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# Anisotropies of the lower and upper critical fields in MgB2 single crystals

## Abstract

The temperature dependence of the London penetration depth ($`\lambda `$) and coherence length ($`\xi `$) has been deduced from Hall probe magnetization measurements in high quality MgB2 single crystals in the two main crystallographic directions. We show that, in contrast to conventional superconductors, MgB2 is characterized by two different anisotropy parameters ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda =\lambda _c/\lambda _{ab}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi =\xi _{ab}/\xi _c`$) which strongly differ at low temperature and merge at $`T_c`$. These results are in very good agreement with recent calculations in weakly coupled two bands suprerconductors (Phys. Rev. B, 66, 020509(R) (2002).

The recent discovery of superconductivity in Magnesium Diboride  has been the starting point of a large number of theoretical and experimental investigations. The coexistence of two superconducting energy gaps with different anisotropies  is expected to give rise to very peculiar physical properties in this system . Among those, the strong temperature dependence of the anisotropy of the upper critical field $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{H_{c2}}=H_{c2ab}/H_{c2c}`$ is now well established  ($`H_{c2ab}`$ and $`H_{c2c}`$ being the upper critical fields for magnetic fields parallel to the two main crystallograpic directions, $`ab`$planes and $`c`$direction, respectively).

”Classical” superconductors can be characterized by one single anisotropy parameter : $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\xi _{ab}/\xi _c=\lambda _c/\lambda _{ab}`$ (where $`\xi `$ and $`\lambda `$ are the superconducting coherence and penetration depths in signed crystallographic orientations) whatever the anisotropy of the superconducting gap. However, it has been suggested that $`\xi _{ab}/\xi _c`$ could differ considerably from $`\lambda _c/\lambda _{ab}`$ at low temperature in MgB2 due to the presence of two superconducting energy gaps with different anisotropies . Even though recent neutron scattering data have confirmed that $`\lambda _c/\lambda _{ab}1`$ at low temperature is indeed very different from $`\xi _{ab}/\xi _c5`$ , the temperature dependence of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda =\lambda _c/\lambda _{ab}`$ still had to be determined. In this letter, we confirm that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi =\xi _{ab}/\xi _c`$ ($`=\mathrm{\Gamma }_{H_{c2}}`$) strongly differs from $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda `$ at low temperature and show for the first time that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi `$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda `$ present different temperature dependencies : whereas $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi `$ decreases from $`5`$ to $`2`$ (close to $`T_c`$), $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda `$ increases with temperature tending from $`1.4`$ towards $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi `$ for $`TT_c`$.

Magnetization measurements have been performed on high quality single crystal  ($`T_c36.5`$ K) showing flat surfaces of typical dimensions : $`10010025\mu `$m3 using a Hall probe magnetometer. The main surface (i.e. the $`ab`$planes) of the sample has been placed either parallel to or perpendicular to the surface of the Hall probes in order to measure the magnetization for $`Hc`$ and $`Hab`$ respectively (see sketches in the inset of Fig.1a). The alignement of the external field with the main crystallographic axis has been obtained by slightly rotating the ensemble in order to get the maximum and mimimum $`H_{c2}`$ values for $`Hab`$ and $`Hc`$ respectively. A typical magnetization loop is presented in the inset of Fig1b for $`Hc`$ and $`T=20`$ K. As shown the irreversible part of the magnetization loops is rather small (corresponding to critical current values on the order of $`10^3`$ A/cm2 at low T and low H) and the reversible magnetization could thus easily be obtained assuming that $`M_{rev}=(M_{up}+M_{down})/2`$ where $`M_{up}`$ and $`M_{down}`$ are the magnetization for increasing and decreasing magnetic fields respectively (Bean critical state model). Typical curves are displayed in Fig.1 for $`T>26K`$. For lower temperatures, the upper critical field values for $`Hab`$ became larger than our maximum field ($`3`$ T) but the lower critical field could still be deduced easily in both directions down to the lowest temperatures ($`5`$ K).

For $`Hc`$ i.e. perpendicular to the platelet, important demagnetizing effect come into play and the magnetic field has been rescaled to : $`H=H_0N_cM_{rev}`$ where $`H_0`$ is the external field and $`N_c`$ the demagnetizing factor. $`N_c`$ can be estimated assuming that the sample is an ellipsoid of thickness $`t25\mu `$m and width $`w100\mu `$m to $`N_c=1\pi t/2w0.6`$. This value has been confirmed by the fact that, after correction for this demagnetization effect, the magnetization curves present a nearly vertical slope for $`H=H_{c1}`$. As pointed out by Zeldov et al.  this value might however be overestimated by a factor on the order of $`\sqrt{w/t}`$ due to the presence of geometrical barriers but it is important to note that, even though the absolute values of $`H_{c1c}`$ \- and $`H_{c1ab}`$ \- are directly related to the choice of the demagnetizing factor, their temperature dependence is absolutely not affected by this choice.

The value of $`N_{ab}`$ has then been set to $`N_{ab}1N_c/2`$. In this direction, the effect of Bean Livingston barriers can also lead to a significant overestimation of $`H_{c1}`$ (up to a factor $`\kappa /ln(\kappa )`$ where $`\kappa `$ is the Ginzburg -Landau parameter, the penetration field is then equal to the thermodynamic field instead of the lower critical field). Those effects play for instance a significant role in high $`T_c`$ cuprates due to their very high $`\kappa `$ values . They result from the competiting effect between an attracting image force to the surface and a repulsive one arising from the interaction between the vortices and the shielding currents. This latter force is proportional to the magnetization and thus vanishes as $`M0`$ for descending magnetic fields. When the field further decreases nothing prevents the vortices to leave the sample and $`M`$ remains close to zero. This effect is highly sensitive to the quality of the surface and we did never observe this characteristic behaviour in our magnetization loops. On the contary the irreversible part of the magnetization remained small in the entire temperature range (being for instance on the order of $`15\%`$ at $`30`$ K) and we thus assumed that $`M_{rev}`$ is equal to the average magnetization (i.e. that pinning mainly arises from bulk defects).

The corresponding $`M_{rev}`$ versus $`H`$ curves are displayed in Fig.1. Note that the y-axis has been slightly rescaled in order to get a $`1`$ slope in the Meissner state due to the fact that the sample did not completely recover the surface of the Hall probe (especially for $`Hab`$). Assuming that the lower critical magnetic field is equal to the penetration field (i.e. neglecting durface pinning effects, see discussion above), $`H_{c1}`$ could be easily determined from the well defined minima in the $`M_{rev}(H)`$ curves (see Fig.1). The upper critical magnetic field $`H_{c2}`$ has been defined as the onset of the diamagnetic response at $`M_{rev}(H_{c2})=0`$.

The temperature dependencies of the corresponding critical fields are displayed in Fig.2. The inset shows the temperature dependence of the upper critical magnetic field for $`Hc`$ (solid circles) and $`Hab`$ (open circles) deduced from our magnetization measurements. Those values have been extrapolated down to low temperature for $`Hab`$ using our previous high field magneto-transport data performed on a sample from the same batch  (with slightly higher $`H_{c2}`$ values, dotted line in the inset of Fig.2). As previously observed , the temperature dependence of $`H_{c2}`$ is almost linear for $`Hc`$ and presents a positive curvature for $`Hab`$. As shown, the situation is very different for the lower critical field which is almost linear for $`Hab`$ and reveals a negative curvature for $`Hc`$ at high temperatures. This unusual negative curvature of $`H_{c1c}`$ close to $`T_c`$ has been previously observed in thin films and polycrystalline samples  and can be explained by the two-band Ginzburg-Landau theory  (the isotropic Ginzburg-Landau theory only allows for a linear temperature dependence of $`H_{c1}`$ close to $`T_c`$ ). As shown below, this difference in curvatures will lead to an increase of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda `$ for increasing temperature.

The penetration depth has been deduced from $`H_{c1}`$ through :

$$H_{c1}=\mathrm{\Phi }_0/(2\pi \lambda _{ab}^2).(\mathrm{\Gamma }_H/\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda ).(ln(\stackrel{~}{\kappa })+0.5)$$
(1)
with $`\stackrel{~}{\kappa }=\lambda _{ab}/\xi _{ab}`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_H=\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda `$ for $`Hc`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\kappa }\sqrt{\lambda _{ab}\lambda _c/\xi _{ab}\xi _c}`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_H=1`$ for $`Hab`$. The values of the coherence lengths $`\xi _c(0)5`$ nm and $`\xi _{ab}(0)10`$ nm have been determined from $`H_{c2}(T)`$ and we hence got $`\lambda _c(0)80`$ nm and $`\lambda _{ab}(0)60`$ nm in good agreement with the values deduced from the slope of the magnetization curve : $`1/\lambda ^2=[8\pi /\mathrm{\Phi }_0]d(\mu _0M_{rev})/dln(H)`$. Note that this slope rapidly decreases with field up to some characteristic field $`H^{}(T)`$ being on the order of $`0.3`$ T at low temperature. This field can probably be associated with the closing of the small gap, $`H^{}H_{c2}^\pi `$ in good agreement with our previous point-contact spectroscopy experiment  and with estimation of Bouquet et al.  from specific heat measurements and Eskildsen et al.  from tunneling data. Note that it has been suggested that for uniaxial superconductors $`\stackrel{~}{\kappa }`$ could be approximated to $`\lambda _{ab}/\lambda _c`$ for all field directions  which would lead to $`\lambda _c\lambda _{ab}60`$ nm.

The $`\lambda _{ab}(0)`$ value determined in this experiment is much larger than the one previously obtained on single crystals by Caplin et al.  but lower than those obtained on thin films and polycrystalline sampes . However, $`\lambda `$ is expected to be very sensitive to interband scatering and it has been shown  that $`\lambda _{ab}^{dirty}(0)100`$ nm whereas $`\lambda _{ab}^{clean}(0)40`$ nm (and $`\lambda _c^{dirty}(0)300`$ nm and $`\lambda _c^{clean}(0)40`$ nm) suggesting that our single crystals are close to the clean limit as further confirmed by our $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda `$ value $`1.4`$ ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda ^{clean}(0)1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda ^{dirty}(0)3`$). This ratio is also in good agreement with the one recently deduced from neutron scattering measurements .

The temperature dependence of the as-deduced $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda `$ values is shown in Fig.3 as solid circles. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi (T)`$ (open circles) has been deduced from our $`H_{c2}`$ values above $`26`$ K and extrapolated towards lower temperature using the $`H_{c2}(T)`$ extrapolation shown in the inset of Fig.2. As shown, in striking contrast with conventional one band superconductors the anisotropy parameters $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda (T)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi (T)`$ are very different at low temperatures. Moreover, they reveal opposite temperature dependencies and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda (T)`$ increases tending towards $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi (T)`$ for $`TT_c`$ where both anisotropies merges at $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi (T_c)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda (T_c)2`$. This unusual behavior is also in striking contrast with the one previously obtained by Caplin et al.  who suggested that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi =\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda 2`$ in the entire temperature range but is in a very good agreement with Kogan’s  calculations of the anisotropy parameters for a weakly-coupled two-bands superconductor.

At low temperature the anisotropy of the upper critical field is mainly related to the anisotropy of the Fermi velocities over the quasi 2D $`\sigma `$ sheet : $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi \sqrt{<v_{ab}^2>^\sigma /<v_c^2>^\sigma }6`$. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi `$ then decreases with temperature as the influence of the small, nearly isotropic, gap increases due to thermal mixing of the two gaps . On the other hand, the anisotropy of $`\lambda `$ is related to the anisotropy of the Fermi velocities over the whole Fermi surface which is expected to be on the order of $`1.1`$ in reasonable agreement with our experimental data. As pointed out by Kogan et al.  the two anisotropies have to merge at $`T_c`$ as they are then determined by the same ”mass tensor”. We have also reported in Fig.3 the temperature dependence of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{H_{c1}}=H_{c1c}/H_{c1ab}`$. As shown $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{H_{c1}}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda `$ present very similar temperature dependencies (and only differ by a numerical factor on the order of $`1.4`$) showing this dependence does not depend on the choice of $`\stackrel{~}{\kappa }`$ in Eq.(1).

Finally we discuss the temperature dependence of the superfluid density $`1/\lambda ^2`$. The inset of Fig.4 displays $`(\lambda (0)/\lambda (T))^2`$ as a function of temperature for the two main crystallographic directions. The dotted lines schematically represents the temperature dependencies of the superfluid densities in the case of two independent BCS superconducting $`\pi `$ (for which $`T_c`$ would be on the order of $`20`$ K) and $`\sigma `$ bands. At low temperatures, the $`T`$dependence of $`1/\lambda _c^2`$ and $`1/\lambda _{ab}^2`$ are both determined by the the band with the smallest gap (i.e. the $`\pi `$band) and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda `$ is only very weakly temperature dependent. As the temperature increases, the influence of the $`\sigma `$ band sets in and an inflexion point is then clearly visible around $`20`$K for $`1/\lambda _{ab}^2(T)`$ (see maximum for $`d(1/\lambda _{ab}^2)/dT`$ in Fig.4) followed by a downward curvature up to $`T_c`$. As pointed out in , this inflexion point is a direct consequence of the ”superposition” of two BCS bands. The sharp kink that would appear for two independent bands is here smoothed out by interband coupling but still shows up as a clear maximum in the first derivative close to the ”critical temperature” of the $`\pi `$band. A very similar behaviour has been previously reported by Carrington et al.  for the superfluid density deduced from microwave measurements.

It is important to note that this change in the curvature at $`T=20`$ K is also visible for $`1/\lambda _c^2`$ (see mimimum for $`d(1/\lambda _c^2)/dT`$ in Fig.4). In this direction, the penetration depth is mainly determined by the $`\pi `$band up to $`T_c`$ (in the clean limit) due to the very small value of the superfluid density of the $`\sigma `$band (i.e. strongly 2D character of the $`\sigma `$ band). Despite the small value of the corresponding gap, superconductivity remains induced in the $`\pi `$ band by interband coupling giving rise to the ”tail” of $`1/\lambda _c^2`$ at high temperature which shows up as a lower $`d(1/\lambda _c^2)/dT`$ value. Those temperature dependencies are qualitatively in good agreement with the recent calculations by Golubov et al. . However, the details of those dependencies strongly depend on intraband scattering as well as on the relative contributions of the two bands.

In conclusion, we have given direct experimental evidence that the anisotropy of MgB2 is characterized by two different parameters ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\lambda `$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_\xi `$) which differs not only in absolute values but also in their temperature dependencies in striking contrast to conventional type II superconductors. The as-deduced temperature dependencies of those two anisotropy parameters are in perfect agreement with theoretical predictions for weakly coupled two bands superconductor . The presence of two different bands is enforced by the inflexion point observed around $`20`$ K in the temperature dependence of $`1/\lambda ^2`$ in both crystallographic directions.

The work of P.Sz. was partially supported by the Slovak Science and Technology Assistance Agency under contract No.APVT-51-020102. This work in Korea was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of Korea through the Creative Research Initiative Program.


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# Period-magnitude relations for M giants in Baade’s Window NGC 6522

## 1 Introduction

The existence of period-luminosity relations is of great importance to astronomy. Each class of variable that shows such a relation adds to the precision with which distance comparisons can be made between nearby galaxies and ultimately assists in the determination of the distance scale of the universe. Clearly, the limits of precision and the dependence of a relation on factors other than distance must be understood if it is to be truly useful. Among the late-type variables it has been known for over twenty years that the Miras obey a good $`K`$, log $`P`$ law in the infrared, where they emit most of their energy (e.g., Glass & Lloyd Evans, 1981, 2003). More recently, large-scale variability surveys such as MACHO (Alcock et al, 1999) and the near infrared sky surveys DENIS (Epchtein 1998) and 2MASS (Skrutskie 1998) are leading to new insights into the behaviour of the semi-regular variables (SRVs), which require long runs of data on many objects if their systematic and general properties are to be elucidated. Within the Milky Way galaxy, the Baade’s Windows towards the inner Bulge are particularly suitable for studies of this kind because most of the objects they contain are at an approximately uniform distance that is known with moderate precision.

Alard et al (2001; see also Glass & Alves, 2000) found that nearly all the stars detected during the infrared ISOGAL survey (Omont et al, 2003) at 7 and 15 $`\mu `$m of the Baade’s Windows NGC 6522 and SgrI are, in fact, late-type variables, and that many of those with periods in excess of 80 days are losing mass. Such stars contribute significant amounts of re-cycled material to the interstellar medium. By identifying the Alard et al stars in the DENIS $`IJK_S`$ data, Schultheis & Glass (2001) have been able to investigate their general properties in the near-infrared colour-magnitude, colour-colour and colour-period diagrams. They have also been cross-identified with a complete sample of M giants with spectral classification by Blanco (Glass & Schultheis, 2002; GS) and the dependence of their variability properties on spectral type and $`K`$ magnitude has been determined. In general, it was found that significant variability occurs only amongst Blanco subtypes of M5 or later (corresponding to M-K subtypes M4 or later).

Wood and the MACHO team (1999) and Wood (2000) showed that the AGB stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) fall into four approximately parallel sequences (one of which corresponds to the Miras) in the $`I_W`$ vs log $`P`$ and $`K`$ vs log $`P`$ diagrams. Although our Baade’s Window work suggested that there was some evidence that the Bulge giants might behave similarly, the numbers of stars were too few to demonstrate this at all convincingly and it was also suspected that the depth of the Bulge along the line of sight was smearing out any systematic trend. Similar results are emerging from studies of the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC, see Cioni et al and Ita et al, in preparation)

In addition, recent evidence from the LMC (Cioni et al, 2001) suggests that there is more continuity in the amplitude distribution with period of the late-type variables than has hitherto been believed. The canonical view of this distribution rests on the work of Payne-Gaposchkin (1951), based on solar neighbourhood studies made with visual and photographic techniques and with no certainty as to the uniformity of the sample in space. From Payne-Gaposchkin’s work it appeared that a gap existed in the amplitude distribution between the Miras and the irregular variables. This could have been an artefact arising from the ease of detecting Miras in spite of their rarity and the probably similar rarity of stars with intermediate amplitudes, which are much harder to find. In addition, small-amplitude variables will have been under-represented in her data because of the limitations of photographic photometry.

These two considerations suggested that a large-scale investigation of the AGB variables in the NGC 6522 Baade’s Window as they appear in DENIS and MACHO would be worthwhile and would complement similar studies in the Magellanic Clouds. All these areas of the sky have the advantage over the solar neighbourhood that the objects they contain are at more-or-less known distances. In this paper, we take the distance modulus of the NGC6522 field to be 14.7 (Glass et al, 1995). This figure is based on Mira variables in the nearby Baade’s Window field Sgr I and takes the d.m. of the LMC to be 18.55.

## 2 The data

The MACHO catalogue for stars lying between RA = 18h 02m 09s and 18h 05m 02s and Declination -30 16′′ 39 and -29 46′′ 43, (2000) in MACHO field 119, corresponding roughly to the area searched photographically for large-amplitude variables by Lloyd Evans (1976), was downloaded and cross-correlated with the DENIS catalogue, limiting the choice to stars brighter than $`K`$ = 9.75, fainter than which the work of GS suggests that relatively few variables will be found. A total of 1661 stars were selected. The search radius was 3′′ and the mean distance between objects was 0.8′′, with rms scatter 0.4′′

There were 153 stars with $`K_S`$ $`<`$ 9.75 that seemed to have no MACHO counterparts. Some of these fell on the gaps between CCD chips in MACHO or off one edge of the field (due to a slight mis-match of boundaries). Of the remaining 44, seven stars fell in the region of the clusters NGC 6522 and NGC 6528 that were probably too crowded for the MACHO reduction process. The other 37 appear to have saturated the MACHO CCDs; their positions are surrounded by areas free of stars for several arcsec radius. For example, one is coincident with the Lloyd Evans (1976) Mira D9. Stars of earlier spectral type than M have smaller $`RK`$ and are therefore more likely to saturate the MACHO detectors - see also figs 2 and 3).

The detailed data for each of the 1661 stars were downloaded from the MACHO website. The red and blue light curves as well as the frequency power spectrum of each star in each colour were plotted, in batches of 20. The range of frequencies searched was from 0 to 0.1 cycles per day (10 days to infinity in period). The three most conspicuous maxima in each spectrum were extracted automatically, but each light curve and frequency spectrum was also examined by eye. In most cases, the automatically extracted periods agreed between the two colours. There were a significant number of cases where there was no MACHO $`r`$ coverage due to a failed CCD. Occasionally, the data were so sparse as to be useless in one or both colours. The MACHO quality flags (Alcock et al, 1999) were usually disregarded as they were often found to exclude useful data. Instead, the Fourier transform programme was relied upon (see below) to exclude discrepant points. The limit of detectability is estimated to be two or three hundredths of a mag full amplitude.

Multiple periodicity is quite prevalent and a distinction is made between doubly-periodic variables, which show a long period (usually a few hundred days) superimposed on a short period, usually some tens of days, and stars with secondary short periods, where both periods are usually tens of days (see also section 7.1). Fig 1 shows an example of a typical classification, in this case a doubly-periodic variable which also has a secondary short period, though one that is anomalously long.

Of the 1661 selected stars, 1085 were found to be variables and 385 were not variable. The remainder consisted of 58 that were clearly saturated at both MACHO $`b`$ and $`r`$ and 133 whose data were sparse or negligible in both wavelengths. The last category were usually, in fact, saturated but in a minority of cases were probably crowded.

We did not find any variables outside the categories of semi-regulars and Miras.

### 2.1 Interpretation of the Fourier power spectra

The Fourier transform programme removes iteratively all data more than 2.58 standard deviations from the mean and searches for the three most prominent amplitudes using prewhitening between each step.

Some spectra, later disregarded, were apparently distorted by saturation and gave false frequency maxima. The light ‘curves’ in question are usually fairly flat, but with erratic excursions up or down, and the data points were usually near the top of the range in $`r`$ and $`b`$, but not uniformly so. In some cases, only one of $`r`$, $`b`$ are saturated and the variations can be seen in the other.

Very often the most prominent feature of the Fourier spectrum is a moderately broad peak with a spike on top. The programme picks out the highest peak - the spike. This can be due to noise, but is more likely a manifestation of a period of highly regular behaviour. The position of the spike was usually close to the maximum of the broad peak. Sometimes the blue and red spikes did not coincide, but the maximum of the broad peaks agreed within a few hundredths of a cycle per day. The position of the red spike was usually the value noted. The periods were normally recorded to three significant figures.

The breadth of the peak is largely determined by the spacing of the observations (the ‘window function’) but can also be affected by irregularity of frequency and amplitude.

Noted were the most prominent short period, the second most prominent short period and the most prominent long period (see fig 1). The long period was sometimes not visually apparent from the light curves but appeared in both the red and blue Fourier spectra. In such cases, the amplitude was very small and noted as 0.05 mag.

The full short-period amplitude was estimated by eye from the $`r`$ light curve whenever possible, and represents the eye-averaged amplitude at the most prominent short period or periods. The values listed were 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.3, …. mag. Very small but apparently real amplitudes were classed as 0.05 mag. In the case of doubly periodic stars, the amplitude at the longer period was estimated in the same way. The overall or long-term amplitude was often larger than the quantity just described, whether due to genuine long periods, apparently random variations in amplitude or long-term drifts. As a test of the accuracy and reliability of the amplitude classification, some were repeated independently after a long time. They were sometimes found to differ by one place in the list from the earlier estimates.

We have not attempted to sub-divide the variables by regularity, such as into the traditional regular, SRa, SRb and irregular classes. There are undoubted trends from irregularity to regularity with amplitude and period (Lebzelter, Schultheis & Melchior, 2002).

## 3 Particular types of variables

### 3.1 Mira-like variables

Amongst the 1085 variables, 34 had $`r`$ amplitudes above 1.5 mag. All but two of these were Miras or SRVs that had been found previously by Lloyd Evans (1976). The other two were 119.20741.923, which resembles a Mira with 349d period but has an $`r`$ amplitude of only 2 mag, and 119.20481.28, which has a period of 144 days and a $`b`$ amplitude of 1.7 mag.

There are 44 stars in Lloyd Evans’ list (see table 1), of which 10 did not appear in the DENIS-MACHO cross list of 1661. Of these, one was a non-Mira, making 9 that should have been there but were not. Six of the 10 were burnt out in the MACHO images and the remaining four, denoted by asterisks, were omitted from the cross-correlation because they appear to lack DENIS entries (two because of saturation; the other two, TLEA28, a semi-regular, and TLE207, a star with a thick dust shell, were seen in 2MASS). These four had previously been found in the MACHO data by entering positions derived from the Lloyd Evans charts and the Digitized Sky Survey. No additional Miras were discovered. It is possible that some of the Mira light curves were saturated at times in MACHO, so that some amplitudes may be truncated. Table 1 includes two stars (at the end) with $`r`$ amplitudes of 1.7 and 2.0 mag, which were the only other MACHO objects with amplitudes greater than 1.5 mag.

The agreement with Lloyd Evans’s periods is usually good. However, the period of his star 590 was found to be 186d and not 375d as previously determined. This was probably a result of the closeness of the period to half a year, the seasonality of the observations and the use of photographic techniques, which are inherently less photometrically precise.

### 3.2 Doubly-periodic variables

Wood et al (1999) found large numbers of double-period stars in the LMC and similar stars were found in the Baade’s Window NGC 6522 field by Alard et al (2001). The easiest to find of these stars have short periods of tens of days, of small amplitude, and a long period of hundreds of days, often with somewhat higher amplitude.

The proportion of these double-period stars is harder to evaluate in the NGC 6522 field than in the Magellanic Clouds because the seasonal nature of the observations makes the determination of the long periods less reliable, especially when their amplitudes are small. When all traces of periodic variation, apparent in both colours, are accepted the number of such stars is 189. If only those with amplitude $`>`$ 0.1 mag are counted, it becomes 113. Sources with amplitude $`>`$ 0.2 mag are 55 in number. The maximum secondary amplitude observed is 1.1 and usually it is less than 0.5 mag.

The $`K`$ mags of these variables extend to well below $`K`$ = 8.2, generally taken as the upper limit of the RGB (e.g., Tiede, Frogel & Terndrup, 1995; Omont et al, 1999)

## 4 Infrared photometry

The DENIS photometry shows good agreement at $`J`$ and $`K`$ with 2MASS and its standard errors should be less than 0.10 to 0.12 mag at each wavelength (Schultheis & Glass, 2001).

The interstellar absorption $`A_V`$ within the NGC 6522 field has been determined on a star-by-star basis using the programme of Stanek (1996), corrected as prescribed on the web site that he cites. The reddening law was taken to be

$$A_V:A_I:A_J:A_{K,S}=1:0.59:0.245:0.093$$

In a few cases, such as near the edges of the field or near the clusters NGC 6522 and NGC 6528, the programme (map.f) could not function and $`A_V`$ was simply taken to be 1.36 (Alcock et al, 1997).

### 4.1 Colour-colour diagram

The DENIS colour-colour diagram $`(IJ)`$ vs $`(JK_S)`$ (fig 2) of the survey objects confirms that they are mainly of M spectral type, similar to the stars examined by GS, to which these are a super-set. The saturated stars lie blue-ward of the others in both colours and are clearly of hotter spectral types in general. The figure indicates the colours of some Morgan-Keenan spectral types, taken from GS.

### 4.2 Colour - magnitude diagram

The $`K_{S,0}`$, $`(JK_S)_0`$ diagram is shown in fig 3. The general features of this diagram are similar to that presented by Schultheis & Glass (2001).

Some of the apparent scatter is caused by foreground objects along the line of sight. In addition, there are many objects whose MACHO observations, though not their infrared photometry, are saturated. These are denoted by crosses. These are mostly stars of earlier type than M and are predominantly located blueward of the variables in $`(JK_S)_0`$.

Several types of objects have been distinguished in the figure. As expected, the Miras (asterisks) are usually towards the bright end of the $`K`$-distribution, although some may have dust shells which place them at fainter $`K`$ and redward of the main distribution. One variable of fairly large amplitude, TLE 395, having a period of only 116 days, is quite faint, at ($`K_{S,0}`$, $`(JK_S)_0`$) $``$ (9.6, 1.1).

The majority of ‘ordinary’ variables are indicated by small solid symbols. The non-variables are shown as small open circles. The proportion of variables can be seen to be low at faint $`K`$ and to increase strongly with luminosity. This is in accord with the results of GS.

The double-period stars are distinguished by hollow squares. They are evenly spread amongst the ordinary variables in colour, but are relatively more numerous at higher luminosities. However, it should be noted that we have confined the sample to the 55 doubles with long-period amplitudes in excess of 0.2 mag, in the interest of reliability, and this may have a systematic effect on their distribution in the figure.

## 5 Amplitude distribution

The canonical view of the frequency distribution of the mean amplitude of red variables was given by Payne-Gaposchkin (1951; see fig. 4). The dividing line between small-amplitude variables and Miras is traditionally taken at an amplitude of 2.5 mag in $`B`$ or $`V`$. At the time, most of the information would have come from photographic photometry, which is not precise enough to identify variables with amplitudes of a few tenths of a mag or less. This is reflected in the dotted line at low amplitudes in her diagram. There appears to be a marked break in the distribution between 2 and 3 mag in amplitude.

The $`r`$ amplitude distribution vs period is shown in fig 5. The most prominent short period is used in the abscissa. In the case of large-amplitude variables, such as Miras, the shortest period can be several hundred days. The longer periods of the double-period stars are denoted by open symbols. Above a MACHO $`r`$ amplitude of about 0.6 the number of variables drops very sharply. Variables with larger amplitudes than this have periods longer than 200 days. The numbers of small-amplitude variables drop off at a period of around 150 days but the long periods of double-period stars continues the small-amplitude sequence to longer periods.

In figure 6 we show the $`r`$ amplitude distribution of variables in the NGC 6522 field as a histogram with 0.5 mag boxes. In comparing figs 4 and 6, it should be borne in mind that the data in the former are probably of heterogeneous origin and that $`B`$ and $`V`$ amplitudes of late-type variables are somewhat greater than those at MACHO $`r`$ because they represent the short-wavelength tails of the stellar energy distributions and are thus likely to be more temperature-sensitive. The $`r`$ amplitudes of the stars in Table 1 with asterisks have been estimated from the MACHO light curves and are included in the histogram. The figure is slightly distorted by the absence of the other 5 Miras, which would probably fall into the bins around 3 mag. Nevertheless, it is clear that the short period stars outnumber the Miras in the field by about two orders of magnitude (or more if there are many variables below the amplitude limit of the present survey).

It is also clear that the frequency of moderately large-amplitude variables in the region between the Miras and the small-amplitude variables is not as low as in the Payne-Gaposchkin diagram, even though the numbers in each box are small. This reflects the ease of finding Miras in spite of their rarity, while the less-conspicuous intermediate types, although only slightly rarer, were not readily discoverable. The traditional amplitude discriminant for Miras is thus a somewhat weak one.

## 6 $`K`$ vs log$`P`$

### 6.1 The $`K`$ vs log$`P`$ sequences

The $`K`$, log$`P`$ diagram of the NGC6522 field, fig 7, bears a considerable resemblance to that in the LMC (Wood, 2000; Cioni et al, 2001). There are four distinct sequences visible, denoted A, B, C and D. The freehand lines on the figure satisfy the following relations, which are given for convenience only:

$$K_{S,0}=3.3\mathrm{log}P+13.1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}1.1}<\mathrm{log}P<1.6(\mathrm{A})$$

$$K_{S,0}=3.3\mathrm{log}P+14.0,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}1.4}<\mathrm{log}P<2.1(\mathrm{B})$$

$$K_{S,0}=4.6\mathrm{log}P+18.1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}2.2}<\mathrm{log}P<2.7(\mathrm{C})$$

$$K_{S,0}=4.6\mathrm{log}P+20.4,2.5<\mathrm{log}P<2.9(\mathrm{D})$$

The rather steep slope of relation C (the Miras) compared to previous work (e.g., Glass et al, 1995) may be due to the fact that these variables have large amplitudes and that only single observations at $`K_S`$ are available. A very few extra observations could change the slope. The results of Glass et al (1995) indicate that the Miras in the nearby Baade’s Window Sgr I have the same slope as the LMC $`K`$, log $`P`$ relation within $`\pm `$ 0.4 mag per unit of log $`P`$.

* Sequence A contains the shortest period stars, usually with small amplitudes, and has few members brighter than the upper limit of the Red Giant Branch (RGB) at $`K_0`$ $``$ 8.2.
* In Sequence B are found, besides many normal SRVs, the shorter periods of the doubly-periodic stars, denoted by hollow symbols, whose longer periods occupy sequence D. Sequence B extends to $`K_{S,0}`$ $``$ 7, the luminosity level of the 200-day Miras.
* Sequence C is that of the large-amplitude variables, having $`r`$ amplitude $`>`$ 1.5 mag. Nearly all of these are known Miras, discovered by S. Gaposchkin and others, as listed by Lloyd Evans (1976). Since the points shown here are single $`K_S`$ observations of large-amplitude variables, a close fit to a period-luminosity relation cannot be expected. The two outlying stars near log$`P`$ = 2.5, $`K`$=7.7, viz TLE 120 and TLE A3, have been observed by Glass & Feast (1982), with similar $`K`$ values but TLE A3 has been seen at $`K`$ = 6.95 by Frogel & Whitford (1987). The star at log$`P`$ = 2.4, $`K`$ = 8.4 is TLE 791, with no previous photometry. The lowest of these points, at $`K`$ = 9.6, is TLE 395, a variable noted by Lloyd Evans to have semi-regular behaviour and which appears faint in the ISOGAL 7 and 15 $`\mu `$m measurements (Glass et al, 1999).
* Each star in sequence D, as mentioned, has a corresponding point in sequence B. Only those stars with sequence D $`r`$ amplitudes greater than 0.2 mag are shown, in the expectation that these data will be the most reliable. (The remainder are included in the ordinary variables shown with solid symbols). If the stars with lower $`r`$ mags are included, their secondary periods cause the space between sequences C and D to be somewhat more occupied.

Some of the points scattered around the diagram will correspond to stars that lie in front of the Bulge.

An approximate value for the scatter about the lines A and B in fig 7 was determined by accepting only those stars in parallelograms about 0.4 mag in $`K`$ above and below the freehand lines shown, and limited in $`K`$ to the ranges covered by the lines. It was also assumed that the error is entirely in $`K`$. The standard deviations of individual stars from the fits were 0.21 and 0.22 mag, which is smaller than that found for the Mira sequence in the nearby Sgr I Baade’s Window by Glass et al (1995), viz 0.35. Although Miras have moderately large amplitudes in the infrared, each of the points in Glass et al is the mean of several observations. The probably slightly greater variation of absorption in the Sgr I Baade’s Window may, however, have a modest effect on the dispersion in the Mira $`K`$ mags. The estimates made here for the semi-regular variables are bound to be optimistic, however, because stars deviating more than $``$ 2$`\sigma `$ were rejected as being outside the parallelograms.

It is clear from visual inspection that the scatter about the sequences is less pronounced in the LMC (cf fig 1 of Wood, 2000) than in the NGC 6522 Window. The finite depth of the Bulge is almost certainly the cause of the higher values observed.

### 6.2 Secondary short periods

Many of the Fourier spectra show more than one short-period peak, as found earlier in the LMC by Wood et al (1999), and ambiguity may arise when these peaks are nearly equal in height. To illustrate this, we plot in fig 8 the log of the second most important short period against the log of the most important short period for all 443 stars classified as having two or more short periods. Many points fall along (solid) lines that indicate the difference in log period is $`\pm `$0.14, or a factor of about 1.4, at least for periods up to about 50 days, beyond which it seems to increase. The density of points suggests that the second most important peaks are somewhat more often at longer periods than shorter. Thus, stars with almost equal peaks might be misclassified as to period by a factor of $``$ 1.4 too high or too low, and this might explain some of the inter-sequence stars in fig 7.

A smaller number of objects fall along lines having differences in log period of $`\pm `$0.27, or a factor of 1.86. These are potential sources of confusion because this is approximately the separation of sequences A and B at a given $`K_S`$. As a test, stars falling within the parallelogram boxes centered on sequences A and B (described above) were plotted together with their second short periods on the $`K_{S,0}`$, log$`P`$ diagram, distinguishing the second periods by special symbols. It is thought that because only about 40% of these stars have secondary short periods and because ambiguity in deciding between primary and secondary short periods is not very common, the effect on fig 7 should not be very noticeable.

Wood et al (1999) discuss multi-periodic stars in the LMC similar to those mentioned here with more than one short-period. Their fig 4 shows that the factor of $``$ 1.4 can be predicted as the ratio of first to second overtone periods in the radially pulsating models of Wood & Sebo (1996), though the other period ratios cannot be fitted quite so satisfactorily. The fact that distinct A and B loci exist in figure 7 in spite of co-existing modes must mean that the ratio between periods is fairly stable. In fig 9 we show the short-period ratios plotted in the same manner as in Wood et al. Although the diagrams agree in that there is a concentration towards a ratio of $`P_{\mathrm{greater}}/P_{\mathrm{lesser}}`$ = 1.4, there are many points towards the left of our figure with higher ratios that are absent in that of Wood et al.

### 6.3 Solar neighbourhood SRVs

The named semiregular variables, i.e. those in the Combined General Catalogue of Variable Stars (CGCVS) (Kholopov et al, 1998), were mainly discovered by visual or photographic means and are therefore of moderately large amplitude, at least when compared to the majority of variables found here. Knapp et al (2003, in press) show histograms of the period distribution of late-type variables in the Catalogue (their fig 1). The SRb, SRa and Mira distributions peak at periods around 100, 150 and 270d respectively. It is clear that the absence of the small-amplitude variables distorts the appearances of these distributions.

In the solar neighbourhood, the sample with known parallaxes (and therefore absolute magnitudes) is small and confined to stars from the CGCVS and therefore having relatively large amplitude. Since the $`K`$, log$`P`$ diagrams of the LMC and the NGC 6522 fields show many of the same features, we would expect a complete $`K`$, log$`P`$ diagram of the solar neighbourhood SRVs to be similar.

In fact, Bedding & Zijlstra (1998) have examined a set of solar neighbourhood SRVs with Hipparcos parallaxes. The variability criterion that they used was that the Hipparcos amplitude, $`a`$, had to exceed 0.06 mag. This amounts to a peak-to-peak variation (the quantity used in this paper) of 0.12 mag (in fact, most of the Hipparcos light curves of their stars show considerably higher amplitudes than this). The Hipparcos photometric band is very broad and has little sensitivity in the red to near-infrared regions (our variability amplitude was estimated where possible for the $`r`$ band of MACHO, and is usually about 75% of that in the MACHO $`b`$ band). If we restrict fig 7 to stars with $`r`$ amplitude greater than 0.3 mag, it is found that most of sequence B below $`K`$ = 8.5 disappears. This has been done in figure 10.

The Bedding & Zijlstra stars and the remaining NGC 6522 large-amplitude SR variables are seen to occupy rather similar regions of the $`K`$, log$`P`$ diagram. This suggests that the dotted line that they draw on their fig 1, if it has physical significance as an evolutionary track, only applies to the highest amplitude, most luminous and longest period of the B-sequence SR variables in the solar neighbourhood, and is not a property of all SR variables. It remains possible that the whole of the $`K_S`$, log $`P`$ diagram (fig 7, excluding the region of sequence D) represents stars along evolutionary tracks parallel to those of Bedding & Zijlstra. Tracks with the same slope were predicted by Vassiliadis & Wood (1993).

### 6.4 Comparison with LMC

Fig 11 compares the estimated positions of the $`K_{S,0}`$, log$`P`$ sequences in the LMC, SMC and NGC6522 fields, after adjusting for distance moduli. The data shown have been extracted by different investigators and, because there is a subjective element in their interpretation, there may be some systematic errors. The comparison should, therefore, be regarded as preliminary. Nevertheless, the sequences agree quite well between the various sets of data, in spite of the known differences in metallicity between fields.

The most apparent differences that can be seen relate to the period ranges that each sequence covers:

* The A sequence seems to reach to higher luminosities in the SMC and LMC than in NGC 6522, though they are few in number above the estimated tip of the RGB ($`K`$ $``$ 8.2)
* The B sequence seems to extend to higher luminosities in the Magellanic Clouds than in the NGC 6522 field, corresponding to $`K_{S,0}`$ $``$ 6.4, which is comparable to the 400-day Miras. However, the extension consists mainly of carbon stars, which do not occur in the NGC 6522 field.
* In the LMC data the low-luminosity end of sequence B is populated as densely as that of sequence A. However, in NGC 6522 it appears to be much more sparse.
* In the LMC, sequence C (the Miras) consists mainly of C stars at higher luminosities. This range is occupied by M stars in the NGC 6522 field.
* The scatter in sequence D is high in the present sample, mainly because of the seasonal interruptions. The data are probably compatible with those from the Magellanic Clouds.

There are other noticeable ways in which the galactic and Magellanic Cloud M giants differ. For example, in comparing the infrared $`JHK`$ colours of Miras in various period groups, Glass et al (1995) have found that those in the Sgr I field and solar neighbourhood tend to be redder than similar objects in the LMC, especially at longer periods.

Lebzelter et al (2002) show that there are also differences in the distribution of $`IJ`$ colour with period between the Bulge SRVs and those in the LMC, in that the Bulge stars show a much larger colour range. This is almost certainly a result of higher metallicity in the Bulge.

Two other manifestations of the metallicity difference are the high prevalence of S and C stars in the LMC and the fact that the spectral types of the Mira variables are much earlier on average than in the Galaxy (see, e.g., Glass & Lloyd Evans, 2003, to be published). This is because of their lower metallicity, consequent lower opacity and hence higher effective temperature. Nevertheless, the most extreme AGB stars do become as cold as those in the Bulge, with dust-enshrouded AGB stars in both the LMC (van Loon et al. 1998) and SMC (Groenewegen & Blommaert 1998) reaching spectral types as late as M9 and M10.

## 7 Conclusions

In our survey of the NGC 6522 clear window of Baade for stars with $`K`$ brighter than 9.75. Some 1661 objects were found with MACHO counterparts and, of these, 1085 were found to be variable.

It has been shown that the $`K`$, log$`P`$ sequences visible among the late-type giants in the Magellanic Clouds are also to be seen in galactic stars and that they are not significantly displaced in position on an absolute magnitude basis. Thus, in a galaxy where a sufficient number of objects can be monitored, these objects may have value as distance indicators.

Double period stars that appear in the B and D sequences constitute 10% to 20% of the variables. Their long periods rarely have amplitudes above 0.5 mag. They are similar to other variables in the B sequence in colour but are found predominantly amongst the longer period stars, bright in $`K`$. They differ from their Magellanic Cloud counterparts with lower metallicity in that they have a cut-off at about the limit of the LMC oxygen-rich stars and thus do not overlap the region of the carbon stars.

The Mira sequence (C) however, extends to $`K`$ luminosities similar to its counterpart in the LMC, but the higher-luminosity stars are O-rich rather than C-rich.

Because our method for finding variables is less biased than the traditional ones, we have been able to show that the distribution of $`r`$ amplitudes of red variables does not have a conspicuous gap between the large-amplitude variables (Miras) and the semi-regular variables.

## 8 Acknowledgments

We thank Dr Chris Koen, South African Astronomical Observatory, for help and advice concerning the Fourier transformation programs. Dr T. Lloyd Evans made helpful comments on a draft of the paper. Mr Y. Ita and collaborators gave permission to quote their work.

ISG thanks the Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris for their hospitality during part of this work. This visit was supported by the CNRS/NRF agreement.

MS is supported by the APART programme of the Austrian Academy of Science.

This paper utilizes public domain data originally obtained by the MACHO Project, whose work was performed under the joint auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy, National Nuclear Security Administration by the University of California, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under contract No. W-7405-Eng-48, the National Science Foundation through the Center for Particle Astrophysics of the University of California under cooperative agreement AST-8809616, and the Mount Stromlo and Siding Spring Observatory, part of the Australian National University.

We acknowledge use of the Digitized Sky Survey produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute under US Government grant NAG W-2166, based on material taken at the UK Schmidt Telescope, operated by the Royal Observatory Edinburgh with funding from the UK Science and Engineering Research Council and later by the Anglo-Australian Observatory.


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# References

In recent years, analogies between various condensed matter systems and different branches of gravitational physics have been developed. (For reviews, see, e.g., Refs. ). For example, the propagation of acoustic waves in an irrotational, inviscid, barotropic fluid is formally equivalent to that of a massless scalar field on a curved, Lorentzian spacetime . This implies that quantum field theory in curved space can be modeled in terms of the quantization of the sound wave (phonon field). Furthermore, it is possible to model a black hole acoustically in terms of supersonic fluid flow and, in principle, quantum effects associated with black hole event horizons may then be studied within the context of condensed matter configurations . A related phenomenon is that of cosmological particle production arising in a time–dependent gravitational field and the description of such a process in a dynamical Bose–Einstein condensate has recently been investigated .

Identifying a link in this way between gravitational and non–gravitational physical systems is of great importance. To date, attention has focused primarily on the kinematical properties of general relativity, such as the existence of event horizons. The purpose of this work is to note that a dynamical correspondence may also be established between isotropic, four–dimensional cosmological models and harmonically trapped, quasi–two–dimensional Bose–Einstein condensates. The correspondence arises because the equations of motion for both systems can be mapped onto the one–dimensional Ermakov system . Ermakov systems arise in a variety of physical phenomena  and the one–dimensional case corresponds to a second–order, non–linear, ordinary differential equation (ODE) .

We begin by considering the condensed matter system. A Bose–Einstein condensate is the ground state of a collection of interacting bosons trapped by an external potential. In the limit where the number of atoms is sufficiently large and the atomic interactions are sufficiently weak, the mean–field approximation may be invoked, where the effect felt by a particular atom due to the ensemble is approximated by the mean action of the entire fluid on the particle. (For a review, see, e.g., Ref. ). In this case, the macroscopic wavefunction for the condensate, $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$, is determined by the Gross–Pitaevskii equation

$$i\mathrm{}\frac{\mathrm{\Psi }}{t}=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}^2\mathrm{\Psi }+V(𝐫,t)\mathrm{\Psi }+g|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2\mathrm{\Psi },$$
(1)
where $`m`$ is the mass of the atoms in the condensate, $`V(𝐫,t)`$ represents the trapping potential, and $`g`$ parametrizes the strength of the atomic interactions.

Eq. (1) is formally equivalent to a three–dimensional, non–linear Schrödinger equation and, in general, it is non–integrable. However, in two dimensions it is possible to determine the dynamics of the wavefunction by employing the ‘moment method’ . In this approach, integral relations are constructed directly from the wavefunction without solving the Schrödinger equation explicitly and the evolution of these physical quantities then parametrizes the dynamics of the wavepacket.

In view of this, we consider a two–dimensional, cylindrically symmetric Bose–Einstein condensate in a parabolic trapping potential $`V(r,t)=m\omega ^2r^2/2`$ with a time–dependent frequency, $`\omega =\omega (t)`$. Lower–dimensional Bose gases are currently of interest both from the theoretical  and observational perspectives and two–dimensional condensates have recently been observed experimentally . A Bose–Einstein condensate becomes effectively two–dimensional when the excitations in a given direction are frozen and this occurs when the confining frequency in that direction is significantly greater than the energy for the thermal fluctuation.

We now briefly summarize the moment method . For the case of a constant interaction, $`g`$, the four integral parameters

$`I_1(t)={\displaystyle d^2x|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2}`$ (2)
$`I_2(t)={\displaystyle d^2xr^2|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2}`$ (3)
$`I_3(t)=i{\displaystyle d^2xr\left[\mathrm{\Psi }\frac{\mathrm{\Psi }^{}}{r}\mathrm{\Psi }^{}\frac{\mathrm{\Psi }}{r}\right]}`$ (4)
$`I_4(t)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle d^2x\left[|\mathrm{\Psi }|^2+g|\mathrm{\Psi }|^4\right]}`$ (5)
are defined, where it is assumed that $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\mathrm{\Psi }(r,t)`$ and we have specified $`\mathrm{}=m=1`$ without loss of generality. Eqs. (2)–(5) admit physical interpretations in terms of the norm, width, radial momentum and energy of the wavepacket, respectively .

By differentiating Eqs. (2)–(5) in turn and substituting in Eq. (1), it can be shown that these integral parameters satisfy the set of coupled, first–order, ODEs :

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dI_1}{dt}}=0`$ (6)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{dI_2}{dt}}=I_3`$ (7)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{dI_3}{dt}}=2\omega ^2(t)I_2+4I_4`$ (8)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{dI_4}{dt}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\omega ^2(t)I_3.`$ (9)
It may now be verified by direct differentiation that the quantity

$$Q2I_4I_2\frac{I_3^2}{4}$$
(10)
is a constant and defining $`XI_2^{1/2}`$ then implies that the system (7)–(10) is solved by solving the non–linear differential equation

$$\frac{d^2X}{dt^2}+\omega ^2(t)X=\frac{Q}{X^3}.$$
(11)
Eq. (11) corresponds to the one–dimensional Ermakov system and is known as the Pinney (or Ermakov–Pinney) equation . The general solution of Eq. (11) is given by

$$X=\left[AX_1^2+BX_2^2+2CX_1X_2\right]^{1/2},$$
(12)
where $`X_{1,2}(t)`$ are linearly independent solutions to the equation

$$\frac{d^2X_i}{dt^2}+\omega ^2(t)X_i=0,$$
(13)
the constants $`\{A,B,C\}`$ satisfy the constraint

$$ABC^2=\frac{Q}{W^2}$$
(14)
and

$$WX_1\frac{dX_2}{dt}X_2\frac{dX_1}{dt}$$
(15)
is the Wronskian. It follows, therefore, that the evolution of the wavepacket for a given trapping frequency, $`\omega ^2(t)`$, is fully determined by solving the linear oscillator equation (13).

We now proceed to consider cosmological dynamics. Our aim is to identify a class of models where the expansion (or contraction) of the universe can be represented as an Ermakov system. Recently, it was shown that the Einstein field equations for a spatially flat, isotropic and homogeneous Friedmann–Robertson–Walker (FRW) universe can be reduced to an Ermakov–Pinney equation when the matter is a mixture of (non–interacting) perfect fluids . However, in this case, the sign of the non–linear term in the Ermakov–Pinney equation is opposite to that of Eq. (11). This difference in sign arises because the energy densities of the matter fields are assumed to be positive–definite.

In view of this, we consider the effects of introducing spatial curvature into the analysis. Einstein’s field equations for the spatially curved FRW cosmology with perfect fluid matter are given by

$`H^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{a^2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{da}{d\tau }}\right)^2={\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}\rho {\displaystyle \frac{k}{a^2}}`$ (16)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\rho }{d\tau }}+3H(\rho +p)=0,`$ (17)
where $`H(\tau )`$ is the Hubble parameter, $`a(\tau )`$ is the scale factor of the universe, $`\tau `$ represents cosmic (proper) time, $`k`$ is the curvature constant and units are chosen such that Newton’s constant is given by $`4\pi G=1`$. The pressure and energy density of the matter are given by $`p(\tau )`$ and $`\rho (\tau )`$, respectively. In principle, Eqs. (16) and (17) are solved once the equation of state, $`p=p(\rho )`$, has been specified. Eq. (17) follows as a direct consequence of energy–momentum conservation.

Eqs. (16) and (17) may be expressed as an Ermakov system by interpreting the matter source as a self–interacting scalar field, $`\varphi =\varphi (\tau )`$, that is minimally coupled to Einstein gravity. Formally, this is equivalent to expressing the energy density and pressure as

$$\rho =\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{d\varphi }{d\tau }\right)^2+U(\varphi ),p=\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{d\varphi }{d\tau }\right)^2U(\varphi ),$$
(18)
where $`U(\varphi )`$ represents the potential energy associated with the self–interactions of the scalar field. Differentiating Eq. (16) with respect to cosmic time and substituting Eqs. (17) and (18) then implies that

$$\frac{1}{a}\frac{d^2a}{d\tau ^2}\frac{1}{a^2}\left(\frac{da}{d\tau }\right)^2=\left(\frac{d\varphi }{d\tau }\right)^2+\frac{k}{a^2}$$
(19)
and defining a new independent variable

$$\frac{d}{d\tau }=a\frac{d}{dt}$$
(20)
transforms Eq. (19) into the Pinney equation:

$$\frac{d^2a}{dt^2}+\left(\frac{d\varphi }{dt}\right)^2a=\frac{k}{a^3}.$$
(21)
A direct comparison between Eqs. (11) and (21) indicates that the dynamics of a positively curved $`(k>0)`$ FRW cosmology can be modeled in terms of a harmonically trapped Bose–Einstein condensate when cosmic time, $`\tau `$, is related to ‘laboratory’ time, $`t`$, through Eq. (20). The width of the wavepacket plays the same role as that of the cosmological scale factor:

$$I_2a^2$$
(22)
and it follows from Eqs. (7) and (20) that the radial momentum of the wavepacket is associated with the expansion velocity of the universe:

$$I_32\frac{da}{d\tau }.$$
(23)
This implies that the Hubble parameter may be identified with the combination

$$H^2\frac{1}{4}\frac{I_3^2}{I_2}$$
(24)
and consequently the comoving Hubble radius is determined by the inverse of the wavepacket momentum:

$$\frac{1}{aH}\frac{2}{I_3}.$$
(25)
Furthermore, substituting Eqs. (22) and (24) into Eq. (10) and comparing the result with the Friedmann equation (16) implies that the energy of the condensate wavepacket corresponds to the energy density of cosmic matter

$$I_4\frac{\rho }{3},$$
(26)
where we identify $`Q=k`$. Finally, the kinetic energy of the scalar field is related to the trapping frequency of the condensate such that

$$\left(\frac{d\varphi }{d\tau }\right)^2I_2\omega ^2$$
(27)
and this implies that the pressure of the field is determined by

$$pI_2\omega ^23I_4.$$
(28)
Thus, the width, radial momentum and energy of the condensate wavepacket can be identified with a corresponding cosmological parameter. This correspondence is summarized in Table 1. Eq. (10) may now be viewed as a novel way of expressing the Friedmann equation in terms of properties of the wavefunction. Moreover, by employing the correspondences in Table 1, we deduce that Eq. (9) is equivalent to the conservation equation (17).

It is of interest to consider specific classes of cosmological models and their condensate analogues. For example, inflationary solutions are of particular importance to early universe cosmology. The condition for inflationary expansion is that the scale factor of the universe should accelerate (with respect to cosmic time) and it is straightforward to verify that this condition is satisfied whenever the radial momentum of the wavepacket grows:

$$\frac{d^2a}{d\tau ^2}>0\frac{dI_3}{dt}>0.$$
(29)
Another important class of models is characterized by the barotropic equation of state, $`p=(\gamma 1)\rho `$, where $`0\gamma 2`$ is a constant. In this case, the correspondence in Table 1 implies that the trapping potential satisfies $`\omega ^2=3\gamma I_4/I_2`$ and substituting this condition into Eq. (9) and integrating implies that

$$I_4=\frac{A}{I_2^{3\gamma /2}},\omega ^2=\frac{3\gamma A}{I_2^{(2+3\gamma )/2}},$$
(30)
where $`A`$ is an arbitrary integration constant. A further substitution of Eqs. (7) and (30) into Eq. (10) then yields a first–order differential equation for the width of the wavepacket:

$$\frac{dI_2}{dt}=2\sqrt{2AI_2^{(23\gamma )/2}1},$$
(31)
where we have specified $`Q=1`$ without loss of generality. Eq. (31) may be integrated to yield the solution

$`{}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{3\gamma +2}{3\gamma 2}}\right),{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}};{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{9\gamma 2}{3\gamma 2}}\right);{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2A}}I_2^{(3\gamma 2)/2}]I_2^{(3\gamma +2)/4}`$
$`=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{A}{2}}}\left(3\gamma +2\right)\mathrm{\Delta }t,`$ (32)
where $`{}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}`$ is the hypergeometric function , $`\mathrm{\Delta }ttt_0`$ and $`t_0`$ represents the second integration constant.

Eqs. (30) and (S0.Ex1) together determine the time dependence of the condensate trapping potential that mimics a cosmology with a given equation of state, $`\gamma `$. The limiting case of $`\gamma =0`$ represents a universe dominated by a cosmological constant and corresponds to a vanishing trapping potential. On the other hand, a universe dominated by relativistic matter has an equation of state given by $`\gamma =4/3`$ and in this case Eq. (S0.Ex1) simplifies to

$`\mathrm{sin}^1\sqrt{x}\sqrt{xx^2}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{A}}\mathrm{\Delta }t`$
$`x{\displaystyle \frac{(4A)^{1/3}}{2A}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega ^{2/3}}}.`$ (33)
Eq. (S0.Ex1) also simplifies for a universe dominated by pressureless matter $`(\gamma =1)`$:

$`3\mathrm{sin}^1\sqrt{y}(3+2y)\sqrt{yy^2}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{A^2}}\mathrm{\Delta }t`$
$`y{\displaystyle \frac{(3A)^{1/5}}{2A}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\omega ^{2/5}}}.`$ (34)
Although Eqs. (S0.Ex2) and (S0.Ex3) can not be inverted analytically, the explicit time dependence of the trapping potential can be expressed in a closed form for a ‘stiff’ perfect fluid $`(\gamma =2)`$. We find in this case that

$`I_2=\left[2A4(\mathrm{\Delta }t)^2\right]^{1/2}`$
$`\omega ^2={\displaystyle \frac{3A}{2\left[A2(\mathrm{\Delta }t)^2\right]^2}}.`$ (35)
To summarize thus far, it has been shown that positively curved, perfect fluid FRW cosmologies can be modeled dynamically in terms of quasi–two–dimensional Bose–Einstein condensates, where there exists a one–to–one correspondence between the type of matter in the universe and the functional form of the time–dependent trapping potential of the condensate. The physical properties of the wavefunction can be identified with the fundamental cosmological parameters.

It is of interest to consider extensions of the correspondence to three–dimensional condensates. The moment method as outlined above can not be applied in three dimensions unless certain approximations are made . However, an alternative approach is to employ the well known scaling properties that are exhibited by the wavefunction under the evolution of a time–dependent confining potential . In this approach, the ansatz

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=\frac{1}{b^{3/2}}\chi \mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{i}{2}\frac{b_t}{b}r^2\right]$$
(36)
is made, where $`b=b(t)`$, $`\chi =\chi (t,r)`$ and a subscript denotes differentiation with respect to laboratory time, $`t`$ . Substituting Eq. (36) into the non–linear Schrödinger equation (1) and defining new variables

$$\sigma \frac{r}{b}\theta \frac{dt}{b^2}$$
(37)
then implies that Eq. (1) reduces to

$`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{b^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\chi }{\theta }}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2b^2}}_\sigma ^2\chi {\displaystyle \frac{g}{b^3}}|\chi |^2\chi {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _0^2\sigma ^2\chi }{b^2}}`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}r^2\chi \left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{b}}{\displaystyle \frac{d^2b}{dt^2}}+\omega ^2(t){\displaystyle \frac{\omega _0^2}{b^4}}\right],`$ (38)
where $`\omega _0`$ is a constant and the last terms on both sides of Eq. (S0.Ex5) have been introduced by hand.

If the interaction strength, $`g`$, is time–independent, it is not possible in general to separate the left and right hand sides of Eq. (S0.Ex5). On the other hand, the scattering length may be varied by employing a magnetic field induced Feshbach resonance . If the interaction is tuned such that $`g(t)b(t)`$, all terms on the left–hand side of Eq. (S0.Ex5) scale as $`b^2`$ and, in this case, Eq. (S0.Ex5) separates when $`b(t)`$ satisfies the Ermakov–Pinney equation

$$\frac{d^2b}{dt^2}+\omega ^2(t)b=\frac{\omega _0^2}{b^3}.$$
(39)
It then follows that the rescaled wavefunction, $`\chi `$, formally satisfies the same non–linear Schrödinger equation as the original wavefunction but with a constant trapping frequency and interaction strength. Comparing Eqs. (21) and (39) implies that the scaling parameter, $`b`$, may be identified with the scale factor of the universe, where laboratory time is again related to cosmic time through Eq. (20).

We conclude by highlighting a number of questions that would need to be addressed in order to realise the above mathematical correspondences in a laboratory environment. In general, a sonic horizon may form in an expanding Bose–Einstein condensate, where the speed of the fluid exceeds the sound speed. Such an horizon forms due to an effective velocity field that increases with distance from the centre of the condensate . This could be problematic from a dynamical point of view since it may introduce physical effects into the system that may not be intrinsic to the cosmological model under consideration. In particular, ambiguities may arise when interpreting the analogue of cosmological particle production in a time–dependent gravitational field.

A key assumption that was made in establishing the correspondence between the condensate and cosmological systems was that the dynamics of the condensate wavefunction can be described in terms of the Gross–Pitaevskii equation (1) at each moment of time, i.e., that the configuration reacts instantaneously to changes in the trapping potential and scattering length of the atomic interactions. If this assumption is to remain valid, the majority of the atoms must remain in the condensate state (mean–field approximation) and the particle density and scattering length must be sufficiently small (dilute gas approximation). Moreover, to avoid complications with delays in the system, the timescales over which external parameters such as the trapping potential change should exceed the timescale for a pair of atoms to fully interact . Overall, these requirements imply that the trapping potential should change at a sufficiently slow rate. In this case, the correspondence (27) implies that only those cosmologies where the kinetic energy of the scalar field is sufficiently small could be simulated111It should be noted, however, that in an inflationary context, the scalar field is necessarily rolling very slowly down its interaction potential..

A further important scale in the condensate is the ‘healing’ time, $`t_{\mathrm{heal}}`$. The healing time is the characteristic timescale for variations in the wavefunction and plays an analogous role to that of the Planck time in cosmology. Comparison of cosmic and laboratory time through the correspondence (20) implies that $`ad\tau =dt>t_{\mathrm{heal}}`$ and, for a cosmic timescale of the order of the Hubble time $`d\tau =H^1`$ (representing the size of the cosmic horizon), this implies that $`a>t_{\mathrm{heal}}H`$. Such considerations suggest that the correspondence we have developed could only be realised in practice for cosmological models satisfying a lower bound on the scale factor.

Nevertheless, one advantage of establishing correspondences between cosmology and condensed matter physics through Ermakov systems is that insight into the hidden symmetries of the two systems may be uncovered. For example, in the absence of a trapping potential, the action for a two–dimensional Bose–Einstein condensate described by the non–linear Schrödinger equation (1) is symmetric under a global $`\mathrm{SL}(2,R)`$ reparametrization of the time parameter: $`\stackrel{~}{t}=(\alpha t+\beta )/(\gamma t+\delta )`$, where $`\{\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma ,\delta \}`$ are arbitrary constants satisfying the constraint $`\alpha \delta \beta \gamma =1`$ . In general, this symmetry is broken by the inclusion of a time–dependent trapping potential. However, for the specific case where the potential varies as $`\omega (t)t^2`$, there exists a discrete duality symmetry with $`\alpha =\delta =0`$ and $`\beta =1/\gamma `$ . This implies that $`\stackrel{~}{t}=\beta ^2/t`$ and such a transformation maps an expanding solution onto a contracting one and vice–versa.

The associated cosmological model for this trapping potential may be deduced in the limit where the spatial curvature is dynamically negligible, as is the case during inflation. It follows from the correspondence summarized in Table 1 that for this trapping potential the scale factor has a power law dependence, $`a(\tau )\tau ^n`$ for some constant $`n`$, and the scalar field varies as $`\varphi (\tau )\mathrm{ln}\tau `$. This solution plays a central role in inflationary cosmology because it is one of the few models where the density and gravitational wave perturbation spectra can be calculated exactly without invoking the slow–roll approximation  (for a review, see, e.g., Ref. ). In effect, the solution is a scaling solution since the kinetic energy of the scalar field and the Hubble parameter decrease at the same rate. In view of its significance, it is interesting that this cosmological model is selected directly from symmetries exhibited by a class of Bose–Einstein condensates. It would be interesting to investigate whether an associated symmetry exists in the cosmological context as this would provide further insight into the density and gravitational wave perturbations generated during inflation.

Finally, an $`\mathrm{SL}(2,R)`$ symmetry also arises in superstring–inspired inflationary cosmologies such as the pre–big bang scenario , where a duality symmetry relates contracting and expanding solutions. (For reviews, see, e.g., Ref. ). In these models, the dilaton and axion fields in the Neveu–Schwarz/Neveu–Schwarz sector of the string effective action parametrize the $`\mathrm{SL}(2,R)/\mathrm{U}(1)`$ coset and the existence of this symmetry implies that the density perturbations arising from fluctuations in these fields can be calculated exactly . Furthermore, inflation in pre–big bang cosmology can be re–interpreted as the contracting phase of a universe dominated by a stiff perfect fluid  and this corresponds in the context of the present work to the condensate given in Eq. (S0.Ex4).

Acknowledgments

JEL is supported by the Royal Society. We thank C. Barceló, P. K. Ghosh and U. R. Fischer for helpful comments and communications.


text:
# Transport criticality of the first-order Mott transition in a quasi-two-dimensional organic conductor, 𝜅-(BEDT-TTF)2Cu[N(CN)2]Cl

## Abstract

An organic Mott insulator, $`\kappa `$-(BEDT-TTF)2Cu\[N(CN)2\]Cl, was investigated by resistance measurements under continuously controllable He gas pressure. The first-order Mott transition was demonstrated by observation of clear jump in the resistance variation against pressure. Its critical endpoint at 38 K is featured by vanishing of the resistive jump and critical divergence in pressure derivative of resistance, $`|\frac{1}{R}\frac{R}{P}|`$ , which are consistent with the prediction of the dynamical mean field theory and have phenomenological correspondence with the liquid-gas transition. The present results provide the experimental basis for physics of the Mott transition criticality.

The Mott transition is one of the metal-insulator transitions (MIT) which are representative phenomena in highly correlated electrons. The family of quasi-two-dimensional layered organic conductors, $`\kappa `$-(BEDT-TTF)2X, are model systems for the study of the Mott transition in two dimensions, where BEDT-TTF is bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene and X stands for various kinds of anions. In the conducting layer, the BEDT-TTF dimers form anisotropic triangular lattice, and the dimer band is half-filled Ref1:Kanoda . The salt of X = Cu\[N(CN)2\]Cl (denoted as $`\kappa `$-Cl hereafter) is an antiferromagnetic insulator (AFI) with a commensurate order at ambient pressure and thus is understood as a Mott insulator driven by the strong electron correlation Ref2:Miyagawa . When $`\kappa `$-Cl is pressurized, it becomes metallic and undergoes a superconducting transition at $`T_{\mathrm{SC}}`$ 13 K under a pressure of 30 MPa Ref3:Williams . It is considered that the pressure induces the Mott transition. The pressure is quite effective to drive the Mott transition in organics, which are highly compressible. Moreover, since they have no orbital degree of freedom, they give a prototype of the Mott transition. These aspects make organics suitable for pursuing the fundamentals of the Mott transition both experimentally Ref1:Kanoda  and theoretically Ref4:McKenzie ; Ref5:Kino ; Ref6a:Merino .

The behavior near the MIT is a key to comprehension of the Mott transition. However, since most of the previous experiments have been performed under the chemical or discrete pressure control Ref3:Williams ; Ref6:Kawamoto ; Ref7:Taniguchi , the critical nature of Mott transition has remained to be seen. Recently, ac susceptibility and NMR studies for $`\kappa `$-Cl under continuously controllable He gas pressure by Lefebvre et al. have revealed (i) the first-order nature of the Mott transition, suggested (ii) the existence of the critical endpoint, and given the pressure-temperature ($`P`$-$`T`$) phase diagram Ref8:Lefebvre . Moreover, the ultrasonic study by Fournier et al. has shown an anomaly related to (iii) the divergence of charge compressibility at the possible endpoint Ref9:Fournier . These three characters seem to support the criticality predicted by the dynamical mean field theory (DMFT) Ref10:Kotliar ; Ref11:Kotliar ; Ref12:Onoda . In order to confirm these qualitative features and go further to a substantial stage in the study of the Mott transition criticality, the electron transport measurements, which can detect the MIT directly, are highly desired.

Quite recently, Limelette et al. have reported transport measurements of $`\kappa `$-Cl under He gas pressure in Ref.14, where the hysteretic resistive anomaly associated with the Mott transition was observed and the possible endpoint was also supported. However, the resistive transition was smooth and the criticality on the endpoint was not clear, leading to the conclusion that the Mott transition in $`\kappa `$-Cl include a complex physics and can’t be described simply by the DMFT Ref10:Kotliar , which predicts that the Mott transition is in the same regime of the liquid-gas transition. Thus, the criticality of the Mott transition is controversial. In the present work, we have performed resistance measurements for $`\kappa `$-Cl crystals with high quality under the He gas pressure. In contrast with the previous report Ref13:Limelette , we observed the first-order Mott transition with huge discontinuous resistance jump and sharp criticality of the endpoint. These behaviors, which are consistent with those of the liquid-gas transition in the Ising universality class as is suggested by the DMFT, give the experimental basis for the criticality of the Mott transition.

The size of the $`\kappa `$-Cl crystal used here is $`1.8\times 1.4\times 1.2`$ mm3. The sample was mounted in the Be-Cu cell and pressurized by compressing the He gas. The in-plane resistance was measured with the standard dc four-probe method under both isothermal pressure sweep and isobaric temperature sweep. In the isothermal process, the pressure sweep was made so slowly that the temperature deviation was within $`\pm `$ 50 mK. During the isobaric temperature sweep, which requires more care because the temperature sweep inevitably causes pressure change, the He gas inflow (outflow) to (from) the cell was finely controlled so that the pressure deviation was maintained within $`\pm `$ 0.05 MPa To ensure the hydrostatic nature of pressure, the present experiments were performed except the $`P`$-$`T`$ region of the He solidification. Below $`T_{\mathrm{SC}}`$, the measurements were also made under a field of 11 T normal to the conducting layer, which is much higher than the upper critical field, $`H_{\mathrm{C2}}`$, in the temperature range studied here.

The overall feature of the present results around the Mott transition is visualized in a pressure ($`P`$) - temperature ($`T`$) - resistance ($`R`$) diagram shown in Fig. 1, where blue and red curves are data taken under the isothermal pressure sweep and the isobaric temperature sweep, respectively. At low pressures, the system is highly resistive with non-metallic temperature dependence ($`R/T<0`$), while at high pressures it is conductive with metallic temperature dependence ($`R/T>0`$). The transition between the two regimes occurs with a huge discontinuous resistance jump on a well-defined line in the $`P`$-$`T`$ plane. It is also seen that the resistive jump becomes diminished at elevated temperatures and eventually vanishes at a certain critical point, above which the resistance variation is continuous. Replacing the label of $`z`$-axis, $`R`$ ($`\mathrm{\Omega }`$), in Fig. 1 by volume, $`V`$, of the classical liquid-gas system, one can see intuitively that the present $`P`$-$`T`$-$`R`$ diagram of the Mott transition has correspondence to the textbook $`P`$-$`T`$-$`V`$ diagram of the liquid-gas transition. At low temperatures below 13 K, superconductivity appears at a high pressure region and even in the low pressure side resistance decrease with temperature is observed. The data of the pressure dependence are classified into three temperature regions of $`T>38`$ K, 38 K $`>T>`$ 13 K ($`T_{\mathrm{SC}}`$), and $`T<`$ 13 K, which are discussed in detail below.

As an example of the behaviors at higher temperatures above 38 K, the data at 40.1 K are shown in Fig. 2 (a), where neither anomaly nor hysteresis is observed. Since the temperature derivative of resistance, $`R/T`$, is changed from negative to positive by pressure (see Fig. 1), the resistance variation against pressure is regarded as crossover from insulator to metal. As seen in Fig. 2 (b), the variation gets steeper with temperature decreased. One can define a crossover pressure at which the pressure derivative of resistance, $`|\frac{1}{R}\frac{R}{P}|`$, shows a peak as shown in Fig. 3. The peak grows as temperature approaches 38.1 K, where it is divergent (see the inset of Fig. 3).

Namely, the $`|\frac{1}{R}\frac{R}{P}|`$ is divergent around the critical point of ($`P_\mathrm{C}`$, $`T_\mathrm{C}`$) = (23.2 MPa, 38.1 K) roughly as $`(TT_\mathrm{C})^{(0.9\pm 0.1)}`$ against temperature along the crossover line. This transport criticality observed here should be related to divergence in the charge compressibility suggested experimentally Ref9:Fournier  and predicted theoretically Ref11:Kotliar ; Ref12:Onoda . As for the liquid-gas transition, the compressibility, $`|\frac{1}{V}\frac{V}{P}|`$, is divergent at the critical point. The phenomenological correspondence implies the possibility that the Mott transition belongs to the same universality class with the liquid-gas transition, namely the Ising universality class. The exponent which we extracted above corresponds to so-called ’$`\gamma `$’ in the scaling law. Although the use of $`|\frac{1}{R}\frac{R}{P}|`$ in order to extract ’$`\gamma `$’ in the Mott transition leaves room to be considered, the tentative value of 0.9 $`\pm `$ 0.1 is close to $`\gamma 1`$ in the mean field theory and $`\gamma 1.25`$ in the 3D Ising model.

Below 38 K, the resistive crossover is changed into the resistive transition of the first-order, which is evidenced by hysteresis and the resistance jump. The observation of the clear resistance jump means not only the first-order nature but also the consistency with the DMFT, which predicts the criticality relevant to the vanishing of discontinuous nature around the endpoint like the discontinuity of the volume, $`\mathrm{\Delta }V`$, at the liquid-gas transition. Shown in Fig. 2 (c) are the data at 14.1 K, where the magnitude of the jump at 28.1 MPa amounts to nearly two orders of magnitude and a small hysteresis of $``$ 0.3 MPa lager than the experimental error of $``$ 0.1 MPa is appreciable. The huge resistive jump indicates a bulky transition. Additional small jumps and slightly irreversible resistance traces extended around the bulk transition are likely to come from inhomogeneous internal pressure in the sample, although the possibility of intrinsic phase separation with only tiny fraction of the secondary phase is not ruled out. As temperature is increased, the magnitude of the resistive jump decreases with the hysteresis diminished and eventually vanishes at the critical point, (23.2 MPa, 38.1 K) Ref15:Comment , where the first-order MIT changes to the crossover. We suppose that the absence of the resistance jump and sharp criticality in the previous report Ref13:Limelette  is ascribable to the effect of disorder, which can make the simple nature inherent in the Mott transition sophisticated.

At lower temperatures below 13 K, superconductivity, which is a specific phase to the electronic systems, appears under pressure. The data at 12.1 K under a zero field and 11 T are shown in Fig. 2 (d). At a zero field, the resistance suddenly vanishes around 28.5 - 29.0 MPa with large hyseteresis against pressure, indicating the bulky SC-insulator transition (SIT) of the first-order. By application of 11 T, the SIT was converted into MIT with the transition pressure nearly unchanged. It is seen that the field dependence of resistance is large even in the low pressure region below 28.5 MPa. It is considered that tiny SC domains are induced progressively in the insulating host phase by pressure at a zero field but are destroyed at 11 T Ref16:Comment . At 10.1 K (Fig. 2 (e)), the resistance under a zero field decreases continuously and falls below the noise level around $``$ 27 MPa, where the growing SC fraction is considered to be percolated before occurrence of the bulky SIT at a higher pressure. Actually a bulky MIT under 11 T was at a higher pressure, 30.4 MPa, as seen in Fig. 2 (e). This is consistent with the previous work by NMR Ref8:Lefebvre , which shows coexistence of AFI and SC in a wide pressure range and drastic exchange of the volume fractions of AFI and SC phases at a certain pressure (broken lines shown in Fig. 4).

Figure 4 shows the $`P`$-$`T`$ phase diagram of $`\kappa `$-Cl, where the closed and open red circles represent points giving the resistance jumps (first-order transition) and maximum $`|\frac{1}{R}\frac{R}{P}|`$ (crossover point), respectively, and the superconducting transition defined by the resistance vanishing is marked by closed blue triangles. Figure 4 is consistent with the Lefebvre’s diagram Ref8:Lefebvre , after which the broken line is drawn as a bulk SIT line.

We now examine the charge gap profile on the insulating side near the critical point. The inset of Fig. 5 shows the Arrhenius plot of the resistance. In a restricted temperature range from 50 K to 33 K, the data are nearly on straight lines, the slope of which gives the activation energy. The effective charge gap, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, defined by $`R\mathrm{exp}(\mathrm{\Delta }/T)`$ is shown against pressure in the main panel of Fig. 5. It is seen that the gap reasonably closes around the critical point. The overall profile of the gap closing seems to be described by a form of $`\mathrm{\Delta }(P)(P_\mathrm{C}P)^{0.4\pm 0.1}`$ with $`P_\mathrm{C}`$ = 23.2 MPa. This is an additional criticality of the Mott transition and unique to the electronic systems. In the context of the DMFT, Kotliar predicted that the density of states at the Fermi energy, $`\rho (0)`$, shows continuous change against temperature and the change is sharpened at the endpoint Ref10:Kotliar . The similar behavior is also expected against pressure. The criticality of the charge gap can be related to the growth of $`\rho (0)`$ and its neighboring profile.

To conclude, the Mott transition in the quasi-two-dimensional organic system, $`\kappa `$-(BEDT-TTF)2Cu\[N(CN)2\]Cl, is accompanied by the gigantic resistive jump and the first-order transition line has an endpoint at ($`P_\mathrm{C},T_\mathrm{C}`$) = (23.2 MPa, 38.1 K), where the transition is changed to the crossover. The endpoint has the following critical behaviors; (i) the pressure derivative of resistance, $`|\frac{1}{R}\frac{R}{P}|`$, is divergent, reflecting the divergence in the charge compressibility, (ii) the resistance jump vanishes, and (iii) the effective charge gap closes. The criticalities, (i) and (ii), establish the phenomenological correspondence between the Mott transition of correlated electrons and the liquid-gas transition of molecules or atoms as predicted by the dynamical mean field theory. The present results provide the experimental basis for physics of the Mott transition criticality.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors acknowledge N. Nagaosa, S. Onoda, and M. Imada for fruitful discussion.


text:
# FUTURE LEPTON HADRON COLLIDERS

## 1 Introduction

It is known that lepton-hadron collisions have been playing a crucial role in exploration of deep inside of matter. Today, THERA (TESLA on HERA) and Linac\*LHC can be considered as realistic candidates for future lepton-hadron and photon hadron colliders. We discuss the main parameters and physics search potential of the lepton-hadron colliders and draw the attention of the high energy and nuclear physics communities to future $`ep,eA,\gamma p,\gamma A`$ and FEL $`\gamma A`$ collider facilities.

## 2 TESLA\*HERA Based Lepton-Hadron Colliders

It is known that the TESLA Collider will be a powerful tool for exploraiton of the multi-hundred GeV scale . Taking into account the possible polarized proton and nucleus options for HERA will provide a number of additional opportunities to investigate lepton-hadron and photon hadron interactions at TeV scale. Recently, the work on TESLA TDR has been finished, and TESLA$``$HERA based $`ep,\gamma p,eA`$ and $`\gamma A`$ colliders are included into TESLA project. Main parameters of TESLA$``$HERA based $`ep`$ collider are given in . It is seen that one has $`L_{ep}=4.110^{30}`$ $`cm^2s^1`$ with $`E_e=250`$ GeV and $`E_p=1`$ $`TeV`$. Also two additional versions ($`E_e=E_p=500`$ $`GeV`$ with $`L_{ep}=2.510^{31}`$ $`cm^2s^1`$ and $`E_e=`$ $`E_p=800`$ $`GeV`$ with $`L_{ep}=1.610^{31}`$ $`cm^2s^1`$) have been mentioned in TESLA TDR. In principle, TESLA$``$ HERA based ep collider will extend the HERA kinematics region by an order in both Q2 and $`x`$ and, therefore, the parton saturation regime can be achieved. Main parameters and physics search potential of THERA based $`\gamma p`$ collider are given in . Main limitations for $`eA`$ option comes from fast emittance growth of nucleus beam due to intra-beam scattering. In our opinion $`\gamma A`$ option is the most promising option of TESLA$``$HERA complex, because it will give unique opportunity to investigate small $`x_g`$ region in nuclear medium. Colliding of TESLA FEL beam with nucleus bunches from HERA may give a unique possibility to investigate ”old” nuclear phenomena in rather unusual conditions. The main idea is very simple : ultra-relativistic ions will see laser photons with energy $`\omega _o`$ as a beam of photons with energy 2$`\gamma _A\omega _o`$ , where $`\gamma _A`$ is the Lorentz factor of the ion beam. The region 0.1$`÷`$10 MeV, which is matter of interest for nuclear spectroscopy, corresponds to 0.1$`÷`$10 keV lasers, which coincide with the energy region of TESLA FEL.

## 3 Linac\*LHC Based Lepton-Hadron Colliders

The center-of-mass energies which will be achieved at different options of this machine  are an order larger than those at HERA are and $``$3 times larger than the energy region of TESLA$``$HERA. Center-of-mass energy and luminosity for this option are $`\sqrt{s}=5.29`$ TeV and $`L_{ep}=810^{31}`$ cm-2s$`^1.`$ This machine, which will extend both the $`Q^2`$-range and $`x`$-range by more than two order of magnitude comparing to those explored by HERA, has a strong potential for both standard model and new physics research. Using $`\gamma p`$ option of this collider thousands di-jets with $`p_t>500`$ GeV and hundreds thousands single W bosons will be produced, hundred millions of $`\overline{b}b`$\- and $`\overline{c}c`$\- pairs will give opportunity to explore the region of extremely small xg etc. Details on main parameters and physics search potential of Linac\*LHC based $`eA`$, $`\gamma A`$ and FEL $`\gamma A`$ coliders can be found in . The CLIC, an electron-positron collider with $`\sqrt{s}=3`$ $`TeV`$ and $`L_{ee}=10^{35}`$ $`cm^2s^1,`$ is considered as one of the future options for post-LHC era at CERN. The work on CLIC\*LHC based $`ep,\gamma p,eA,\gamma A`$ and FEL $`\gamma A`$ options is under progress.

## 4 Conclusions

It seems that neither HERA nor LHC$``$LEP will be the end points for lepton-hadron colliders. We see that TeV scale linac-ring type $`ep`$ machines will give an opportunity to go far in this direction (see Table 1). In addition, more knowledge on the subject can be found in .

Table 1: Future lepton-hadron colliders: a) First stage (2010-2015).

|  | TESLA$``$HERA | LEP$``$LHC | e$``$RHIC |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`\sqrt{s},`$ TeV | 1.0$``$1.6 | 1.37 | 0.1 |
| $`E_l,`$ TeV | 0.25$``$0.8 | 0.0673 | 0.01 |
| $`E_p,`$ TeV | 1 | 7 | 0.25 |
| $`L,`$ 1031 $`cm^2s^1`$ | 1-10 | 12 | 46 |
| Additional options | $`eA,\gamma p,\gamma A,`$ $`FEL\gamma A`$ | $`eA`$ | $`eA,FEL\gamma A`$ |

b) Second stage (2015-2020).

|  | Linac$``$LHC | CLIC based |
| --- | --- | --- |
| $`\sqrt{s},`$ TeV | 5.29 | 3 |
| $`E_l,`$ TeV | 1 | 1.5 |
| $`E_p,`$ TeV | 7 | 1.5 |
| $`L,10^{31}`$ $`cm^2s^1`$ | 10-100 | 10 |
| Additional options | $`eA,\gamma p,\gamma A,`$ $`FEL\gamma A`$ | $`eA,\gamma p,\gamma A,`$ $`FEL\gamma A`$ |

This work is partially supported by Turkish State Planning Organization under the Grant No 2002 K 120250.