text:
# Directional Locking Effects and Dynamics for Particles Driven Through a Colloidal Lattice

## I Introduction

Assemblies of interacting colloidal particles exhibit a wide range of ordered, glassy, and liquid states , and have proven an ideal system for studying these equilibrium states with various imaging techniques. Colloids can also be studied in nonequilibrium conditions such as under shear or when driven with different types of fields . Recently Korda et al.  investigated the dynamics of moving colloids driven over a square two-dimensional (2D) optical tweezer array. Here, the optical tweezers act as attractive sites . In this system, a series of locked transport states occur as the angle at which the colloids are driven with respect to the optical lattice is varied. In the locked states, the colloids move along a high-symmetry direction of the lattice even when this is not the same as the direction of drive. The locking produces steps in the colloidal velocity vs driving angle, and may have applications as a novel method for continuous separation of particles of different species, such as macromolecules and biological cells . Separation can be achieved when a particular species locks to a symmetry direction while the remaining species continue to move in the direction of the applied drive. Other techniques to separate particle species along this line include the transport of particles through periodic obstacle arrays .

Particle transport through fixed periodic arrays under varying drive direction has also been investigated in simulations of vortices moving in nanostructured superconductors  and Josephson junctions . Recent experiments on vortices driven at different angles through periodic pinning arrays find guiding effects similar to the features seen in simulations . Similar effects have also been studied in electron transport through periodic anti-dot arrays  as well as atomic friction over ordered surfaces . In general, for all of these systems, the particle motion locks to certain symmetry angles of the lattice. Refs.  showed that the velocity vs angle curve has a Devil’s staircase structure, with a step in the particle velocity at each locking angle. Certain highly symmetrical angles of drive produce stronger locking than others.

In the experiments of Ref.  and the theoretical studies of Refs. , the periodic lattice through which the particles move is completely rigid. Another approach which has not been previously considered is for the driven particle to move through a stationary, but distortable, lattice of particles. In this case, the driven particle still interacts with a periodic array of obstacles; however, the driven particle can in turn affect the surrounding media and distort or create dislocations in the surrounding lattice. A physical example of such a system would be driving a single or small number of colloidal particles through a triangular colloidal lattice. This can be achieved by placing a colloidal particle that responds to an external drive into a colloidal lattice for densities and temperatures where the non-driven colloids form a triangular lattice. It should be straightforward to drive individual colloids with an optical tweezer . It is also possible to use magnetic impurity particles driven with a magnetic field, as in recent experiments by Weeks et al. . A variation on this type of system would be to have one colloid or impurity particle fixed at a spot and to drive the colloidal lattice past it. Experiments along this line have been performed previously for large obstacles .

A system that has many similarities to colloids is vortices in superconductors, where the mutual repulsion between vortices leads to the formation of a triangular lattice. For a clean superconductor where the intrinsic pinning is not strong enough to distort the vortex lattice, it may be possible to drive a single vortex with an MFM or STM tip. It has also been demonstrated experimentally using a lithographically created artificial pin  that a single pinning site can capture one or more vortices while the other vortices are driven past. Other similar systems include driving an obstacle through a triangular bubble raft lattice, or manipulating a single droplet of a two ferrofluid system in a triangular droplet state. Another system closely related to colloids is 2D dusty plasmas where charged dust particles form a triangular lattice  and individual particles can be driven with lasers.

In a system where the periodic lattice through which a particle is driven can itself be affected by the driven particle, a number of intriguing scenarios are possible which cannot arise when the substrate is completely rigid. Examples include a transition from an ordered flow, where the driven particle only distorts the lattice elastically and does not create dislocations, to a disordered flow, where the particle tears the lattice and dislocations are generated. This could occur when the particle moves at an angle that is not commensurate with the lattice, or for a large enough driven particle. Other effects that could occur include the possibility that, for certain driving directions, the driven particle may drag portions of the non-driven lattice with it. Conversely, for other driving directions, the particle may be able to slip freely between the particles comprising the lattice. Since the lattice can locally distort to more easily accommodate the motion of the driven particle in the locked regimes, the locking effects may be different in nature and more pronounced than those observed in previous work on rigid substrates. One practical application of this system, as suggested in Refs. , is the continuous separation of different species of particles as they move through periodic arrays of obstacles. We demonstrate that the separation of particles of different sizes is enhanced by the ability of the surrounding lattice to distort. If, under certain conditions, the distortable lattice can act as a filter for different sized particles, then the additional step of using optical tweezer arrays, as in Ref. , would not be needed.

## II Simulation

We simulate a 2D monodisperse colloidal assembly using Langevin dynamics, with techniques that have been described previously . The overdamped equation of motion for a single colloid $`i`$ in a system with periodic boundaries in the $`x`$ and $`y`$ directions is

$$\eta \frac{d𝐫_i}{dt}=𝐟_{ij}+𝐟_d^i+𝐟_T.$$
(1)
Here $`\eta =1`$ is the damping term arising from the fact that the particle is moving through a viscous media. The interaction force from the other colloids is $`𝐟_{ij}=_{ji}^N_iV(r_{ij})`$, where the repulsive colloid-colloid interaction is Yukawa or screened Coulomb,

$$V(r_{ij})=\frac{q_iq_j}{|𝐫_i𝐫_j|}\mathrm{exp}(\kappa |𝐫_i𝐫_j|).$$
(2)
Here $`q_{i(j)}`$ is the charge of the particle, $`1/\kappa `$ is the screening length, $`𝐫_i`$ is the position of particle $`i`$, and $`𝐫_j`$ is the position of particle $`j`$. We initialize the system in a triangular lattice with $`N`$ colloids and a lattice constant $`a`$, and then insert one additional driven colloid. The screening length is fixed at $`1/\kappa =3a`$.

The thermal force $`𝐟_T`$ is a randomly fluctuating force modeled as random kicks, with the properties $`<𝐟_T(t)>=0`$ and $`<𝐟_T(t)𝐟_T(t^{})>=2\eta k_BT\delta (tt^{})`$. For most of the results presented here, the colloid density is held fixed and the system size is set to $`L=34a`$. With these parameters there is a well defined melting temperature $`T_m`$ for the unperturbed lattice, which we determine by measuring the fraction of colloids which are six-fold coordinated. We measure temperature in units of $`T_m`$. For the first part of the paper we consider the case of $`T=0`$ so that the effects of the dynamics can be clearly distinguished. We later show that, for a large range of $`T/T_m`$, essentially the same results appear, and that the locking effects are lost for $`T/T_m>1`$. Thus the results from our work should be applicable to experimental samples at finite temperatures.

We vary the charge on the driven particle $`q_d`$ and the direction of drive. All particles except the driven one have charge $`q=1`$ and applied dc drive $`𝐟_d^i=0`$. The force on the driven particle has two components:

$$𝐟_d=f_x^d\widehat{𝐱}+f_y^d\widehat{𝐲}.$$
(3)
We hold $`f_x^d`$ fixed at a constant value and increase $`f_y^d`$. We then monitor the velocities $`V_x`$ and $`V_y`$ of the driven particle.

We do not take into account possible hydrodynamic effects or possible long-range attractions between colloids. We have conducted simulations for different system sizes, lattice constants $`a`$, and screening lengths, and find that the qualitative results presented here are robust.

## III Small Driven Particle

We first consider the case where the driven particle interacts only weakly with the surrounding particles so

that, although small distortions of the lattice can occur, no dislocations are formed in the surrounding media. We define this weak interaction regime as $`q_d/q<0.5`$. In the case of a triangular lattice aligned in the $`x`$-direction, as in Fig. 1(a), locking should occur for angles of drive where the driven colloid can move freely between the colloids in the lattice. This occurs for ratios of the applied drive of

$$\frac{f_y^d}{f_x^d}=\frac{\sqrt{3}m}{2n+1}$$
(4)
where $`m`$ and $`n`$ are integers. The corresponding locking angle is $`\theta =\mathrm{arctan}(f_y^d/f_x^d)`$. Eq. 4 predicts locking at $`60^{}`$ corresponding to $`m=1`$, $`n=0`$; $`30^{}`$ corresponding to $`m=1`$, $`n=1`$; $`19.1^{}`$ corresponding to $`m=1`$, $`n=2`$; and $`0^{}`$ for $`m=0`$. Other locking angles occur for higher order values of $`m`$ and $`n`$. In Fig. 1 we illustrate the driven particle, the surrounding lattice, and the particle trajectories for a system with fixed parameters of $`q_d/q=0.35`$ and $`f_x^d=1.0`$ for increasing $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0,`$ 0.57, and 0.78. The trajectories in all these cases show that the driven particle moves through the lattice without significantly distorting it, due to the weak charge of the driven particle. In Fig. 1(a) we show the commensurate case of $`f_y^d/f_x^y=0`$ where the particle channels between the surrounding colloids. Fig. 1(b) presents another commensurate case for $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0.57`$ where the particle moves in a periodic orbit along a symmetry line of the lattice. This orbit corresponds to $`m=1`$, $`n=1`$ from Eq. 4, so the flow is along $`30^{}`$. In Fig. 1(c) we show an incommensurate case of $`f_y^d/f_x^y=0.78`$, which is not a simple

ratio in Eq. 4. Here the particle does not move in a completely periodic orbit but shows some non-periodic deviations; however, the particles in the surrounding lattice still show little deviation from their positions. We observe similar types of motion at the other incommensurate angles as well.

In order to better demonstrate the difference between the commensurate and incommensurate particle orbits in Fig. 1, we analyze the power spectra of the velocity $`V_y`$ of the driven particle for the two cases. In Fig. 2 we show the power spectra $`S(\nu )`$ obtained from a time series of $`V_y`$ of the driven particle at fixed $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$. Figure 2(a) illustrates $`S(\nu )`$ for the commensurate case $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0.57`$ shown in Fig. 1(b). Here the spectrum has a prominent peak at $`\nu =0.0127`$ inverse molecular dynamics steps with higher harmonics, indicating that the particle motion is strictly periodic with a single frequency. In a commensurate orbit, a single frequency is expected to appear since the particle is moving along a symmetry direction of the lattice and is slowed by the interactions from the surrounding lattice at a constant spacing and a constant rate. In Fig. 2(b), the spectrum for the incommensurate case $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0.78`$ shown in Fig. 1(c) has many peaks, indicating that the particle is undergoing motion with many different periods giving a broad spectrum. In general, for these incommensurate phases, the particle likely jumps between several different closely spaced locked phases with high $`m`$ and $`n`$ values which, together, produce an angle of motion which is close to the angle of the drive. We find similar behaviors in the power spectra at other commensurate and incommensurate angles.

In Fig. 3(a) we simultaneously plot $`V_x`$ and $`V_y`$ vs $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$,

with fixed $`f_x^d=1.0`$, showing that the locked phases strongly affect the transport proprieties. We highlight a few ratios of $`(m,n)`$ from Eq. 4 to indicate the most prominent locking phases: $`(0,0)`$, which starts at $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0`$ in the bottom left corner of Fig. 3(a); $`(1,1)`$ for flow at $`30^{}`$; and the very prominent $`(1,0)`$ locking centered at $`f_y^d/f_x^d=1.7`$. There are additional smaller steps that are difficult to see for this value of $`q_d`$. Another interesting feature is that $`V_x`$ has an average value of $`0.9`$ for $`f_y^d/f_x^d<2.0`$. We note that, for a single driven colloid moving in the absence of any other particles, we would have $`V_x=1.0`$, which is higher than the value obtained in the presence of the other particles. This indicates that the driven particle experiences an additional damping due to the interactions with the other particles. This damping originates when the surrounding colloids shift slightly as the driven particle moves past. Since the motion of these surrounding colloids is also overdamped, the only source of energy is the driven particle. In the case of a rigid substrate , this additional damping effect is absent since the periodic substrate cannot distort and absorb energy. Another immediately obvious difference between this system and particle motion over a rigid substrate is that in Fig. 3(a), none of the steps in $`V_y`$ have $`dV_y/df_y^d=0`$ . Although the slope of $`V_y`$ is reduced on the steps, it does not drop to zero, indicating that along the locking directions the particle velocity $`V_y`$ continues to increase with $`f_y^d`$. Fig. 3(a) also indicates that, in the locking regions, $`V_x`$ is not constant but shows features where the velocity both increases and decreases which coincide with slope changes in $`V_y`$. On the steps, when $`V_y`$ locks to the lower slope value, $`V_x`$ locks to a constant positive slope which can be seen most clearly near $`f_y^d/f_x^d=1.7`$ at the $`60^{}`$ locking of $`(1,0)`$. At the lower edge of the $`(1,1)`$ and $`(1,0)`$ steps, $`V_x`$ decreases in an abrupt dip before rising linearly on the step. On the upper end of these steps, when the slope in $`V_y`$ increases again, $`V_x`$ shows another decrease.

In Fig. 3(b) we plot $`V_y`$ along with its derivative $`R_y`$ to show the locking phases more clearly. At the $`(1,0)`$ locking, $`R_y`$ drops to a lower value due to the smaller slope of $`V_y`$ in the locking regions. Peaks appear in $`R_y`$ at the beginning and end of each locked phase, reflecting the increased slope of $`V_y`$ outside of the locked regions. $`R_y`$ also shows some oscillations above the $`(1,0)`$ locking, which we discuss in more detail in Section IV-C. Additionally, locking phases appear as dips in $`R_y`$ for the $`(1,1)`$ locking centered at $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0.57`$ as well as at $`(1,2)`$ and $`(1,3)`$.

Fig. 3(a) also demonstrates that there is a clear transverse depinning threshold for the $`(0,0)`$ locking: $`V_y=0.0`$ for $`f_y^d/f_x^d<0.15`$. Here, despite the fact that the particle is moving in the $`x`$-direction, there is an effective pinning threshold for motion in the $`y`$-direction. Below this depinning threshold, the particle trajectories are the same as those shown in Fig. 1(a), where the particle moves in an effective 1D trough. Transverse depinning thresholds have been observed in various systems of particles driven longitudinally over a 2D periodic substrate as an increasing transverse force is applied. These systems include longitudinally moving vortices in periodic pinning arrays  and atoms moving over periodic surfaces . In colloidal experiments on periodic substrates, a locking is observed for small angles . In all these cases the particle motion remains locked in the longitudinal direction until a large enough transverse force is applied. In Fig. 3(a) as $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$ approaches the transverse depinning threshold, $`V_x`$, the particle velocity in the $`x`$-direction, decreases. This decrease occurs because the increasing transverse force shifts the driven particle closer to the lattice particles, increasing the interaction between the driven particle and the other particles. Since the surrounding lattice is flexible, some of the motion of the driven particle is transfered into small

distortions of the surrounding lattice. These distortions increase as the driven particle is forced closer to the particles in the lattice. Once the driven particle begins to move in the $`y`$-direction, its velocity in the $`x`$-direction increases since the driven particle no longer approaches the particles in the surrounding lattice as closely and thus experiences less damping of its motion. Remarkably, for $`1.8<f_y^d/f_x^d<2.0`$, $`V_x`$ is greater than $`1.0`$, indicating that the particle is moving faster than it should given the applied driving force in the $`x`$ direction. This indicates that some of the energy from the $`y`$ component of the drive is being transferred to the $`x`$-direction. Above the $`(1,0)`$ step for $`f_y^d/f_x^d>2.0`$, $`V_x`$ decreases slowly back to $`1.0`$.

We next consider how the locking regions evolve with increasing $`q_d`$. In Fig. 4 we plot $`V_x`$ vs $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$ for $`q_d/q=0.125`$, 0.25, 0.35, and $`0.5`$ with $`f_x^d=1.0`$. The plots are overlaid with no offset. For $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0`$, $`V_x`$ decreases for increasing $`q_d`$, indicating that the damping increases as $`q_d`$ rises. This decrease in $`V_x`$ occurs because the driven particle interacts more strongly with the surrounding particles, causing larger distortions and transferring more of its energy into the lattice. Additionally, all of the locking phases become wider with increasing $`q_d`$, indicating that as the distortions in the surrounding lattice from the driven particle increase, the channeling effect becomes stronger. The locking phases for the higher order values of $`(m,n)`$ can now be clearly resolved, especially for the $`q_d/q=0.5`$ curve where a particularly large number of dips occur for $`f_y^d/f_x^d<1.0`$. For the locking at $`(1,0)`$, the value of $`V_x`$ exceeds 1.0 for $`f_y^d/f_x^d>1.7`$ at all values of $`q_d`$. Just above the $`(1,0)`$ locking, $`V_x`$ decays back to 1.0. During this decay, there are clear small scale periodic peaks which are a real effect that we study later in this paper.

We note that for small $`q_d`$, the behavior of this system is similar to that of a particle moving through a rigid

lattice in Ref. , where the same type of anomalous steps were observed in both $`V_x`$ and $`V_y`$. The locations of the steps in Ref.  occurred for different values of $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$ since the underlying lattice was square rather than triangular. Additionally, the slope of $`V_y`$ along the steps was nearly zero in the rigid lattice, making $`V_y`$ appear much more step-like. The similar behavior found here at small $`q_d`$ occurs when the driven particle can no longer cause significant distortions in the surrounding lattice, rendering it effectively rigid.

### A Dynamics of Transverse Depinning

We now examine the initial transverse depinning transition in more detail. We first consider the shape of $`V_y`$ vs $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$ near the transverse depinning. For elastic media depinning in the presence of quenched disorder, theory predicts $`V(f^df_c)^\beta `$, where $`f_c`$ is the depinning threshold . For a single particle depinning from a sinusoidal substrate in 1D, $`\beta =1/2`$. In 2D systems of collectively interacting particles where plastic deformation occurs at depinning, studies find scaling in the velocity force curves with $`\beta >1.5`$ . It is not known if there would be any scaling for the transverse depinning of a longitudinally moving particle. In Fig. 5(a) we show $`V_y`$ near the onset of motion in the $`y`$-direction for the system in Fig. 3 with $`q_d/q=0.35`$. We plot $`V_y`$ vs $`f_y^d/f_x^df_c`$ on a log-log scale in Fig. 5(b), where $`f_c=0.15`$ is the transverse depinning force. We find a reasonable power-law fit with $`\beta =0.58`$ (solid line in Fig. 5(b)), close to the single particle value of $`\beta =1/2`$. This indicates that the transverse depinning is elastic in nature, and that when the particle depins it does not induce tearing in the surrounding lattice.

For the steps above $`(0,0)`$, whenever the particle leaves a locked region, $`V_y`$ shows curvature similar to that of the initial transverse depinning. This suggests that on the higher order steps, when the particle is channeling along an easy flow direction, the particle is effectively pinned in the direction transverse to $`𝐟_d`$, rather than in the direction transverse to $`f_x^d`$. As $`f_y^d`$ increases, the transverse force

eventually becomes high enough for the particle to depin and begin moving at a new angle.

In Fig. 6 we plot the particle trajectories at the transverse depinning transition for the system shown in Fig. 5. In Fig. 6(a), just above the initial transverse depinning at $`f_y^d/f_c=1.05`$, the particle stays locked along the $`x`$-direction for about $`16a`$ before moving in the positive $`y`$ direction to the next row. The particle moves in a staircase fashion. In Fig. 6(b) for $`f_y^d/f_c=1.22`$, we find a staircase motion similar to that of Fig. 6(a), but with the particle translating in the $`y`$ direction every $`7a`$, producing a net $`V_y`$ that is higher than that of Fig. 6(a). In Fig. 6(c) at $`f_y^d/f_c=1.34`$ and Fig. 6(d) at $`f_y^d/f_c=1.5`$, the staircase motion persists with the particle moving shorter distances in the $`x`$-direction between jumps to the next row in the $`y`$ direction.

## IV Intermediate Sized Driven Particles

Next we consider the case for $`0.5<q_d/q<3.0`$, which we term the intermediate particle regime. Here we observe that the locking phases become more pronounced and appear more step-like in $`V_y`$ with $`dV_y/df_y^d=0`$ in some places. We also find regimes where $`V_y`$ decreases for increasing $`f_y^d`$, indicating a negative differential transverse resistance, or $`dV_y/df_y^d<0`$. The scaling in the initial transverse depinning is also lost and is replaced by

a sharp jump, indicating that for $`q_d/q>0.5`$ the system is no longer in the elastic regime. In Fig. 7(a) we show $`V_x`$ and $`V_y`$ for a system with $`q_d/q=1.0`$. For these intermediate $`q_d`$ values, the width of the $`(1,0)`$ locking becomes so large that it begins to overlap with the smaller locking phases, and some of the smaller locking steps are lost. The dips in $`V_x`$ are more pronounced and there are several regions where both $`V_x`$ and $`V_y`$ show jumps into and out of different locked phases, rather than the smoother transitions seen for lower values of $`q_d`$. The slopes of $`V_x`$ and $`V_y`$ along the $`(1,0)`$ locking are both positive but show a nonlinear bowing effect. In Fig. 7(b) we plot $`V_x`$ and $`V_y`$ for $`0<f_y^d/f_x^d<1`$, showing the smaller locking phases more clearly. Along the step $`(1,1)`$, centered at $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0.6`$, the slope of $`V_y`$ shows a bow feature, indicating that the slope becomes negative near $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0.73`$. On the next step we find a similar bow feature. This behavior is in contrast to the studies with rigid substrates, where the slope of $`V_y`$ never drops below zero along the

steps. Fig. 7 also shows that both $`V_x`$ and $`V_y`$ can decrease simultaneously, indicating an overall increase in the damping. For these intermediate $`q_d`$ values there is considerably more distortion in the surrounding lattice. Just before the driven particle exits a locked region, it has the strongest interaction with the surrounding media and experiences the largest damping. At the jumps in velocity accompanying each step, the driven particle can cause enough distortion to temporarily generate a localized dislocation in the lattice.

### A Trajectories in the Locked Phases

In Fig. 8 we illustrate some of the particle trajectories for different locking regimes from the system in Fig. 7. Fig. 8(a) shows the step near $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0.39`$, which corresponds to the $`m=1`$, $`n=2`$ locking phase. The particle moves in a zig-zag pattern. The elastic distortions in the surrounding colloid lattice are clearly visible in the form of very small loops on both sides of the path of the driven particle. Here, the colloids closest to the driven particle move a distance less than $`a`$ as the driven particle approaches, and then return to their initial positions after the driven particle passes. There are some additional smaller distortions in the lattice at larger distances from the driven colloid; however, these motions are too small to be visible at the resolution in Fig. 8. In general, when the intermediate sized particles move through a channel

during a locked phase, the motion is elastic and no dislocations are generated. Only during the transitions out of the locked phases do temporary distortions greater than $`a`$ in the surrounding lattice occur.

Fig. 8(b) shows the trajectories at $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0.6`$, when the particle moves at $`30^{}`$ in the $`(1,1)`$ locking regime. The width of this $`(1,1)`$ locked region is considerably larger than that of the $`(1,2)`$ phase in Fig. 8(a). Here, the particle follows a sinusoidal path and causes distortions in the surrounding lattice; however, these distortions are of a smaller magnitude than those in Fig. 8(a), indicating that the particle channels more easily on the $`(1,1)`$ step. In Fig. 8(c) we plot the trajectories for the step region at $`f_y^d/f_x^d=0.8`$, where more significant distortions in the surrounding lattice occur than for Fig. 8(b). The width of this step is smaller than the $`(1,1)`$ step in Fig. 8(b). In Fig. 8(d) we show the trajectories at $`f_y^d/f_x^d=2.0`$ for the most prominent step, $`(1,0)`$, where the vortices channel at $`60^{}`$. There are almost no distortions in the surrounding lattice. For a value of $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$ just below the end of the $`(1,0)`$ phase, $`f_y^d/f_x^d2.6`$, significant distortions of the colloids to the upper left of the driven particle occur in the surrounding lattice, since the driven particle is pushed in this direction by the increasing $`f_y^d`$. When these distortions become large enough, the $`(1,0)`$ phase ends.

### B Locked Phase Evolution as a Function of $`q_d`$

In Fig. 9 we plot $`V_y`$ vs $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$ for increasing values of $`q_d`$. From bottom to top, $`q_d/q=`$ 0.75, 1, 1.5, 1.75, and 2.0. In this range of $`q_d`$, the initial transverse depinning threshold changes little; however, the width of the $`(1,0)`$ locking which begins at $`f_y^d/f_x^d1.1`$ grows until it saturates

at $`q_d/q=1.75`$. The width of the locking regions for $`f_y^d/f_x^d<1.1`$ do not increase much with $`q_d`$; however, they became increasingly smeared, which is particularly noticeable for $`q_d/q1.75`$. The smearing occurs when the lattice distortions become large enough to create dislocations in the surrounding lattice. These dislocations appear when the particle jumps from one symmetry angle to another, and thus they smear out the transition. The saturation of the width of the main $`(1,0)`$ step also coincides with the onset of the creation of dislocations as the particle passes into and out of the locked phase. In Fig. 10 we plot the corresponding $`V_x`$ vs $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$ for the system in Fig. 9. Again we find a smearing of the features with increasing $`q_d`$ for $`f_y^d/f_x^d<1.0`$. Additionally, we find an increase in the magnitude of the fluctuations in $`V_x`$ just above the end of the $`(1,0)`$ locking phase for $`q_d/q=2.0`$, due to the formation of dislocations in the surrounding media.

In Fig. 11 we plot a phase diagram showing the evolution of the widths of the transverse pinned phase $`T_p`$ and the $`(1,0)`$ locked phase $`L`$. The phases are identified from the features in $`V_y`$ shown in Fig. 9. Here the transverse pinned phase $`T_p`$ grows with $`q_d`$ until its width saturates around $`q_d/q=0.75`$, while the locked phase L also grows with $`q_d`$ and saturates at $`q_d/q=1.75`$. There is a small decrease in the width of the locked phase for higher values of $`q_d`$. Above $`q_d/q=2.5`$, the phases become increasingly difficult to distinguish due to the large distortions in the lattice that cause large velocity fluctuations near the transitions into and out of the locked phases.

The $`(1,0)`$ phase grows with increasing particle interaction strength $`q_d`$ because the driven particle can more easily distort the surrounding lattice, allowing the lattice to accommodate the $`(1,0)`$ phase for larger angles between the driving force and $`60^{}`$. Eventually, for large

enough $`q_d/q`$, the distortion in the surrounding lattice become strong enough to allow dislocations to be created, enabling the particle to jump out of the locked channel, and limiting the growth of the locked phase $`L`$ in Fig. 11. As the particle interaction increases above $`q_d/q=2`$, this transition occurs at lower values of $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$, and the width of the $`(1,0)`$ phase decreases as seen in Fig. 11.

The behavior of the locked phase in Fig. 11 also indicates how this system could be used for particle species separation. If two different species of particles are moving through the sample with the same applied $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$, then it is possible for one of the species to be in the locked L phase while the other species is not, and thus the two species will move in different directions. For example, for a drive of $`f_y^d/f_x^d=1.25`$, particles with $`q_d/q>0.75`$ are in the L phase while particles with $`q_d/q<0.75`$ are not and will move at smaller angles. One advantage of this technique over the optical traps is that particles with the same optical properties but different charges or sizes

could be separated.

### C Dynamics just outside of the $`m=1`$, $`n=0`$ phase

We now look more closely at some features in the $`V_x`$ and $`V_y`$ curves as well as the particle dynamics just at the end of the $`m=1`$, $`n=0`$ phase. In Fig. 10, after the end of the $`(1,0)`$ phase, the $`V_x`$ curves decay back to $`V_x=1.0`$. All the values $`q_d/q<2.5`$ show a similar decay in this regime. To examine this decay, in Fig. 12(a) we plot $`V_xV_0`$ vs $`f_y^d/f_x^df_c`$, where $`q_d/q=0.75`$, $`V_0=1.0`$, and $`f_c=2.338`$ is the driving force at which the $`(1,0)`$ locked regime ends and the $`V_x`$ decay begins. In Fig. 12(b) we plot the same curve in log-linear form and show a good fit to an exponential form $`A\mathrm{exp}(bx)`$, with $`b=2.0`$. For other values of $`q_d/q`$ we observe the same behavior with similar values for $`b`$. The fitting constants and curve shape do not change when the drive is swept more slowly in the simulations, indicating that we are not observing a transient behavior.

In the decay region shown in Fig. 12, there appear to be some smaller oscillations in $`V_x`$. Similar oscillations are also seen in $`V_y`$. Focusing on this region, we find that

the oscillations are actually steps. In Fig. 13(a) we plot $`V_y`$ for the case of $`q_d/q=0.75`$ right after the end of the $`(1,0)`$ locked phase. Here $`V_y`$ does not increase smoothly but passes through a series of small jumps. Between these jumps $`V_y`$ increases linearly. In Fig. 13(b) we plot the corresponding $`V_x`$ for the same range of driving forces. Here $`V_x`$ also decreases in a series of jumps which coincide with the jumps in $`V_y`$. Between the jumps, $`V_x`$ increases linearly. For higher values of $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$ beyond what is shown in Fig. 13, the jumps continue and become more frequent until they overlap. In order to determine the cause of the steps, in Fig. 14 we plot the particle trajectories on the small step centered at $`f_y^d/f_x^d=2.412`$ from Fig. 13. Here the particle moves at $`60^{}`$ for a distance of about $`17a`$, then jumps over to the next row, moves at $`60^{}`$ again, and then repeats the cycle of alternately jumping and moving. In Fig. 14(b), on the step just after $`f_y^d/f_x^d=2.51`$ a similar motion is seen as in Fig. 14(a); however, the particle moves a distance of about $`9a`$ before jumping to the adjacent row. This staircase type motion is similar to the dynamics just above the transverse depinning transition as shown in Fig. 6. In both these cases the particle moves predominantly along the symmetry angle which is $`0^{}`$ for the transverse depinning and $`60^{}`$ here, with periodic jumps into the next row. For the higher order steps, the particle moves a shorter distance in the $`60^{}`$ direction before jumping to the next row.

## V Strongly Interacting Particles

We next consider the case of driven particles with $`q_d/q>2.5`$. In this regime we find that a significant number of dislocations are introduced into the system. In Fig. 15 we show $`V_y`$ and $`V_x`$ for $`q_d/q=5.0`$. Here the curves are noisy with several sharp steps. No clearly defined locking regime is present; however, there are remnants of the $`(1,0)`$ locking regime.

The smaller phase locking regions for drive angles less than $`60^{}`$ that were present at smaller $`q_d`$ are completely washed out in Fig. 15. On these smallest steps, as

illustrated in Fig. 8, the driven particle created the largest distortions in the surrounding lattice. As $`q_d`$ is increased, dislocations appear first for the steps which produce the largest lattice distortions, and hence the smallest phase locking regions are smeared out first. This explains the disappearance of these phases at large $`q_d`$. Fig. 15 shows that there is still an appreciable locking effect for the $`m=1`$, $`n=0`$ phase. The intermittent jumps in the velocities are due to the formation of dislocations, a process which abruptly changes the velocity of the driven particle. Additionally, a small number of dislocations remain in the colloid lattice for $`f_y^d/f_x^d`$ below the $`m=1`$, $`n=0`$ phase. In Fig. 16 we show the trajectories for the system in Fig. 15 for $`f_y^d/f_x^d=1.0`$. Here the trajectories are strongly disordered and in general do not overlap. For this value of drive a number of dislocations are created in the lattice. Some of the dislocations disappear when the lattice reorders once the driven particle moves past; however, some persist for long times. Since we are using periodic boundary conditions, the particle passes through the same region repeatedly and interacts with the persistent dislocations, which could make the

flow more disordered. To address this we have performed the same simulations for larger systems and examined the trajectories before the particle comes back on its previous path. We find the same disordered flow, indicating that it is the process of dislocation creation which causes the particle trajectories to become disordered, and not the existence of dislocations from a previous passage. We have also measured the power spectra in this case and find white noise rather than a narrow band signal.

## VI Temperature Effects

In a real colloidal system, temperature effects will be relevant. For a triangular colloidal system at a finite density, there is a well defined melting temperature $`T_m`$ above which dislocations proliferate. We investigate the effects of the temperature on the locking up to $`T_m`$. We concentrate on the system with $`q_d/q=0.5`$ where locking is still clearly visible but the driven particle does not generate dislocations in the surrounding media at $`T=0`$. In Fig. 17(a) we show $`V_x`$ for $`T/T_m=0.0`$, 0.44, 0.7, 0.9, and $`1.01`$. For the lowest temperature, the width of the $`(1,0)`$ step is the largest. It decreases for higher $`T`$ and disappears above $`T_m`$. Additionally, the initial dip in $`V_x`$ for the transversely pinned phases is also reduced as the temperature increases. The higher order locked regions for $`f_y^d/f_x^d<1.4`$ become washed out for $`T/T_m0.7`$.

In Fig. 17(b) we plot the width $`W`$ of the $`(1,0)`$ locking step from Fig. 17(a). Here the width deceases with increasing $`T`$ and drops suddenly at $`T_m`$. This indicates that, even for relatively small particles, the locking effects

should be observable in an experimental system all the way up to the melting transition of the colloidal lattice itself.

## VII Summary

In summary, we have investigated the dynamics of driven particles moving through a triangular colloidal lattice for varied orientations of the drive with respect to the symmetry of the colloidal lattice. This system, where the driven particle causes distortions in the surrounding colloidal lattice, differs from previously studied systems in which particles are driven through a lattice of fixed obstacles or traps. We find a series of locked phases as a function of drive angle where the particles prefer to move along certain symmetry directions. For driven particles that interact only weakly with the surrounding lattice, we find a Devil’s staircase structure. For larger driven particles, the locking effects become much more pronounced and the transitions into and out of the locked states become much sharper. These transitions can be accompanied by the creation of short-lived dislocations in the surrounding lattice. We also find new features such as negative differential resistance in both the transverse and longitudinal velocities in the intermediate particle regime. As the driven particles increase in size, the smallest locking regimes are lost when the main locking regimes grow and significant distortion of the surrounding lattice occurs. For larger particles, the locking effects are washed out when significant numbers of dislocations are created. Since the width of the locking steps depends strongly on the size of the driven particle, our results may be useful as a method for particle separation techniques or electrophoresis. We have also studied the dynamics at the transitions into and out of the main locking states and find a staircase-like motion of the driven particle.

We thank C. Bechinger, D.G. Grier, M.B. Hastings, P. Korda, X.S. Ling, A. Pertsinidis, and G. Spalding for useful discussions. This work was supported by the U.S. DoE under Contract No. W-7405-ENG-36.


format: text

text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The recent all-sky, high-precision measurement of microwave background anisotropies by WMAP  has opened the possibility for new precision analyses of big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN). Until now, one could use the predictions of standard BBN  for the abundances of the light element isotopes, D, $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$, $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$, and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ and compare those results with the observational determination of those isotopes and test the concordance of the theory. If concordance is found, the theory is also able to predict the value of the baryon-to-photon ratio, $`\eta `$. Indeed, concordance is found, so long as a liberal estimation of systematic uncertainties are included in the analysis. The accuracy of the predicted value of $`\eta `$ from BBN alone based on likelihood methods  is modest: $`\eta _{10}=5.7_{0.6}^{+1.0}`$ when D, $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$, and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ are used, and $`\eta _{10}=6.0_{0.5}^{+1.4}`$ when using D alone, where $`\eta _{10}=10^{10}\eta `$. This pales in comparison with the recent WMAP result of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2=0.0224\pm 0.0009`$ which is equivalent to $`\eta _{10,\mathrm{CMB}}=6.14\pm 0.25`$. This result is the WMAP best fit assuming a varying spectral index and is sensitive mostly to WMAP alone (primarily the first and second acoustic peaks) but does include CBI  and ACBAR  data on smaller angular scales, and Lyman $`\alpha `$ forest data (and 2dF redshift survey data ) on large angular scales.

If we use the WMAP data to fix the baryon density, we can make quite accurate predictions for the light element abundances. At this density, we can make a direct comparison  between theory and observation as shown in Table 1.

As one can see, the agreement between the predicted abundance of D/H and the observed value (based on the average of the 5 best determined quasar absorption system abundances ) is perfect. The comparison with $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ is less good, as BBN predicts a mass fraction which is high compared to most observations . The value in Table 1 is based on a combined analysis  which is close agreement with the recent observations of . One should note that 1) the data of  alone give a higher value for the $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ abundance $`Y_p=0.242\pm 0.002\pm 0.005`$, and 2) important systematic effects have been underestimated . Among the most probable cause for a serious underestimate of the $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ abundance is underlying stellar absorption. Whether or not this effect can account for the serious discrepancy now uncovered remains to be seen.

Clearly the key problem concerning the concordance of BBN theory and the observational determinations of the light element abundances is $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$. The primordial abundance of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ is determined from the “Spite plateau”  in Li/H observed in low metallicity halo dwarf stars (extreme Population II). The observed value is clearly discrepant with the BBN+WMAP prediction. The cause of the discrepancy may be:

* Stellar depletion of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ – however, the lack of dispersion in the observed data, make it unlikely that dispersion alone can account for the difference.
* Stellar parameters – the determined $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ is sensitive to the assumed surface temperature of the star. However, to account for a discrepancy this large temperatures would have to be off by at least 500K. This may not be reasonable.
* The nuclear rates – this is the case we wish to explore here.

Of course, it is also possible that the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ discrepancy is real, and points to new physics. However, it is our view that at present, the case for new physics is not compelling, though it certainly merits serious investigation. Furthermore, a firm rejection of the more “prosaic” possibilities we have outlined is a prerequisite which must be satisfied before we are driven to more radical and exciting new solutions. It is in this spirit that we investigate possible systematic errors in the BBN theoretical predictions for $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$.

Uncertainties in the nuclear reaction rates which determine $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ are dominated by $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$$`(\alpha ,\gamma )`$$`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$. There has been concerted experimental and theoretical effort to understand this reaction, and indeed the cross section shape versus energy appears to be well-understood . However, a challenge to both experimental and theoretical work has been the determination of the absolute normalization of of the cross section. This uncertainty propagates into an overall systematic error in the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$$`(\alpha ,\gamma )`$$`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ rate.

We thus pose the following question. Independent of the quoted (or derived) laboratory uncertainties in $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$$`(\alpha ,\gamma )`$$`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$, what is the maximum allowable amount that this rate can be adjusted. Of course, we are not completely free to adjust this rate, since this nuclear reaction occurs in the Sun and is in part responsible for the observed flux of solar neutrinos. Thus our goal is to use the standard solar model  as a constraint on the BBN nucleosynthesis rates. In order to reduce the predicted $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ abundance in Table 1, to the observed one requires a reduction in the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$$`(\alpha ,\gamma )`$$`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ by a factor of 0.27. We show that by using the concordance between the standard solar model and the observed flux of solar neutrino, this is excluded at the 99.9999 % CL. At the 95% CL, the largest reduction factor possible is 0.65. Thus, it is not possible to argue that the uncertainties in nuclear reactions are solely responsible for the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ discrepancy.

In section 2, we detail the problem of BBN produced $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$. In section 3, we discuss the key nuclear reactions which contribute to the overproduction of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$. We derive our constraints on these reactions using the observed flux of solar neutrinos in section 4. A summary and discussion is given in section 5.

## 2 The Overproduction of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$

As noted in Table 1, the BBN $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ abundance is predicted to be $`3.82_{0.60}^{+0.73}\times 10^{10}`$ for $`\eta _{10}=6.14\pm 0.25`$. This result  is based on a BBN calculation  using the updated rates compiled by the NACRE collaboration . Other calculations tend to give even higher values, e.g., $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$/H = 4.87$`{}_{0.60}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+0.64}`$ ; $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$/H = 4.18 $`\pm `$ 0.46 . These results differ due to the different nuclear data sets and procedures used to fit them and derive thermonuclear rates. The variations are thus a measure of known systematics in the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ prediction.

The observed Li/H value in Table 1 reflects the inferred mean abundance in the atmospheres for a set of Pop II stars. The analysis is that of , based on the data of . The data sample consists of 23 very metal poor halo stars, with metallicities ranging from \[Fe/H\] = -2.1 to -3.3. The data show a remarkably uniform abundance of Li and negligible dispersion about a tiny slope which is consistent with the production of some Li in Galactic cosmic ray collisions (primarily $`\alpha +\alpha `$). Note that any Galactic component of Li only compounds the BBN discrepancy.

The $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ value in Table 1 assumes that the Li abundance in the stellar sample reflects the initial abundance at the birth of the star; however, an important source of systematic uncertainty comes from the possible depletion of Li over the $`\begin{array}{c}>\hfill \\ \hfill \end{array}10`$ Gyr  age of the Pop II stars. Stellar interiors can burn Li and alter its surface abundance. The atmospheric Li abundance will suffer depletion if the outer layers of the stars have been transported deep enough into the interior, and/or mixed with material from the hot interior; this may occur due to convection, rotational mixing, or diffusion. However, if mixing processes are not efficient, then Li can remain intact and undepleted in a thin outer layer of the atmosphere, which contains a few percent of the star’s mass but is the portion of the star’s material that is observable.

Standard stellar evolution models predict Li depletion factors which are very small ($`<`$0.05 dex) in very metal-poor turnoff stars . However, there is no reason to believe that such simple models incorporate all effects which lead to depletion such as rotationally-induced mixing and/or diffusion. Current estimates for possible depletion factors are in the range $``$ 0.2–0.4 dex . While the upper end of this range is close to the required depletion factor of $`0.3`$ necessary to account for the difference in the BBN and observed abundance, depletion models typically predict the existence of star-to-star differences in observed Li abundances due to the range of stellar rotation and other intrinsic stellar properties to which the models have some sensitivity. As noted above, this data sample  shows a negligible intrinsic spread in Li leading to the conclusion that depletion in these stars is as low as 0.1 dex.

Another important source for potential systematic uncertainty stems from the fact that the Li abundance is not directly observed but rather, inferred from an absorption line strength and a model stellar atmosphere. Its determination depends on a set of physical parameters and a model-dependent analysis of a stellar spectrum. Among these parameters, are the metallicity characterized by the iron abundance (though this is a small effect), the surface gravity which for hot stars can lead to an underestimate of up to 0.09 dex if log g is overestimated by 0.5, though this effect is negligible in cooler stars. Typical uncertainties in log g are $`\pm 0.10.3`$. The most important source for error is the surface temperature. Effective-temperature calibrations for stellar atmospheres can differ by up to 150–200 K, with higher temperatures resulting in estimated Li abundances which are higher by $`0.08`$ dex per 100 K. Thus accounting for a difference of 0.5 dex between BBN and the observations, would require a serious offset of the stellar parameters.

We note however, that a recent study  with temperatures based on H$`\alpha `$ lines (considered to give systematically high temperatures) yields $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$/H = $`(2.19\pm 0.28)\times 10^{10}`$. These results are based on a globular cluster sample and do show considerable dispersion. A related study (also of globular cluster stars) gives $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$/H = $`2.29\times 10^{10}`$ . The difference between these results and the BBN value is just over 0.2 dex making it plausible that depletion may be responsible for the difference in these stars which show systematically high temperatures. It remains an open question why stars in a globular cluster–which are usually thought of as sharing a common origin site and epoch–seem to show a larger Li dispersion (and higher temperatures) than field halo stars whose evolution has not been so tightly related.

Finally, the remaining source of systematic uncertainty pertains not to the observations, but to the BBN calculation itself. Here we will limit ourselves to a discussion of those cross sections which have a bearing on the production of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$, which is the dominant source of mass-7 at the high values of $`\eta `$ consistent with the WMAP result.111At $`\eta _{10}=6.14`$, the production ratio is $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}/{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}=10.8`$. Of course, the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ eventually suffer electron capture and decay to $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ before recombination and long before incorporation into Pop II stars. As such the principle cross sections of interest are: $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(p,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$. The reaction $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(n,p){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ is not of interest since it does not largely affect the final abundance of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$.

## 3 Nuclear Rates contributing to BBN $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ production

### 3.1 Standard BBN

Since our aim is to fix the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem by changing nuclear reaction rates, specifically the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(p,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ reactions, it is important to understand how they do or do not impact primordial nucleosynthesis. We will start with the all-too-familiar $`n(p,\gamma )d`$ reaction and how it affects the light element yields. This will guide us when looking specifically at the other reactions. It is well-known that nucleosynthesis in the early Universe is delayed due to the deuterium bottleneck. It is important to understand how the deuterium bottleneck affects the abundances of the light elements. The delay being caused by the large number of photons to baryons, which makes the deuterium photo-destruction rates much larger than the production rates. At lower temperatures, about 70 keV, deuterium production proceeds and the burning into heavier nuclei occurs until the Coulomb barrier halts nucleosynthesis. We burn until we deplete the neutron fuel and the Coulomb barrier stops charged-induced reactions, happening at a temperature around 50 keV.

While the bottleneck is in place, neutrons and protons remain at their weak freeze-out values, except for the occasional $`n`$-decay, and deuterium at its equilibrium value. The other light element abundances exist in a quasi-static statistical equilibrium, being determined by various algebraic combinations of the important thermonuclear reaction rates . When the bottleneck ends and the neutron fuel is depleted into $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$, these abundances tend to freeze-out at particular values depending on the overall baryon content in the universe and when the bottleneck ended.

The deuterium bottleneck ends when the photo-dissociation rate $`d(\gamma ,n)p`$ becomes less significant than the $`np`$-capture rate. This is done by setting the ratio of equilibrium abundances to unity, $`X_d/X_pX_n1`$ for which there is an analytic expression  that can be solved iteratively:

$$T_d=\frac{B_d}{28.7\mathrm{ln}(\eta _{10}/6.0)1.5\mathrm{ln}(T_d/\mathrm{MeV})}$$
(1)
One finds that for $`B_d=2.224`$ MeV and $`\eta _{10}=6.0`$, the deuterium bottleneck ends at $`T_d=0.07`$ MeV. This method can also be used to determine when certain processes become inefficient, such as $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(\gamma ,\alpha ){}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}(\gamma ,p){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$. Using equations that can be similarly solved iteratively, we find the temperature for which the photo-dissociation of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ listed earlier is not significant:

$`T_{34}={\displaystyle \frac{Q_{34}}{28.2\mathrm{ln}(\eta _{10}/6.0)1.5\mathrm{ln}(T_{34}/\mathrm{MeV})}}`$ (2)
$`T_{17}={\displaystyle \frac{Q_{17}}{30.1\mathrm{ln}(\eta _{10}/6.0)1.5\mathrm{ln}(T_{17}/\mathrm{MeV})}}`$ (3)
Using $`Q`$-values of 1.587 MeV and 0.137 MeV for the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(\gamma ,\alpha ){}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}(\gamma ,p){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ respectively, we find $`T_{34}=0.05`$ MeV and $`T_{17}=0.004`$ MeV. These temperatures are below the deuterium bottleneck, suggesting that if these reactions dominate the formation of these elements, then they should exist at their equilibrium abundances. This is true for the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ reaction. However, $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(p,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ must compete with $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ decay, with mean lifetime $`1`$ s. An equilibrium abundance of $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ during the epoch of big bang nucleosynthesis will be greatly suppressed and in fact is completely negligible. In other words, $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ and its decay products do not contribute to the primordial light element abundances. Knowing that $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ is the dominant contribution to the BBN $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ abundance prediction, we now discuss what we need to fix the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem.

### 3.2 Modified BBN: A Nuclear Solution to the Lithium Problem

The question of interest to us here, is to what extent can these key rates be altered to enhance the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ ($`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$) abundance and yet remain consistent with experimental constraints. To this end, we define a new $`S`$-factor222The $`S`$-factor is defined by the cross section: $`S(E)=\sigma (E)E\mathrm{exp}(8\pi ^2\alpha Z_1Z_2/v)`$. The last term is the Coulomb penetration factor, in which $`Z_i`$ are the charges of the incoming nuclei and $`v`$ their relative velocity. $`S_{17}^{NEW}`$ which we assume for simplicity to be proportional to the old one, $`S_{17}^{OLD}`$. Note that for $`S_{17}`$, a proportionality factor between 0 and 2 does not change the BBN predictions significantly. In contrast, the dependence of the mass 7 abundance on $`S_{34}`$ is nearly 1:1, as apparent in Table 2, and in good agreement with the results of , who find that $`{}_{\mathrm{BBN}}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}S_{34}^{0.95}`$.

As discussed above, there are two sets of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ observations we can try to match by renormalizing the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ reaction. Using the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ measurements of a metal poor globular cluster  would require a change of $`S_{34}^{NEW}=0.53S_{34}^{OLD}`$. Using the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ measurements of metal poor stars in the Galactic halo  would require a change of $`S_{34}^{NEW}=0.27S_{34}^{OLD}`$.

The determination of the BBN light element yields is from , where new normalizations and errors to the NACRE  rates important for primordial nucleosynthesis have been assigned. The value, $`S_{17}^{OLD}(0)=0.021\pm 0.002`$ keV b is taken straight from the NACRE collaboration. For $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$, the BBN calculation uses the renormalized NACRE rate $`S_{34}^{OLD}(0)=0.504\pm 0.0534`$ keV b . As one can see, shifts in the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ cross section as large as that necessary to produce $`S_{34}^{NEW}`$ are strongly excluded given the cited uncertainties for this reaction. Although adjustments in the nuclear cross-sections of this size are unlikely given the stated experimental errors, one could worry that additional systematic effects are present, particularly given the difficulties in establishing the absolute normalization for this reaction. As stated in the Introduction, these rates in particular can be bounded by another means. In the next section, we will determine the maximum possible downward adjustment to $`S_{34}`$ which is consistent with solar neutrino fluxes.

The effect of changing the yields of certain BBN reactions was recently considered by Coc et al. . In particular, they concentrated on the set of cross sections which affect $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ and are poorly determined both experimentally and theoretically. In many cases however, the required change in cross section far exceeded any reasonable uncertainty. Nevertheless, it may be possible that certain cross sections have been poorly determined. In , it was found for example, that an increase of the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(d,n)2{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ reaction by a factor of 100 would reduce the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ abundance by a factor of about 3. Another reaction which is poorly determined is $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(d,p)2{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$. An increase in this rate by a factor of $`100`$ could also alleviate the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ discrepancy

## 4 The Sun as a Nuclear Laboratory

The $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ reaction plays a crucial role not only in BBN $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ synthesis, but also in solar neutrino production. In particular, this reaction is responsible for the creation of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$, which will then either (1) produce a monoenergetic neutrino via electron capture $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(e^{},\nu _e){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$, or (2) produce $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ via radiative capture of a proton, $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(p,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$. The branching between these paths determines the solar $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ abundance and thus directly sets the flux of $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ neutrinos. SNO (as well as Super-K) are sensitive exclusively to these neutrinos. Furthermore, SNO measures directly the total $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ neutrino flux, with no assumptions about mixing . They find:

$$\varphi _8=\left[5.21\pm 0.27(stat)\pm 0.38(syst)\right]\times 10^6\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1,$$
(4)
where this is determined with no assumed shape of the $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ energy spectrum. This flux thus offers a constraint on the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ reaction, as follows.

The Standard Solar Model of Bahcall  can be used to predict the solar neutrino fluxes that can be observed by experiments. These fluxes depend upon various solar parameters, such as the luminosity, the chemical abundances, and nuclear fusion cross sections. In fact, the neutrino flux uncertainties are dominated by the cross section errors. Provided by , simple scalings between neutrino fluxes and these cross sections robustly describe the SSM predictions. The $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ neutrino flux scaling is:

$$\varphi _8S_{11}^{2.6}S_{33}^{0.4}S_{34}^{0.81}S_{17}^{1.0}S_{e7}^{1.0}.$$
(5)
Here, the $`S`$’s are the astrophysical $`S`$-factors, except for $`S_{e7}`$. The $`S_{e7}`$ reaction is the electron capture rate on $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$. One usually takes some nuclear rate compilation and uses the $`S`$-factors to evaluate the neutrino flux given these scalings. Two such nuclear compilations are from Adelberger et al  and the NACRE collaboration . Their determinations relevant for this work are shown in Table 3.

Our strategy is thus to use the SNO measurements of the $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ neutrino flux and the SSM to constrain $`S_{34}`$. This is accomplished via the scalings in eq. (5). A complication is that these scalings also depend on other reactions, none of which are significant for BBN, and all of which are better measured than $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$. This approach amounts to the extreme case in which we ignore all of the hard-won laboratory and theoretical information on $`S_{34}`$, using only solar neutrino data as well as constraints on other reactions, $`S_{17}`$. This can be viewed as providing independent information about $`S_{34}`$, or as a test of the systematics in the normalization, which is a salient feature for the BBN $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem. Our results will thus use the Sun to provide new and independent limits on the systematics of $`S_{34}`$. We will derive these using both approximate analytical methods and more accurate numerical methods.

### 4.1 Analytic Formalism and Results

We can estimate the impact these rate compilations have on the neutrino flux, by doing linear error propagation as follows:

$$\left(\frac{\sigma _8}{\varphi _8}\right)^2\left(\frac{2.6\sigma _{11}}{S_{11}}\right)^2+\left(\frac{0.4\sigma _{33}}{S_{33}}\right)^2+\left(\frac{0.81\sigma _{34}}{S_{34}}\right)^2+\left(\frac{\sigma _{17}}{S_{17}}\right)^2+\left(\frac{\sigma _{e7}}{S_{e7}}\right)^2.$$
(6)
We find that the Adelberger and NACRE compilations predict $`\sigma _8/\varphi _8=\pm 0.19`$ and $`\sigma _8/\varphi _8=\pm 0.22`$ respectively using this linear approximation. With these results, we find that the error in the predicted flux is determined primarily by the $`S_{17}`$, $`S_{34}`$ and $`S_{11}`$ reactions. With our ultimate aim of constraining $`S_{34}`$, we will have to treat at least the $`S_{17}`$ and $`S_{11}`$ uncertainties directly, in addition to the error in the solar neutrino flux measurement.

We can now use the scalings in eqn. 5 to estimate the likely value of $`S_{34}`$ and its uncertainty, based on the SNO observations (4),

$$\frac{S_{34}}{S_{34,0}}=\left(\frac{S_{11}}{S_{11,0}}\right)^{3.21}\left(\frac{S_{33}}{S_{33,0}}\right)^{0.49}\left(\frac{S_{17}}{S_{17,0}}\right)^{1.23}\left(\frac{S_{e7}}{S_{e7,0}}\right)^{1.23}\left(\frac{\varphi _8}{\varphi _{8,0}}\right)^{1.23}$$
(7)
where we use the Bahcall et al. results for the Adelberger and NACRE reaction complications (the $`S_{i,0}`$) to determine the flux normalization

$`\varphi _{8,0}^{\mathrm{ADL}}`$ $`=`$ $`5.05\times 10^6\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ (8)
$`\varphi _{8,0}^{\mathrm{NAC}}`$ $`=`$ $`5.44\times 10^6\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ (9)
These normalizations are both in excellent agreement with the observed flux (eq. 5). In the extreme case in which all of the small mismatch between predicted and observed fluxes is attributed to $`S_{34}`$, we expect a shift of $`S_{34}/S_{34}^{ADL}=1.04`$ and $`S_{34}/S_{34}^{NAC}=0.95`$ using the purely Adelberger and NACRE rate compilations, respectively; the smallness of these shifts just restates the success of the SSM in light of the SNO observations.

If we adopt the scaling laws and propagate the errors according to the usual rules, we have

$$\left(\frac{\sigma _{34}}{S_{23}}\right)^2\left(\frac{3.21\sigma _{11}}{S_{11}}\right)^2+\left(\frac{0.49\sigma _{33}}{S_{33}}\right)^2+\left(\frac{1.23\sigma _{17}}{S_{17}}\right)^2+\left(\frac{1.23\sigma _{e7}}{S_{e7}}\right)^2+\left(\frac{1.23\sigma _8}{\varphi _8}\right)^2.$$
(10)
This gives a dispersion of $`\sigma _{34}/S_{34}=0.24`$ for both compilations. This is much larger than the small shifts in the mean found in the above paragraph. Moreover, we see that to solve the BBN $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem with reaction rate uncertainties alone requires a $`2\sigma `$ change in $`S_{34}`$. Thus we find that this solution to the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem is excluded at $`95\%`$ CL. We now turn to numerical results which will confirm and better quantify this limit.

### 4.2 Numerical Formalism and Results

Our analytic discussion uses standard error propagation which is good only to first order, and assumes gaussian errors as well as linearity. To explore this scenario more rigorously, we perform this calculation numerically, taking into account the non-gaussian nuclear errors and non-linear scalings. We set out to perform a Monte Carlo integration of an integral of the form:

$$_{SSM}(\stackrel{}{S},\varphi _8)_{NUC}(\stackrel{}{S})_{SNO}(\varphi _8)𝑑\stackrel{}{S}𝑑\varphi _8,$$
(11)
where $`\stackrel{}{S}`$ is a set of reaction rates (such as the rates already listed) and $`\varphi _8`$ is the $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ solar neutrino flux. $`_{SSM}`$, $`_{NUC}`$, and $`_{SNO}`$ are the likelihood distributions of the Standard Solar Model given a reaction network and a solar neutrino flux, the reaction network given various rate compilations, and the total $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ solar neutrino flux given by the SNO collaboration.

In order to test the reliability and accuracy of this method, we first predict the total $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ neutrino flux given a complete reaction network, using both the Adelberger and NACRE compilations and then compare to the predictions shown in the works of Bahcall et al . The integral we are performing is:

$$(\varphi _8)=_{SSM}(\stackrel{}{S},\varphi _8)_{NUC}(\stackrel{}{S})𝑑\stackrel{}{S}.$$
(12)
A Monte Carlo integration uses one of the likelihood functions to draw random numbers and average the remaining function over those generated random numbers. For our case, we will generate random numbers for the independent reaction rates given by either the Adelberger or NACRE compilations. We combine statistical and systematic uncertainties by adding them in quadrature, since only the total uncertainty is needed for this analysis. We generate gaussian or piecewise gaussian distributions for the reaction rates, depending on whether the quoted errors are symmetric or asymmetric about the most likely value. For each random draw of the reaction rates, we can calculate a solar neutrino flux, given the scalings shown in eqn. 5. Once a large sample of $`\varphi _8`$ is created, we can calculate its likelihood distribution. To summarize:

1. $`_{NUC}(\stackrel{}{S})`$ generates reaction rates randomly.
2. $`_{SSM}(\stackrel{}{S},\varphi _8)`$ enforces the scalings in eqn. 5.
3. The resulting sample of $`\varphi _8`$ is used to find $`(\varphi _8)`$.

The normalization or best value and the errors are calculated separately. The flux values for Adelberger and NACRE, as given in Tables 7 and 9 in  are the standard solar model predictions for the neutrino fluxes, adopting each compilations best fit values, without marginalizing over the reaction network. The errors are then propagated separately, as described in  using the scalings already mentioned. The scalings are valid in determining the uncertainties to 10%. Thus, we will adopt the scalings shown in eqn. 5, normalized such that when a given compilation is used, we reproduce the values listed in

$`\varphi _8^{ADL}=5.05\times 10^6\left({\displaystyle \frac{S_{11}}{S_{11,0}^{ADL}}}\right)^{2.6}\left({\displaystyle \frac{S_{33}}{S_{33,0}^{ADL}}}\right)^{0.40}\left({\displaystyle \frac{S_{34}}{S_{34,0}^{ADL}}}\right)^{0.81}\left({\displaystyle \frac{S_{17}}{S_{17,0}^{ADL}}}\right)^{1.0}\left({\displaystyle \frac{S_{e7}}{S_{e7,0}^{ADL}}}\right)^{1.0}`$ (13)
$`\varphi _8^{NAC}=5.44\times 10^6\left({\displaystyle \frac{S_{11}}{S_{11,0}^{NAC}}}\right)^{2.6}\left({\displaystyle \frac{S_{33}}{S_{33,0}^{NAC}}}\right)^{0.40}\left({\displaystyle \frac{S_{34}}{S_{34,0}^{NAC}}}\right)^{0.81}\left({\displaystyle \frac{S_{17}}{S_{17,0}^{NAC}}}\right)^{1.0}\left({\displaystyle \frac{S_{e7}}{S_{e7,0}^{ADL}}}\right)^{1.0}`$ (14)
By using the Adelberger scaling relation to predict the NACRE scaling relation and vice versa, we can verify the accuracy of these fits. We find deviations from the relations listed above at the 8 or 9% level, thus we adopt an overall 10% systematic uncertainty in the predicted flux. Also, since the resulting distributions are non-gaussian, we expect our marginalized best fit neutrino fluxes to be different from the neutrino flux determined by adopting only the best values of the reaction rates.

We find remarkable agreement between our confidence intervals and those placed by Bahcall et al . Our results are summarized below, as well as in figure 1;

$`\varphi _8^{ADL}`$ $`=`$ $`5.09\left[1.0_{0.16(0.29)}^{+0.20(0.44)}(stat)\pm 0.10(syst)\right]\times 10^6\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$ (15)
$`\varphi _8^{NAC}`$ $`=`$ $`5.19\left[1.0_{0.21(0.38)}^{+0.25(0.53)}(stat)\pm 0.10(syst)\right]\times 10^6\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1,`$ (16)
where the flux numbers listed are the most likely values for the Adelberger-based and NACRE-based compilations and their respective 68% (95%) confidence limits, as determined from the marginalized likelihood distributions. Notice that our most likely values are different than the fluxes determined by adopting the best values for the reaction rates. This shift in best values is due to the marginalization over the non-linear scalings and asymmetric nuclear errors. Had the scalings been linear and additive, and all nuclear errors symmetric, no shift would have been seen. As one expected, NACRE has slightly inflated errors as compared to Adelberger. This is simply due to NACRE’s overall larger rate uncertainties, as shown in our analytic work.

As discussed earlier, the solar neutrino flux depends primarily on the $`S_{17}`$ and $`S_{34}`$ reactions. The $`S_{33}`$ and $`S_{e7}`$ reactions have little impact on the results due to their small errors and the weak dependence of the flux on them. The $`S_{11}`$ rate has negligible effect in the Adelberger compilation, but has significant impact in the NACRE compilation’s results. NACRE’s uncertainty for this rate is a factor of 2 larger than the Adelberger’s compilation. Below we will use the differing results of these two compilations as a probe of the $`S_{11}`$ error assignment.

Given the scalings in eqn. 5, we can use the SSM and the SNO measurement of the total $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ neutrino flux to constrain these rates in the following combination: $`x=S_{17}S_{34}^{0.81}`$. As before, we will generate random numbers for the independent reaction rates given by either the Adelberger or NACRE compilations. However, we now fix $`S_{17}`$ and $`S_{34}`$ with various values of $`x`$. For each random draw of the reaction rates, we can calculate a solar neutrino flux, given the scalings shown in eqn. 5. With this flux, we then average $`_{SNO}(\varphi _8)`$ over the sample to find the likelihood of a given $`x`$. To summarize:

1. $`_{NUC}(\stackrel{}{S})`$ generates reaction rates randomly.
2. $`_{SSM}(\stackrel{}{S},\varphi _8)`$ enforces the scalings in eqn. 5.
3. Calculate $`(x)_{SNO}(\varphi _8)`$.

Using the $`S_{11}`$ and $`S_{33}`$ from the Adelberger and NACRE compilations respectively and the $`S_{e7}`$ from Adelberger compilation, and the SNO collaborations constraint on the total $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ neutrino flux, we place the following constraints on $`x`$.

$`x^{ADL}`$ $`=`$ $`0.0119\left[1.0_{0.14(0.25)}^{+0.16(0.35)}\right][\mathrm{keV}\mathrm{b}]^{1.81}`$ (17)
$`x^{NAC}`$ $`=`$ $`0.0121\left[1.0_{0.17(0.32)}^{+0.21(0.46)}\right][\mathrm{keV}\mathrm{b}]^{1.81},`$ (18)
where the most likely values, the 68% (95%) confidence intervals. The 10% systematic error has been included in the calculation and assumed to be gaussian. These resulting likelihoods for $`x`$ are shown in figure 2. The Adelberger and NACRE -based results agree quite well with each other. With differences mainly attributable to the larger error in $`S_{11}`$ adopted by NACRE.

Since we are constraining $`x`$ only, we cannot determine the $`S_{17}`$ and $`S_{34}`$ reactions uniquely. We require additional information. If a total $`pp`$ or $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ neutrino flux measurement existed, we could in principle determine both cross sections. Since we are using the Sun to constrain systematic errors in the normalization of $`S_{34}`$, in an attempt to fix the BBN $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem, we will adopt various experimentally-determined values of $`S_{17}`$ to place constraints on $`S_{34}`$. Once a value of $`S_{17}`$ is adopted, we convolve the $`x`$ likelihood distribution with the experimental $`S_{17}`$ distribution to get our $`S_{34}`$ likelihood.

Besides using the Adelberger and NACRE rate compilations for $`S_{17}`$, we also use two more recent determinations. We use the recommended values from Junghans et al, and Davids and Typel . The Junghans quoted value, $`S_{17}=21.4\pm 0.5(expt)\pm 0.6(theor)`$ eV b, is based on several direct capture data sets. The Davids and Typel value, $`S_{17}=18.6\pm 0.4(expt)\pm 1.1(extrp)`$ eV b, is based on both direct capture and Coulomb dissociation measurements, excluding the Junghans data set because it is systematically higher than the other data sets. Had the Junghans data been used, the value of $`S_{17}`$ would lie between the two cited values. We will adopt the cited numbers, keeping in mind that the difference in their values are a measure of this systematic difference.

Our constraints in Table 4 are based on the likelihood functions in figure 3. We find that,

$$S_{34}>0.35\mathrm{keV}\mathrm{barn}$$
(19)
at 95% CL for the case of the NACRE $`S_{17}`$ value. Other choices give slightly higher limits, e.g., Adelberger with the Davids $`S_{17}`$ gives $`S_{34}>0.42\mathrm{keV}\mathrm{barn}`$.

As shown in Table 2, these limits on $`S_{34}`$ place essentially identical limits to $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ production in BBN. Thus, eq. (19), along with the fiducial BBN results in Table 1, demands that

$$\left(\frac{{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}}{\mathrm{H}}\right)_{\mathrm{BBN}}>2.72_{0.34}^{+0.36}\times 10^{10},$$
(20)
where we have fixed the reaction normalization such that $`S_{34}=0.35`$ keV barn, but propagated the other nuclear uncertainties in the BBN code  and convolved the predictions with the WMAP determination of the baryon density . We see that this alleviates the BBN $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem somewhat, but still requires a combination of effects to fix the problem–i.e., that $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ observations be systematically low, in addition to adopting the limits to nuclear systematics we have derived.

Put another way, we can ask how far a “nuclear-only” BBN solution stretches our constraints on $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ systematics. We saw in §3.2 that for halo star observations to reflect the primordial $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ abundance requires that $`S_{34}`$ be systematically lowered, to 53% and perhaps 27% of its fiducial value. A reduction of $`S_{34}^{\mathrm{new}}<0.267`$ keV barn is excluded at the 99.5% CL for the NACRE case (and above for others in Table 4). A reduction of $`S_{34}^{\mathrm{new}}<0.136`$ keV barn is excluded at more than 99.9999% CL. This restates our finding that the solar constraints on $`S_{34}`$ remove this reaction as the main suspect in the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem.

## 5 Discussion and Conclusions

The hot big bang cosmology has seen a great triumph in the agreement between the baryon density found by WMAP and the BBN value implied by the D/H ratio measured at high redshifts. However, this triumph is somewhat muted by the much poorer agreement between the primordial $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ value as predicted from BBN and the WMAP baryon density, and the observed values seen in halo stars. The predictions are at least a factor of 2 above the observations. This discrepancy impels a search for any possible systematic errors, which could either explain the mismatch, or if no systematics can be found, would reveal the true seriousness of the problem and a need for a more fundamental solution.

In this paper we have considered the effect of systematic errors in the nuclear reactions. In particular, we have focused on the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ reaction, which is the sole important production channel of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ at the WMAP baryon density. As such, systematic errors in this reaction have an immediate impact on the BBN $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ abundance. And indeed, while there has been extensive and careful work for this reaction, both fronts meet with technical difficulties which leave open the possibility for systematic errors in the absolute normalization of this rate.

Thus we have identified a new constraint on this reaction, coming from its influence on $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ production in the Sun, and the associated $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ solar neutrinos. The excellent agreement between the standard solar model and the total measured $`{}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$ neutrino flux places demands that the underlying nuclear reactions cannot have large systematics. In particular, using the solar neutrino theory and observations, as well as some information on other reactions, notably $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(p,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$, we find that $`S_{34}`$ cannot be smaller than 65% of its fiducial value (e.g., NACRE or Adelberger). This limit is strong enough to exclude the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ reaction as the dominant solution to the BBN $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem.

Other nuclear solutions to the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem are logically possible but in fact unlikely. While many reactions are important for $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ production, the requirements that we not spoil agreement with D, and not (further) underproduce $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$, leads us to focus on reactions which only affect $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$. Since we have shown that the production channel cannot be lowered sufficiently, we might hope to increase $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ destruction. This is done via the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(n,p){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ reaction, followed by $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(p,\gamma )2{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$. The Sun does not constrain $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(n,p){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ because the solar interior has a negligible neutron density. However, this reaction is nevertheless very well-studied because its inverse is a common laboratory neutron source. Since deuterium observations and CMB determinations suggest a baryon density on the high side, the destruction of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ through the reaction $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(p,\gamma )2{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ has negligible impact. Its mirror reaction, $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(n,\gamma )2{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$, important on the higher baryon density side, is negligible compared to $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(n,p){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$. Furthermore, $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ has a somewhat weaker dependence on the destruction cross section ($`{}_{\mathrm{BBN}}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}S_{34}^{0.95}S_{n7}^{0.74}`$ ), so that the needed systematic error would be even larger than what we have considered for the production channel.

Thus nuclear solutions do not seem allowed by the current data. Of course, it remains possible that extremely large (factors $`\begin{array}{c}>\hfill \\ \hfill \end{array}100`$) systematic errors lurk in otherwise negligible $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ production and destruction channels . For these reasons, continued efforts to improve nuclear cross section experiments and theory (with particular attention to absolute normalizations and systematics) will reap benefits for BBN as well as solar neutrinos. Tighter experimental errors (including systematics) will reduce the BBN theoretical uncertainty budget, which will not only further clarify the seriousness of the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem, but also allow for stronger constraints on astrophysics  when and if the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem is resolved. In this respect, we particularly call attention to the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ reaction, but also to $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(p,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{8}\mathrm{B}`$, as they are undoubtedly linked through solar neutrinos. Determining a more accurate low-energy extrapolation in either of these reactions will impact the other through the solar neutrino constraint on the parameter $`x=S_{17}S_{34}^{0.81}`$.

Where, then, does the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem stand? We have found nuclear reaction systematics are very unlikely to be the dominant source of the discrepancy. Of the remaining possibilities, the most conservative is that the problem is dominated by systematic errors in the observational $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ value. This could either be due to difficulties in the understanding the stellar parameters and in extracting the abundance from spectral lines, or from stellar evolution effects which deplete Li without introducing large dispersion in the Spite plateau. A similarly conventional solution would ascribe the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ discrepancy to a combination of nuclear and observational systematics, both at the edge of what is currently allowed.

Finally, a more radical but intriguing possibility would be that new physics is required. If this is so, nature has been somewhat subtle in revealing this twist, as the perturbation to standard BBN has been small enough not to be noticed until now.333 If so, this probably has been fortuitous for the development of cosmology. Had there always been large problems with standard BBN, one can imagine that this would have led to great skepticism about the viability of the hot big bang framework. Nonstandard scenarios have already been proposed to alleviate the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem by introducing new physics, e.g., by a late-decaying gravitino . However, most of the scenarios require fine tuning, as one wishes to reduce $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ without spoiling the superb concordance between deuterium and the CMB.

In summary, we use solar neutrinos to remove the possibility of a solution to the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ problem from the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(\alpha ,\gamma ){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ reaction, and thereby cast more doubt that the problem is due to nuclear systematics. By removing a possible resolution, we have both clarified the problem, and made it more acute. In our view, the most important arena now is the observations and astrophysics which lead to the primordial $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ inference. And while we continue to suspect that this is the likely solution, a parallel examination of nonstandard BBN scenarios is at this point not unwise.

## Acknowledgments

We thank John Bahcall, Barry Davids, Byron Jennings, and Vijay Pandharipande for useful discussions. The work of K.A.O. was partially supported by DOE grant DE-FG02-94ER-40823. The work of B.D.F. and R.H.C. was supported by the National Science Foundation under grant AST-0092939.