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# UBRI Photometry of Globular Clusters in the Leo Group Galaxy NGC 3379

## 1 Introduction

In the last few years, it has become clear that globular cluster (GC) systems have complex colour distributions, indicating two or more subpopulations within a single elliptical galaxy (Ashman & Zepf 1992; Secker et al. 1995; Whitmore et al. 1995; Geisler et al. 1996; Forbes, Brodie & Huchra 1997; Bridges et al. 1997; Kissler-Patig & Gebhardt 1998; Kundu & Whitmore 2001; Larsen et al. 2001). The subpopulations have different metallicities and possibly ages, indicating multiple epochs or mechanisms of formation. As GCs are thought to trace the star formation and chemical enrichment episodes of their host galaxy (e.g. Forbes & Forte 2001), understanding how they formed will provide important constraints on the process of galaxy formation and evolution. The main scenarios for GC formation include:

$``$ The merger of two gas–rich (spiral) galaxies may lead to the formation of an elliptical galaxy and create an additional population of GCs in the process (Ashman & Zepf 1992). Since the GCs produced in the merger formed from enriched gas they should be of higher metallicity and thus redder than the indigenous (metal-poor) GC population. Thus we expect a metal-poor old population ($``$13 Gyrs) plus a metal-rich young population with an age similar to that of the merger itself.

$``$ A multi–phase collapse (Forbes, Brodie & Grillmair 1997) can also produce two distinct GC populations. Here the blue GCs formed in an early chaotic phase of galaxy formation from metal-poor gas and the red GCs later from enriched gas in the same phase that produces the bulk of the galaxy starlight. A multi–phase collapse also predicts an old metal-poor subpopulation and one a slightly younger ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ age $``$2–4 Gyr) metal-rich one.

$``$ Coté, Marzke & West (1998) describe the build-up of the GC systems of bright ellipticals via the accretion of mostly metal-poor GCs from dwarf galaxies. In this picture the metal-rich GCs are indigenous and the metal-poor ones are acquired. Here both the GC subpopulations will be about the same age (i.e. old) but with different metallicities.

$``$ Formation of GC systems in hierarchical merging is described in Beasley et al. (2002). In this prescription blue GCs form in pre-galactic clumps. These gaseous clumps merge generating a second generation of red GCs, along with galactic star formation. Late stage mergers of more stellar clumps may include accreted GCs. Thus the hierarchical picture contains elements of the other three. In a hierarchical Universe, the metal-poor GCs will be old with the metal-rich GCs having a mean age that depends on galaxy mass and environment.

Perhaps the best direct test of these competing GC formation models is to determine the mean age and metallicity of the GC subpopulations for a large number of galaxies. In principle, the best way to do this is from GC spectra. Indeed this is an active area of research using the world largest telescopes, and is returning exciting new results (e.g. Kissler-Patig et al. 1998; Forbes et al. 2001; Larsen et al. 2002; Beasley et al. 2003). However it is also very time consuming. Photometry is more efficient, but optical colours suffer from the well-known age-metallicity degeneracy. This situation can be improved by extending photometry to the near-infrared (e.g. Puzia et al. 2002) or ultra-violet. Photometry in the U (3600Å) band is very rare for GC systems beyond the Local Group (the $``$70 GCs in NGC 5128 with U-band photometry from Rejkuba 2001 is one exception). This is largely due to the poor blue response of most CCDs in use today and the low fraction of U-band light emitted by old stellar populations such as GCs.

Here we present UBRI photometry of GCs associated with the Leo Group galaxy NGC 3379, obtained with the blue sensitive CCDs of the Isaac Newton Telescope 2.5 m Wide Field Camera. By extending the traditional optical photometry to bluer U-band wavelengths, we can better probe the metallicity distribution of the GC system in NGC 3379. We also utilise some smaller field-of-view images taken with the Gemini North 8m telescope to aid in the selection of GC candidates.

NGC 3379 (M105) is a moderate luminosity E1 galaxy in the nearby (D = 11.5 Mpc, m–M = 30.30) Leo Group. In a photographic study of NGC 3379, Harris & van den Bergh (1981) estimated a total GC population of 290 $`\pm `$ 150. This translates into a low specific frequency SN of 1.1 $`\pm `$ 0.6 (assuming MV = –21.06). Ajhar et al. (1994) obtained VRI CCD images of NGC 3379 detecting some 60 GCs. However, they did not detect any obvious bimodality in the GC colour distribution. The first clear detection of bimodality came from the HST study by Larsen et al. (2001). They found peaks at (V–I)o = 0.96 and 1.17 for the blue and red subpopulations respectively. Throughout this paper we adopt $`H_o=75\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$.

## 2 Observations and data reduction

Broadband UBRI images covering the Leo galaxies NGC 3379, NGC 3384 and NGC 3389 were obtained using the 2.5 m Isaac Newton Telescope (INT) on 2000 February 6th and 8th. The Wide Field Camera (WFC) comprises 4 thinned EEV 4096x2048 CCDs, with pixels of 0.33$`^{^{\prime \prime }}`$ and provides a field-of-view of approximately 30 $`\times `$ 30 arcmin. Observing conditions were photometric over the two nights with seeing of 1.5$`^{^{\prime \prime }}`$ in U and I bands and 2.2$`^{^{\prime \prime }}`$ in B and R bands. The total exposure times were roughly 2000 s (U), 3000 s (B), 1500 s (R) and 1000 s (I). In addition to the galaxy observations, several standard star fields from Landolt (1992) were obtained over both nights which bracket the galaxy observations.

Basic data reduction was performed using IRAF and specially written software by A. Terlevich. This consisted of master bias subtraction, non-linear correction, flat-fielding using combined sky flats, alignment and co-addition of individual frames. The galaxy frames and standard stars were reduced in an identical manner. Raw magnitudes of between 10 and 30 stars were obtained for each filter using the IRAF task QPHOT, after determining the optimal aperture size. The zero point for each filter was determined by a simple linear fit to the stellar raw magnitudes versus stellar colour and a correction for airmass. The airmass extinction coefficients of KU = 0.46, KB = 0.22, KR = 0.08 and KI = 0.04 mag/airmass have been taken from the INT WFC web page. The final airmass corrected, one second zero points are ZU = 22.98 $`\pm `$ 0.01, ZB = 24.84 $`\pm `$ 0.02, ZR = 24.65 $`\pm `$ 0.02 and ZI = 23.96 $`\pm `$ 0.01. The BRI zero points compare well with those determined by Mills et al. (2003) from the same observing run and the zero points listed on the INT/WFC web page. An independent estimate of the U band zero point (ZU = 22.98 $`\pm `$ 0.05) was made by F. Reda (2002, priv. comm.) by comparing various aperture magnitudes for NGC 3379 to that listed in Hypercat (http://www-obs.univ-lyon1.fr/hypercat/). Finally, we adjusted these zero points for Galactic extinction using values from the NASA Extragalactic Database (http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu), i.e. AU = 0.132, AB = 0.105, AR = 0.065, AI = 0.047.

## 3 Galaxy Modelling

In order to better reveal the inner GCs, we subtracted a model of NGC 3379. Galaxy subtraction was performed using the STSDAS ISOPHOTE package (see Forbes & Thomson 1992). A galaxy model, with a varying centre, ellipticity and position angle, was fit in all four filters. Isophotes were modelled out to $``$350$`^{^{\prime \prime }}`$ (20 kpc). A 3 sigma-clip criterion over 5 iterations was used to remove deviant pixels (e.g. bright objects) from the fit. The model-subtracted images were visually inspected and iterated if necessary to provide a smooth transition from the background level to the model-subtracted region. The resulting residual images made it easier to identify the inner GCs.

## 4 Initial Object Finding and Selection

The four filter (i.e. UBRI) images of the Leo galaxy triplet were aligned to within a fraction of a pixel and trimmed using the IMALIGN task. We then used DAOFIND to select GC candidates in each filter independently. Selection criteria consisted of a S/N threshold of 6 and PSF FWHM adjusted to the seeing conditions in each filter. Additionally, roundness criteria ranging between values of -1.0 and 1.0, and a sharpness range of 0 to 1.0 provided good exclusion of extended objects. The resulting database of GC candidates consisted of over 3,000 objects for each filter. The PHOT task was used to measure the magnitude and error of each object in all four bands as found by DAOFIND. A simple script was written to perform the first stage of filtering and reduce the number of candidates to only those detected in all four bands. This spatial coordinate matching reduced the dataset to 1,200 objects with measured UBRI magnitudes. The same script determined galactocentric coordinates for each object based on the galaxy centre taken from the galaxy model (with the centre position constant within a fraction of a pixel). The reduced candidate list was then visually inspected to eliminate the small number of remaining galaxy-like extended objects or CCD artifacts.

## 5 Milky Way and M31 Globular Cluster Colours

To aid in the selection and interpretation of Leo group GCs, we use observations of Milky Way and M31 GCs (essentially the only two galaxies that have well-studied GC systems in the U-band). Data for the Milky Way GC system comes from the compilation of Harris (1996). From this list de-reddened U, B, and I-band photometry exists for 95 GCs. Data for the M31 GC system come from Barmby et al. (2000). De-reddened magnitudes for 148 GCs were supplied by Barmby (2003, priv. comm.). In Fig. 1 we show the (U–B)o vs (B–I)o colour distribution for the Milky Way and M31 GC systems. To our knowledge this is the first time the (U–B)o vs (B–I)o colour distribution for the GCs of these galaxies have been examined together.

The data define a relatively tight distribution in this plot covering a range of $``$1.5 mags in each colour, with the M31 GCs extending to slightly redder colours. In general, the distributions for the two galaxies are qualitatively similar. However we do note that the slope of the Milky Way distribution (U–B)o = 0.725$`\times `$(B–I)o–1.047 (rms = 0.088), is somewhat flatter than that for M31 (U–B)o = 1.202$`\times `$(B–I)o–1.850 (rms = 0.122). This may represent intrinsic differences in the GC systems of the two galaxies, but is more likely to be due to the uncertain reddening corrections that have been applied. Both galaxies reveal a dominant grouping of blue GCs, with a less well-defined tail to redder colours. We associate the former with the metal-poor GC subpopulation and the latter with the metal-rich GC subpopulation in these galaxies. The location of these subpopulations in colour space will be discussed in more detail below. Noting the general similarities of the two distributions, we have combined the Milky Way and M31 GC samples to define a mean GC colour-colour distribution. This is shown in Fig. 2. A least squares fit to the combined sample is also shown. The best fit line is of the form (U–B)o = 0.94 $`\times `$ (B–I)o \- 1.39, with an rms spread about the best fit of $``$ 0.12 mag. We use this colour-colour relation and spread to help us define the colours expected for GCs in NGC 3379.

## 6 Globular Clusters in the Central Region of NGC 3379

Images of the central regions of NGC 3379 have been taken with the GMOS instrument on the Gemini North Telescope in 2003 February. Three fields, each covering 5 arcminutes near the galaxy centre, were observed as shown in Fig. 3. These images, in Sloan filters g$`^{^{}}`$, r$`^{^{}}`$ and i$`^{^{}}`$, form the pre-acquisition imaging for an upcoming spectroscopic run. As they were obtained under excellent seeing conditions ($``$0.7$`^{^{\prime \prime }}`$) the expected contamination rates for candidate GCs based on the Gemini data will be significantly less than for the INT data (obtained under $``$2$`^{^{\prime \prime }}`$ seeing). Candidate GCs from the Gemini data have been selected on the basis of their size (i.e. compactness) and colour ($`0.5<g^{^{}}i^{^{}}<1.5`$ and $`0.3<g^{^{}}r^{^{}}<1.0`$) by Faifer & Forte (2003, priv. comm.).

By spatially matching the Gemini object list with the initial INT object list (described above), we identified 125 matches. In Fig. 4 we show a colour-magnitude diagram for these Gemini-selected objects, with magnitudes taken from our INT photometry. Next we restricted the object list in B magnitude. An upper limit of B = 19 was chosen to exclude bright stars and/or compact dwarf galaxies. This limit is 4$`\sigma `$ brighter than the expected GC turnover magnitude for NGC 3379, and corresponds to MB = –11.3. We also imposed a lower magnitude cutoff of B = 23, to avoid any colour bias in the sample. These selection criteria are also shown in Fig. 4.

The resulting subset in a (U–B)o vs (B–I)o colour-colour diagram is shown in Fig.5. This figure also shows the region of expected colours for GCs. The region ranges from 1.0 $`<`$ (B–I)o $`<`$ 2.4, and within 0.7 magnitudes in (U–B)o of the mean Milky Way plus M31 fit. The (B–I)o range was chosen to be similar to that of the Milky Way and M31, i.e. covering the full metallicity range expected of GCs but allowing for an additional 0.25 mag in AV reddening. The range in (U–B)o corresponds to the scatter seen in the combined Milky Way and M31 datasets of 0.12 mag, added in quadrature with our typical (U–B)o photometric error. Most of the data lie in the defined region, indicating that the contamination in the Gemini data is indeed low. The data show a group of blue GCs with values (U–B)o $``$ 0.1 and (B–I)o $``$ 1.65. A second, red subpopulation is difficult to clearly identify.

If we examine only the (B–I)o colours of the objects within the colour selected region, we then obtain the histogram shown in Fig. 6. Visually, and via a KMM statistical test (Ashman, Bird & Zepf 1994), the Gemini GC candidates are clearly bimodal. The peaks are located at (B–I)o = 1.65 and 1.90.

## 7 Large Area Study of the NGC 3379 Globular Cluster System

In order to extend our study beyond the central few arcminutes of NGC 3379 (i.e. that covered by the Gemini imaging), we now return to the INT imaging. We restrict candidate GCs to lie within 5.5$`^{^{}}`$ (18 kpc) in galactocentric radius, as beyond this radius we no longer witness a decline in the surface density of detected objects (see Fig. 7). Thus the majority of objects interior to this radius appear to be associated with NGC 3379. This radial selection also ensures there are very few, if any GCs associated with NGC 3384 (projected separation of 7.2$`^{^{}}`$) in our final object list.

We then applied the same B magnitude selection (i.e. 19 $`<`$ Bo $`<`$ 23) as above. The resulting GC candidates in (U–B)o vs (B–I)o colour space are shown in Fig. 8. Like the Gemini-selected objects, our large area sample reveals a small number of blue GCs with colours at (U–B)o $``$ 0.1, (B–I)o $``$ 1.65, but no strong red grouping.

We find 133 candidate GCs within the colour selected region. The measured magnitudes and positions of these objects are listed in Appendix A. How does this final number compare with the total number of GCs estimated by Harris & van den Bergh (1981) of 290 $`\pm `$ 150 ? Our data have complete radial coverage (with the possibility of missing a few GCs in the very inner regions) but clearly under-sample the GC luminosity function. We reach magnitudes similar to, or slightly brighter than, the expected turnover magnitude. Thus crudely we expect a factor of 2–2.5$`\times `$ more GCs than we detected, i.e. 266–333.

Examination of the colour selected region however suggests that it contains a number of background objects, i.e. objects with a wide range of (B–I)o colours and a mean (U–B)o colour of about –0.5. These were not generally seen in the Gemini-selected data, and are presumably not GCs but background galaxies. So the total number of GCs in NGC 3379 may be closer to 250 than 300. Both values are consistent with the low GC specific frequency found by Harris & van den Bergh (1981).

In order to further investigate this issue we have defined a background region of the same central area as studied above but located at a galactocentric radius of more than 13.3$`^{^{}}`$ (44 kpc). The background objects, after B magnitude selection, are shown in Fig. 9. Indeed these background objects cover a range in (B–I)o with a mean (U–B)o of about –0.5. In Fig. 10 we show the (B–I)o colour distribution for GC candidates before and after statistical background subtraction. Two GC subpopulations are revealed with peaks around (B–I)o $``$ 1.65 and 1.90. As with the Gemini-selected data, the blue subpopulation is easily identified in both colour-colour space and in the (B–I)o distribution. However, the red subpopulation is only clearly identified in the (B–I)o distribution.

## 8 Globular Cluster Mean Ages and Metallicities

In order to interpret our data on NGC 3379 we compare it to similar data for the Milky Way and M31 GC systems. To aid in this interpretation we have created smoothed colour density plots using a Gaussian smoothing kernel. In Fig. 11 we show the density plots for the MW and M31 (i.e. a smoothed version of Fig. 1), with a background-subtracted density plot from the large area coverage of NGC 3379 (i.e. Fig. 7 minus Fig. 8).

We first discuss the Milky Way and M31 GC systems. For the Milky Way, the data reveals the dominant blue subpopulation at (U–B)o = 0.04 and (B–I)o = 1.51, with an uncertainty in the peak location of $`\pm `$ 0.05. The red subpopulation is harder to define as it contains fewer GCs. However a small enhancement can be seen at (U–B)o $``$ 0.35 and (B–I)o $``$ 1.81. The distribution for M31 is similar to the Milky Way. We estimate the dominant blue subpopulation to be at (U–B)o = 0.12 and (B–I)o = 1.62 $`\pm `$ 0.05. The red subpopulation appears to have a centre around (U–B)o = 0.45 and (B–I)o = 1.90 $`\pm `$ 0.05.

An empirical transformation between (U–B)o and (B–I)o to \[Fe/H\] is given by Barmby et al. (2000). Barmby et al. calculated these transformations based on spectroscopic metallicities for $``$ 80 Milky Way GCs. Using these transformations we can calculate ‘photometric metallicities’ based on our colour estimates. These are summarised in Table 1. The mean metallicity of the two subpopulations from spectroscopy are \[Fe/H\] = –1.59, –0.55 and –1.40, –0.58 for the Milky Way and M31 respectively (Forbes et al. 2000). Table 1 shows a good correspondence between our photometric and the spectroscopic metallicities.

We find that the mean colours (metallicities) of the M31 GC system are redder (more metal-rich) than that of the Milky Way’s GC system. This is also the situation for the spectroscopically-defined metallicities. This is consistent with the mass (luminosity) of the Milky Way being less than that for M31, as per the galaxy luminosity - GC metallicity relation (Forbes & Forte 2001; Larsen et al. 2001).

Fig. 11 also includes model tracks from Brocato et al. (2000) and Maraston (2003, priv. comm.) for a 15 Gyr old single stellar population (SSP). We find that the 15 Gyr old tracks are closer to the location of the metal-rich subpopulation than say the 12 Gyr, or younger, model tracks (the metal-poor subpopulation is equally well fit by a 15 or 12 Gyr old track). Assuming the difference is purely in the U–B colour, the models are too blue by 0.1–0.15 magnitudes. Given a mean age for Milky Way GCs from colour-magnitude diagrams of around 12 Gyrs (e.g. Salaris & Weiss 2002), it suggests that these SSP models are not yet on the correct absolute age scale. The tracks show a range of metallicities for a 15 Gyr old population. The Milky Way blue subpopulation has a peak close to a metallicity of \[Fe/H\] = –1.5, with the M31 blue GCs between \[Fe/H\] = –1.5 and –1.0. For both galaxies, the red subpopulation lies between \[Fe/H\] = –0.3 and –1.3.

We have also compared the SSP models of Worthey (1994) with our data and find that the Worthey models fall well below the location of the metal-rich subpopulation for any age. A detailed comparison between the various stellar population models is beyond the scope of this paper. However, the origin of the large differences between the U–B colours of the Worthey models, and those of Brocato et al. and Maraston, seem to lie in a combination of the theoretical isochrones adopted (those from Vandenberg 1985; Green et al. 1987 in the case of the Worthey models) and the conversion between luminosity/temperature to magnitude/colour in the observational plane. The Worthey models achieved this by multiplying observed stellar fluxes by empirical filter transmission functions, whilst Maraston employ a combination of empirical and theoretical colour-temperature relations (see Maraston 1998). As discussed by Brocato et al. (2000), variations in other model ingredients such as the IMF slope and low-mass cut-off do not significantly affect the predicted integrated colours. In any event, regardless of the specific origin of these discrepancies, we conclude that the U–B colours of the Worthey models do not accurately reflect the colours of globular clusters.

Turning now to NGC 3379. The colour density plot for NGC 3379 clearly shows a blue GC subpopulation near (U–B)o = 0.08 $`\pm `$ 0.05 and (B–I)o = 1.64 $`\pm `$ 0.05. The plot also shows some remaining galaxy contamination with (U–B)o $``$ –0.3. The colours of these objects are consistent with late-type spirals and blue compact dwarfs (Schroeder & Visvanathan 1996). A red GC subpopulation is not obvious; it is only revealed when the distribution in (B–I)o colour only is examined (see also Figures 5 and 9). We believe this is due to the larger mean error in our U–B colours for the metal-rich subpopulation (although the presence of an intermediate-aged population could also contribute). From the colour-magnitude diagram (Fig. 4), it can be seen that the red subpopulation is fainter on average by about half a magnitude than the blue one (this is presumably due to additional line blanketing in the more metal-rich GCs). Larsen et al. (2001) also found evidence for the red GCs being systematically fainter than the blue ones. For their small sample of 21 blue and 24 red GCs, they estimated V-band turnover magnitudes of 22.57 for the blue GCs and 23.02 for the red GCs. For NGC 3379, this results in an additional colour error of $``$ 0.3 mags for the metal-rich subpopulation. This effect may be spreading out the (fainter) metal-rich subpopulation. Our B–I colour errors are generally half those in U–B, and hence are less affected. If we consider (B–I)o colour only, i.e. the histograms of Figures 6 (Gemini selected) and 10 (INT selected), then we estimate that the red subpopulation has a mean colour of (B–I)o $``$ 1.9.

The intrinsic U–B and B–I colours of the blue subpopulation in NGC 3379 are intermediate between those of the Milky Way and M31 GC systems. The Barmby et al. (2000) transformation leads to a photometric metallicity of \[Fe/H\] = –1.64 $`\pm `$ 0.14 from (U–B)o and –1.36 $`\pm `$ 0.14 from (B–I)o for the blue subpopulation. This is consistent with the metallicity indicated by the Maraston (\[Fe/H\] $``$ –1.35) and Brocato et al. (\[Fe/H\] $``$ –1.5) 15 Gyr SSP tracks. The photometric metallicity for the red subpopulation, based on (B–I)o colour only, is estimated to be \[Fe/H\] $``$ –0.6. These values are summarised in Table 1.

The ages of the GC subpopulations in NGC 3379 are less well constrained by our data. However, similarities between NGC 3379 and the Milky Way and M31 GC colours suggests that the blue subpopulation in all three galaxies has a similar, old age. From the colour-magnitude diagram of Fig. 4, the red subpopulation in NGC 3379 is fainter in the mean than the blue GCs. This effectively rules out a young (i.e. $`<`$ 3 Gyr) age.

## 9 Conclusions

Magnitudes and colours, from the Isaac Newton Telescope, for 133 candidate globular clusters around NGC 3379 are presented. Our detection rate is consistent with a low specific frequency. These candidates, and a subsample selected from imaging with the Gemini North Telescope, reveal evidence for a blue and red subpopulation.

We have compared the (U–B)o vs (B–I)o colours of the NGC 3379 globular cluster system with that for the Milky Way and M31. The Milky Way and M31 reveal similar GC colour distributions, although with slightly different slopes (which may simply be the result of uncertain reddening corrections). The metal-poor and metal-rich subpopulations can be seen as a dominant blue and a less well-defined red peak. Using the single stellar population models of Maraston (2003, priv. comm.) and Brocato et al. (2000), we find that the mean colours of both subpopulations are best reproduced by their 15 Gyr old tracks. Even so, small colour differences between the model and the measurements exist. As the mean age of the Milky Way globular clusters is thought to be closer to 12 Gyrs, it suggests that these model require a relative age adjustment. The estimated mean metallicities of the two subpopulations are very similar to those measured previously from spectroscopy. We also investigated the models of Worthey (1994), and found they were unable to reproduce the (U–B)o colour of the metal-rich subpopulation in M31 and the Milky Way for any age.

For NGC 3379 we detect a blue subpopulation with very similar (U–B)o and (B–I)o colours, and presumably age/metallicity, to that of the Milky Way and M31 globular cluster systems. Thus the blue GCs in NGC 3379 are consistent with being very old and with a mean metallicity of \[Fe/H\] $``$ –1.5. The red subpopulation is less well-defined, perhaps due to increased photometric errors, but has a similar mean (B–I)o colour to the Milky Way and M31 globular cluster systems. This implies a mean photometric metallicity of \[Fe/H\] $``$ –0.6.

## 10 Acknowledgments

We thank M. Pierce and J. Strader for useful comments. We also thank A. Terlevich for his help in observing and the initial data reduction. The data used in this project were obtained with Isaac Newton Telescope at La Palma Observatory and the Gemini North Telescope. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


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# Production of the exotic Θ baryon in relativistic nuclear collisions

## I Introduction

Based on an extended chiral soliton model, Diakonov et al. DiakonovZPA359  made quantitative predictions for a previously conjectured exotic anti-decuplet of baryons, the lightest of which would be most easily identifiable. It can be considered as a $`uudd\overline{s}`$ pentaquark resonance state having spin $`J=\frac{1}{2}`$, isospin $`I=0`$, and strangeness $`S=+1`$ (hence a charge of $`Q=+1`$). In the original paper DiakonovZPA359 , this particle was denoted $`Z^+`$ but Diakonov has more recently advocated that it be named $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ instead. We therefore employ this nomenclature. Its mass was prediced to be about $`1530\mathrm{MeV}`$ and its decay width less than $`15\mathrm{MeV}`$. The dominant decay modes are $`\mathrm{\Theta }K^+n`$ and $`\mathrm{\Theta }K^0p`$. Various experiments have recently established support for the existence of this exotic baryon resonance, as briefly recalled below.

Nakano et al. Nakano  used the Laser-Electron Photon Facility at SPring-8 to irradiate 12C with photons and considered the reaction $`\gamma nK^{}K^+n`$. They observed a sharp baryon resonance peak at $`1540\pm 10\mathrm{MeV}`$ in the $`K^{}`$ missing mass spectrum (corrected for Fermi motion). The Gaussian significance of the peak was reported as $`4.6\sigma `$ while the width was estimated to be less then $`25\mathrm{MeV}`$. This evidence strongly suggests the existence of a molecular $`KN`$ resonance with $`S=+1`$ that may be interpreted as the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$.

Barmin et al. Barmin  employed a separated $`K^+`$ beam from the ITEP proton synchroton to irradiate the bubble chamber DIANA, filled with liquid zenon. They then considered the charge-exchange reaction $`K^+nK^0p`$ on a bound neutron. This reaction can be fully measured due to the decay of the neutral kaon into a $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ pair inside the chamber. Their analysis of the $`K^0p`$ invariant-mass spectrum revealed a baryon resonance with a mass of $`1539\pm 2\mathrm{MeV}`$ and a width less than $`9\mathrm{MeV}/c^2`$. The statistical significance was estimated to be $`4.4\sigma `$. This finding is a strong indication for the formation of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$.

Most recently, the CLASS Collaboration has reported results for photoproduction on deuterium and hydrogen at JLAB Stepanyan . Analyses of the complementary missing mass spectra yielded a narrow $`S=+1`$ exotic resonance state in the $`nK^+`$ system (with a statistical significance of $`5.2\sigma `$ and $`4.8\sigma `$, respectively). The corresponding mass was found to be approximately $`1540\mathrm{MeV}`$.

In view of the mutually consistent experimental evidence for the existence of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$, it may be reasonable to consider the implications for high-energy nuclear collisions where baryonic resonances are abundantly produced QM01 . Since the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ carries a unique combination of baryon number, charge, and strangeness it may provide a valuable additional diagnostic tool.

## II Statistical model

In order to help ascertain the practical prospects for observing the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ in relativistic nuclear collisions, we present here a rough estimate of its production yield. For this purpose we employ statistical considerations which have been quite successful in accounting for the observed yields of most hadronic species (see Refs. Heinz ; Becattini ; MMRS ; Rafelski ; MRS , for example).

In a grand-canonical ensemble of hadron species $`i`$, the partition function factorizes into separate contributions for each specie, $`Z=\mathrm{\Pi }_iZ_i`$, with

$$\mathrm{ln}Z_i(T,V,\{\mu \})=\pm \frac{VTg_i}{2\pi ^2}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{(\pm \lambda _i)^n}{n^2}m_i^2K_2(\frac{nm_i}{T}),$$
(1)
where plus is for bosons and minus is for fermions. The hadron mass is $`m_i`$ and $`g_i`$=$`2J_i`$+$`1`$ is the spin degeneracy. The fugacity associated with the hadron specie $`i`$ is

$$\lambda _i(T,\{\mu \})=\mathrm{e}^{(B_i\mu _B+Q_i\mu _Q+S_i\mu _S)/T},$$
(2)
where $`B_i`$, $`Q_i`$, and $`S_i`$ denote baryon number, electric charge, and strangeness, respectively. The ensemble is characterized by the temperature $`T`$ and the three chemical potentials $`\{\mu \}=\{\mu _B,\mu _Q,\mu _S\}`$. Finally, $`V`$ is the enclosing volume of the system.

Since the volume is hard to know a priori, it may be preferable to consider the corresponding spatial densities,

$`n_i(T,\{\mu \})`$ $`=`$ $`\pm {\displaystyle \frac{g_iT^3}{2\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{(\pm \lambda _i)^n}{n^3}}({\displaystyle \frac{nm_i}{T}})^2K_2({\displaystyle \frac{nm_i}{T}})`$ (3)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{g_i\lambda _i}{2\pi ^2}}m_i^2TK_2({\displaystyle \frac{m_i}{T}})\pm \mathrm{}`$ (4)
$``$ $`g_i\lambda _i\left({\displaystyle \frac{m_iT}{2\pi }}\right)^{\frac{3}{2}}\mathrm{e}^{m_i/T}.`$ (5)
In the first line, the factors are arranged such that the terms in the sum are regular in the small-mass limit, $`m_i0`$, where $`K_2`$ diverges. The second line exhibits the leading term, while the third line shows the simple exponential form that emerges when the mass is large, $`m_iT`$. While we shall use the complete expression (3), it may be instructive to examine the quality of the three levels of approximation exhibited in Eqs. (3-5).

Since the sign of the second term in (3) depends on the quantum-statistical nature of the particle, the leading term overestimates fermion densities while it underestimates boson densities. As it turns out, for all the parameter values employed in our yield estimates, the first term in the expansion, Eq. (4), is an excellent approximation for all baryon species, being accurate to within a few per mille. For kaons it is off by a few per cent, and even the pion densities are understimated by only around $`10\%`$. The first term (4) would thus be a quite reasonable approximation for rough estimates.

By contrast, the large-mass approximation (5), which generally underestimates the densities, is never accurate for the situations of interest here. While underestimating the various baryon densities by less than $``$30% (only $``$20% for the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$), it is off by around half for kaons and underestimates the pions by about a factor of five. Thus it appears that this approximation is less useful.

## III Estimate of the yield

We now employ the full expression (3) for estimating the yield ratios that may be expected at RHIC. We focus on the mid-rapidity region in central Au+Au collisions at the top beam energy of $`100\mathrm{GeV}/A`$, where the highest freeze-out temperatures have been extracted. In this environment the net baryon, charge, and strangeness densities are quite small and, as one would expect, the extracted chemical potentials are relatively small. As we shall see, our estimates do not depend much on these parameters. In order to illustrate this insensitivity, we employ four different sets of chemical potentials. They are listed in Table 1 and are motivated below.

For the simpest estimate ($`A`$), we assume that all the chemical potentials vanish, $`\mu _B=0`$, $`\mu _Q=0`$, $`\mu _S=0`$. The second set ($`B`$) uses a finite baryon potential, $`\mu _B=30\mathrm{MeV}`$, corresponding to values for which good fits have been obtained to the observed hadronic yield ratios MRS . (The sign of $`\mu _B`$ reflects the overall net baryon number.) In set $`C`$ the charge potential has been given a finite value, $`\mu _Q=4\mathrm{MeV}`$, which leads to good correspondance with the results quoted in Ref. MRS . (The negative sign of $`\mu _Q`$ is a consequence of the initial neutron excess which introduces a corresponding isospin bias.) Finally, also guided by Ref. MRS , in set $`D`$ the strangeness potential is finite as well, $`\mu _S=10\mathrm{MeV}`$. (The fact that a non-zero value of $`\mu _S`$ is indicated by the data can be understood as a non-equilibrium feature reflecting the asymmetry in the elementary strangeness-producing reactions which causes kaons to be produced more readily than antikaons.)

As for the temperature, we shall explore a broad range of values, $`T=150200\mathrm{MeV}`$, in order to bring out the dependence on this important parameter. (Most fits to the experimental yield ratios lead to chemical freeze-out temperatures around $`175\mathrm{MeV}`$.) By comparing the results of the different parameter sets, we may then elucidate the sensitivity to the chemical potentials.

We first calculate the ratio between the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ yield and those of certain familiar hadron species, namely $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`p`$, $`K^+`$, and $`\pi ^+`$, which have different combinations of baryon number, charge, and strangeness. These yield ratios are listed in Table 2 for the four parameter sets $`A,B,C,D`$:

It is evident that the calculated values show very little variation from one parameter set to the next, thus rendering the predicted yield ratios rather insensitive to the precise values of the chemical potentials. Furthermore, taking the numbers at face value, the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ yield should be about $`1214\%`$ of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ yield. Consequently, since good $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ data has been obtained, one would expect the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ to be produced at a detectable level.

In order to refine the estimate, one may further reduce the sensitivity to the chemical potentials by considering double abundance ratios for which the various attributes are counterbalanced. The leading fugacity factors then disappear (see Eq. (4)). This procedure may be particularly useful with regard to the strangeness which is not well described by the simple grand canonical model but requires that an additional suppression factor be introduced MRS . We therefore consider various double abundance ratios for which the values of the baryon number, charge, and strangeness balance out. The corresponding grand canonical results are listed in Table 3.

For these double yield ratios, the dependence on the chemical potentials is practically negligible and the temperature dependence is considerably smaller than for the single ratios shown in Table 2, thus making the “predictions” more robust.

The first ratio shown, $`(n_\mathrm{\Theta }/n_p)/(n_{K^+}/n_{\pi ^+})`$, is perhaps the most useful since it involves, in addition to the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$, positively charged hadrons that can be directly detected. Since the experimental yields of those are well known, the tabulated numbers can be used to make absolute predictions for the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ yield in terms of the observed yields of $`\pi ^+`$, $`p`$, and $`K^+`$. Inserting the multiplicities reported by BRAHMS Bearden , we then find, at mid rapidity for central Au+Au collisions at the top RHIC energy,

$$(\frac{dn_\mathrm{\Theta }}{d\eta })_0\frac{n_\mathrm{\Theta }/n_p}{n_{K^+}/n_{\pi ^+}}\frac{(dn_{K^+}/d\eta )_0}{(dn_{\pi ^+}/d\eta )_0}(\frac{dn_p}{d\eta })_00.9,$$
(6)
i.e. about one $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ per unit rapidity in each central event.

The second ratio, $`(n_\mathrm{\Theta }/n_p)/(n_{K^0}/n_{\pi ^0})`$, is included primarily for illustrative purposes. It has pratically the same value as the first ratio, as should be expected from the very small isospin dependence of the yields. But it is less readily observable (while the neutral kaons can be identified through their decay via $`K_s^0`$ to charged pion pairs, the neutral pions must be measured by means of their decay into photon pairs).

The third reaction shown, $`(n_\mathrm{\Theta }/n_p)/(n_{K^+}/n_{\overline{K}^0})`$, is actually easier to measure since $`p`$ and $`K^+`$ can be detected directly, thus leaving only the task of identifying $`n_{\overline{K}^0}`$ through the $`K_s^0\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ decay. (This identification is anyway required for the observation of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$, see below.) Alternatively, because of the very weak isospin dependence, one might fairly safely approximate $`n_{\overline{K}^0}`$ by $`n_K^{}`$.

While the focus of the present brief note is on the top RHIC energy, where the yield is expected to be largest, the results given in Table 3 may be useful for other scenarios as well since the double yield ratios depend primarily on the freeze-out temperature, with very little sensitivity to the various chemical potentials.

## IV Discussion

As the above estimates suggest, the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ should be produced with non-neglible rates in high-energy nuclear collisions. It may thus be worthwhile to extract its yield from the data. Obviously, the experimental observation of this exotic baryon in nuclear collisions would provide entirely independent evidence for its existence. Moreover, if experimentally detectable, the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ would provide an additional means of probing the system, due to its unique combination of attributes. Especially useful may be the fact that it is a $`S=+1`$ baryon, which could help improve our understanding of strangeness production.

One possible method of analysis for identifying the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ might be to consider the invariant-mass spectrum of the $`K_s^0p`$ system, as in Ref. Barmin . In addition to the readily available kinematic information on the proton, this approach requires the $`K_s^0`$ mesons to be identified through their $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ decay vertex. This should be possible as well with the existing instrumentation (using the STAR TPC, for example). Presumably, since the intrinsic $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ decay width is so small, the observed width would primarily reflect the detector resolution (the construction of the $`p\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ invariant-mass spectrum requires complete kinematical information for all three final hadrons). To the degree that the associated instrumental tolerances are well understood, it should then be possible to predict the observable width, thus facilitating the identification of the signal.

The $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ may also be of interest on the theoretical side since microscopic transport models usually attempt to include all known hadronic resonances. In these treatments, a primordial hadronic population generated by model-specific mechanisms undergoes further evolution involving both decays and reactions. As a result, both the thermodynamic properties of the hadronic resonance gas (such as pressure and entropy) as well as the final yield of the detectable hadron species are affected by the selection of included resonances.

Thus, insofar as the existence of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ baryon resonance can be considered established, it would seem natural that it be included in those treatments. While its expected relatively small abundance will likely render it ineffective with regard to modifying the overall thermodynamic conditions, it may play a role for the abundance of other relatively rare species. In particular, it might be of interest to investigate how strangeness-related quantities might be affected by the presence of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$.

Just as this note was being finalized, it was hypothesized Capstick  that the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ may in fact not be an isoscalar but rather is an isotensor having five members. Three of them, $`\mathrm{\Theta }^{++}`$, $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$, and $`\mathrm{\Theta }^0`$, would have isospin violating strong decays, while the remaining members, $`\mathrm{\Theta }^{+++}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Theta }^{}`$ would have weak decays and so be long-lived. This intriguing possibility gives the search for $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ production in nuclear collisions even larger urgency, since it could quite possibly settle this issue. Indeed, assuming that $`\mathrm{\Theta }^{++}`$ is produced at about the same rate as $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$, as the statistical model would suggest, it should be readily identifiable as a peak in the $`pK^+`$ invariant mass spectrum (a task simpler than identifying the $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$).

## V Summary

Motivated by the recent apparent experimental confirmation of the predicted exotic $`S=+1`$ baryon $`\mathrm{\Theta }(1540)`$, we have briefly discussed its relevance to high-energy nuclear collisions. Obviously, if this particle indeed exists, it would enrich the hadronic dynamics and ought to be included in models treating the hadronic resonance stage of the collisions.

In order to provide a rough estimate of the expected yield, we have invoked the framework of statistical equilibrium, which has been found to account very well for the observed hadronic abundancies over a wide range. These simple estimates suggest that the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ may be produced at a level of approximately $`6\%`$ relative to the proton yield and about $`14\%`$ of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ yield, rather independently of the prevailing chemical potentials (as long as their values are reasonably consistent with the observed yield ratios).

Further insensitivity to the somewhat poorly understood strangeness suppression effect can be obtained by taking double yield ratios designed to ensure counterbalancing of the various conserved attributes (baryon number, charge, and strangeness). By this method, using the observed $`\pi ^+`$, $`K^+`$, and $`p`$ multiplicities, we estimate that about one $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ per unit rapidity will be produced at mid rapidty in central Au+Au collisions at $`100\mathrm{GeV}/A`$.

Since the expected $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ yield is thus not negligible, we encourage an analysis of the data for the purpose of establishing $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ production in heavy-ion collisions. This task could be carried out by examining the invariant mass spectrum for the $`pK_s^0`$ system, with the $`K_s^0`$ being measured by means of its $`\pi ^{}\pi ^+`$ decay vertex. In view of the possible existence of an entire $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ multiplet Capstick , it might be worthwhile to examine also the $`pK^+`$ invariant-mass spectrum at the same time.

The observation of such a resonance in high-energy nuclear collisions would provide independent supportive evidence for the existence of this exotic particle. Once its existence has been established, the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ may offer an interesting additional means for probing the properties of the collision system (especially those related to strangeness) due to its unique combination of baryon number, charge, and strangeness.

## Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Director, Office of Energy Research, Office of High Energy and Nuclear Physics, Nuclear Physics Division of the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC03-76SF00098. It was carried out at the National Institute of Nuclear Theory in Seattle. I wish to acknowledge helpful discussions with H. Caines, D. Diakonov, D. Magestro, G. Kunde, S. Stepanyan, R. Vogt, and N. Xu.


text:
# Galaxies and Overmerging: What Does it Take to Destroy a Satellite Galaxy?

## 1. Introduction

High resolution numerical simulations and sophisticated semi-analytic modeling have significantly improved our understanding of the properties and the evolution of cold dark matter (CDM) substructure. It has been demonstrated (Moore et al. 1998, Colpi, Mayer, & Governato 1999; Moore et al. 1999; Klypin et al. 1999; Taffoni et al. 2003) that tidal distruption is very inefficient for these low mass subhalos. Satellites represent earlier generations of the merging hierarchy and are typically denser and more concentrated than their more massive hosts. While gravitational tides serve to unbind mass associated with these subhalos, it is still not clear whether or not complete disruption of substructure halos can take place in a CDM potential.

Direct evidence of tidal disruption processes operating effectively within galaxy clusters has recently been provided by the discovery of a new population of subluminous and extremely compact objects in the Fornax (Drinkwater et al. 2000; Phillipps et al. 2001) and Virgo (Drinkwater, private communication) clusters. These Ultra Compact Dwarf (UCD) galaxies are dynamically distinct systems with intrinsic sizes $`\text{ }<\text{ }100`$ pc, and properties, including velocity dispersions, absolute magnitudes and mass-to-light (M/L) ratios, considerably higher than any normal globular cluster (Drinkwater et al. 2003). There is accumulating evidence that the UCDs constitute the remnant nuclei of dwarf galaxies whose extended stellar component and DM halo have been both entirely disrupted by gravitational interactions within their host cluster. Their derived M/L ratios range from 2 to 4 and are consistent with those of stellar populations suggesting that these systems contain no dark matter. Other factors consistent with the interpretation that the UCDs are the products of tidal disruption processes include their strong structural similarity to the dense nuclei of nucleated dwarf ellipticals (dEs) and the lack of extended stellar envelopes around them in photographic images (Phillipps et al. 2001).

Our goal is not only to investigate how probable complete disruption of substructure halos at the typical distances of known UCDs (within about 30% of the cluster virial radius) is, but also to place constraints on the structure of DM halos and examine whether the existence of the UCDs is consistent with the theoretical predictions of CDM models.

## 2. Numerical Simulations

We study the evolution of dwarf satellites comparable in mass to typical cluster nucleated dEs in the external potential of the Fornax cluster. The NFW density profile (Navarro, Frenk, & White 1996) is used for both the live satellites and the spherically symmetric static host potential. The latter represents a cluster halo with virial mass $`M_{\mathrm{prim}}=0.5\times 10^{14}h^1\mathrm{M}_{}`$ and $`c_{\mathrm{prim}}=8.5`$ (hereafter, $`h=0.5`$). The satellite’s virial mass is $`M_{\mathrm{sat}}=2\times 10^{10}h^1\mathrm{M}_{}`$. Our simulations neglect the effects of dynamical friction and the response of the primary to the presence of the satellite. Considering the vast difference in the mass and size of the two main systems we do not expect our results to be affected by this choice. In this investigation all satellite models are Monte Carlo realizations of the exact phase-space distribution function under the assumptions of spherical symmetry and isotropic velocity dispersion tensors, $`f=f(E)`$. Kazantzidis, Magorrian, & Moore (2003) have explicitly demonstrated that the choice of initial conditions is vital for studies like the present. Out of equilibrium initial conditions may artificially accelerate the mass loss of the model satellites by decreasing their central density and changing the character of their orbital anisotropy.

The current positions of the UCDs which give an indication of the apocenter of their orbits coupled with theoretical studies of halo orbital properties, will be used to constrain the orbital parameters of the satellites. In particular, we shall adopt an apocenter radius equal to $`r_{\mathrm{apo}}=1.77R_\mathrm{s}`$, where $`R_\mathrm{s}`$ is the scale radius of the host halo and $`(r_{\mathrm{apo}}/r_{\mathrm{peri}})=`$(5:1) close to the median ratio of apocentric to pericentric radii found in cosmological simulations (Ghigna et al. 1998). The pericenter of the orbit is $`50`$ kpc in all the simulations presented here. We evolve our models using PKDGRAV (Stadel 2001) for 10 Gyr. In all our runs, the total energy was conserved to better than 0.1%. In Figure 1 (left panel) we perform a quantitative comparison of the evolution of the bound satellite mass for three different mass resolutions. We use the group finder SKID (Stadel 2001) to identify the remaining bound mass. We define complete disruption of a satellite system when we do not find any gravitationally bound structure at a scale of $`2\epsilon _s`$ or larger, where $`\epsilon _s`$ is the gravitational softening for our runs. The satellite halo has a $`c_{\mathrm{sat}}=5`$ and is simulated with $`N=10^5`$ (filled squares), $`N=10^6`$ (open circles), and $`N=10^7`$ (filled circles) particles. The evolution of the bound mass is plotted up to the point where complete disruption of the satellite system occurs. The halo resolved with just $`10^5`$ particles fully disrupts after just two orbits, but this is clearly a resolution effect since the same halos resolved with more particles survive significantly longer. Convergence is achieved when we adopt a mass resolution of more than $`10^6`$ particles per halo.

In order to avoid an unecessary computational cost, we adopt a mass resolution of $`N=10^6`$ in the following runs. We set the gravitational softening to $`ϵ=50`$ pc, hence, our force resolution being equal to $`2\epsilon `$ corresponds roughly to the upper limit inferred for the UCD size. At this force resolution only completely disrupted systems might be suitable UCD progenitors. In the right panel of Figure 1 we demonstrate that the satellite with $`c_{\mathrm{sat}}=9`$ defines the upper limit of the concentration parameter for disruption at the timescales of interest. Note that the thick horizontal solid line denotes the region below which the halo may resemble that of a UCD galaxy. Satellites with lower values of concentration disrupt earlier and therefore could be associated with UCD progenitors. These values are significantly lower than those measured in cosmological simulations for halos in these mass scales (Bullock et al. 2001).

## 3. The Effect of Baryons on Satellite Survival

The theoretical predictions of CDM models for the concentration values are only for precollapse halos. A real galaxy would always have an “effective concentration”, $`c_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, higher than that of a pure DM halo system. The baryons steepen the inner density profile by both adding mass to the center and causing the halo to adiabatically contract responding to their infall, increasing considerably the resilience of satellites to tidal stripping. In Figure 2 we present the rotation curves of two disk models constructed using the semi-analytical modeling of Mo, Mao, & White (1998) together with the rotation curve of a pure DM halo with concentration equal to the upper limit of disruption ($`c=9`$) for the adopted standard orbit. Both models have typical values of the disk mass fraction $`m_\mathrm{d}=0.05`$ and halo spin parameter $`\lambda =0.05`$. In the left panel is illustrated that a typical disk greatly increases the effective concentration of a pure DM halo making the disruption of a satellite galaxy significantly more problematic. In order to achieve an effective concentration of $`c_{\mathrm{eff}}9`$ we need to start from $`c_{\mathrm{halo}}<3`$ for the same typical disk parameters (right panel). This value is more than 4 $`\sigma `$ lower than the theoretical predictions for the mass range of our satellites.

We are unable to explain the origin of the UCDs within the CDM models. We shall explore further the dependence of satellite disruption on their orbital properties, central density slopes, and host halo structure to address this issue in more detail (Kazantzidis, Mayer & Moore, in preparation).

## References

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Colpi, M., Mayer, L., & Governato, F. 1999, ApJ, 525, 720

Drinkwater, M. J., Jones, J. B., Gregg, M. D., & Phillipps, S. 2000, PASA, 17, 227

Drinkwater, M. J., et al. 2003, Nature, 423, 519

Ghigna, S., et al. 1998, MNRAS, 300, 146

Kazantzidis, S., Magorrian, J., & Moore, B. 2003, ApJ submitted

Klypin, A., Kravtsov, A. V., Valenzuela, O., & Prada, F. 1999, ApJ, 522, 82

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text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

During the second part of the LEP program in 1995-2000, the centre-of-mass energy of the $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ collisions was raised above the Z boson mass, reaching up to 209 GeV in the last year of operation. Integrated luminosities of about 700 $`\mathrm{pb}^1`$ were collected by each of the four LEP collaborations ALEPH, DELPHI, L3 and OPAL, mostly above the W and Z-pair production thresholds. This allowed a comprehensive measurement program of boson pair production in $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ collisions and more generally of all possible four-fermion ($`4f`$) final states. Two of the principal aims of LEP, directly validating the non-Abelian gauge structure of the standard model (SM) and searching for anomalous gauge boson self-couplings to reveal new physics beyond the SM (NP), could be pursued.

Most of the measured $`4f`$ final states result from processes seen at LEP for the first time. Initially some of the theoretical predictions and modelling were crude. Improvements were needed to match the experimental accuracy and were challenging, especially in the case of W-pair production. The LEP measurements stimulated important work to compute radiative corrections and to devise appropriate ways to choose the scales of coupling constants when several were involved. The results were also included in practical event generators, where numerical divergences resulting from the small electron mass and the handling of the full set of graphs both had to be dealt with efficiently.

The experience gained at LEP in measuring $`4f`$ final states and the progress in the theoretical description and modelling were also important in the context of many new particle searches. In several cases the experimental signatures are very similar to those of the signal searched for, thus providing a useful environment to test the corresponding analysis techniques111A good example is the Z-pair production process, for which event rates and topologies were almost identical to those in the Higgs boson search.. In the longer term, the improvements in the calculations will also benefit similar work at a future $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}`$ linear collider, where very high precision will be needed.

This report has two sections. Firstly, the latest measurements of $`4f`$ final states arising via the production processes $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{WW}`$, ZZ, $`\mathrm{Z}\gamma ^{}`$, $`\mathrm{eeZ}/\gamma ^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{e}\nu \mathrm{W}`$ are described. Secondly, interpretations of these measurements in terms of constraints on gauge boson self-couplings are presented, covering both charged and neutral triple gauge couplings (TGC) and the more recently studied quartic gauge couplings (QGC). For each channel, salient experimental, technical or theoretical features are highlighted and results from combining the LEP data-sets are presented when available. The main achievements are assessed after each section, comparing cross-section measurements to present theoretical predictions, and constraints on gauge boson self-couplings to estimates of effects in scenarios for NP, and to sensitivities expected in the future. A general conclusion is given with prospects to finalize and publish all results.

## 2 Four-fermion processes

### 2.1 Signal definition in the simulation

The expected cross-sections of the production processes $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{WW}`$, ZZ, $`\mathrm{Z}\gamma ^{}`$, $`\mathrm{eeZ}/\gamma ^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{e}\nu \mathrm{W}`$ are shown for illustration in fig.1. When combining the measurements of different sub-channels or experiments, it is important to establish common conventions. Two ways of defining a signal to be measured were used, either as the total cross-section in a kinematic region where it is dominant or as that corresponding exclusively to the relevant Feynman graphs. In both cases a sub-set of events was pre-selected in the simulation with high purity and efficiency in terms of relative contribution of the studied process. The selected rates were then scaled into those of the studied process, taking into account interference effects for identical final states. In the first method cuts were chosen in view of theory uncertainties affecting both the studied and other contributing processes in the different regions.

### 2.2 WW production

W-boson pairs are produced via the doubly-resonant graphs shown in fig.2 at tree level. Measurements of cross-sections and decay branching ratios, using a total of about 40000 events selected by the four LEP collaborations in the data collected in 1996-2000, are reported in. All decay topologies $`\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$, $`\mathrm{l}\nu \mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ and $`\mathrm{l}\nu \mathrm{l}\overline{\nu }`$ were analysed. The separation achieved by ALEPH between signal and background is illustrated in fig.3.

The cross-sections obtained by combining all LEP results are shown in fig.4 as a function of the centre-of-mass energy, with a comparison to theoretical expectations. The results clearly favour the SM prediction where the graphs in fig.2 involving TGCs are included, hence providing strong evidence for the non-Abelian gauge group structure of the theory. The highest precision was achieved by combining the results from all energies normalised to respective expectations. The best agreement was obtained using the new YFSWW and RacoonWW predictions. In these two calculations all $`O(\alpha )`$ electroweak (EW) radiative corrections relevant to the graphs in fig.2 were included through expansions about the W-pole (in the so-called leading and double pole approximations, respectively). They were introduced into “complete” $`4f`$ generators such as KoralW and Wphact by reweighting the relevant matrix elements, to achieve a consistent description of all processes in the full phase space222The matching to the two-photon generation was also studied in Wphact.. The result obtained using YFSWW and combining the data from all energies was

$$\frac{\sigma _{\mathrm{WW}}}{\sigma _{\mathrm{YFSWW}}}=0.997\pm 0.007(stat)\pm 0.009(syst).$$
(1)
Results with RacoonWW differed by only 0.2%, well within the estimated theory uncertainty of 0.5%. On the contrary a set of previously used predictions which did not include all EW radiative corrections were too high by 2%, illustrating the sensitivity to loop effects achieved in these results.

The main source of uncertainty was from limited precision in the modelling of QCD fragmentation and hadronization, which could bias selection efficiencies in the semi-leptonic and fully hadronic sub-channels and in the latter, background levels from $`\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}(\gamma )`$ final states with four or more jets. Such effects being correlated among experiments and energies and of similar magnitude as the statistical errors, a careful treatment was important in the combination. All systematic errors were grouped in four classes (100% correlated or uncorrelated among experiments or energies) and the full covariance matrix for the measurements at each experiment and energy was built for the $`\chi ^2`$-minimisation. This procedure was applied to all LEP cross-section combinations described in this report. For the result quoted in eq.1 it gave $`\chi ^2`$ = 35.4 for 31 degrees of freedom.

### 2.3 ZZ production

Z-boson pair production occurs at tree level in the SM only via graphs with a $`t`$-channel electron (similar to that with a $`\nu `$ in fig.2). The cross-section was measured by the four LEP collaborations with data collected in 1997-2000 using all visible decays $`\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$, $`\nu \overline{\nu }\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$, $`\mathrm{llq}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$, $`\mathrm{llll}`$ and $`\nu \overline{\nu }\mathrm{ll}`$. The combined result shown in fig.5 agrees well with the SM predictions. Combining all energies gave

$$\frac{\sigma _{\mathrm{ZZ}}}{\sigma _{\mathrm{ZZTO}}}=0.969\pm 0.047(stat)\pm 0.028(syst),$$
(2)
using ZZTO, one of the calculations. The theoretical uncertainty, estimated to be 2%, was higher than for W-pairs (because radiative corrections were not fully included) but sufficient given measurement errors. The main correlated systematic errors, arising from the background modelling, were smaller than the statistical ones.

This measurement constrained potential anomalous production from NP, as described in sec.3.3 in the case of potential neutral TGCs. The reconstruction of the Z-boson polar angle achieved by DELPHI in this context is shown in the lower plot of fig.13.

Reconstructing the Z-boson pairs at LEP-2 was also an important test for the Higgs searches, since the analysed topologies were quasi-identical and cross-sections similarly small. L3 measured the $`\mathrm{ZZ}\mathrm{b}\overline{\mathrm{b}}\mathrm{X}`$ cross-section specially with this in mind.

### 2.4 Z$`\gamma ^{}`$ production

Measurements of neutral boson pairs were also extended to include an off-shell photon intead of a Z. The process can then be described as a “virtual radiative return to the Z”, with characteristic forward-peaked production and quasi mono-energetic $`\gamma ^{}`$ at the lower masses. Resulting topologies are distinctive and gave sizeable backgrounds in several searches for NP, which needed checking. They also led to an original search for anomalous production via neutral TGCs, using a new parametrization extended to include off-shell terms (see sec.3.3).

DELPHI analysed the $`\mu \mu \mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$, $`\mathrm{eeq}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$, $`\nu \overline{\nu }\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$, $`\mathrm{llll}`$ and $`\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ final states and OPAL the $`\mu \mu \mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ and $`\mathrm{eeq}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ ones. Good agreement was found. Fig.6 shows the di-quark and di-lepton mass spectra obtained by OPAL. The suppression at low di-quark mass comes from the smaller leptonic Z-boson decay branching ratio. In final states with electrons, $`t`$-channel single-boson processes $`\mathrm{ee}(\mathrm{Z}/\gamma ^{})`$ with both electron seen (see sec.2.5) enhanced the cross-section at high and low di-electron mass.

Another interesting final state, $`\nu \overline{\nu }\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ has a mono-jet topology because the $`\gamma ^{}`$ mass distribution peaks at low values. The corresponding energy-averaged cross-section was measured by DELPHI

$$\sigma _{\mathrm{Z}\gamma ^{}\nu \overline{\nu }\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}}=0.129\pm 0.035(stat)\pm 0.015(syst)\mathrm{pb}.$$
(3)
The expected value was 0.088 pb. Uncertainties in the hadronization at low $`\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ mass and in the way to set $`\alpha _{\mathrm{em}}`$ given the different scales involved were shown to affect predictions by up to 5%. Effects can be reduced by carefully treating the $`t`$-channel component in final states with electrons, and via phase space cuts. This should be good enough for the partial combination of three LEP experiments now planned.

### 2.5 eeZ/$`\gamma ^{}`$ production

Neutral bosons can be produced singly via the so-called EW Compton scattering process $`\mathrm{e}^+\gamma \mathrm{e}^+\gamma ^{}/\mathrm{Z}`$, where a quasi-real photon radiated from one of the beam electrons scatters off the opposite one (see fig.7). The signature of such events is an electron in the detector with moderate energy recoiling against the $`\gamma ^{}/\mathrm{Z}`$ system, with the other “spectator” electron mostly lost in the beam-pipe. LEP collaborations measured the $`\mathrm{eeq}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$ and $`\mathrm{ee}\mu \mu `$ final states with one electron lost using data collected in 1997-2000. Competing “single-tag” contributions from two-photon processes were suppressed using correlations between the tag electron charge and direction. The reconstruction of single-Z or $`\gamma ^{}`$ components is illustrated in fig.8, where the hadronic mass spectrum from DELPHI is shown. The excess of data below the Z-boson mass is assumed to come from biases in the two-photon background. A combination of cross-sections using the ALEPH, DELPHI and L3 results was performed in the high mass single-Z region, giving good agreement with expectations. The signal was defined as the cross-section from all graphs in the kinematic region: $`m_{\mathrm{f}\overline{\mathrm{f}}}>`$ 60 GeV/$`\mathrm{c}^2`$ ($`\mathrm{f}=\mathrm{q},\mu `$), $`12^{}<\theta _\mathrm{e}^{}<120^{}`$, $`\theta _{\mathrm{e}^+}<12^{}`$, $`E_\mathrm{e}^{}>3`$ GeV/$`\mathrm{c}^2`$ (with implicit charge conjugation). Averaging over energies gave

$$\frac{\sigma _{\mathrm{Zee}}}{\sigma _{\mathrm{WPHACT}}}=0.951\pm 0.068(stat)\pm 0.048(syst),$$
(4)
using WPHACT, one of the calculations. Uncertainties in the way to set $`\alpha _{\mathrm{em}}`$ and from treating initial state radiation given the different scales involved affected the predictions at the 5% level. This matched the experimental errors, though some differential effects may need to be included.

### 2.6 $`\mathrm{e}\nu _\mathrm{e}\mathrm{W}`$ production

W-bosons can also be produced singly via EW Compton scattering processes $`\mathrm{e}^+\gamma \overline{\nu }_\mathrm{e}\mathrm{W}^+`$ as depicted in fig.9. The middle graph involves charged TGCs which can be probed measuring this process (see sec.3.2). As for single Z-boson production, the spectator electron is mostly lost in the beam-pipe.

LEP collaborations measured all the possible final states $`\mathrm{e}\nu _\mathrm{e}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$, $`\mathrm{e}\nu _\mathrm{e}\mathrm{l}\nu _\mathrm{l}`$ ($`\mathrm{l}=\mathrm{e},\mu ,\tau `$) with the electron lost using data collected in 1997-2000. The main signature was the large missing energy and either a pair of acoplanar jets with mass close to $`m_\mathrm{W}`$ or a single energetic lepton. The reconstruction achieved by L3 is illustrated in fig.10. The signal was defined as the complete $`t`$-channel sub-set of $`4f`$ graphs within kinematic cuts specified to reduce theoretically poorly known multiperipheral contributions from graphs such as the last one in fig.9: $`\mathrm{e}\nu _\mathrm{e}\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}`$: $`m_{\mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}}>45`$ GeV/$`\mathrm{c}^2`$; $`\mathrm{e}\nu _\mathrm{e}\mathrm{l}\nu _\mathrm{l}`$ ($`\mathrm{l}=\mu ,\tau `$): $`E_\mathrm{l}>20`$ GeV; $`\mathrm{e}\nu _\mathrm{e}\mathrm{e}\nu _\mathrm{e}`$: $`|\mathrm{cos}\theta _{\mathrm{e}^+}|<0.95`$ and $`E_\mathrm{e}^+>20`$ GeV. All results agreed with SM expectations. Combining the cross-sections measured by all experiments at all energies gave

$$\frac{\sigma _{\mathrm{e}\nu _\mathrm{e}\mathrm{W}}}{\sigma _{\mathrm{GRACE}}}=0.949\pm 0.067(stat)\pm 0.040(syst),$$
(5)
using GRACE, one of the calculations. Uncertainties similar to those described in sec.2.5 for single Z-bosons affected single W-bosons. Even though for the (gauge-invariant) $`t`$-channel graphs defining the single W-boson signal, complete fermionic one-loop corrections exist, allowing the correct scale for $`\alpha _{\mathrm{em}}`$ to be set, a 5% error was estimated, also here matching the experimental precision.

### 2.7 Summary

The comprehensive $`4f`$ measurement program conducted at LEP has been a success. It provided a large set of original results and established experimentally the SM environment where NP searches were carried out. The experimental precision achieved was matched by the accuracy of theory, as recalled in tab.1, in some cases after substantial work by the theoretical community.

In the case of the W-pairs the non-Abelian gauge group structure of the SM was clearly confirmed. The accuracy obtained, close to 0.5%, even allowed the SM calculation at loop level to be probed. In the case of the Z-pairs, a valuable experimental cross-check of the Higgs search at LEP-2 was made. In the case of the single-resonant boson processes SM predictions were tested in several yet unexplored regions.

Not all topics covered by the $`4f`$ sub-group of the LEP EW working group or by individual experiments could be reviewed in this report, for instance the measurements of the production polar angle, decay branching ratios, polarisation and spin correlations in the W-boson pair production process, and of the Z$`\gamma \gamma `$ cross-section333A first partial combination of WW$`\gamma `$ cross-section measurements is shown in fig.14 in the context of the search for QGCs described in sec.3.4..

## 3 Gauge boson self-couplings

### 3.1 Overview

Couplings between the SM gauge bosons were measured at LEP by analysing $`4f`$ (and other) final states. Deviations from tree level values are predicted in NP scenarios and arise also from radiative corrections. If large enough to be measured, such deviations can help to probe NP at energy scales beyond the kinematic range of direct searches for new particles.

Anomalous self-couplings were searched for at three and four boson vertices, involving both charged and neutral gauge bosons. Charged TGCs exist in the SM due to the non-Abelian gauge group structure (see sec.2.2). On the contrary neutral TGCs vanish at tree level. The SM predicts QGCs, but their size is very small. In the two latter cases one can only hope to detect anomalous contributions.

### 3.2 Charged triple gauge couplings

Parametrizations for the tree level VWW vertices (V=Z,$`\gamma `$) in the right and middle graphs of fig.2 and 9 involve in their most general form a Lorentz invariant Lagrangian with fourteen independent complex couplings. Restricting the search to models with symmetries as in the SM (C, P, U(1)em and $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_\mathrm{L}\times \mathrm{U}(1)_\mathrm{Y}`$) the number of independent couplings reduces to three: $`\mathrm{g}_1^\mathrm{Z}`$, $`\kappa _\gamma `$ and $`\lambda _\gamma `$. In the SM the two first couplings are equal to 1 and the latter vanishes. They can be related to the weak charge, magnetic dipole and electric quadrupole moments of the W-boson.

Deviations from the SM values can be probed in a complementary way via effects induced on the single and pair production processes (see sec.2.6 and 2.2), the former being sensitive mainly to $`\kappa _\gamma `$ and the latter mainly to $`\mathrm{g}_1^\mathrm{Z}`$ and $`\lambda _\gamma `$444 The $`\nu \nu \gamma `$ final state also has some sensitivity to $`\kappa _\gamma `$ and $`\lambda _\gamma `$ through the WW fusion process.. Results obtained by the four LEP collaborations using the data collected in 1996-2000 are reported in. To maximize the sensitivity, the cross-sections, boson production polar angles, decay polar and azimuthal angles and average polarisation were exploited, using several adapted combination methods, based for example on “optimal observables”. The reconstruction performed by L3 for the boson production and decay angles in semi-leptonic W-boson pairs is illustrated in fig.11.

The measurement of charged TGCs obtained by combining all LEP results is shown in fig.12 with the negative log likelihoods provided by each experiment for each coupling, and their sums. Each coupling was minimized independently with the two others kept at their SM values555 Two and three-parameter analyses resulted in weak correlations.. Good agreement with the tree-level SM expectations was found within errors of 2-5%.

The main source of correlated systematic uncertainty was of theoretical nature, from the recent inclusion of $`O(\alpha )`$ EW radiative corrections in the W-pair production process (see sec.2.2). This source of error was estimated conservatively as the full difference between results using Monte Carlo samples with and without these new corrections, yielding negative shifts of -0.015 for $`\mathrm{g}_1^\mathrm{Z}`$ and $`\lambda _\gamma `$ and -0.04 for $`\kappa _\gamma `$. Although these shifts are sizeable, it can be seen from their signs and from the values found for the couplings that the agreement with the SM is as good with or without them. This is different from the cross-section measurement, where the improvement from the new corrections was clear. This feature is perhaps a little surprising, since more information is used to extract the charged TGCs, like angles and the single W-boson channel.

Since these shifts had similar sizes as the statistical errors and were fully correlated between energies and experiments, a careful treatment was implemented in the combination, expressing the likelihoods as functions of each coupling and of additional free parameters, to represent each error weighted by its sensitivity in each experiment, and by then performing a simultaneous minimization.

### 3.3 Neutral triple gauge couplings

There are no self-couplings involving exclusively neutral gauge bosons at tree level in the SM.

For NP satisfying Lorentz invariance and preserving the U(1)em and Bose symmetries for identical particles, the most general parametrization for the ZZZ, ZZ$`\gamma `$ and Z$`\gamma \gamma `$ vertices has twelve independent parameters, six of which are CP-conserving: $`h_{3,4}^{\mathrm{Z}/\gamma }`$ and $`f_5^{\mathrm{Z}/\gamma }`$, while the other six are CP-violating: $`h_{1,2}^{\mathrm{Z}/\gamma }`$ and $`f_4^{\mathrm{Z}/\gamma }`$. The $`h`$ and $`f`$ terms describe the VZ$`\gamma `$ and VZZ vertices, respectively, where $`\mathrm{V}=\mathrm{Z},\gamma `$ is off-shell but the two other bosons are on-shell.

These two classes of neutral TGCs can be probed via effects induced on the production processes $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{Z}\gamma `$ and ZZ, respectively (see sec.2.3 for the measurement of the latter). Results obtained by the four LEP collaborations using the data collected in 1996-2000 are reported in. The cross-sections and boson production angles were exploited, as well as, for the $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{Z}\gamma \mathrm{q}\overline{\mathrm{q}}\gamma `$ process the angle between the photon and nearest jet and, for the $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{Z}\gamma \nu \overline{\nu }\gamma `$ process the photon energy. The reconstruction performed by DELPHI for the two angles just described is illustrated in fig.13.

The constraints on neutral TGCs obtained combining all LEP results are shown in tab.2. The precision was dominated by statistical errors. There was lower sensitivity to $`f`$ than to $`h`$ terms because of the less favourable kinematics at the threshold for Z-boson pair production.

The analysis done treated $`h`$ and $`f`$ terms separately, though it has recently been shown that using the $`\mathrm{SU}(2)_\mathrm{L}\times \mathrm{U}(1)_\mathrm{Y}`$ symmetry as in the charged case relates the VZ$`\gamma `$ and VZZ vertices for some classes of operators and can lead to fewer independent couplings. Although some generality may be lost, this will now be done as well. It is expected that the more precise $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{Z}\gamma `$ measurements will dominate the constraints from such a combined analysis.

Another recent theoretical development has enabled a generalization of the description by including off-shell bosons. It was argued that the resulting effects cannot be ignored in detailed experiments, especially if data measured outside the strictly on-shell regions of the Z-pair and Z$`\gamma `$ processes are also used. A first study in this direction has been presented by DELPHI, based on the Z$`\gamma ^{}`$ production measurement (see sec.2.4).

### 3.4 Quartic gauge couplings

The couplings predicted in the SM at the WWWW, WWZZ, WW$`\gamma \gamma `$ and WWZ$`\gamma `$ vertices are below LEP-2 sensitivities. The searches performed probed potential anomalous contributions arising from NP, concentrating on operators which do not simultaneously cause anomalous TGCs. It has been argued that such operators, often referred to as “genuine” QGCs, can be related more directly to the scalar sector of the theory. The parametrization used involves four CP-conserving terms at the WW$`\gamma \gamma `$ and ZZ$`\gamma \gamma `$ vertices, $`a_{0,c}^{\mathrm{W},\mathrm{Z}}`$, and a CP-violating one at the WWZ$`\gamma `$ vertex, $`a_n`$. By convention these terms are usually normalised to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^2`$, the square of the energy scale at which the NP responsible for them appears.

Experimentally these terms were probed by measuring the three boson final state processes $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{WW}\gamma `$ (for $`a_{0,c}^\mathrm{W}`$ and $`a_n`$) and $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\mathrm{Z}\gamma \gamma `$ (for $`a_{0,c}^\mathrm{Z}`$), using both the rates and energy spectra of the photons. The presence of $`a_{0,c}^{\mathrm{W},\mathrm{Z}}`$ terms was also studied through their influence on the $`\mathrm{e}^+\mathrm{e}^{}\nu \nu \gamma \gamma `$ process, via a contributing graph with WW fusion and another one involving neutrino pair production mediated by a Z boson which radiates two photons. Both the rate and the photon pair recoil mass spectrum were exploited.

Only the L3 Z$`\gamma \gamma `$ and OPAL $`\nu \nu \gamma \gamma `$ results were combined so far, allowing to set the following 95% CL limits on the ZZ$`\gamma \gamma `$ vertex: $`0.033<a_0^\mathrm{Z}\times GeV^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2<0.046`$ and $`0.009<a_c^\mathrm{Z}\times GeV^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2<0.026`$. A combination of the cross-sections obtained by DELPHI and L3 for the WW$`\gamma `$ final state was also performed666The signal was defined as the cross-section from all graphs in the kinematic region: $`|m_{\mathrm{f}\overline{\mathrm{f}}}m_\mathrm{W}|<2\mathrm{\Gamma }_\mathrm{W}`$, $`\mathrm{cos}\theta _{\gamma ,\mathrm{f}}<0.90`$, $`|\mathrm{cos}\theta _\gamma |<0.95`$ and $`E_\gamma >5`$ GeV. and is illustrated in fig.14, together with the SM prediction of EEWWG and the sensitivity to the CP-violating $`a_n`$ coupling. No combined constraints on $`a_{0,c}^\mathrm{W}`$ and $`a_n`$ QGCs were yet obtained from this limited cross-section information, but individual results have been published, for example the L3 one: $`0.015<a_0^\mathrm{W}\times GeV^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2<0.015`$ and $`0.048<a_c^\mathrm{W}\times GeV^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2<0.026`$ (using also the information from the $`\nu \nu \gamma \gamma `$ final state), and $`0.14<a_n\times GeV^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2<0.13`$.

### 3.5 Summary

The charged TGCs were measured within a few 0.01 of their predicted values in the SM, confirming again the non-Abelian gauge group structure. NP giving anomalous contributions of the order of these errors could be excluded. The sensitivity was not enough to probe SM loop effects, which are predicted to be at the 0.003 level. It was also barely enough to sense effects from SUSY even in the most optimistic scenarios with sparticles not far above the kinematic limit. A Z with a low mass would on the other hand have produced visible effects, but would also have been strongly felt in di-fermion cross-section measurements.

Some improvement to the precision is still expected from on-going work to estimate the uncertainty on the $`O(\alpha )`$ corrections in a better way than just quoting their full effect, for instance by varying assumptions in the theoretical treatments used. This could help to understand why there was some sensitivity to SM loop effects when measuring the total cross-section (see sec.2.2) but not the charged TGCs (see sec.3.2). Further ahead experiments at higher energies will improve the sensitivity. The TeVatron with 10 fb-1 and the LHC with 300 fb-1 should for example pin down $`\lambda _\gamma `$ to about $`\pm 0.005`$ and $`\pm 0.0003`$, respectively. A good sensitivity to all TGCs is expected at a future $`e^+e^{}`$ linear collider. For instance TESLA should reach a precision of a few $`\pm 0.0001`$ after collecting 1500 fb-1 at $`\sqrt{s}`$ = 800 GeV.

The neutral TGCs were found to be zero as expected, but within larger error ranging from $`\pm 0.05`$ to $`\pm 0.30`$. In the case of perturbative NP, anomalous contributions to neutral TGCs are expected to be depressed by at least one more power of $`m_{\mathrm{W},\mathrm{Z}}^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2`$ compared to charged ones, because operators with higher dimension are involved. Neutral TGCs expected from several scenarios for NP have for example been studied in . The overall conclusion reached was that potential effects were generally below experimental sensitivities, except in cases of new particles with masses just above the kinematic reach, or of NP which is not perturbative.

The QGCs were also found to be close to zero as expected. Here the expected “natural” size of couplings at LEP-2 is about 1 for NP with an energy scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ = 3 TeV, which is far below the experimental sensitivity.

Even though effects on gauge couplings from the NP scenarios that were investigated turned out to be too small to be detected, the systematic search program carried out at LEP-2 was certainly justified to demonstrate the validity of the SM, and to show that there is no evidence of new physics from totally unexpected sources. The analyses done are also a useful preparation for similar work at future high energy colliders.

Recent measurements and analyses of spin density matrix elements in the W-boson pair production process are not covered here.

## 4 Conclusions and prospects

The results on the measurements of $`4f`$ final states and gauge boson self-couplings are an important part of the LEP legacy. The present work is to complete the documentation promptly. while the main physicists involved are still available. All final experimental results and combinations are expected during 2003. At the time of this writing, only the measurements by DELPHI of Z-boson pair production, by L3 of single boson production and quartic couplings, and by OPAL of Z$`\gamma ^{}`$ production are considered truly “final” in the sense of being described in a refereed CERN-EP preprint note or journal publication. It is important to ensure a high quality and an appropriate level of detail in the descriptions of the analyses and final results to facilitate future reading.

## 5 Acknowledgements

The beautiful experimental results presented in this report are one of the cherries on the LEP-2 cake: a long chain of prior tasks was required. The accelerator physicists and operators achieved energies and luminosities in excess of expectations. The experimental teams took quality data with ever rising efficiencies. Alignment and calibration procedures were carried out. Huge sets of Monte Carlo simulations were produced and checked. And more… All this detailed work and the people involved must be recognised.

The work of the $`4f`$ and Gauge Couplings LEP working groups should also be acknowledged. Such common inter-collaboration groups provide a competitive and stimulating environment where the best experts from each experiments can share their knowledge, discuss approaches, compare and cross-scrutinize each others results and methods. They were an important ingredient which enhanced the scientific quality and can serve as example for the future.

Personally, I would like to thank my colleagues in the DELPHI $`4f`$ team for collaborating over the years and for the good spirit, in particular Sandro Ballestrero, Marcia Begalli, Maurizio Bonesini, Guennadi Borisov, Roberto Contri, Niels Kjaer, Esther Ferrer, Enrico Graziani, Anna Lipniacka, Ernesto Migliore, Rosy Nikolaidou, Hywel Phillips, Maria Elena Pol, Jens Rehn, Robert Sekulin, Alessandra Tonazzo, Valerio Verzi, Ivo van Vulpen and Mariusz Witek. Special thanks also to the successive DELPHI spokesmen Daniel Treille, Wilbur Venus, Tiziano Camporesi and Jan Timmermans, who supported our work and to Roberto Chierici, Ulrich Parzefall and Robert Sekulin, who helped me prepare this review. Jan, Robert, Roberto and Sandro also kindly proof-read this text.