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# Determining Accurate Distances to Nearby Galaxies

## 1 Introduction

Distances to extragalactic objects are known with an accuracy of less than 10-15%. This is due to the fact that standard candles available to astronomers are not completely understood theoretically and most importantly, that there are large uncertainties in the current anchor galaxy of the extragalactic distance scale, the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC). Cepheids are examples of such distance indicators: the periods of Cepheid variables are tightly correlated with their luminosities. The correlation seems to depend on metallicity, but this dependence is not well understood and is controversial. Also, the distances to the LMC obtained with the same technique but different calibrations disagree (see Benedict et al., 2002, Figure 8). The LMC has the advantages of being nearby and easy to observe, however it introduces problems as the anchor galaxy for the extragalactic distance scale. The sources of systematic error associated with the LMC include the differential reddening across the LMC, the elongation along the line of sight, the metallicity of the galaxy and the zeropoint of the Cepheid period-luminosity (PL) relation.

The uncertainty in the LMC distance not only translates into uncertainty in the Hubble constant, but also in the calibration of stellar luminosities and in constraining population synthesis models for early galaxy formation and evolution. We therefore propose to use other nearby galaxies, such as M31 and M33, as anchors of the extragalactic distance scale bypassing the LMC and the systematic errors associated with it.

## 2 Hybrid Method for Measuring Distances

We have proposed a “hybrid” approach for obtaining distances to nearby galaxies with Cepheids (Bonanos & Stanek, 2003). Cepheids in nearby galaxies can be discovered and characterized using large ground-based telescopes and then followed-up with the HST to obtain precise distances. We demonstrated this by re-analyzing the excellent 8.2 meter VLT data of M83, obtained by Thim et al. (2003), using the image subtraction method.

Blending must be taken into account in deriving the Cepheid distance to nearby galaxies. For example, at the distance of M83 which is $`4.5`$ Mpc (Thim et al., 2003), the median seeing of $`0.76\mathrm{}`$ of the VLT data corresponds to $`17`$pc. As first discussed by Mochejska et al. (2000), blending is the close association of a Cepheid with one or more intrinsically luminous stars, which is the result of the higher value of the star-star correlation function for massive stars, such as Cepheids, compared to random field stars. This effect cannot be detected within the observed PSF by usual analysis. In M83, a large fraction of the flux of a blended Cepheid could come from its companions and would result in a significant distance bias. The discovery of Cepheids in nearby galaxies can be done adequately from the ground given good signal-to-noise photometry; however, deriving the Cepheid PL distance requires high spatial resolution HST imaging.

With the image subtraction package ISIS (Alard & Lupton, 1998; Alard, 2000), we were able to detect 112 Cepheids, a nine-fold increase compared to the number detected by Thim et al. (2003) with the “traditional” method of PSF photometry. We therefore demonstrate the power of image subtraction, which should especially be used in crowded fields. These additional Cepheids are valuable for determining the PL distance to M83 accurately. However, HST observations are necessary to resolve blending effects.

## 3 The DIRECT Project

Starting in 1996 we undertook a long term project, DIRECT (i.e. “direct distances”), to obtain the distances to two important galaxies in the cosmological distance ladder, M31 and M33. These “direct” distances will be obtained by determining the distance to Cepheids using the Baade-Wesselink method and by measuring the absolute distance to detached eclipsing binaries (DEBs). DEBs (for reviews see Andersen, 1991; Paczyński, 1997) offer a single step distance determination to nearby galaxies and have the potential to establish distances to M31 and M33 with an unprecedented accuracy of 5%. However, DEBs are not easy to detect since they are intrinsically rare objects (massive unevolved stars) and only certain configurations produce eclipses. Now that large-format CCD detectors are available and that CPUs are inexpensive, the DIRECT project has undertaken a massive search for periodic variables, which is producing some good DEB candidates.

We have so far analyzed observations taken with the 1.2 meter FLWO telescope of six fields in M31, A-D, F (Kaluzny et al., 1998, 1999; Stanek et al., 1998, 1999; Mochejska et al., 1999; Macri et al., 2001, Papers I-VI) and recently field Y (Bonanos et al., 2003, Paper IX). A total of 674 variables, mostly new, were found in M31: 89 eclipsing binaries, 332 Cepheids, and 253 other periodic, possible long-period or non-periodic variables. We have analyzed two fields in M33, A and B (Macri et al., 2001, Paper VI) and found 544 variables: 47 eclipsing binaries, 251 Cepheids and 246 other variables. Follow up observations with the 2.1 meter KPNO telescope of fields M33A and M33B produced 280 and 612 new variables, respectively (Mochejska et al., 2001a, b, Papers VII, VIII).

Of the $`130`$ eclipsing binaries, we have found 4 DEB systems suitable for follow-up spectroscopy, 2 in M31 and 2 in M33. In October 2002, we obtained spectra of the two systems in M33 with ESI on Keck-II but did not have enough phase coverage (see Figure 1) to derive the radial velocity amplitude accurately. However, we concluded that M33A is a resolved double line eclipsing binary of early B type that is suitable for distance determination and obtained spectra with ESI on 3 more nights in September 2003. Deriving a radial velocity curve is challenging, because early type stars have few absorption lines in the visible spectrum, which are often broadened and blended. We are currently analyzing these spectra and will soon have the first direct measurement of the distance to M33.

We have also undertaken the first CCD variability study of the Draco dwarf spheroidal galaxy with the FLWO 1.2 m telescope, producing 163 variable stars, 146 of which were RR Lyrae (Bonanos et al., 2004). Using the short distance scale statistical parallax calibration of Gould & Popowski (1998) for 94 RRab detected in our field, we obtained a distance modulus of $`(\mathrm{m}\mathrm{M})_0=19.40\pm 0.02(\mathrm{stat})\pm 0.15(\mathrm{syst})`$ mag, corresponding to a distance of 75.8 $`\pm 0.7(\mathrm{stat})\pm 5.4(\mathrm{syst})`$ kpc to the Draco dwarf spheroidal galaxy.

## 4 Summary

The need for a new anchor galaxy or preferably for several anchor galaxies to calibrate the extragalactic distance scale is long overdue. The systematic effects introduced by using the LMC as the anchor galaxy can be avoided now that 10-meter class telescopes have become available. Large telescopes can be used for the detection of Cepheids from the ground and later followed-up with the HST to obtain accurate distances, as demonstrated in M83. The DIRECT project will determine geometric distances to M31 and M33 with an accuracy of 5% with DEBs and the Baade-Wesselink method for Cepheids. Both of these Local Group galaxies are excellent anchor galaxies for the calibration of the extragalactic distance scale.


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# A bifurcation result for semi-Riemannian trajectories of the Lorentz force equation

(Date: Manuscript withdrawn on October 26th, 2004.)

## Abstract.

By decision of the first author, the paper will no longer be available.


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# Detection of Weak Gravitational Waves by Interferometric Methods and Problem of Invertible Calculations

## Abstract

The fundamental features of the detection of non-stationary undulatory perturbations of metrics based on the interference effects are considered. The advantage of the Aharonov-Bohm effect in superconductors for these purposes in comparison with the ordinary optical interference is demonstrated. Some circuitries of the interferometric detectors in order to be used with SQUID are suggested. The possibilities of lowering the noise temperature of the ultraweak signals detectors based on the analogy between the processes of high-sensitive measurements and the reversible calculations are discussed.

The question about the detectability and the possibility of principle to carry out in practice the recording of gravitational waves (GW) had been brought up for the first time in the works of Bondi  and Weber . The Bondi’s mental experiment (friction of the beads that are “pushed away by the perturbation of metric” under the action of GW, a prototype of the modern laser-interferometric detectors ), as well as the Weber’s real experiments  with the massive aluminum antenna, equipped with piezo-sensors, have implied an energy transfer of GW to the mechanical system. Before these authors represented their own statements, it has been proposed a recording method of GW , assuming the conversion of the wave energy into the elastic-strain energy of a body with magnetostrictive properties (fig. 1). The possibility of recording a magnetic response, caused by the deformation of a magnetostrictive sample, of the superconductive quantum interferometer (SQUID) has brought the high efficiency to the method. On the present-day sensitivity the SQUID’s are capable to register $`10^7\mathrm{\Phi }_0Hz^{1/2}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_02.07\times 10^{15}Wb`$ is the flux quantum. The basic estimations on the basis of the actual parameters of magnetostrictive materials have allowed us to think of the possibility of enhancing the sensitivity of the proposed method in terms of GW metric tensor oscillation amplitude to the level of $`|\delta g_{ij}|2.5\times 10^{23}Hz^{1/2}`$.

Figure 1. A method for the detection of GW that transforms the energy of GW into the energy of elastic deformation of a magnetostrictive sample.

The response from the magnetostrictor to the flux: $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }=S\mathrm{\Lambda }E|\mathrm{\Delta }L/L|`$, where $`S=200cm^2=2\times 10^2m^2`$ is the area of the base, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }2\times 10^9T/Pa`$ is the sensitivity, and $`E=200GPa`$ is the Young modulus of the magnetostrictor.

The resolution capacity of SQUID: $`\delta \mathrm{\Phi }=10^7\mathrm{\Phi }_0(1/\sqrt{Hz})=2.07\times 10^{22}Wb/\sqrt{Hz}`$. As $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is estimated by $`\delta \mathrm{\Phi }`$ $``$ the sensitivity of the magnetostrictor in terms of the metric tensor variational amplitude: $`|\delta g_{ij}|=\mathrm{\Delta }L/L=2.5\times 10^{23}(1/\sqrt{Hz})`$.

However, when considering the recording processes based on the energy conversion of a GW field into the measurable signals, it must be taken into account that one out of the profound problems of the Einstein general relativity theory is the problem of determining the energy of the gravitational field itself . In particular, this problem comes up in the calculation of total energy fluxes transported by GW from a source. The divergences, arising at the same time about the simplest symmetries of the problem, have forced some authors  to deduce that GW, being purely “geometrical objects” themselves, in general do not transfer the energy. It is possible that the problems with the energy in physics of the nonstationary gravitation themselves are essentially original failures of the experimental detection of the gravitational radiation by the traditional methods. If this is really the case, then GW should be searched as nonstationary variations of metric by the direct approaches without transforming them into the vibrational energy of probe elastic bodies  or the oscillations of the optical interferometer’s mirror . The direct measurement of the metric’s variations in interferometric experiments is possible due to measuring changes of the optical path difference, caused by the space-time curvature under the action of undulatory gravitational perturbations, in the interferometer’s arms. The arising phase difference periodically shifts the interference pattern, that leads to the change of a light intensity at the recording photomultiplier’s input, and can be estimated in the end from the formula $`\delta \phi =2\pi L|\delta g_{ij}|/\lambda `$, where $`L`$ is the interferometer’s base length, $`\delta g_{ij}`$ is the metric tensor’s variation, $`\lambda `$ is the operating wavelength of the interferometer. It is clear that in such experiments one should use in the interferometer the highly monochromatic light, because the monochromaticity holds down the error of the phase measurement. The radiation of ultrastable lasers meets this requirement. Because so far the X-ray lasers are not yet created and ultraviolet ones are not yet ultrastable, then the operating wavelength is still restricted below in the visible and near IR ranges (e. g., the high-stable infrared line of He-Ne laser ).

Though it is possible to reduce the operating wavelength (in order to increase the phase response capacity of an interferometric experimental system) by taking advantage of the quantum interference effect in weak coupling superconductors. The effective wavelength of the Cooper pairs’ condensate, corresponding to the quantum interference in the geometry of the Aharonov-Bohm effect, is represented by formula $`\lambda _C=\pi \mathrm{}/(eA)`$. For comparison with optics it is possible to write down the numerical value of the coefficient that relates $`\lambda _C`$, expressed in angstrom ($`\stackrel{̊}{A}`$), to the modulus of vector potential $`𝐀`$, expressed in tesla$`\times `$metre ($`Tm`$): $`\lambda _C[\stackrel{̊}{A}]10^7A^1[Tm]`$. Consequently, even the technically attainable weak fields (with the orders of $`A10^6Tm=1\text{Œ}cm`$, $`\lambda _C0.1\stackrel{̊}{A}`$) make the quantum interference of superconductive condensate (i. e. the Josephson effect and the Aharonov-Bohm effect) more preferred than optical interference on the terms of operating wavelength in experiments to detect the gravitational perturbations (when the base $`L`$ of the interferometer is considerable). In order to unbind the interference systems from the restriction on their sensitivity, it is necessary to use the light that has not just the high monochromaticity and stability, but also the considerable power (about hundreds of watts) at the way in of the interferometers . The last condition is imposed on the photoelectric multiplier, which elsewise will be unable accumulate any signal with the sufficient value of the signal/noise ratio even in the single-quantum counting regime. Under the very conditions of superconductivity the stability of parameters is ensured comparatively simply by freezing the magnetic flux, and in this case a critical current of high intensity is provided instead of an optical radiation of the required great power.

The principle of GW detection without converting the energy of waves into the oscillation energy of elastic samples in a certain sense is related to the issue on the possibility of information transfer without transferring energy. In our case, on the one hand, the problem to so general extent is not the issue, because the interferometric detection methods allow the indirect energy exchange. In interferometric detectors the GW “control” the phase. Being by itself nonlinear, such an effect permits the response energy to exceed the energy of the initiating perturbation. However, on the other hand, and in the most general formulation, the problem of transferring information without transferring energy obviously permits an affirmative answer that involves directly the interferometric detection. This answer should be searched in the theory of reversible calculations on a quantum computer. As it is known, the reversibility on a quantum level  is made available by the fact that in the course of calculation the states are always transformed while they are still the proper states regarding the initial Hamiltonian of the problem. In this case the states may be degenerated according to energy.

In that way, the interference methods of detecting nonstationary variations of the metric appear, by implication, to be concerned with the theory of quantum computing. However, in this case it rather takes place the closer relation with namely reversible computations. In fact, the customary proposition, claiming that in order to process one bit of information it is needed to dissipate no less than $`kT`$ of energy, refers to only the irreversible calculations. In reversible computations the “redundant” entropy is not produced. In this case, even in irreversible computations during the transformations the energy of the initial and final states of the system usually is still the same (two equal energetic minimum, separated by a potential barrier), but the dissipation of energy and/or the entropy growth is caused by the irreversibility of any transition from some initial state to a specified final state. It is clear that regarding such a transition a one-valued description of the inverse process is impossible indeed.

In essence, the simplest circuit  of reversible computations implies simply the preservation, during the computation, of all source data. It enables the computation to transform these data at any step, but the reversibility of calculation allows to exclude the dissipation. If to draw an analogy of the computations with measurements, then the main source of entropy, which is the necessities of prearranging at first a computer in the specified initial state, corresponds to an absorption of an idle frequency in super low-noise parametric amplifiers . It is the inconvertibility of absorptive process of idle frequency results in the dissipation in parametric systems and does not allow to obtain here the “absolute zero” noise temperature. The generalization of the concept of transformation reversibility of system states simulating the computational process to a quantum level by the strategy construction of calculation is given, excluding the reduction of a wave function . Such is possible under transformations brought to operator activity on its eigenstates. In this case the uncertainty of eigenvalues becomes zero. Latter allows to draw an analogy of calculations on a quantum computer with measurements in parametric systems with a quantum squeezing.

More generally, the computation reversibility is achieved by the construction of such algorithm, when the column vector readings of computation result $`\stackrel{}{r}`$ is received from the vector of input data $`\stackrel{}{e}`$ via the transforming matrix $`\widehat{M}`$, tolerating the construction of the inverse matrix $`\widehat{M}^1`$, so $`\stackrel{}{r}=\widehat{M}\stackrel{}{e}`$, and/or $`\stackrel{}{e}=\widehat{M}^1\stackrel{}{r}`$. The reversible algorithms allow to produce the information processing without the increase of an entropy as of information, as thermodynamic. This means that on processing of one information bit is not required to diffuse out the $`kT`$ amount of energy. In this case it is possible to believe that the effective temperature of a computer is equal to zero.

Figure 2. The circuit diagram of a dynamic squeezing anhysteresis UHF-SQUID.

It is apparent from the fluctuation-dissipative theorem, in the measurement process the final noise temperature reveals because of the nonzero imaginary part of ageneralized susceptibility of a system, that is due to the finite input resistance of a receiver. Namely the active resistance is responsible for the dissipation of the energy in measurements. This value in the full sense characterizes the irreversibility of the measurement process. The parallel between the computations and the measurements points of view points here on an advance possibility of the zero noise temperature, in case of possiblities to construct the algorithm reversible measurements. Clearly, such measuring receiver must be designed from pure-jet nonlinear elements. The parametric amplifier or the anhysteretic HF-SQUID’s are the best on this role. In fig. 2 the flow-chart of the anhysteretic HF-SQUID with a quantum squeezing is given. The effect of which has been previously considered by authors of this message in the work . In anhysteretic SQUID the role of nonlinear reactivity is played by the kinematic inductance of Josephson tunnel junction, under control of the outer magnetic flux, introduced in superconductive ring of SQUID. As an illustration of possible approaches on the creating of the technique reversible measurements let us consider an activity of the simplest three-frequency nondegenerate paramplifier with a nonlinear capacitance. The signal amplification here is achieved due to an insertion of a negative active component of an impedance on an input frequency. In this case the negative active impedance arises solely due to mixing of three frequencies (the input, the idle and the pumping) on a nonlinear capacitance (fig. 3). Therefore, negative active component is obtained as a result of the work of purely reactive elements. At first glance, this system is not to comprise active resistances and according to the fluctuation-dissipative theorem may be characterized by the zero noise temperature. However, the parametric amplifier is not yet intended as the absolutely reversible measuring device. For its operation the absorbing load of the idler frequency is necessary. This resistive load makes different the noise temperature from zero. Consequently, the designing problem of parametric amplifier with the zero noise temperature or close to one is brought to the problem of development of the reversible dissipationless load.

Figure 3. The schematic diagram of a simplest three-frequency non-degenerate parametric amplifier with a non-linear capacitance.

Here are three possible routes to solve the problem. The first one is analogous to the approach to reversible computations. In order to turn the process of information processing it is necessary to all the time to retain results of intermediate calculations. The latest asks the sufficient volume of the main memory. In this case one can produce only until for the storage of intermediate data memory there is an open place. Analogously, during the limited time, while in high-quality resonator does not end the transition processes, the initial processing can be regarded as dissipationless (or, more precisely, low dissipative) loading, while considering the Universe as an infinite-mode resonator without any time restriction needed for establishing the balance. On the other hand, it is possible simply to believe that the Universe has the quite low noise temperature as well as the load has. Indeed, until the forcing equilibrium has not been made, the energy absorbed by the resonator is mainly putting in the growth of an oscillation amplitude, and it is not just dissipates in the form of the loss compensation for an oscillation period. Rather than to absorb the energy of an idler frequency in a resonator in the nonstationary regime, it could be radiate in outer space also, considering the Universe as the resonator with neither than unlimited time of equilibrium setting. On the other hand it is possible to simply believe that the Universe is a load with the rather low noise temperature. The second path of the dissipationless absorption is possible due to the reversibility property of a parametric amplifier itself. According to Manly-Row formula, it is easy to income in the condition of attenuation of input signal instead of amplification by means of the selection in a proper way of the relation between the working, the idle and pump frequencies. In such way, the parametric amplifier will be converted into the parametric load. As a result the circuit of the idler frequency of the fundamental amplifier must be linked with the input circuit of a parametric load. Such load is not intended as an absolutely dissipationless, because there must be the absorber “of its” idle frequency in the reversed amplifier. However, the noise temperature of a parametric load can be done below the physical temperature of the absorber. For a rough estimation of possiblities to lower one it is necessary to take the ratio of an input impedance of the parametric load and the impedance of the proper absorber of the idle frequency load. In this case the input impedance as a result of a corresponding circuit adjustment may be done however large. Really, one is a relation of an input voltage variation, corresponding to the increment of an input current, to the value of latter. The variation of an input voltage as the response of a nonlinear system on the current influence may be “made” the many times stronger than in linear case. On the role of the “third route” pretends the possibility of an interferometric suppression of a signal of the idler frequency (here is possible the analogy as with principle of coated optics, and with quantum computations too). For implementing of interferometric supressing the input signal needs to give on two equal parametric amplifiers with the combined pumping generator and inductively coupled loopes of the idler frequency, which are geometrically located so that the magnetic fluxes in them became mutually antiphase.

It is obviously the use of principles of state squeezing in the quantum interferometer, recording the nonstationary variations of metrics, would allow us to increase considerably the receiver sensitivity of a GW signal. However this can be realized only after following upgrade of a measurement sensitivity on the basic principle of designing of the strategy of classical reversible measurements with zero (or vanishing) noise temperature. If to base on the finiteness of the energy flow rate across unit area by the transported GW and to use for its estimation the conventional formula of general relativity

$$S_G=cW_G=\frac{c^3\omega ^2}{16\pi \gamma }(h_{yy}^2+h_{yz}^2),$$

when it is clear the process of the energy transfer between a wave and the probe body of a classical receiver becomes “superunreversible”. Indeed, it is easy to compare the energy density in gravitational waves,

$$W_G=\frac{c^2\omega ^2}{16\pi \gamma }(h_{yy}^2+h_{yz}^2),$$

and in acoustical ones,

$$W_{Aq}=E\epsilon ^2,$$

when the variation amplitude of the metric tensor $`h_{ij}`$ is equal to the amplitude of the specific elongation (strain tensor $`e_{ij}`$, Young modulus $`E5GPa`$) of the elastic medium. At the frequency $`1kHz`$ the ratio of energy density for these waves ($`W_G/W_{Aq}`$) appears to be enormous, approximately $`10^{34}`$. It turns out that the empty Euclidean space possesses the huge elasticity; the effective Young modulus by the order of 34 is higher than at a “usual” matter.

Figure 4. The schematic diagram of the conversion of gravitational perturbations into the signals that are detectable by SQUID: a the distortion (“breathing”) of a circle, depicted inside a plane that is perpendicular to the wave vector; b the stretching of the effective area of the conversion coil in flux superconductive transformers; c the coupling coil that leads magnetic signals in DC-SQUID; d the input device from the electronic composition of DC-SQUID.

Such jump of the elasticity must generate the gigantic wave reflection on the boundary of matter-vacuum. By the same reason, the process of the energy transfer from GW into mechanical oscillations is done much better than the inverse process. This very inconvertibility at the similar transformation (when others the less fundamental noise sources will be obviated) will not eventually allow us to bring nearer the noise temperature of the GW detector to absolute zero and makes meaningless the next step the application of the quantum squeezing in the recording system evidently. The way out from such fundamental deadlock is the application of described above recording systems without direct energy conversion. In these ones the conversion irreversibility is lacking. The direct conversion of a gravitational perturbation into a phase response that SQUID is able to trap may be carried out by a superconductive transformer of the magnetic flux (fig. 4). The transformer is a closed superconductive circuit, which is composed from a couple of coils, each of them has an inductance value which is very close to the other’s one: the conversion coil (fig. 4, b) and the coupling coil (fig. 4, c). The coupling (or loop) coil leads changes of the magnetic flux, generated by GW, to the “sensitive” element of SQUID. The conversion coil is put in such a way as to arrange the plane of its own rings to be parallel to the wave vector of perturbed GW. In such a configuration (fig. 5), according to Stockes theorem, any variation of the metric tensor $`g_{ij}`$ may cause some change of the trapped magnetic flux that flows through the conversion coil circuit (i. e. through the plane XOZ, fig. 5):

$$\delta \mathrm{\Phi }=\delta g_{ij}A^i𝑑r^j\delta g_{ij}A^i𝑑r^j,$$

where $`A^i`$ are the components of vector potential $`𝐀`$, $`dr^j`$ are the components of radius-vector $`𝐫`$; the integral is taken along the whole closed contour of superconductive conversion coil, which lies in the plane XOZ. Therefore, any perturbation of the metric causes some small increment of the magnetic flux, whose (approximately) half will fall into the transmission coil. It is well known that when passing through the “ordinary” three-dimensional space, a plane gravitational wave incidents so that the circle, represented in the plane XOZ (fig. 5, a), which is perpendicular to the wave vector, is periodically stretched in one direction and squeezed in another direction (as it were “breathing”) while it leaves the area of the visible ellipse constant all the time. The stretching/shrinkage of the ellipse’s axes, as well as of all linear dimensions inside the plane XOZ which is perpendicular to the wave propagation direction, leads to the change of the conversion coil’s working area (while the wave vector is parallel to the planes of its rings), and this fact allows us to estimate the flux increment without need of calculating any circulation integral. The relative stretching/shrinkage of the ellipse’s sizes is estimated approximately by the variation of the metric tensor. Consequently, the relative increments of the conversion coil’s effective area and the magnetic flux are estimated by that one. Therefore, if in the transformer one freezes a magnetic flux $`\mathrm{\Phi }_C20mWb10^{13}\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$, where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0=2.07\times 10^{15}Wb`$ is the flux quantum, then a gravitational wave whose amplitude of the metric tensor’s oscillation is in the order of $`|\delta g_{ij}|10^{20}`$ will give at the input of SQUID a flux increment of order $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{\Phi }_C|\delta g_{ij}|10^7\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$, that complies with the limit resolution of a modern two-stage DC-SQUID, which is in the order of $`0.1Hz`$ .

Figure 5. The plots that represent the dependence of the internal magnetic flux ($`\mathrm{\Phi }_{int}`$, as the ordinate axis) inside a superconductive loop, switching into the circuit the Josephson tunnel transmission and functioning as an active transformer: a singlevalued anhysteresis loop; b multiplevalued hysteresis loop; c “utrahysteresis” loop.

According to our estimations, the design of terra-hertzian anhysteresis UHF-SQUID’s using the quantum squeezing (fitting with Josephson plasmic oscillations) of coherent states is promising to increase the sensitivity by more than three orders (i. e. with $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }10^{10}\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$). At the same time it becomes available the detection of GW with the amplitude of order $`|\delta g_{ij}|10^{23}`$ in the band of $`1Hz`$. It is necessary to note that in the quoted estimations we have not yet taken in to account the signal losses, unavoidable when adjusting the SQUID’s input circuit with the transmission coil (these losses are estimated to be of order 1 2). Based on the principle of the reversibility of linear electrodynamic systems, it is possible to offer a circuit for directly converting the variations of a gravitational field into phase responses, by means of utilizing an active superconductive transformer for the fluxes which includes the Josephson tunnel transition. In that case flux and phase are dependent on each other, but the linearity is still ensured by the smallness of the variations. The functions of the conversion and connection coils in an active transformer are integrated on the principle “two in one”, and the tunnel transition is put into the gap of the superconductive loop. The described structure is essentially a “superhysteresis” HF-SQUID, i. e. $`LI_C\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$, where $`L`$ is the coil inductance, $`I_C`$ is the critical current intensity of Josephson tunnel transmission. The wide range of the multivalued hysteresis branch ($`\pm LI_C`$) is in compliance with the small value of the derivative $`d\mathrm{\Phi }_{int}/d\mathrm{\Phi }_{ext}\mathrm{\Phi }_0/(LI_C)`$ outside the vicinities of the points with $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{int}=(n+\frac{1}{2})\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$ (in the linear domain); here $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{int}`$ is the internal magnetic flux through a loop, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{ext}`$ is the external flux, and $`n`$ is an integer. The internal flux $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{int}`$ (represented by ordinate axis in fig. 5) is determined by the phase difference in Josephson transmission, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{int}=\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$. In response to the distortion of the metric in the closed circuit of an active transformer, it is brought about an increment of just the phase diference, that leads to the change of the internal flux . The variation of the last, according to the principle of reversibility, has to result in an increment of the external flux which is proportional to $`(d\mathrm{\Phi }_{int}/d\mathrm{\Phi }_{ext})^1`$. Consequently,

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_{ext}(LI_C/\mathrm{\Phi }_0)\mathrm{\Phi }_{int}|\delta g_{ij}|(LI_C/\mathrm{\Phi }_0)^2\mathrm{\Phi }_0|\delta g_{ij}|.$$

Otherwise, in terms of the flux quantum, the response of the external magnetic field on the dynamical variation of the metric is given by the expression $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }_{ext}/\mathrm{\Phi }_0(LI_C/\mathrm{\Phi }_0)^2|\delta g_{ij}|`$.

In order to estimate the limit resolution of the set-up in terms of metric instead of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }_{ext}/\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$, it is necessary to set the resolution by the flux through SQUID, which is registering the external field, generated by an active transformer in response to the space-time distortion $`|\delta g_{ij}|(\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }/\mathrm{\Phi }_0)/(LI_C/\mathrm{\Phi }_0)^2`$. If by way of $`LI_C`$ to take $`20\mu Wb=10^9\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$, then even at the sensitivity of SQUID $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Phi }/\mathrm{\Phi }_010^6Hz^{1/2}`$ the set-up will be able to detect GW with the record-breaking small amplitude $`|\delta g_{ij}|10^{24}Hz^{1/2}`$.


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# Spatial Growth of Real-world Networks

## I Introduction

Many real-world networks show small-world properties Watts and Strogatz (1998). Their average clustering coefficient, representing the proportion of direct links between the neighbors of a node, is higher than in same-size random networks, while they maintain a comparable average shortest path (ASP). The giant component of some of these networks has been shown to consist of several clusters, which contain strongly interlinked nodes and form only sporadic connections to other clusters. For instance, the cortical systems networks in macaque monkey and cat brains possess such a multi-cluster organization Hilgetag et al. (2000). Moreover, various complex linked systems have been described as scale-free networks Barabási and Albert (1999); Huberman and Adamic (1999), in which the probability for a node possessing $`k`$ edges is $`P(k)k^\gamma `$. It has been suggested that this large class of networks may be generated by mechanisms of growth and preferential attachment, that is, the preferred linking of new nodes to already highly connected network nodes Barabási and Albert (1999). An essential aspect of many real-world networks is, however, that they exist and develop in metric space. Therefore, questions arise how nodes are able to identify highly connected distant hubs and why they would attach to them, rather than to nearby nodes Caldarelli et al. (2002). Moreover, long-range connections to hubs violate optimal wiring principles Cherniak (1994). For example, a city in New England would normally consider constructing a new highway to nearby Boston, rather than to faraway Los Angeles, even if Los Angeles represents a larger hub in the US highway system.

Previous spatial growth algorithms, in which the probability for edge formation decreased with node distance, predetermined the position of all nodes at the outset Waxman (1988); Yook et al. (2002). Starting with the complete set of nodes, which was distributed randomly on a spatial grid, connections were established depending on distance Watts (1999); Kleinberg (2000); Eames and Keeling (2002). Additionally, connected nodes could be drawn together by a posteriori pulling algorithm, which resulted in spatial clusters of connected nodes Segev et al. (2003). Such mechanisms, however, appear unsuited as a general explanation for growing biological and artificial systems with newly forming nodes and connections.

## II Spatial Network Development Algorithm

In an alternative approach, we employed a model of spatial growth in which the nodes, their positions and connections were established during development. Starting with one node at the central position (0.5; 0.5) of the square embedding space (edge length one), the following algorithm was used:
1) A new node position was chosen randomly in two-dimensional space with coordinates in the interval \[0; 1\].
2) Connections of the new node, $`u`$, with each existing node, $`v`$, were established with probability

$$P(u,v)=\beta e^{\alpha d(u,v)},$$
(1)
where $`d(u,v)`$ was the spatial (Euclidian) distance between the node positions, and $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ were scaling coefficients shaping the connection probability Waxman (1988).
3) If the new node did not manage to establish connections, it was removed from the network. In that way, newly forming nodes could only be integrated within the vicinity of the existing network, making the survival of new nodes dependent on the spatial layout of the present nodes.
4) The algorithm continued with the first step, until a desired number of nodes was reached.
Parameter $`\beta `$ (”density”) served to adjust the general probability of edge formation and was chosen from the interval \[0; 1\]. The nonnegative coefficient $`\alpha `$ (”spatial range”) exponentially regulated the dependence of edge formation on the distance to existing nodes. Such spatial constraints are present during the development of many real networks. In biological systems, for instance, gradients of chemical concentrations, or molecule interactions decay exponentially with distance Murray (1990).

The algorithm allowed some nodes to be established distant to the existing network, although with low probability. Subsequent nodes placed near to such ’pioneer’ nodes would establish connections to them and thereby generate new highly-connected regions away from the rest of the network. Through this mechanism multiple clusters were able to arise, resulting in networks in which nodes were clustered topologically as well as spatially.

In a slightly modified approach the growth model could employ a power-law to describe the dependence of edge formation on the spatial distance of nodes:

$$P(u,v)=\sigma d(u,v)^\tau .$$
(2)
By this mechanism the probability of establishing distant nodes would be increased even further. For example, simulating networks of similar size (50 networks; $`n=100`$; $`density=0.04`$; square embedding space edge length 100) for both types of distance dependencies, the power-law (Eq. 2, $`\sigma =1`$, $`\tau =1`$) resulted in higher total wiring length (6303) compared to networks generated by exponential edge probability (Eq. 1, $`\alpha =0.35`$, $`\beta =1`$, total wiring length 1077 units). In the following investigations, however, we concentrated on the exponential approach outlined above, since our simulations indicated that power-law edge probability was unable to yield small-world networks (tested parameter ranges $`\sigma [0.004;2]`$ and $`\tau [0.125;64]`$).

Another essential network feature investigated in the model was the presence or absence of hard spatial borders that limit network growth. Borders occur in many compartmentalized systems, be it mountains or water surrounding geographical regions, cellular membranes separating biochemical reaction spaces, or the skull limiting expansion of the brain. Depending on coefficient $`\alpha `$ and the network size, our simulated networks never reached a hard border (’virtually unlimited growth’), or quickly arrived at the spatial limits, so that new nodes could then only be established inside the existing networks. Naturally, virtually unlimited growth would eventually also arrive at the hard borders, after sufficiently sustained network growth. However, in the context of our simulations, growth could be considered virtually unlimited if for a chosen network size at the end of the algorithm all nodes were still far away from the borders (by at least 0.25 units).

In the following, we describe different types of spatially grown networks resulting from low or high settings for parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$, and present examples of real-world networks corresponding to the generated types.

For the generated networks, two network properties are shown, which have been used previously to characterize complex networks Watts and Strogatz (1998). The average shortest path (ASP, similar, though not identical, to characteristic path length $`L`$ Watts (1999)) of a network with $`N`$ nodes is the average number of edges that has to be crossed on the shortest path from any one node to another.

$$ASP=\frac{1}{N(N1)}\underset{i,j}{}d(i,j)withij,$$
(3)
where $`d(i,j)`$ is the length of the shortest path between nodes $`i`$ and $`j`$. The clustering coefficient of one node $`v`$ with $`k_v`$ neighbors is

$$C_v=\frac{|E(\mathrm{\Gamma }_v)|}{\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{k_v}{2}\right)},$$
(4)
where $`|E(\mathrm{\Gamma }_v)|`$ is the number of edges in the neighborhood of $`v`$ and $`\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{k_v}{2}\right)`$ is the number of possible edges Watts (1999). In the following analyses we use the term clustering coefficient as the average clustering coefficient for all nodes of a network.

Algorithms for network generation, calculation of network parameters and visualization were developed in Matlab (Release 12, MathWorks Inc., Natick) and also implemented in C for larger networks. For each parameter set and network size, 50 simulated networks were generated and analyzed (20 in the case of virtually unlimited growth, due to computational constraints).

## III Modeled Types of Networks

### III.1 Sparse Networks (limited and virtually unlimited growth).

For very small $`\beta `$ ($`<0.01`$), sparse networks were generated (Fig. 1a) in which only a small proportion of all possible edges was established. The resulting networks were highly linear, that is, exhibiting one-dimensional chains of nodes, independent of limited or virtually unlimited growth (parameter $`\alpha `$). The histograms of chain-lengths found in these networks, indicating the number of nodes in the chains, were similar to those of random networks with the same density. Unlike in random networks, however, the clustering coefficient was lower than the network density, and despite lacking clusters and hubs with large degree $`k`$, these networks possessed a power-law degree distribution, with high ASP (Fig. 1b). The power-law exponent was small, in the range of \[1.7; 2.1\]; and in the simulated networks of 100 nodes the cut-off for the maximum degree of the scale-free networks was 16. Given their low maximum degree, these networks with low clustering and long linear chains of nodes could be called linear scale-free.

Example: German Highway System. We identified a linear scale-free organization in the German highway (”Autobahn”) system. The highway network of 1,168 nodes was compiled from data of the ’Autobahn-Informations-System’ aut . The ratio of clustering coefficient and density of the highway system, which can be seen as a linearity coefficient, was 0.64. This system is also an example for a scale-free ($`\gamma =2.8`$), yet not small-world, network, as its ASP was twice as large as for comparable random networks.

A similar type of organization was also found for scale-free protein-protein interaction networks Jeong et al. (2001) ($`k_{max}20`$).

### III.2 Dense Networks (limited and virtually unlimited growth).

For higher edge probability ($`\beta 1`$), a noteworthy difference between limited and virtually unlimited growth became apparent. While it was impossible to generate high network density under virtually unlimited growth conditions, the introduction of spatial limits resulted in high density and clustering, as well as low ASP. This was due to the fact that, in the virtually unlimited case, new nodes at the borders of the existing network were surrounded by fewer nodes and therefore formed fewer edges than central nodes within the network. In the limited case, however, the network occupied the whole area of accessible positions. Therefore, new nodes could only be established within a region already dense with nodes and would form many connections.

Figure 2 shows the relation between small-world graph properties and growth parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ for networks consisting of 100 nodes. The ratio of the clustering coefficient in spatial growth compared to random networks was larger than one (indicating small world graphs), if the values for $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ were high (Fig. 2a). The ASP in the generated networks normalized by the ASP in random networks with similar density was similar for low values of $`\alpha `$ and high values of $`\beta `$. For these networks the likelihood of edge formation was high and — because of the low value of $`\alpha `$ — independent from spatial distance. Such networks resembled random growth, with the clustering coefficient possessing the same value as the density ($`C/C_{random}1`$).

In a small interval of intermediate values for $`\alpha `$ ($`\alpha 4`$, $`\beta =1`$), networks exhibited properties of small-world networks (ASP and clustering coefficient shown in Fig. 3a). Here, the ASP was comparable to that in random networks of the same size ($`ASPASP_{random}`$), while the clustering coefficient was 39% higher than in random networks (Watts, 1999, p. 114). An overview of the parameter space and the resulting random, small-world, virtually unlimited or linear scale-free networks is given in Figure 3b.

Example: Cortical Connectivity. One biological example for small-world spatial networks with high clustering coefficient and high density are the well studied, clustered systems of long-range cortical connectivity in the cat and macaque monkey brains Scannell et al. (1999); Young (1993); Hilgetag et al. (2000). We employed the model in order to generate networks with identical number of nodes and edges and comparable small-world properties. While small-world networks could be generated in the appropriate parameter range of the model (Fig. 3b), the biological networks featured even stronger clustering. We found, however, that such networks could be produced by extending the local range of high connection probability, so that $`P=1`$ for $`distance_{cat}<0.18`$, $`distance_{macaque}<0.11`$ and $`P`$ decaying exponentially as before for larger distances (this was implemented by setting $`\alpha _{cat}=5`$, $`\alpha _{macaque}=8`$ and for both networks $`\beta =2.5`$ and thresholding probabilities larger than one to one). The modified approach therefore combined specific features of the biological networks with the general model of limited spatial growth. This yielded networks with distributed, multiple clusters, and average densities of around 30% (for simulated cat brain connectivity) and 16% (monkey connectivity). Moreover, these networks had clustering coefficients of 50% and 40%, respectively, very similar to the biological brain networks Hilgetag et al. (2000), as shown in Table 1.

Comparison of the biological and simulated degree distributions, moreover, showed a significant correlation (Spearman’s rank correlation $`\rho `$ = 0.77 for the cat network, $`P<3\times 10^3`$; and $`\rho `$ = 0.9 for the macaque network, $`P<2\times 10^5`$). On the other hand, the BA-model Barabási and Albert (1999), using growth and preferential attachment, yielded similar densities and clustering coefficients, but was unable to generate multiple clusters as found in the real cortical networks.

In contrast to limited growth, virtually unlimited growth simulations with high $`\beta `$ resulted in inhomogeneous networks with dense cores and sparser periphery. It is difficult to imagine realistic examples for strictly unlimited development, as all spatial networks eventually face internal or external constraints that confine growth, may it be geographical borders or limits of their energetic and material resources. However, virtually unlimited growth may be a good approximation for the early development of networks before reaching borders.

## IV Classifying Types of Network Development

Different network growth types can be distinguished by assessing the evolution of network density and clustering coefficient. Growth with preferential attachment as well as spatial growth lead to clustering coefficients, $`C(N)`$, that depend on the current size of the network, that is, the number of nodes, $`N`$ (Fig. 4a). While $`C(N)`$ decreases with network size for networks generated by the BA-Model Barabási and Albert (1999), it remains constant for spatial-growth networks. Virtually unlimited or limited spatial growth can thus be distinguished, since density decreases with network size for unlimited growth, while remaining constant for limited growth (Fig. 4b).

Example: Evolution of metabolic networks. We applied this concept to classifying the development of real-world biological networks. The evolution of metabolic systems, for instance, can be seen as an incorporation of new substances and their metabolic interactions into an existing reaction network. Reviewing 43 metabolic networks in species of different organizational level Jeong et al. (2000), the clustering coefficient of these systems remained constant across the scale Ravasz et al. (2002), whereas their density (Fig. 4c) decreased with network size. This indicated features of virtually unlimited network growth. The relation between the number of links and nodes in these systems was linear (Fig. 4d), with a slope of 5.2, so that the number of interactions of a metabolite was not increasing with network size. Such linear growth may ensure that the metabolic systems remain connected (with the number of reactions larger than substances, as a necessary condition for connectedness), while not becoming too complex too quickly (as, for instance, with exponential addition of new reactions).

## V Conclusions

We have proposed a new kind of spatial growth mechanism, incorporating both limited and virtually unlimited growth, that can produce a variety of metric real-world networks. The metric is not limited to Euclidian space as in the discussed examples, but may also use measures of similarity to define the link probability (e.g., social relations, Watts et al. (2002)).

In contrast to previously studied spatial graphs Watts (1999), networks generated by our model were always connected. Moreover, the approach was able to generate small-world graphs, which is thought not to be possible in the spatial graph model in which positions are chosen randomly before edge formation Watts (1999). Finally, the model was also able to produce scale-free networks with relatively low maximum degree, similar to, for example, the German highway system.

A systematic evaluation of model parameter space was carried out at the specific network size of 100 nodes, which was feasible computationally. It would be interesting to also evaluate larger or smaller network sizes and to investigate for them, if small-world networks can be generated in a larger range of parameters $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$.

Several algorithms have been proposed for the generation of different types of topological networks, in which links do not reflect physical distances, but merely the connectivity of the system Watts and Strogatz (1998); Barabási and Albert (1999); Newman et al. (2001). Examples for such networks include the World-Wide Web, financial transaction networks, and, to some extent, networks of airline transportation. The present model extends previous approaches to the development of spatial networks, such as cellular and brain connectivity networks, or food webs and many systems of social interactions. Spatial as well as temporal constraints shape network growth, and intrinsic or external spatial limits may determine essential features of the structural organization of linked systems, such as clustering and scaling properties. Borders, for instance, appear to have been critical for early chemical evolution, ensuring clustering of good replicators and preventing the spreading of short templates with limited replication function Szabó et al. (2002). The same applies to cortical networks where elimination of growth limits results in a distorted network topology Kuida et al. (1998).

The specific spatio-temporal conditions for the development of different types of real-world networks warrant further investigation. They may be of additional interest, as local spatial growth mechanisms also imply global optimization of path lengths in connected systems Valverde et al. (2002).

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank N. Sachs, H. Jaeger, M. Zacharias and A. Birk for critical comments on the manuscript.


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# General Relativistic MHD Simulations of the Gravitational Collapse of a Rotating Star with Magnetic Field as a Model of Gamma-Ray Bursts

## 1 Introduction

GRBs and the afterglows are well described by the fireball model, in which a relativistic outflow is generated from a compact central engine. Rapid temporal decay of several afterglows is consistent with the evolution of a highly relativistic jet with bulk Lorentz factors $`10^210^3`$. The formation of relativistic jets from a compact central engine remains one of the major unsolved problems in GRB models.

From recent observations, some evidence was found for a connection between GRBs and the death of massive stars. This evidence includes a correlation between star forming regions and the position of GRBs inside the host galaxy (Blo02a, ), a “bump” resembling the light curves of Type Ic supernovae in the optical afterglow of several GRBs (Blo02b, ; Gra02, ), and association of GRB980425-SN1998bw (Iwa98, ; Woo99, ) and GRB030329-SN2003df (Sta03, ; Hjo03, ). Several authors (Fra01, ; Pan01, ; Blo03, ) have studied beaming angles and energies of a number of GRBs. They have found that central engines of GRBs release supernova-like energies ($`10^{51}`$ erg). It is thus probable that a major subclass of GRBs is a consequence of the collapse of a massive star.

In this study, we perform 2.5-dimensional general relativistic MHD simulations of the gravitational collapse of a rotating star with magnetic field as a model for a collapsar. The collapsar is in some sense an anisotropic supernova, and it is considered that relativistic jets from collapsars are launched by MHD processes in accreting matter and/or by neutrino annihilation (Woo93, ; Mac99, ).

## 2 Numerical Method

In order to study the formation of relativistic jets from a collapsar we use a 2.5-dimensional general relativistic magnetohydrodynamics (GRMHD) code (Koi03, ) .We assume that the gravitational potential is constant in time. We neglect nuclear burnings and neutrinos in this simulation.

We consider the following situation as the initial condition for the simulations: A few $`M_{}`$ black hole is produced at the center of the stellar remnant with a weak shock standing at a radius of a few hundred km and the post-shock gas falling onto the central black hole. We consider a non-rotating black hole as the central black hole. We employ 1-dimensional supernova simulation data of Bruenn (1992) (Bru92, ) to obtain the initial density, pressure and radial velocity distribution. We add the effect of stellar rotation and intrinsic magnetic field. The initial rotational velocity distribution is assumed to be a function of the distance from the rotation axis only. The initial magnetic field is assumed to be uniform and parallel to the rotational axis. See Mizuno et al. (2003) (Miz03, ) for details.

## 3 Results

### 3.1 Formation of Jet

The stellar matter falls onto the central black hole at first. This collapse is anisotropic due to the effects of rotation and magnetic field. The accreting matter falls more slowly on the equatorial plane than on the rotational axis. The matter piles up on the equatorial plane, and a disk-like structure is formed near the central black hole. Since the magnetic field is frozen into the plasma, it is dragged by the accreting matter and amplified. The amplified magnetic field expands outwards as Alfvén waves and launches an outgoing shock wave.

The jet-like outflow is generated behind the shock wave. The shock wave has the high magnetic pressure gradient force and high centrifugal force. These forces push back the accreting matter and construct the jet-like outflow. The jet-like outflow formed in the simulation is thus magnetically driven. The jet has a mildly relativistic velocity, $`0.3`$ c (the poloidal velocity is $`0.1`$ c). It exceeds the escape velocity. Thus, the jet is likely to get out of the stellar remnant. The magnetic field plays an important role in the collimation. Not only the pinching force of the toroidal magnetic field but also the geometry of the poloidal magnetic field (i.e. poloidal magnetic pressure) plays a crucial role.

### 3.2 Dependence on the Initial Magnetic Field Strength and Initial Rotatinal Velocity

As the initial magnetic field strength increases, the jet velocity increases and the magnetic twist decreases. However, for stronger magnetic field the jet velocity decreases with increasing initial magnetic field strength and the magnetic twist still continues decreasing. As the initial rotational velocity becomes faster, the jet velocity becomes faster and the magnetic twist becomes stronger up to a certain value. For faster initial rotational velocity, the vertical component of the jet velocity and the magnetic twist are almost constant.

In order to produce a strong jet, the magnetic field has to be twisted significantly so that it can store enough magnetic energy. If the initial magnetic field is strong, the magnetic field cannot be twisted significantly because Alfvén waves propagate as soon as the magnetic field is twisted a little bit. As a result, the jet velocity does not rise up and the magnetic twist remains weak. Therefore, weaker initial magnetic fields are favorable for a stronger jet. The dependence on the initial rotational velocity can be understood by a same reason as the dependence on the initial magnetic field strength. If the initial rotation is sufficiently fast, the magnetic field is twisted significantly and stores enough energy to produce a fast jet. However, the stored magnetic energy has a limit. It is determined by the competition between the propagation time of Alfvén waves and the rotation time of the disk (or the twisting time).

## 4 Discussion

We have studied the generation of a jet from gravitational collapse of a rotating star with magnetic field by using the 2.5D general relativistic MHD simulation code. The maximum velocity of the jet is mildly relativistic ($``$ 0.3c). This result is consistent with Newtonian case (Pro03, ). The jet is too slow for the jet of GRBs. We have to consider other acceleration mechanism. The break out of the jet through the stellar surface is the most applicable acceleration mechanism. When the jet goes through the stellar surface, the strong density gradient may accelerate the jet. In fact, some authors (Alo00, ; Zha03, ) have showed numerically that a significant acceleration of the jet occur and the terminal Lorentz factor becomes as high as $`\mathrm{\Gamma }50`$. We think it is important to simulate the propagation of the jet outside the stellar surface by a GRMHD code properly evaluating the importance of magnetic fields for the dynamics and further propagation of the jet.

This work was partially supported by a Grant-in-Aid for the 21st Century COE “Center for Diversity and Universality in Physics” and Grants-in-Aid for the scientific resarch from Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, Technology and Culture of Japan through No.14079202, No.14540226, and No.14740166.


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# Neutron Star Kicks from Asymmetric Collapse

## 1 Introduction

A neutron star is born when the core of a massive star collapses to nuclear densities during the last stages of the star’s life. It is during, or just after, the launch of a supernova explosion associated with neutron star birth that it is believed that the nascent neutron stars receive the fast spins and large magnetic fields that allow them to be observed as pulsars. The inferred velocities from individual pulsars (e.g. Guitar Nebula Pulsar - Cordes, Romani, & Lundgren 1993) and pulsar velocity distributions (Lyne & Lorimer 1994; Lorimer, Bailes, & Harrison 1997; Fryer, Burrows, & Benz 1998; Cordes & Chernoff 1998; Brisken et al. 2003) imply that neutron stars also receive a kick, most likely at birth. In addition, specific neutron star and black hole binaries are best explained by assuming neutron stars receive large kicks at birth (e.g. Fryer & Kalogera 1997; Kramer 1998; Tauris et al. 1999; Wex, Kalogera, & Kramer 2000; Mirabel et al. 2002). Any supernova mechanism must not only produce explosions, but also must expain features of nascent neutron stars, such as spin, magnetic fields and high velocities.

Of all of these, theorists have been most hard pressed to explain the neutron star velocities. Most mechanisms by which these kicks might be produced require extreme magnetic fields (see Lai, Chernoff, & Cordes 2001 for a review). One of the leading classes of models for kick production which avoids these strong magnetic fields invokes global hydrodynamic perturbations in the stellar core prior to collapse. These perturbations are driven during the last few weeks of a star’s life. At the end of its life, a star is composed of an iron core covered by a succession of composition layers (from silicon down to hydrogen) produced by a series of nuclear burning stages where the ashes of each burning stage is the fuel for the next. The final stages of a star’s life are marked by explosive burning in the oxygen and silicon layers above the iron core (Bazan & Arnett 1998). The large scale convection driven by the burning creates density variations in these oxygen and silicon shells. Such asphericities, especially if dominated by low order (l=1,2) modes, cause asymmetries during the collapse, bounce and explosion of the stellar interior (Burrows & Hayes 1996). It is possible that the violent convection in shell burning can also excite unstable modes in the star’s iron core, producing asymmetries in the iron core itself, increasing the level of asymmetry in the explosion (Lai & Goldreich 2000). These asymmetries are believed to grow during collapse and bounce and ultimately, to produce asymmetric explosions and large neutron star velocities.

In this paper, the first 3-dimensional collapse simulations.of this asymmetric-collapse kick mechanisms are presented. We compare and contrast these simulations to the seminal 2-dimensional work by Burrows & Hayes (1996) which predicted strong neutron star kicks from this mechanism.

## 2 Collapse Code and Initial Conditions

Our collapse calculations use the 3D SNSPH code (Fryer & Warren 2002; Warren, Rockefeller, & Fryer 2003). This code combines a parallel Lagrangean hydrodynamics scheme (smooth particle hydrodynamics - SPH) with a flux-limited diffusion neutrino transport scheme. Gravity is calculated using a tree-based algorithm described in Warren & Salmon (1995). The neutrino transport and equation of state physics uses the same algorithms described in Herant et al. (1994) and Fryer (1999). The Lagrangean nature of SPH is critical for this problem, as the proto-neutron star is not fixed to any central point and the resolution must follow this moving proto-neutron star. The entire 4$`\pi `$ of the star is modeled in 3-dimensions.

Beyond a neutrino optical depth, $`\tau _\nu `$, of 0.03, the code assumes the neutrinos escape the star without further affecting the composition or hydrodynamics of the star. But we must still account for the momentum lost by neutrinos at this boundary. We assume particles emit neutrinos isotropically over a hemisphere with a net momentum emitted set to $`0.5(E_\nu /c)\widehat{r}`$ where $`E_\nu `$ is the energy of the neutrinos, $`c`$ is the speed of light, and $`\widehat{r}`$ is the radial direction of the particle. The momentum lost is taken from the emitting particle. In reality, neutrinos will have some beaming and the true answer for the momentum carried away by neutrinos lies between $`0.51.0(E_\nu /c)\widehat{r}`$.

For initial conditions, we use as a base model the 15 M progenitor “s15s7b2” (Woosley & Weaver). To this, we have added the following two perturbations. To mimic the low mode convection in the oxygen and silicon layers only, we have run a simulation where the density in the oxygen and silicon layers only is lowered by 40% in a 30 cone around the z-axis: shell only simulation. Neutron star oscillations are mimicked by lowering the density throughout the collapsing star (including the iron core) by 25% in a 30 cone around the z-axis: core oscillation simulation. These perturbations are extreme cases. Bazan & Arnett (1998) predict density variations at the 10-15% level with higher modes. Burrows & Hayes used a 15% asymmetry in a 20 wedge. In running test simulations with perturbations at this 15% level with a 20 wedge, the neutron star kicks did not exceed 30 km s-1.

## 3 Simulation Results

The collapse simulations follow the collapse of these modified cores through bounce until an explosion shock is launched (Figs. 1,2). After 80 ms, the newly-born neutron star (central black dot defined by material with density above $`10^{13}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$) has moved $``$16km, corresponding to an average velocity of 200 km s-1. But this estimate can be misleading because the neutron star (defined by this density requirement) is growing during this time, preferentially accreting along the negative z axis. So part of this motion is an artifact of this one-sided growth. Also, this assumes a steady motion of the neutron star and, as we shall see below, this motion is far from steady. At this time, the convective region is just beginning to overcome the ram pressure of the infalling star and is now expanding.

This kick magnitude is much lower than that predicted by Burrows & Hayes (1996). Before we delve into the details and differences of this simulation with respect to Burrows & Hayes (1996), let’s review their calculations. The 2-dimensional simulations by Burrows & Hayes (1996) assumed a symmetry along the z-axis where the density perturbation was placed. The inner 15 km of the star was modeled in 1-dimension and was held fixed to a central position. This means that the proto-neutron star does not move and the kick can only be determined by assuming momentum conservation. In such conditions, mild asymmetries of 15% in a 20 cone produced highly asymmetric supernovae with kicks in excess of 450 km s-1.

In the simulations presented here, the initial bounce began even more asymmetric than those of Burrows & Hayes (1996) due to the more extreme initial conditions. After bounce, the neutron star begins to move in the negative-z direction. The convection that drives the explosion rises from the surface of the neutron star. As the neutron star moves, the convection moves with it, weakening the explosion in the postive-z direction. The net result is that the explosion is only mildly asymmetric (Figs. 1,2).

Not only is the explosion less asymmetric and kick magnitude weaker than that of Burrows & Hayes (1996), but even the qualitative nature of the kick is very different. Instead of accelerating continuously in the negative z-direction, the velocity of the newly born neutron star oscillates substantially. Figure 3 shows the x,y, and z velocities of the proto-neutron star (again defined as that material with densities in excess of $`10^{13}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$) for both simulations as a function of time since collapse. Note that in the core oscillation model, decreasing the mass in the core caused the collapse to take 20% longer. However, though its density profile extends throughout the entire core, the velocities of this simulation with a 25% density decrease are less than the shell-only simulation with its 40% density perturbation. It appears that it is the density perturbation in the oxygen/silicon shells that matters most for kicks. But in both, the same oscillatory behavior occurs.

Let’s gain a better understanding of this oscillating motion. During collapse, the condensing core moves along the path of least resistance in the positive z-direction where we decreased the density. The bounce shock is strongest in this direction, and momentum conservation argues that the neutron star should be driven in the negative z-direction, just as predicted by the 2-dimensional momentum conservation arguments (Burrows & Hayes 1996).

Because the ejecta is roughly symmetric, the momentum carried away by neutrinos dominates the momentum loss from the core. As the neutron star moves through the convective region (Fig. 2), the down-flows, and hence neutrino emission, are strongest along the leading edge of the neutron star. These neutrinos exert a force on the neutron star as they carry momentum out of the star, causing the neutron star to switch directions once again. The neutrino forces gradually damp the neutron star’s motion. As the explosion evolves, the rapid shaking of the neutron star ends, leaving behind a slowly moving ($`<200`$ km s-1) neutron star.

## 4 Implications

The 3-dimensional simulations presented here did find that density perturbations can drive a neutron star to velocities in excess of 700 km s-1. However, neutrino emission damps out these velocities by the time the star explodes. The simulations did not produce strong ($`>500`$ km s-1) neutron star kicks even with the very extereme density perturbations in the pre-collapse star assumed here. Since our 15 M is fairly representative of stellar progenitors above 12-13 M, our simulations suggest something is missing in the standard, neutrino-driven mechanism for both type Ib/c and type II supernovae alike. The progenitors of type Ib/c and type II supernova differ mostly by the amount of hydrogen, or lack thereof in the envelope. The cores of type Ib/c and II supernovae should be very similar, so our results will stand for both types of supernovae.

Hence, we can place severe constraints on the standard, neutrino-driven supernova engine: either 1) the explosion must occur very quickly before neutrino emission from accretion flows can damp the neutron star motion, 2) the explosion must occur late, allowing the convective flows to merge into single modes (Herant 1995; Scheck et al. 2003), 3) magnetic fields are indeed high ($`>10^{15}`$G) at least in local patches early on in the proto-neutron star (Arras & Lai 1999; Socrates et al. 2003). Determining which of these mechanisms, if any, will work can teach us much about the supernova engine.

Roughly half of all neutron stars do receive a strong kick (Fryer, Burrows, & Benz 1998; Arzoumanian, Chernoff, & Cordes 2002). If collapse asymmetries are to produce the kick, we need the explosion to occur early. One way to achieve fast explosions is to rely upon low mass progenitors. Low mass progenitors (8-12 M) will not have a large envelope to prevent the explosion and could explode quickly, producing strong kicks. Since they make up half of all core-collapse events, it may be that these stars produce all the fast-moving neutron stars. But the progenitors for such systems are difficult to produce, and until a realistic progenitor is produced, it is difficult to test this scenario.

The supernova explosion mechanism must also explain the explosion asymmetries observed in supernovae (see Akiyama et al. 2003 for a review). As with neutron star kicks, our 3-dimensional simulations found that the level of ejecta asymmetry was much less than that predicted by 2-dimensional simulations. Our asymmetric collapse simulations produce ejecta with $`v_{\mathrm{pole}}/v_{\mathrm{eq}}`$ ratios not larger than 1.2, much lower than those predicted by the observations. But low mass progenitors or the merger of convective modes (Scheck et al. 2003) may produce sufficient asymmetries to explain the observations.

The asymmetry in the neutrino emission will dominate the gravitational wave signal (Burrows & Hayes 1996) for these density perturbations. Using the formulism set by Müller & Janka (1997), we have calculated the gravitational wave signal from neutrino asymmetries both above (positive z axis) and below (negative z axis) the density perturbation (Fig. 4). Note that the simulation including pertubations due to iron core oscillations produces a much stronger gravitational wave signal, despite the lower density perturbations. The gravitational wave signal can thus be used to study the motions of the pre-collapse stellar core (Fryer, Holz, & Hughes 2003).

It is a pleasure to thank T. Janka and L. Wang for extremely helpful advice on this paper. This work has been funded by DOE SciDAC grant number DE-FC02-01ER41176, a LANL-based ASCI grant, and NASA NAG5-9192.