=1`$ (relativistically invariant) description of the spin liquid within the non-linear $`\sigma `$ model in the isotropic case, toward the $`z=0`$ Ising limit.

We base our analysis on the infinite-size density-matrix renormalization-group (DMRG) approach white , which allows for a very accurate description of the ground-state properties of one-dimensional systems. We provide a complete description of the freezing of the spin-liquid with increasing anisotropy, measuring both non-universal features, such as the spontaneous staggered magnetization and the location of the transition point, and universal properties, such as the values of the critical exponents and hence the universality class of the transition. The analysis of an easy-plane anisotropy, which excludes the appearance of an order parameter, leaving the way open to a Kosterliz-Thouless phase transition, is technically and numerically more involved, and is currently under investigation noifuture .

Our starting Hamiltonian is a simple modification of the Heisenberg (exchange) Hamiltonian to describe a system with easy-axis anisotropy,

$``$ $`=`$ $`J{\displaystyle \underset{r=1}{\overset{L1}{}}}\left[S_r^zS_{r+1}^z+p\left(S_r^xS_{r+1}^x+S_r^yS_{r+1}^y\right)\right]`$ (1)
$``$ $`H{\displaystyle \underset{r=1}{\overset{L}{}}}(1)^rS_r^z,`$
where $`𝐒_r=(S_r^x,S_r^y,S_r^z)`$ is the spin operator on site $`r`$, $`S`$ is integer, and $`L`$ is the number of sites in the chain. $`J>0`$ is the AFM Heisenberg coupling, $`0p1`$ is the easy-axis anisotropy parameter notanis , and $`H`$ is the amplitude of the staggered magnetic field along the $`z`$ (easy) axis, which is coupled with the staggered magnetization. As it is customary and convenient in DMRG calculations, we assume open boundary conditions. The two limiting cases $`p=1`$ and $`p=0`$ correspond to the Haldane spin liquid and Ising antiferromagnet respectively. It is worth noting that the model (1) is invariant for $`pp`$, so that our results equally apply to a system with a ferromagnetic coupling on the $`xy`$ plane.

As discussed in noi , we find it more convenient to perform a transformation on the Hamiltonian (1) which allows us to make use of the standard implementation of DMRG white . After a local rotation of the reference frame, $`\stackrel{~}{S}_r^z=(1)^rS_r^z`$, $`\stackrel{~}{S}_r^x=(1)^rS_r^x`$, $`\stackrel{~}{S}_r^y=S_r^y`$, the Hamiltonian (1) is re-cast in the “ferromagnetic” form

$`\stackrel{~}{}`$ $`=`$ $`J{\displaystyle \underset{r=1}{\overset{L1}{}}}\left[\stackrel{~}{S}_r^z\stackrel{~}{S}_{r+1}^z+{\displaystyle \frac{p}{2}}\left(\stackrel{~}{S}_r^+\stackrel{~}{S}_{r+1}^++\stackrel{~}{S}_r^{}\stackrel{~}{S}_{r+1}^{}\right)\right]`$ (2)
$``$ $`H{\displaystyle \underset{r=1}{\overset{L}{}}}\stackrel{~}{S}_r^z,`$
where $`\stackrel{~}{S}_r^\pm =\stackrel{~}{S}_r^x\pm \mathrm{i}\stackrel{~}{S}_r^y`$ are the rising and lowering operators, and the external field $`H`$ is now coupled to the uniform magnetization $`\stackrel{~}{S}^z=_r\stackrel{~}{S}_r^z`$. The easy-axis anisotropy corresponds to $`|p|<1`$, whereas the case $`|p|>1`$ corresponds to an easy-plane anisotropy. In the following we refer to the properties of the transformed model described by the Hamiltonian (2), and in particular to the uniform magnetization along the easy axis, $`\stackrel{~}{S}^z`$. The correspondence with the original AFM model (1) is straightforward.

Differently from the case discussed in Ref. noi , where the magnetization was forced by the external field, a spontaneous magnetization $`m_0`$ is expected to appear now, as quantum fluctuations are frozen with increasing easy-axis anisotropy. Indeed, the limiting results, $`m_0=1`$ for $`p=0`$ (Ising limit), and $`m_0=0`$ for $`p=1`$ (isotropic limit), suggest that $`m_0`$ should decrease with increasing $`p`$. However, contrary to the case of half-integer spin, where the system is critical at $`p=1`$, and is therefore spontaneously magnetized for arbitrarily small anisotropy, here we expect that the system persists in the magnetized phase only up to a critical value $`p=p_c<1`$, and the spin-liquid phase extends over a finite region $`p_cp1`$. Since, as we discuss below, the transition is continuous (of the second order), the issue arises whether the proper dimension of the effective model at the phase transition equals or not the effective dimension of the relativistically invariant spin-liquid phase ($`d_{eff}d+z=2`$, where $`d=1`$ is the spatial dimension and $`z=1`$ is the dynamical exponent). It is worth noting that the two phases (magnetized and spin liquid) are both characterized by a gapped excitation spectrum, although of different origin. The gap in the easy-axis phase is related to the discrete symmetry, whereas the Haldane gap in the spin-liquid phase is of a more subtle nature.

To characterize the ordered phase and the transition, we compute the magnetization $`M(J,p,H;L,N_k)=[\stackrel{~}{S}^z]^𝒯`$, where $``$ denotes the expectation value over the DMRG approximate ground-state wave function, for the system of linear size $`L`$, with $`N_k`$ states retained in the density-matrix truncation procedure, and the superscript $`𝒯`$ indicates the truncated operators defined in the approximate basis. We consider the magnetization per site in units of $`S`$, $`m=M/(SL)`$ (we always take $`S=1`$), such that $`0m1`$ for $`H>0`$. $`m`$ depends on $`J`$ and $`H`$ only through $`hH/J`$. Starting from $`m(p,h;L,N_k)`$, we perform three subsequent extrapolations juo  to extract the spontaneous magnetization and the linear susceptibility:

(i) We extrapolate the finite-size results to the thermodynamic limit $`L\mathrm{}`$ for any given number of states $`N_k`$ and field $`h`$ by fitting the large-$`L`$ behavior of the magnetization as $`m(p,h;L,N_k)=m(p,h;N_k)+𝒜/L`$, where the long-living corrections are $`O(1/L)`$ due to the open boundary conditions. According to our previous results noi , the linear fit in $`1/L`$ at small field is accurate only if the size $`L`$ of the chain is larger than roughly twice the characteristic length scale $`\xi `$ of the spin-liquid state ($`\xi =6.03`$ in units of the lattice spacing, for $`S=1`$ esseuno ).

(ii) Once $`m(p,h;N_k)`$ is obtained, we carefully check the convergence with respect to the Hilbert space, by taking the extrapolation to the limit $`N_k\mathrm{}`$ in the region where $`m`$ displays a clear asymptotic dependence on $`1/N_k`$ juo , $`m(p,h;N_k)=m(p,h)+/N_k`$. Up to $`N_k=100`$ states were needed for the smallest field $`h=0.0001`$, to obtain the asymptotic behavior. We emphasize that this procedure represents a direct measure of the convergence to the limit of infinite Hilbert space of the expectation values of the different observables, and is not equivalent to fix a small truncation error for the density matrix.

(iii) We finally obtain the spontaneous magnetization $`m_0`$ and the linear susceptibility $`\chi (p)`$ by means of the extrapolation for small magnetic fields $`m(p,h)=m_0(p)+\chi (p)h`$.

All the above extrapolations are carefully checked for convergence, e.g., with respect to various extrapolation schemes, and the least-square linear fits used thereby are chi-square tested. The numerical values that we report below are affected by an error on the last digit. The error bars for the data points reported in the various figures are always smaller than the symbol size.

The change in the ground-state properties with decreasing $`p`$ is already witnessed by the behavior of $`m(p,h;L,N_k)`$ at fixed $`N_k`$ and $`h`$ as a function of the system size $`L`$ (not shown). Due to the presence of a finite characteristic length, a non-monotonic behavior characterizes the spin-liquid phase at $`p=1`$, with a bump for $`L\xi `$ noi . Reducing $`p`$ gradually leads to a monotonic behavior as a function of $`L`$, with much larger bulk ($`L\mathrm{}`$) magnetization. The study of the spontaneous magnetization, reported below, confirms that the change of behavior is associated with the change in the ground state from spin liquid to spontaneously magnetized.

The magnetization $`m(p,h)`$ increases with decreasing $`p`$ at each fixed value of $`h`$, and naturally increases with the magnetic field $`h`$ at each $`p`$. The dependence on $`h`$ is weak at $`p1`$ and vanishes as $`p0`$. The critical behavior is evident in Fig. 1, where we report $`m_0(p)`$ as a function of $`p`$, obtained through a zero-field extrapolation notahmin . Except for a narrow region around the critical point notamoltovicino , the data are well described by $`m_0=a\left(p_cp\right)^\beta `$, for $`p<p_c`$, and $`m_0=0`$ for $`p>p_c`$, with $`a=1.09`$, $`\beta =0.139`$, and $`p_c=0.845`$, as obtained by numerically minimizing, with respect to $`p_c`$, the least-square fit of $`\mathrm{log}m_0`$, which yields an “optimum” value of $`a`$ and $`\beta `$ for any given $`p_c`$. The inset of Fig. 1 shows that 11 extrapolated points fall on the fitting curve.

We can also extrapolate the linear susceptibility $`\chi (p)`$ for $`h0`$ (see Fig. 2), finding the power-law behavior $`\chi ^1=b(p_cp)^\gamma `$ for $`p<p_c`$, and $`\chi ^1=b^{}(pp_c)^\gamma ^{}`$ for $`p>p_c`$, once again except in a small region close to the critical point. Using for $`p_c`$ the value obtained from the spontaneous magnetization, $`p_c=0.845`$, and performing a least-square fit of $`\mathrm{log}\chi ^1`$, we find $`b=41.1`$, $`\gamma =1.71`$, $`b^{}=1.30`$, and $`\gamma ^{}=1.70`$. The numerical agreement of the two indices $`\gamma `$ and $`\gamma ^{}`$ within numerical accuracy is a check of the reliability of our results. When studied over the entire parameter range, as a function of $`p`$, $`\chi (p)`$ obviously vanishes in the Ising limit ($`p0`$), where the magnetization saturates ($`m_01`$), and has a finite value in the Haldane spin-liquid phase at $`p=1`$, which increases with increasing $`S`$ ($`\chi =18.50`$, for $`S=1`$ esseuno ).

The exponent $`\delta `$ which characterizes the behavior of the magnetization as a function of the external field $`h`$ at criticality, $`m(h,p=p_c)=ch^{1/\delta }`$, can be calculated by means of the scaling law $`\delta =1+\gamma /\beta `$. Substituting the values of $`\gamma `$ and $`\beta `$ found above we obtain $`\delta =13.4`$. We can compare this value with a direct measure of $`\delta `$. Fig. 3 shows the data for $`m(p=p_c,h)`$, with $`p_c=0.845`$, as a function of $`h`$. The log-log plot shows a linear behavior over three decades with a least-square exponent $`\delta =13.0`$ in agreement with the one obtained from the scaling law within numerical accuracy, and $`c=0.938`$.

Finally, by calculating the spin-spin correlation function along the easy axis $`C_K(r)=\stackrel{~}{S}_{K+3+r}^z[\stackrel{~}{S}_{K+3+2r}^z]^𝒯`$ ($`r=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$) notacorr , we determine the exponents $`\nu ,\nu ^{}`$ which characterize the divergence of the correlation length $`\xi `$, given by $`\xi =g(p_cp)^\nu `$ for $`p<p_c`$, and $`\xi =g^{}(pp_c)^\nu ^{}`$ for $`p>p_c`$. The correlation length is obtained by fitting the long-distance behavior of the correlation function as $`C_K(r)=A\mathrm{e}^{r/\xi }+B`$, where $`B=C_K(r\mathrm{})`$. $`\xi `$ (see Fig. 4). By fitting the data for $`\mathrm{log}\xi `$ as a function of $`\mathrm{log}|pp_c|`$, assuming $`p_c=0.845`$ as determined from the fit of the spontaneous magnetization, we find $`\nu =0.86`$, $`g=0.45`$ (fitted with 11 points) and $`\nu ^{}=0.87`$, $`g^{}=1.04`$ (fitted with 12 points). It is worth noticing that the correlation length $`\xi `$ as a function of the anisotropy parameter $`p`$ is rapidly reduced to a quantity of the order of the lattice spacing as $`p`$ is reduced on the Ising (ordered) side, and reaches the finite value $`\xi 6`$ in the Haldane spin-liquid state, at $`p=1`$.

Using the scaling laws, we can determine the effective dimension at the phase transition $`d_{eff}=(2\beta +\gamma )/\nu =2.3`$. We have therefore numerical evidence that the fixed-point effective model is not relativistically invariant. In the flow from the spin-liquid to the fixed point, along with the various critical exponents, also the dynamical exponent $`z`$ is therefore corrected in a non-trivial way.

In summary, we have studied the role of easy-axis anisotropy in the $`S=1`$ AFM spin chain by means of DMRG. Our calculations show that the freezing of the quantum fluctuations due to increasing easy-axis anisotropy at small magnetic field is much alike the one obtained with increasing field noi . In particular the non-monotonic dependence of the magnetization $`m`$ on the size of the system $`L`$ observed for the isotropic chain is gradually transformed into a monotonic increase. The extrapolation to zero magnetic field reveals a quantum phase transition from a spin liquid to a spin solid at a finite value of the anisotropy parameter, $`p_c=0.845`$. The values of the exponents indicate that the phase transition falls within a different universality class than the $`d=2`$ Ising universality class (although quite close to it). Thus in the evolution from the spin liquid (where $`d_{eff}=2`$) to the Ising antiferromagnet (where $`d_{eff}=1`$), a fixed point is reached with a different effective dimensionality $`d_{eff}=2.3`$ (i.e., a dynamical exponent $`z=1.3`$). This result indicates that the lattice-renormalization effects and/or the less relevant coupling constants neglected in Ref. schulz , play a role, even if quantitatively small, so that the critical exponents are close to, but different from, those of the two-dimensional Ising model.

We acknowledge a stimulating conversation with A. Parola, and many fruitful discussions with C. Castellani. We also acknowledge financial support of INFM/G through PA-G0-4 and of MIUR Cofin 2001, prot. 2001023848.


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# Grand Unification of Quark and Lepton FCNCs

## Abstract

In the context of Supersymmetric Grand Unified theories with soft breaking terms arising at the Planck scale, it is generally possible to link flavor changing neutral current and CP violating processes occurring in the leptonic and hadronic sectors. We study the correlation between flavor changing squark and slepton mass insertions in models à la $`SU(5)`$. We show that the constraints coming from lepton flavor violation exhibit a strong impact on CP-violating $`B`$ decays.

preprint: OUTP-03-18Ppreprint: DFPD-03/TH-26preprint: ROMA-1356/03preprint: RM3-TH/03-11

The phenomenology of low-energy supersymmetric (SUSY) extensions of the Standard Model (SM) crucially depends on the mechanism responsible for breaking SUSY itself, namely on the structure of the SUSY soft breaking terms. It is possible to explore these terms by studying the production and detection of SUSY particles. In addition, one can shed light on these terms by analyzing the SUSY effects on rare flavor changing neutral current (FCNC) and CP violating processes. Obviously for this latter approach the flavor structure of the soft breaking terms is of utmost importance. Theoretically, we can distinguish two opposite situations. First, we can have SUSY breaking mechanisms which are completely insensitive to flavor (for instance, pure dilaton breaking in supergravities, gauge or anomaly mediated SUSY breaking). Alternatively, SUSY breaking can feel the flavor structure leading to soft breaking terms which are not flavor universal (this is what happens in supergravities which have also moduli breaking). In spite of the original flavor blindness of certain SUSY breaking mechanisms, we can still have large flavor non-universalities in the low-energy SUSY breaking sector. This occurs if the universal soft terms appear at some energy scale much larger than the electroweak scale in the presence of new flavor structures (for instance, in Grand Unified models or in the presence of new Yukawa couplings as in the seesaw model). In the running between these two scales, the soft breaking terms can ‘pick up’ non-universal contributions: soft scalar masses and scalar trilinear terms bear a ‘memory’ of the high energy flavor structures through their RG evolution. In conclusion, either that we start from SUSY breaking mechanisms which are not flavor blind or that we produce flavor non-universality through the RG scaling, we can envisage the general situation that soft SUSY breaking terms are flavor non-universal at the electroweak scale.

To analyze flavor violating constraints at the electroweak scale, the model independent Mass-Insertion (MI) approximation is advantageous kostelesky . In this method, the experimental limits lead to upper bounds on the parameters (or combinations of) $`\delta _{ij}^f\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^f/m_{\stackrel{~}{f}}^2`$; where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^f`$ is the flavor-violating off-diagonal entry appearing in the $`f=(u,d,l)`$ sfermion mass matrices and $`m_{\stackrel{~}{f}}^2`$ is the average sfermion mass. In addition, the mass-insertions are further sub-divided into LL/LR/RL/RR types, labelled by the chirality of the corresponding SM fermions. Detailed bounds on the individual $`\delta `$s have been derived by considering limits from various FCNC processes gabbiani . As long as one remains within the simple picture of the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM), where quarks and leptons are unrelated, the hadronic and leptonic FCNC processes yield bounds on corresponding $`\delta ^q`$’s and $`\delta ^l`$’s which are unrelated. The situation changes when one embeds the MSSM within a Grand Unified Theory (GUT).

In this letter, we study the correlation between the $`\delta ^q`$’s and $`\delta ^l`$’s in SUSY GUTs and show that lepton flavor violating processes (as $`\mu e\gamma `$ or $`\tau \mu \gamma `$) can severely constrain the observability of SUSY contributions to hadronic FCNC processes and vice-versa.

In a SUSY GUT, quarks and leptons sit in the same multiplet. As long as the scale associated with the transmission of SUSY breaking to the visible sector is larger than the GUT breaking scale, the quark-lepton unification seeps also into the SUSY breaking soft sector leading to squark-slepton mass squared unification. The exact relations between the mass matrices depend on the choice of the GUT gauge group. As a consequence, the flavor off-diagonal entries $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^f`$ in these mass matrices are also unified at the GUT scale. For instance, in $`SU(5)`$ $`(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^d)_{RR}`$ and $`(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^l)_{LL}`$ are equal; in $`SO(10)`$ all $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}`$ are equal at $`M_{GUT}`$ implying strong correlations within FCNCs at that scale. What is going to happen of such strong correlations when we reach the electroweak scale? In a simple situation of “Big Desert”, i.e., no new particles or interactions between $`M_{GUT}`$ and $`M_W`$, these relations are left essentially unaffected by the RGE effects and thus the relations between $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}`$ can be cast in terms of $`\delta _{ij}`$ at the weak scale. The situation changes if some new particles with intermediate masses interact differently with quarks and leptons, for instance right-handed neutrinos in a see-saw mechanism. In this particular case, the leptonic $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}`$ receive new RGE contributions fbam , breaking the exact hadron-lepton correlation at the electroweak scale. However, as we show below, it is still possible to extract useful information from these GUT correlations.

The connection between quark and lepton $`\delta `$ parameters can have significant implications on flavor phenomenology. Indeed, using these relations, a quark $`\delta `$ parameter can be probed in a leptonic process or vice versa. In this way, it is possible that constraints in one sector are converted to the other sector where previously only weaker or perhaps even no bounds existed. For example, we find that using the leptonic radiative decay process $`l_jl_i\gamma `$, it is possible to probe some squark $`\delta `$ parameters to a higher precision, unhindered by the hadronic uncertainties. On the other hand, some sleptonic $`\delta `$ parameters, which are unconstrained, can receive bounds from the quark sector.

To be specific, we concentrate on the SUSY $`SU(5)`$ framework and derive all the relations between squark and sleptonic mass insertions. We then study the impact of the limit from $`\tau \mu \gamma `$ on the $`bs`$ transition observables, such as $`A_{CP}(B\varphi K_s)`$.

The soft terms are assumed to be generated at some scale above $`M_{GUT}`$. Note that even assuming complete universality of the soft breaking terms at $`M_{Planck}`$, as in mSUGRA, the RG effects to $`M_{GUT}`$ will induce flavor off-diagonal entries at the GUT scale barbieri . Hence we assume generic flavor violating entries to be present in the sfermion matrices at the GUT scale. The part of the superpotential relevant for quarks and charged lepton masses can be written as

$$W_{SU(5)}=h_{ij}^uT_iT_jH+h_{ij}^dT_i\overline{F}_j\overline{H}+\mu H\overline{H},$$
(1)
where we have used the standard notation with $`T`$ transforming as $`10`$ and $`\overline{F}`$ as $`\overline{5}`$ under $`SU(5)`$. The corresponding $`SU(5)`$ invariant soft potential has now the form :

$`_{soft}=m_{T_{ij}}^2\stackrel{~}{T}_i^{}\stackrel{~}{T}_j+m_{\overline{F}}^2\stackrel{~}{\overline{F}}_i^{}\stackrel{~}{\overline{F}}_j+m_H^2+m_{\overline{H}}^2`$
$`+A_{ij}^uT_iT_jH+A_{ij}^dT_i\overline{F}_j\overline{H}+B\mu H\overline{H},`$ (2)
where the same symbols are used for the scalar components of the superfields. Rewriting the above in terms of the Standard Model representations we have

$`_{soft}=m_{Q_{ij}}^2\stackrel{~}{Q}_i^{}\stackrel{~}{Q}_j+m_{u_{ij}^c}^2\stackrel{~}{u^c}_i^{}\stackrel{~}{u^c}_j+m_{e_{ij}^c}^2\stackrel{~}{e^c}_i^{}\stackrel{~}{e^c}_j`$
$`+m_{d_{ij}^c}^2\stackrel{~}{d^c}_i^{}\stackrel{~}{d^c}_j+m_{L_{ij}}^2\stackrel{~}{L}_i^{}\stackrel{~}{L}_j+m_{H_1}^2H_1^{}H_1+m_{H_2}^2H_2^{}H_2`$
$`+A_{ij}^u\stackrel{~}{Q}_i\stackrel{~}{u^c}_jH_2+A_{ij}^d\stackrel{~}{Q}_i\stackrel{~}{d^c}_jH_1+A_{ij}^e\stackrel{~}{L}_i\stackrel{~}{e^c}_jH_1+\mathrm{}`$ (3)
where

$`m_Q^2=m_{\stackrel{~}{e^c}}^2=m_{\stackrel{~}{u^c}}^2=m_T^2`$ (4)
$`m_{\stackrel{~}{d^c}}^2=m_L^2=m_{\overline{F}}^2`$ (5)
$`A_{ij}^e=A_{ji}^d.`$ (6)
Eqs. (4, 5, 6) are matrices in flavor space. These equations lead to relations within the slepton and squark flavor violating off-diagonal entries $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}`$. These are:

$`(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^u)_{LL}=(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^u)_{RR}=(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^d)_{LL}=(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^l)_{RR}`$ (7)
$`(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^d)_{RR}=(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^l)_{LL}`$ (8)
$`(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^d)_{LR}=(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ji}^l)_{LR}=(\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^l)_{RL}^{}`$ (9)
The relations between $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{LL}`$’s and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{RR}`$’s descend from the fermionic representations under $`SU(5)`$, whilst the $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{LR}`$’s and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{RL}`$’s relations also depend on the Higgs responsible for fermion masses.

The relations are exact at $`M_{GUT}`$; however, after $`SU(5)`$ breaking, quarks and leptons suffer different renormalization effects and thus, they are altered at $`M_W`$. It is easy to see from the RG equations that off-diagonal elements in the squark mass matrices in eqs. (7 \- 8) are approximately not renormalized due to the smallness of CKM mixing angles and that the sleptonic entries in them are left unchanged (in the absence of right-handed neutrinos). On the other hand, eq. (9) receives corrections due to the different nature of the RG scaling of the $`LR`$ term (A-parameter). This correction can be roughly approximated as proportional to the corresponding fermion masses. Taking this into consideration, we can now rewrite the eqs. (79) at the weak scale as :

$`(\delta _{ij}^d)_{RR}`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{m_L^2}{m_{d^c}^2}}(\delta _{ij}^l)_{LL},`$ (10)
$`(\delta _{ij}^{u,d})_{LL}`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{m_{e^c}^2}{m_Q^2}}(\delta _{ij}^l)_{RR},`$ (11)
$`(\delta _{ij}^u)_{RR}`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{m_{e^c}^2}{m_{u^c}^2}}(\delta _{ij}^l)_{RR},`$ (12)
$`(\delta _{ij}^d)_{LR}`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{m_{L_{avg}}^2}{m_{Q_{avg}}^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{m_b}{m_\tau }}(\delta _{ij}^l)_{RL}^{},`$ (13)
where $`m_{L_{avg}}^2`$ ($`m_{Q_{avg}}^2`$ ) are given by the geometric average of left- and right-handed slepton (down-squark) masses $`\sqrt{m_L^2m_{e^c}^2}`$ $`\left(\sqrt{m_Q^2m_{d^c}^2}\right)`$, all of them defined at the weak scale.

To account for non-zero neutrino masses, the seesaw mechanism can be implemented within this model by adding singlet right-handed neutrinos. In their presence, additional couplings occur in eqs. (1 \- 9) at the high scale, corresponding to the Dirac and Majorana masses which affect the RG evolution of slepton matrices. To understand the effect of these new couplings, one can envisage two scenarios so10 : (a) small couplings and/or small mixing in the neutrino Dirac Yukawa matrix, (b) large couplings and large mixing in the neutrino sector. In case (a), the effect on slepton mass matrices due neutrino Dirac Yukawa couplings is very small and the above relations eqs. (10) - (13) still hold. In case (b), however, large RG effects can significantly modify the slepton doublet flavor structure fbam  while keeping the squark sector and right handed charged slepton matrices essentially unmodified, thus breaking the GUT symmetric relations. Even in this case, barring accidental cancellations among the mass insertions already present at $`M_{GUT}`$ and the radiatively generated mass insertions between $`M_{GUT}`$ and $`M_{\nu _R}`$, there exists an upper bound on the down quark $`\delta `$ parameters of the form:

$$|(\delta _{ij}^d)_{RR}|\frac{m_L^2}{m_{d^c}^2}|(\delta _{ij}^l)_{LL}|$$
(14)
while Eqs. (1113) remain still valid in this case.

The relations (11 \- 14) predict links between lepton and quark flavor changing transitions at the weak scale. We summarize these links in Table 1. For example, we see that $`\mu e\gamma `$ can be related to $`K^0\overline{K}^0`$ mixing and to $`D^0\overline{D}^0`$ mixing. Similarly, one can expect correlations between $`\tau e\gamma `$ and $`B_d\overline{B}_d`$ mixing as well as between $`\tau \mu \gamma `$ and $`bs`$ transitions such as $`B\varphi K_s`$.

To demonstrate the impact of these relations, let us assume that all the flavor diagonal sfermion masses are approximately universal at the GUT scale with $`m_T^2=m_{\stackrel{~}{F}}^2=m_H^2=m_{\stackrel{~}{H}}^2=m_0^2`$ with flavor off-diagonal entries

$$m_{\stackrel{~}{f}}^2=m_0^2\text{1l}+\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^f,\mathrm{with}|\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^f|m_0^2.$$
(15)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^f`$ can be present either through the running from the Planck scale to the GUT scale barbieri  or through some flavor non-universality originally present stringrefs . All gaugino masses are unified to $`M_{1/2}`$ at $`M_{GUT}`$. As mentioned above, the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ parameters do not receive any significant corrections, whereas the diagonal entries are significantly modified (see for instance Tables I and IV in wien ). For a given set of initial conditions ($`M_{1/2}`$, $`m_0^2`$, $`A_0`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}`$, $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$) we obtain the full spectrum at $`M_W`$ with the requirement of radiative symmetry breaking. We then apply limits from direct searches on SUSY particles. Finally, we calculate the contributions of different $`\delta _{23}`$ parameters to both leptonic process and hadronic processes, considering the region in the $`(m_0,M_{1/2})`$ plane corresponding to a relatively light sparticle spectrum, with squark masses of roughly 350–550 GeV and slepton masses of about 150–400 GeV.

The $`bs`$ transitions have received recently much interest as it has been shown that the discrepancy with SM expectations in the measurements of $`A_{CP}(B\varphi K_s)`$ can be attributed to the presence of large neutrino mixing within $`SO(10)`$ models amhm . Subsequently, a detailed analysis has been presented silvest ; murayama  within the context of the MSSM. It has been shown that, for squark and gluino masses around $`350`$ GeV, the presence of a $`𝒪(1)`$ $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{LL,RR}`$ could lead to significant discrepancies from the SM expectations. Similar statements hold for a $`𝒪(10^2)`$ LR or RL MI. In the present work, we study the impact of LFV bounds on these $`\delta `$ parameters and subsequently the effect on B-physics observables. In Table 2, we present upper bounds on $`\delta _{23}^d`$ within the above mass ranges for three values of the limits on Br($`\tau \mu \gamma `$). There are no bounds on $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{LL}`$ because, as is well known hisano , large values of $`(\delta _{ij}^l)_{RR}`$ are still allowed due to the cancellations of bino and higgsino contributions in the decay amplitude.

At present, the constraints coming from $`B`$ physics are stronger than those obtained for the lepton sector in the cases of $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{LL,LR,RL}`$. Therefore no impact on $`B`$ phenomenology is expected even if the present bound on $`BR(\tau \mu \gamma )`$ were pushed down to $`1\times 10^7`$. On the contrary, the bound on $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{RR}`$ induced by $`BR(\tau \mu \gamma )`$ is already at present much stronger than the bounds from hadronic processes, reducing considerably the room left for SUSY effects in $`B`$ decays. To illustrate this point in detail, we repeat the analysis of ref. silvest  including the bounds coming from lepton processes. We therefore compute at the NLO branching ratios and CP asymmetries for $`BX_s\gamma `$ and $`B\varphi K_s`$, $`BR(BX_s\mathrm{}^+\mathrm{}^{})`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_s`$ (see ref. silvest  for details). In the first row of Fig. 1, we plot the probability density in the Re$`(\delta _{23}^d)_{RR}`$–Im$`(\delta _{23}^d)_{RR}`$ plane for different upper bounds on $`BR(\tau \mu \gamma )`$. Note that making use of eq. (10) with $`|(\delta _{23}^l)_{LL}|<1`$, implies $`|(\delta _{23}^d)_{RR}|<0.5`$ as the ratio $`(m_L^2/m_{d^c}^2)`$ varies roughly between $`(0.20.5)`$ at the weak scale, for the chosen high scale boundary conditions. The effect on $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{RR}`$ of the upper bound on $`BR(\tau \mu \gamma )`$ is dramatic already with the present experimental value. Correspondingly, as can be seen from the second row of Fig. 1, the possibility of large deviations from the SM in the coefficient $`S_{\varphi K}`$ of the sine term in the time-dependent $`A_{CP}(B\varphi K_s)`$ is excluded in the RR case. Hence, we conclude that in SUSY GUTs the most likely possibility to strongly depart from the SM expectations for $`S_{\varphi K}`$ relies on a sizeable contribution from $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{LL}`$ or $`(\delta _{23}^d)_{LR,RL}`$ as long as they are small enough to be within the severe limits imposed by $`BR(BX_s\gamma )`$ silvest .

Exploiting the Grand Unified structure of the theory, we can obtain similar bounds on other $`\delta _{ij}^d`$ parameters. For example, considering the first two generations, the bound on $`\delta _{12}^d`$ from $`BR(\mu e\gamma )`$ can in many cases compete with the bound from $`\mathrm{\Delta }m_K`$ gabbiani . Similar comparisons can be made for the $`\delta _{13}^d`$ from limits on $`BR(\tau e\gamma )`$ and $`B_d^0\overline{B}_d^0`$ mixing. A detailed analysis of $`\delta _{12}^d`$ and $`\delta _{13}^d`$ will be presented elsewhere ournext .

In summary, Supersymmetric Grand Unification predicts links between various leptonic and hadronic FCNC observables. Though such links have recently been observed in the literature within the context of the see-saw mechanism othercorrelations , to our knowledge, it is the first time that relations between hadronic and leptonic mass insertions have been presented in a general manner. Though such relations can be constructed for any GUT group, we have concentrated on $`SU(5)`$ and quantitatively studied the implications for transitions between the second and third generations. We have shown that the present limit on $`BR(\tau \mu \gamma )`$ is sufficient to significantly constrain the observability of supersymmetry in CP violating B-decays.

Acknowledgements: We acknowledge support from the RTN European project HPRN-CT-2000-0148. O.V. acknowledges partial support from the Spanish MCYT FPA2002-00612 and thanks J. March-Russell and G.G. Ross for helpful discussions.


text:
# Metamorphosis of the Quantum Hall Ferromagnet at 𝜈=2/5

## Abstract

We report on the dramatic evolution of the quantum Hall ferromagnet in the fractional quantum Hall regime at $`\nu =2/5`$ filling. A large enhancement in the characteristic timescale gives rise to a dynamical transition into a novel quantized Hall state. The observed Hall state is determined to be a zero-temperature phase distinct from the spin-polarized and spin-unpolarized $`\nu =2/5`$ fractional quantum Hall states. It is characterized by a strong temperature dependence and puzzling correlation between temperature and time.

In two-dimensional electron systems under strong transverse magnetic field, transitions to quantum Hall ferromagnets occur when two degenerate quantum Hall states coincide within some configurational spaceGirvinMacDonald ; Jungwirth98 ; Jungwirth01A . The correlation between the two degenerate quantum Hall phases can be treated theoretically - in analogy to isospin degeneracy in nuclear physics - through a pseudospin spinor representation of the relevant quantum numbersGirvinMacDonald . Easy-axis quantum Hall ferromagnets have been shown to emerge in systems in which two degenerate quantum Hall states that differ primarily in the spin part of the wave functionJungwirth98 ; Jungwirth01A . Near a crossing between two spin levels, competition between two degenerate quantum Hall states produces a correlated ground state termed a quantum Hall ferromagnet (QHF). Experimental studies in a number of systems have shown that Ising quantum Hall ferromagnets are characterized by metastability and hysteresisJungwirth98 ; Cho98 ; Kronmuller98 ; Kronmuller99 ; Piazza99 ; Eom00 ; DePoortere00 ; Smet01 .

Of the various examples of easy-axis QHFs, the $`\nu =2/5`$ fractional quantum Hall effect (FQHE) state in the crossover region between the spin-unpolarized and spin-polarized states demonstrates the transport signatures associated with the Ising quantum Hall ferromagnetism. Realized under the conditions of reduced $`g`$-factor arising from application of hydrostatic pressure in excess of 10 kbar, the transport in proximity of $`\nu =2/5`$ filling exhibits strong hysteresisCho98  and anomalous logarithmic time-dependenceEom00 . The path-dependent order parameter of an Ising QHF provides an elegant explanation for the hysteretic behaviorJungwirth98 ; Cho98 . Local frustration of the pseudospin domains gives rise to a glassy behavior and the associated logarithmic time-dependent transportEom00 . Competition between the local interaction energy of the ferromagnetic domains and the configurational entropy of the domains walls is thought to be responsible for the large enhancement in the characteristic timescale. An important unresolved question concerning the glassy dynamics of the QHF at $`\nu =2/5`$ involves the nature of its ground state in the $`t\mathrm{}`$ limit.

In this paper, we report on a novel phase transition of the QHF at $`\nu =2/5`$ in the crossover regime between the spin eigenstates of the $`\nu =2/5`$ FQHE. After an extensive duration of annealing, the time-dependent aging features previously attributed as the relaxation of QHF domains culminates with a quantized Hall state at $`\rho _{xy}=5h/2e^2`$. Due to large enhancement in the characteristic time associated with the QHF at $`\nu =2/5`$, we are able to capture the progressive evolution into a highly correlated quantum Hall phase. This phase differs from the spin-singlet and spin-polarized $`\nu =2/5`$ FQHE states in that (1) initially there is no quantum Hall state at $`\nu =2/5`$ under $``$13.5 kbar of pressure, (2) the quantized Hall state only appears after $``$2 days of annealing, (3) it exhibits hyper-sensitivity to changes in temperature with an increase of $`10`$mK sufficient to destabilize the quantum Hall state, and (4) it demonstrates an anomalous correlation of magnetoresistance as a function of temperature and time. Based on these findings, we conclude that the quantized Hall state obtained via annealing is a zero temperature correlated phase distinct from the spin-singlet and the spin-polarized FQHE states at $`\nu =2/5`$.

High-quality GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructure was placed under large hydrostatic pressure inside a miniature copper-beryllium pressure clamp. The detail of the pressure apparatus has been described elsewhereCho98 ; Eom00 . Application of large hydrostatic pressure reduces the magnitude of the Lande $`g`$-factor and the consequent reduction in the Zeeman energy, $`E_{Zeeman}=g\mu _BB_{total}`$, enhances the spin-reversals of electrons. In order to optimize the competition between the spin-polarized and spin-unpolarized $`\nu =2/5`$ FQHE states, the pressure was tuned to the crossover pressure of $``$13.5 kbar. The density of the sample under 13.5 kbar of pressure is $`n=1.2\times 10^{11}cm^2`$ with mobility of $`\mu =1.8\times 10^6cm^2/Vs`$. Typical annealing run lasted $``$2 days prior to subsequent magnetic field sweeps. The pressure inside the pressure-cell remained stable at low temperatures and no change could be detected even after several months of experiment. All 4 samples studied during the course of the experiment exhibited the reported effect.

Fig. 1a illustrates the representative hysteresis in magnetoresistance and Hall effect that appears at $`\nu =2/5`$ filling under 13.5 kbar of pressure. Although no quantum Hall state at $`\nu =2/5`$ is found, there is a prominent hysteresis as both magnetoresistance and Hall effect depend on the direction and sweep rate of the applied magnetic field. Fig. 1b compares the magnetoresistance and Hall effect of a specimen before and after approximately $``$2 days annealing at temperature of 30mK. Fig. 1c illustrates the time dependence of the magnetoresistivity at $`\nu =2/5`$ under temperature of 30mK and 11.6 tesla of magnetic field. The resistance initially increases until it reaches a maximum around $`1\times 10^4`$ seconds. Subsequent resistance decay is slow but persistent even after 2 days of annealing. Magnetic field sweeps performed after annealing reveal an unexpected quantum Hall state as evidenced from the pronounced minimum in the magnetoresistance and the quantized Hall plateau with $`\rho _{xy}=5h/2e^2`$. This shows that the preferential ground state after an extensive period annealing of the QHF at $`\nu =2/5`$ is a quantized Hall state.

Fig. 2a illustrates the time dependence of the magnetoresistance obtained through annealing at $`\nu =2/5`$. The time dependent magnetoresistance for different temperatures can be separated into two distinct behaviors before and after the resistance peak found near $`t_{}1\times 10^4`$ seconds. In the initial part of annealing during $`t<t_{}`$, magnetoresistance is weakly temperature dependent and increases slightly between 30 to 50mK. For $`t>t_{}`$, the $`R_{xx}`$ at $`\nu =2/5`$ exhibits a strong temperature dependence associated with the fromation of the quantized Hall state at $`\nu =2/5`$. A resistance decrease of $``$75% by the end of the annealing run at $`1.5\times 10^5`$ seconds is found at 30mK. Raising the temperature beyond 50mK removes the resistance downturn above $`t>t_{}`$ and produces the logarithmic time dependence reported earlierEom00 . Based on these findings, we attribute the logarithmic time dependence as a feature of high temperature annealing of the QHF at $`\nu =2/5`$.

Fig. 2b shows the quantitative relationship between time and temperature in the annealed quantum Hall state at $`\nu =2/5`$. The change in magnetoresistance, $`\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xx}`$, for $`t>10^4`$ seconds from Fig. 2a can be collapsed onto a universal curve of the form $`b(T)\mathrm{\Delta }R_{xx}(T_{}T)/t`$, where $`b(T)`$ is the temperature dependent prefactor that is equivalent to the size of $`R_{xx}`$ reduction. The characteristic temperature, $`T_{}`$, of $`50mK`$ provides a measure of the energy scale of the phase. This inverse correlation between time and temperature demonstrates a remarkable interplay of the dynamics and thermodynamics of the annealed, low temperature phase.

Fig. 2c provides a sequence of snapshots of the quantum Hall phase at $`\nu =2/5`$ with increasing annealing time. The quantum Hall state becomes stronger as longer annealing is applied. Emergence of the new Hall state is possible as long as the annealing is performed in proximity of $`\nu =2/5`$. From the onset of $`R_{xx}`$ minimum at $`\nu =2/5`$, we estimate the characteristic time of the transition to be $`1\times 10^5`$ seconds, enormously enhanced compared to the single electron relaxation time of $``$$`10^{12}`$ seconds. Fig. 2d shows the representative traces at different temperatures attained after $`1.5\times 10^5`$ seconds of annealing. The annealed Hall state at $`\nu =2/5`$ exhibits an uncharacteristically strong sensitivity to temperature compared to the neighboring FQHE states. Raising the temperature to $``$50mK is sufficient to displace the quantized Hall state at $`\nu =2/5`$. Interestingly, the temperature dependence of magnetoresistance is nearly a mirror-image of the time-dependence measurement of Fig. 2c with temperature acting similar to inverse time. This presumably reflects the scaling relation between temperature and time established in Fig. 2b.

The time dependence of $`R_{xx}`$ in Fig. 2a can be phenomenologically modeled in terms of two competing processes related to the motion of QHF domains, in analogy to the slow dynamics found in systems such as structural glassDebenedetti96  and spin glassFischer91 . Within the framework of the droplet scaling theory of spin glassesFisher88 , domain growth in glassy systems involves overcoming the barriers whose height grows with increasing lengthscale. The early, temperature-independent part of annealing may be explained in terms of coarsening of QHF domains. The initial rise of resistivity may be due to novel one-dimensional excitations responsible for the dissipation within the domains walls of QHFJungwirth01 . The latter stage of annealing appear to be dominated by the second, slower process that reduces dissipation and eventually leads to the quantized Hall phase. The $`R_{xx}`$ peak at $`t=t_{}`$ may involve formation of a critical state in which a QHF domain with some preferential pseudospin vector percolates throughout the sample. This would greatly accelerate the growth of the domains along with reduced dissipation as the total length of the domain wall is decreased. Appearance of the low temperature quantum Hall phase will continue until the domain size becomes comparable to the sample dimension.

An unusual feature of this phase involves its extreme sensitivity to temperature. While it may take a day or more of annealing to realize the quantum Hall state at $`\nu =2/5`$, it is remarkable that raising the temperature by $``$10 mK is sufficient to destabilize the Hall phase. Such an uncharacteristically strong effect of temperature can be understood if the annealed QHF is a zero temperature phase whose quantum mechanical coherence is readily destabilized by finite temperature. In terms of the QHF domains, thermal excitations produce local reversal of pseudospin magnetization and nucleate domains that destroy the underlying long range coherence achieved through annealing. This apparent ease of destabilization at low temperature points to smallness of its gap associated with its unique correlated origin.

In Fig. 3, we show the effect of in-plane magnetic field on the annealed phase at $`\nu =2/5`$ at a temperature of 40mK. With increasing tilt-angle, the annealed phase grows weaker as the $`R_{xx}`$ minimum for $`18^{}`$ is about factor of 2 larger than the minimum for $`0^{}`$. The weakening of the annealed quantum Hall phase at $`\nu =2/5`$ can be interpreted as reduction in its energy gap under a larger Zeeman energy, suggesting that the spin-polarization of the annealed phase may be a spin-singlet. However, such an interpretation is complicated by the fact that presence of an in-plane magnetic field creates an imbalance between the energies of the spin-polarized and spin-unpolarized states at $`\nu =2/5`$ and this may produce a different annealing path at finite tilt angles compared to $`0^{}`$. While the question regarding its spin polarization cannot be unambiguously answered, the tilted field study nonetheless shows that in-plane magnetic field tends to destabilize the annealed quantum Hall phase at $`\nu =2/5`$.

In the context of spin transitions within the composite fermion model of the FQHE, it has been proposed that a new type of charge and spin density wave states can arise at $`\nu =2/5`$ at intermediate values of Zeeman coupling. An admixture of two spin bands of composite fermion Landau levels at $`\nu =2/5`$ can give rise to a partially polarized density wave (PPDW) stateMurthy00 . Unlike the $`\nu =2/5`$ FQHE state which can be either polarized or unpolarized, a PPDW possesses a spin polarization at half the value of the maximal polarization. Since PPDW states are stabilized under the conditions - of zero temperature and vanishing Zeeman energy - realized in our experiment, a possible consequence of annealing may involve a phase transition to a PPDW state. In addition, the angular dependence shown in Fig. 3 is also consistent with presence of a PPDW. A larger Zeeman energy increases the spin-polarization of a PPDW from the half of maximum polarization, leading to its eventual destabilization at large tilt angles. However, as discussed earlier, the effect of in-plane field on the annealing process needs to be properly accounted.

In summary, we have observed a transition into a novel quantum Hall phase at $`\nu =2/5`$ in the limit of small $`g`$-factor and large time domain. Found at the level crossing between spin-polarized and spin-unpolarized $`\nu =2/5`$ FQHE state, previously reported metastable state associated with the quantum Hall ferromagnetism evolves into a zero temperature correlated phase. This phase is distinguished by large enhancement of the characteristic time, a bizarre correlation between temperature and time and its high sensitivity to thermal fluctuations. Within the coarsening picture of QHF domains, the observed quantum Hall state may represent a QHF state with long range spatial coherence. Alternatively it may be the postulated partially polarized density wave or some other type of quantum Hall state.

We would like to thank A.H. MacDonald, G.F. Mazenko, and G. Murthy for useful discussions. The work at the University of Chicago is supported by NSF DMR-9808595 and DMR-0203679.