text:
# Large N QCD – Continuum reduction

## 1 Introduction

Overlap fermions  enables one to compute quantities in the chiral limit of lattice QCD. But one has to work with $`ϵ(\gamma _5D_w(m))`$ where $`D_w(m)`$ is the Wilson-Dirac operator in the supercritical region and $`ϵ`$ is the sign function of the operator. This makes the algorithms on the lattice computationally intensive and the situation is further complicated by the presence of very small eigenvalues of $`\gamma _5D_w(m)`$ . In spite of these difficulties several results have been obtained in the quenched approximation  and dynamical simulations using overlap fermions have been explored .

Large N QCD  provides an interesting alternative to dynamical simulations of SU(3) QCD since fermions in the fundamental representation are naturally quenched in the $`N\mathrm{}`$ limit of large N QCD as long as the number of flavors are kept finite. It is useful to use the “double line” notation for the gauge propagator in large N QCD to denote that there are two color indices associated with the adjoint representation of the gauge field. In this notation, fermions in the fundamental representation have only one line in their propagator. Only planar diagrams survive in the limit of $`N\mathrm{}`$ and the vacuum diagrams arising out of the fermionic part are suppressed by a factor of $`\frac{1}{N}`$ and fermions are naturally quenched . Large N QCD has all the qualitative features of $`N=3`$ QCD and the spectrum of mesons has been calculated in two dimensions . One also expects a non-trivial spectrum of mesons in the large N limit of four dimensional QCD but this model has not yet been exactly solved.

## 2 Continuum reduction

Eguchi and Kawai  proved that lattice QCD in the limit of $`N\mathrm{}`$ can be reduced to QCD on a single site provided the global $`U^d(1)`$ symmetries that multiplies the link matrices by $`U(1)`$ phases are not broken. Unfortunately, this symmetry is broken for $`d>2`$  and one cannot reproduce QCD in the large N limit by working on a $`1^d`$ lattice. But, the proof of Eguchi and Kawai also holds for an $`L^d`$ lattice where $`L>1`$. That is to say, the infinite space-time lattice can be reduced to a finite $`L^d`$ lattice in the limit of $`N\mathrm{}`$ provided the global $`U^d(1)`$ symmetries that multiplies Polyakov loops by $`U(1)`$ phases are not broken on the $`L^d`$ lattice.

The only parameter in the lattice theory is the ’t Hooft gauge coupling $`b=\frac{1}{g^2N}`$. This coupling has the dimensions of length in three dimensions and it is dimensionless in four dimensions. One can explicitly compute the location of the transition point $`b_c(L)`$ such that the $`U^d(1)`$ symmetries remain unbroken for $`b<b_c(L)`$. If $`b_c(L)`$ scales properly with $`L`$ then one can define a critical size $`l_c`$ in the continuum such that the $`U^d(1)`$ symmetries remain unbroken for $`l>l_c`$. The argument of Eguchi and Kawai will hold for all $`L`$ as long as we keep $`b<b_c(L)`$. There will be no dependence on the box size as long as the box size is bigger than the critical size. This is referred to as continuum reduction . Physical results can be extracted by working on an $`L^d`$ lattice and keeping $`b`$ just below $`b_c(L)`$. Computations need to be done on two or three different values of N to study the infinite N limit. Results for two or three different $`L`$ values can be used to study the effect of finite lattice spacing.

## 3 The bulk transition

One lattice artifact has to be taken into account when setting the parameters $`\{L,b<b_c(L)\}`$ for physical computation. There is a bulk transition on the lattice in the large N limit that is associated with the spectrum of the single plaquette ($`1\times 1`$ Wilson loop). There is no phase transition for finite N but there is a cross-over that gets stronger with increasing N. The eigenvalues $`e^{i\theta }`$ of $`U_p`$, the parallel transporter along the plaquette, can be anywhere in the range $`\pi \theta <\pi `$. But the field strength is small close to the continuum limit and $`\theta `$ is expected to be in a small range close to zero. In fact, there is a value of coupling $`b_B`$ such that the distribution of $`\theta `$ develops a gap around $`\pm \pi `$ for $`b>b_B`$. This value of coupling does not depend on $`L`$ and therefore the transition is purely a lattice artifact. But one has to set $`b>b_B`$ to obtain the proper continuum limit. Only for some $`L>L_B`$ does $`b_c(L)`$ become bigger than $`b_B`$. For $`LL_B`$ all one has is the bulk transition and the $`U^d(1)`$ symmetries also break at the same coupling. This is the reason why one cannot obtain continuum QCD in the large N limit using the single site Eguchi-Kawai model and there is a smallest lattice size that one has to use in $`\{L>L_B,b_B<b<b_c(L)\}`$.

## 4 Numerical results

In order to study QCD in the large N limit, one has to first obtain the appropriate set of parameters $`\{L>L_B,b_B<b<b_c(L)\}`$. The $`U^2(1)`$ symmetries are not broken in $`d=2`$ and $`b_c(L)=\mathrm{}`$ for all $`L1`$. The bulk transition occurs at $`b_B=0.5`$  and Eguchi-Kawai reduction holds on a $`1^2`$ lattice.

Numerical study involves the generation of thermalized gauge field configurations and this is obtained using a combination of heat-bath and over-relaxation updates. The heat-bath updates are performed on all SU(2) subgroups and the over-relaxation updates are performed on the full SU(N) group . A preliminary investigation in three dimensions show that $`b_B=0.4`$ and $`L_B=2`$ . Therefore, one can obtain results in three dimensional large N QCD by working on as small a lattice as $`3^3`$. The breaking of the $`U^3(1)`$ symmetries occurs as follows. There is a $`b_c(L)`$ where one of the three $`U^3(1)`$ are broken and the other two remain unbroken. The eigenvalue distribution of the Polyakov lines in the unbroken direction are flat (random) but there is a peak in the distribution of the broken line. As one goes above $`b_c(L)`$ more lines gets ordered and there are two more transition points at any finite $`L`$. More investigation has to performed to study the behavior of the higher transitions as a function of $`L`$, but the lowest transition corresponding to one ordered Polyakov line scales properly with $`L`$. It is quite likely that all these transitions fuse as one goes to the continuum limit. An analysis of this transition shows that $`0.6<b_c(3)<0.7`$, $`0.8<b_c(4)<0.9`$, $`1.0<b_c(5)<1.2`$ and $`1.2<b_c(6)<1.35`$. When combined, these results imply

$$4.2<\frac{L}{b_c(L)}<5\mathrm{for}d=3.$$
(1)
A study of the twisted Eguchi-Kawai model in four dimensions shows that $`b_B=0.36`$ but that this transition is strongly first order . Numerical investigation of the $`U^4(1)`$ breaking transition shows that only for $`L>7`$ does $`b_c(L)`$ go above $`0.36`$ . Like in three dimensions, there are many transitions associated with $`U^4(1)`$ breaking on the lattice. Let $`0c`$, $`1c`$, $`2c`$, $`3c`$ and $`4c`$ denote phases with $`0`$,$`1`$,$`2`$,$`3`$ and $`4`$ ordered Polyakov loops with $`b`$ above $`b_B`$. Let $`0h`$ denote the phase below $`b_B`$. One can start with a $`1c`$ phase and bring it down to a $`0c`$ phase and still be below $`b=0.36`$. This is a metastable state. This metastable transition from $`1c0c`$ is shown in Figs. 1-8. The system is in a $`1c`$ state at $`b=0.359`$ on a $`7^4`$ lattice with $`N=37`$ and it goes down to a $`0c`$ state at $`b=0.355`$. We know that both $`b=0.359`$ and $`b=0.355`$ are on the weak coupling side of the bulk transition since the eigenvalue distributions of the $`1\times 1`$ Wilson loop shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 exhibit strong gaps at both values of $`b`$. The breaking of the $`U^4(1)`$ symmetry can be probed by looking at Polyakov loop observables. The Polyakov loops (as well as various Wilson loops) were built out of “smeared” $`\stackrel{~}{U}_\mu (x)`$ matrices, rather than the original link matrices $`U_\mu (x)`$  since it suppresses ultraviolet fluctuations. Let $`\stackrel{~}{P}_\mu `$ be the smeared Polyakov loop in the $`\mu `$ direction and let its eigenvalues be $`e^{i\theta _i}`$; $`i=1,\mathrm{},n`$. The quantity

$$p(\stackrel{~}{P}_\mu )=\frac{1}{N^2}\underset{i,j=1}{\overset{N}{}}\mathrm{sin}^2\frac{1}{2}(\theta _i\theta _j)$$
(2)
averaged over the 3-plane perpendicular to $`\mu `$ will be close to $`0.5`$ if the $`U(1)`$ symmetry in that direction is not broken. Breaking of $`U(1)`$ symmetry in the $`\mu `$ direction will open a gap in the spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{P}_\mu `$ are $`p(\stackrel{~}{P}_\mu )`$ will drop below $`0.5`$. A time history of $`p(\stackrel{~}{P}_\mu )`$ in all four directions at $`b=0.359`$ (Fig. 3) shows that the $`U(1)`$ symmetry is broken in one of the four directions but the time history at $`b=0.355`$ (Fig. 4) shows that all four $`U(1)`$ symmetries are preserved. Therefore $`b=0.359`$ is in the $`1c`$ phase and $`b=0.355`$ is in the $`0c`$ phase. Eigenvalue distributions of $`\stackrel{~}{P}_\mu `$ at $`b=0.359`$ also exhibit the breaking of the U(1) symmetry in one of the directions as seen in Fig. 5. But all four eigenvalue distributions of $`\stackrel{~}{P}_\mu `$ at $`b=0.355`$ look uniform as seen in Fig. 6. Further evidence for $`b=0.359`$ in the $`1c`$ phase and $`b=0.355`$ in the $`0c`$ phase can be seen by looking at the eigenvalue distribution of the $`L\times L`$ wilson loop. This distribution should not have a gap and all six orientations of the wilson loop should look the same at $`b=0.355`$ but three of the six wilson loops should look different from the three others at $`b=0.359`$. This is indeed the case as demonstrated in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. The oscillations seen in the distributions are a finite N effect. Finally, one can see that the system stabilizes in the correct phase even if it started in the wrong phase. For example, a system started in the $`1c`$ phase on a $`6^4`$ lattice at $`b=0.351`$ ends up in the correct $`0c`$ phase after a few sweeps of the lattice as seen in Fig. 9. Similarly, a system started in the $`0c`$ phase on a $`7^4`$ lattice at $`b=0.3568`$ ends up in the correct $`1c`$ phase after a few sweeps of the lattice as seen in Fig. 10.

Such a metastable state can be used to reduce $`L`$ where one realizes large N QCD. We find that one can go as low as $`L=5`$ and remain in the $`0c`$ phase. The $`1c0c`$ transitions are located at $`b_c(5)=0.34775\pm 0.00075`$, $`b_c(6)=0.35125\pm 0.00075`$, and $`b_c(7)=0.3564\pm 0.004`$. For $`L>7`$, the transition from unbroken $`U^4(1)`$ to one broken $`U(1)`$ occurs in the stable region and $`b_c(8)=0.3605\pm 0.0015`$, $`b_c(9)=0.364\pm 0.001`$, and $`b_c(10)=0.367\pm 0.001`$.

The above values for the critical coupling in the range $`L=5`$ to $`L=10`$ can be used to study the scaling of the critical coupling in four dimensions . The inverse function $`L_c(b)`$ should scale according to

$$L_c(b)L_0\left(\frac{11}{48\pi ^2b}\right)^{\frac{51}{121}}e^{\frac{24\pi ^2b}{11}}$$
(3)
if it is a truly continuum phenomenon. Since the above result is a two-loop result, one has to use the the “tadpole”  replacement

$`bb_Ibe(b)e(b)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}TrU_{\mu ,\nu }(x)`$ (4)
$`L_c(b)L_0^I\left({\displaystyle \frac{11}{48\pi ^2b_I}}\right)^{\frac{51}{121}}e^{\frac{24\pi ^2b_I}{11}}`$ (5)
to study scaling. Fig. 11 shows that the data does scale properly with $`L_0^I`$ between 0.245 and 0.275.

## 5 Conclusions and future work

The breaking of the $`U^d(1)`$ symmetries for $`d>2`$ implies that Eguchi-Kawai reduction does not work on a $`1^d`$ lattice. Quenched Eguchi-Kawai models  and twisted Eguchi-Kawai models  provide a way out of this problem. The problem of including fermions in the twisted version of the model has not been completely solved. It is possible to extract physical quantities in the large N limit of QCD using the quenched version of the model as shown in two dimensions . But it is necessary to sample all the $`N^d`$ minima in the quenched model and this could prove to be numerically difficult in four dimensions. An alternative to the quenched Eguchi-Kawai model is provided by the idea of continuum reduction. Continuum reduction implies that there are no finite volume effects in the large N limit of QCD as long as one works with $`L>L_B`$ and $`b_B<b<b_c(L)`$.

The eigenvalue distribution of the single plaquette exhibits a gap and the space of gauge field configurations naturally splits into several disconnected pieces. It is natural to assume that the disconnected pieces correspond to different gauge field topologies and this can be explicitly verified by a numerical simulation. Since there are no finite volume effects, one should see evidence for a chiral condensate if the box size is bigger than the critical size and the chiral condensate should occur due to the lowest eigenvalues scaling like $`1/N`$ as N gets large. This also can be verified using numerical simulations on fairly small lattices ($`L=810`$, $`N=2030`$).

Since there are no finite volume effects it should be possible to compute meson propagators for arbitrarily small momenta as long as the box size is bigger than the critical size. Normally, it is not possible to work with momenta that are smaller than the inverse of the box size. This can be avoided in the large N limit of QCD since a constant $`U(1)`$ phase multiplying all the link matrices in a given direction can be interpreted as momentum carried by a quark line . This interpretation works as long as the $`U^d(1)`$ symmetries are not broken since the pure gauge sector is invariant under a multiplication by a constant phase but the fermion propagator picks up a momentum equal to this constant phase. This is indeed the case if the box size is bigger than the critical size. A direct computation of the meson propagators in momentum space will lend credibility to the above argument.

## 6 Acknowledgments

All results presented in this contribution to the LHP2003 workshop are based on collaborative work with Joe Kiskis and Herbert Neuberger. The author acknowledges partial support by the NSF under grant number PHY-0300065 and also partial support from Jefferson Lab. The Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab) is operated by the Southeastern Universities Research Association (SURA) under DOE contract DE-AC05-84ER40150. The author would like to thank the organizers of the LHP2003 workshop for a lively and pleasant atmosphere.


format: text

text:
# 1 Production of an exotic meson 𝑋_𝑐⁺=𝑢𝑢𝑐̄𝑑̄ in 𝐵⁺ decays. The 𝜋⁰ could also be a photon or any other neutral particle. Here and subsequently the weak vertex is denoted by ×.

CLNS 03/1856

hep-ph/0312269

Exotic states of matter in heavy meson decays 111Submitted to Phys. Rev. D.

Jonathan L. Rosner 222rosner@hep.uchicago.edu. On leave from Enrico Fermi Institute and Department of Physics, University of Chicago, 5640 S. Ellis Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637

Laboratory of Elementary Particle Physics

Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850

> The potential of decays of mesons containing heavy quarks \[including $`B`$ mesons and the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(1S)`$\] for producing final states of matter with unusual quark configurations, such as $`qq\overline{q}\overline{q}`$ or $`qqqq\overline{q}`$, is investigated. The usefulness of antineutron detection in such searches is stressed.

PACS Categories: 13.25.Gv, 13.25.Hw, 14.40.Gx, 14.40.Nd

I. INTRODUCTION

The decays of mesons containing heavy quarks provide carefully controlled environments for production of hadronic states with specific quantum numbers. Copious samples of such mesons accumulated at the BaBar, Belle, and CLEO detectors permit searches for interesting forms of matter, including mesons beyond the usual quark-antiquark and baryons beyond the usual three-quark configurations. Such hadrons (e.g., $`qq\overline{q}\overline{q}`$ mesons and $`qqqq\overline{q}`$ baryons) are known as exotic. Their existence is not forbidden by quantum chromodynamics (QCD) as long as they maintain color-singlet configurations. They are predicted in a wide variety of schemes.

In the present paper, which follows up some suggestions made in Ref.  and presents others, we explore some ways in which the decays of mesons containing heavy (mainly $`b`$) quarks can help in the search for exotic hadrons. We focus on states which are manifestly exotic by virtue of their internal quantum numbers, bypassing the question of whether certain recently seen resonances are heavy quarkonium states or molecules of flavored mesons. Our discussion of decays of particles containing charmed ($`c`$) quarks will be brief since they are much lighter, thereby probing a much more limited mass range.

We review some of the theoretical framework for exotic states in Section II. We then discuss exotic meson and baryon final states of $`B`$ decays in Sections III and IV, respectively. Section V is devoted to some specific signatures of a recently discussed candidate for a light $`uudd\overline{s}`$ baryon. Possibilities for exotic particle observation in $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(1S)`$ decays are noted in Section VI. Some remarks on charmed particle decays are made in Section VII, while Section VIII summarizes.

II. THEORETICAL SCHEMES

The duality of scattering amplitudes in crossed channels  was used  to argue in favor of the existence of $`qq\overline{q}\overline{q}`$ mesons coupling mainly to baryon-antibaryon final states. (For a recent review of this work, see Ref. .) These arguments are conveniently visualized using quark graphs . Generalizations of the graphical arguments  lead to selection rules governing allowed transitions among exotic states.

The properties of $`qq\overline{q}\overline{q}`$ mesons were analyzed within a particular confinement scheme, known as the MIT Bag Model , by Jaffe . Masses and couplings to meson pairs were calculated; there was no particular reason for such states to favor coupling to baryon-antibaryon channels.

A complementary approach investigated the properties of baryon-antibaryon bound states from a standpoint primarily motivated by nuclear physics arguments; see Ref.  for a brief historical review. Attempts to describe ordinary mesons such as the pion in terms of such bound states have a long and eminent history . Recently a candidate for such a state near nucleon-antinucleon threshold has been reported in $`J/\psi `$ decays . Ref.  discusses possible interpretations of this state as well as some earlier candidates for nucleon-antinucleon resonances.

Bootstrap-like models of mesons and baryons, which predict properties of excited states by taking account of mesonic rather than quark degrees of freedom, generally do not limit the quantum numbers of states to those of $`q\overline{q}`$ or $`qqq`$. An early example is the strong-coupling theory , generalizing Chew and Low’s theory of the $`\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}`$ isobar . States with $`I=J=1/2,3/2,5/2.\mathrm{}`$ are predicted in this approach. More recently, chiral soliton models of baryons  have taken account of mesonic rather than quark degrees of freedom. In flavor SU(3), several authors noted that these approaches led to an antidecuplet with $`J^P=1/2^+`$ lying not far above the $`1/2^+`$ octet and $`3/2^+`$ decuplet . The lightest member of this $`\overline{\mathrm{𝟏𝟎}}`$ representation was expected to have strangeness $`S=+1`$, and a mass of 1530 MeV/$`c^2`$ was predicted . As will be noted in Sec. V, the search for this state has taken on new urgency as a result of several claims for its observation. First, however, we note some special features of heavy meson decays that make them particularly useful in the search for exotic mesons and baryons.

III. EXOTIC MESONS IN $`B`$ DECAYS

We shall be concerned in this Section with the dominant subprocess $`\overline{b}\overline{c}u\overline{d}`$ in $`B`$ meson decays. The fact that this leads to three quarks of different flavor in the final state provides an immediate advantage in the search for exotic particles. (The favored decays of charm, $`csu\overline{d}`$, share this property.)

If a $`\overline{b}`$ quark is bound to a $`u`$ quark in a $`B^+`$ meson, the favored nonleptonic final state is then $`\overline{c}u\overline{d}u`$. This, by itself, is exotic. Thus one means of searching for exotics is simply the study of the missing mass of $`X_c^+`$ in $`B^+(\gamma ,\pi ^0,\eta ,\eta ^{},\mathrm{})+X_c^+`$. A quark diagram associated with this process is shown in Fig. 1. Another diagram can be drawn in which the final $`u\overline{c}\overline{d}`$ decay products of $`\overline{b}`$ are incorporated into the $`X_c^+`$ along with a $`u`$ from $`u\overline{u}`$ production. Similarly, the subsystem $`X_c^+`$ in $`B^0\pi ^{}X_c^+`$ will be exotic, also carrying the quantum numbers of $`\overline{c}u\overline{d}u`$.

A $`B^+`$ decay involving $`\overline{b}u\overline{c}\overline{d}`$ can produce an exotic meson consisting entirely of light quarks ($`uu\overline{d}\overline{d}`$) if the $`uu\overline{d}`$ system picks up another $`\overline{d}`$ quark in fragmentation, while the corresponding $`d`$ quark accompanies the $`\overline{c}`$ to form a $`D^{}`$ or $`D^{}`$. This process is shown in Fig. 2. The detection of an exotic final state in the decay $`B^+X^{++}D^{()}`$ might proceed in several ways.

(1) One could study the missing mass opposite the $`D^{()}`$, if the energy and momentum of the $`B^+`$ are known. Such information might be provided by reconstructing the opposite-side $`B^{}`$ in the decay $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(4S)B^+B^{}`$.

(2) One could look for a mass peak in the decay products of $`X^{++}`$. If $`X^{++}`$ indeed decays predominantly to baryon-antibaryon final states, as proposed in some schemes (e.g., ), one could look for $`X^{++}\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^0p\pi ^+\overline{p}\pi ^+`$.

(3) One could use a combination of methods (1) and (2) if some of the decay products of $`X^{++}`$ are difficult to observe, as in $`X^{++}\mathrm{\Delta }^{++}\overline{n}`$. Here one might look for annihilation of the $`\overline{n}`$ in the detector. Such a signal has attracted attention as a possible background to $`bs\gamma `$ , and was utilized in a study of $`B^0D^{}p\overline{n}`$ . While the energy of the $`\overline{n}`$ might not be well-measured, one could use information about the remaining particles in the event to constrain it.

It is possible that $`X^{++}`$ does not decay predominantly to baryon-antibaryon final states, for example if it lies in the below-threshold mass range predicted in Ref. . One final state which has not been thoroughly explored for exotic mesons, and which is observable by modern detectors such as BaBar, Belle, and CLEO, is $`\rho ^+\rho ^+`$. An $`I=2`$ meson with favored coupling to $`\rho \rho `$ and mass 1.4–1.6 GeV/$`c^2`$ could help to explain the predominance of $`\gamma \gamma \rho ^0\rho ^0`$ over $`\gamma \gamma \rho ^+\rho ^{}`$ near threshold .

A strange exotic meson can be formed if the final $`uu\overline{d}`$ state picks up an anti-strange $`\overline{s}`$ quark, so that the recoil system is (for example) $`D_s^{}`$. This process is shown in Fig. 3.

The recoil $`D_s^{}`$ could be replaced by a $`\overline{K}\overline{D}`$ system. The $`X_s^{++}`$ can decay, for example, to $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}p\pi ^+`$ if baryon-antibaryon channels are favored, or to $`K^+\pi ^+(m\pi ^0)`$ or $`K^+\pi ^+(m\pi ^+m\pi ^{})`$ $`(m=0,1,2,\mathrm{})`$ if the lighter exotics of Ref.  are favored.

If the final $`uu\overline{d}`$ state picked up a $`\overline{u}`$ during fragmentation, we would not be able to tell the exotic nature of the final product. That is why we have focused on fragmentation mechanisms involving $`\overline{d}`$ or $`\overline{s}`$.

The presence of baryon-antibaryon pairs in $`B`$ decays is well-documented. Channels which have been seen include $`B\overline{D}^{()}N\overline{N}`$ , $`B^+K^+p\overline{p}`$ , $`B^0\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}p\pi ^{}`$ , $`B^+p\overline{p}\pi ^+,p\overline{p}K^0`$, and $`p\overline{p}K^+`$ , and $`B\mathrm{\Lambda }_c^+\overline{p}(m\pi )`$ $`(m=0,1,2,3)`$ . Theoretical investigations of such decays include . The decays being considered here may involve somewhat higher multiplicities than those reported so far.

IV. EXOTIC BARYONS IN $`B`$ DECAYS

As in exotic meson production, several fragmentation mechanisms can produce exotic baryons in $`B`$ decays. One, leading to an exotic charmed baryon, is illustrated in Fig. 4 for a non-strange charmed baryon $`X_c^{}=cddd\overline{u}`$ and in Fig. 5 for a strange charmed baryon $`X_{cs}^{}=cdds\overline{u}`$. Here the baryon contains all three quarks produced in the decay $`bc\overline{u}d`$ as well as two more quarks (e.g., $`dd`$ or $`ds`$) picked up during fragmentation. (If a $`u`$ quark were picked up during fragmentation, we would not be able to tell that the state was exotic.)

A state composed of $`cddd\overline{u}`$ has the same quantum numbers as $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_c^0\pi ^{}`$ or $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_c^+\pi ^{}\pi ^{}`$. In Fig. 4 this state is shown recoiling against an antineutron, the importance of whose detection we have discussed above. Of course, one could replace $`\overline{n}`$ by $`\overline{p}\pi ^+`$, looking at the missing mass $`X^{}`$ in $`B^{}\overline{p}\pi ^+X^{}`$. Indeed, the decay $`B^{}\mathrm{\Lambda }_c^+\overline{p}\pi ^+\pi ^{}\pi ^{}`$, permitting the study of this final state, has been reported by the CLEO Collaboration .

The corresponding charmed-strange state composed of $`cdds\overline{u}`$ has the same quantum numbers as $`\mathrm{\Xi }_c^0\pi ^{}`$, and is shown in Fig. 5 recoiling against a $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$. Thus, a useful missing-mass search involves the decay $`B^{}\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}X^{}`$.

Another type of fragmentation involves a baryon containing only a subset of the quarks in the final state of $`\overline{b}\overline{c}u\overline{d}`$. An example in which the baryon contains the $`\overline{c}u`$, a spectator $`u`$ from the decaying $`B^+`$, and two additional $`d`$ quarks picked up during fragmentation, is shown in Fig. 6.

In the example shown here, the exotic baryon recoils against $`\overline{d}\overline{d}\overline{d}=\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}^+`$ which decays to $`\overline{n}\pi ^+`$. If one $`d\overline{d}`$ pair in fragmentation is replaced by an $`s\overline{s}`$ pair, the exotic baryon recoils against $`\overline{d}\overline{d}\overline{s}=\overline{\mathrm{\Sigma }}^+`$ (or $`\overline{\mathrm{\Lambda }}\pi ^+`$), while if both $`d\overline{d}`$ pairs are replaced by $`s\overline{s}`$, the exotic baryon recoils against $`\overline{d}\overline{s}\overline{s}=\overline{\mathrm{\Xi }}^+`$. It may be easier to look directly for decay products of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }_c^0=uudd\overline{c}`$, which could be $`pD^{}`$ if the state is above that threshold. If the state decays weakly via $`\overline{c}\overline{s}d\overline{u}`$, the quantum numbers will be the same as those of $`dddu\overline{s}`$, i.e., $`I_3=1,S=1`$. This is still manifestly exotic. Karliner and Lipkin  have predicted such a state to have a mass of $`2985\pm 50`$ MeV/$`c^2`$ and to show up as a narrow peak in $`\overline{D}^0n`$ and $`D^{}p`$ spectra. The decay $`D^{}p`$, which has certain advantages for identification, also may be kinematically allowed. If the mass is light enough, a weak decay can occur involving a detached proton vertex .

Our examples have clearly not exhausted nearly all the possibilities for exotic mesons and baryons in $`B`$ decays. Those will be determined as much by experimental opportunities as by a systematic listing of decay and recoil modes. Now, however, we turn our attention to a state which has been the subject of much recent interest.

V. A $`uudd\overline{s}`$ STATE IN $`B`$ DECAYS

A narrow $`S=1`$ baryon resonance was observed recently in photoproduction from the neutron on 12C  and deuterium  targets, and in photoproduction from the proton . It was also reported in $`K^+`$ collisions with Xe nuclei , in neutrino interactions as a $`K_Sp`$ resonance , and in the mass spectrum recoiling against $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^+`$ in $`pppK^0\mathrm{\Sigma }^+`$ . It has figured prominently in a recent conference devoted to multiquark hadrons, where further references may be found . The state has been dubbed $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$. Its minimal quark content would be $`uudd\overline{s}`$.

The mass of the reported state (around 1540 MeV/$`c^2`$) is close to that anticipated from chiral soliton models  for a $`J^P=1/2^+`$ state. (The prediction of Ref.  relies to some extent on identification of an SU(3) partner of the state with an observed $`1/2^+`$ nucleon resonance at 1710 MeV/$`c^2`$.) A $`J^P=1/2^+`$ quark configuration is proposed in Ref. . Another (in which the state involves two $`I=0`$ $`ud`$ diquarks bound to an $`\overline{s}`$ quark with total $`J^P=1/2^+`$) appears in ; see  for other references. The state appears to have zero isospin, showing up only in the $`K^0p`$ and $`K^+n`$ final states. Its spin and parity are not yet known  (see also ), and a lattice QCD calculation  (see also ) predicts negative parity. The direct examination of $`K^+`$ charge-exchange and total cross sections on xenon and deuterium, however, shows that if such a resonance exists, its total width must be less than of the order of an MeV , considerably less than the value of 15 MeV predicted in Ref. . (See Ref.  for a recent discussion of the width prediction.) Partial-wave analyses of $`K^+N`$ data  also exclude a resonance more than a few MeV wide, and other analyses come to similar conclusions . The suggestion has been made that the observed effect may be a kinematic reflection .

Part of the difficulty in pinning down such a resonance comes from its decay products. Direct observation of a decay to $`K^+n`$ requires detection of the neutron, while direct observation of a decay to $`K^0p`$ is difficult since one only sees the $`K_S`$ decay mode of $`K^0`$. The potential for confusion with the non-exotic $`\overline{K}^0p`$ channel thus exists. (On the other hand, there is no known evidence for a $`\overline{K}^0p`$ resonance \[a $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$\] at 1540 MeV/$`c^2`$.)

Another potential source of a low-mass kinematic enhancement in the $`K^+n`$ channel occurs in $`K^+K^{}`$ photoproduction on nuclei. While this mechanism does not apply to all the channels mentioned above, it is a source of concern for some claims for a $`\mathrm{\Theta }(1540)`$.

If the photoproduction of $`K^+K^{}`$ pairs is dominated by a virtual transition in which the pair is kicked into a low-$`M(K^+K^{})`$ state (e.g., the $`\varphi `$) by diffraction, the $`K^+`$ and $`K^{}`$ will tend to have equal velocities $`v`$ with respect to the nucleus. Neglecting nuclear Fermi momentum, the center-of-mass (c.m.) energy of each kaon with respect to each nucleon in the nucleus is roughly the same. The $`K^{}`$ can form a prominent resonance $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(1520)`$ of spin-parity $`J^P=3/2^{}`$ with any proton in the nucleus. This resonance decays approximately 45% of the time back to $`\overline{K}N`$ , and is quite prominent in the $`K^{}p`$ mass spectra in the aforementioned photoproduction experiments. The emerging $`K^{}`$ from decay of this resonance can have a quite different direction in the c.m. from the initial one, so it no longer will form a state of low effective mass with the $`K^+`$.

Meanwhile the $`K^+`$, having approximately the same velocity in the laboratory frame as the $`K^{}`$, is necessarily forced to have the same effective mass in combination with any other nucleon in the nucleus as the $`K^{}`$ with the proton. The argument is simplest for the deuteron, in which the binding energy is particularly small. Thus, when $`M(K^{}p)1520`$ MeV/$`c^2`$, one will necessarily have a low-mass peak in $`M(K^+n)`$ near the same value. A more explicit calculation should be performed to see whether this is indeed a problem for deuterium or other nuclei.

$`B`$ meson decays provide a potentially useful source of kaons and baryons whose final-state interactions may be examined for evidence of the $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$. (See Ref.  for the suggestion that this state be looked for in nucleon-antinucleon interactions.) We consider charmless decays, in which a $`\overline{b}\overline{s}`$ penguin amplitude appears to play a large role. Several examples illustrate the power of these decays in searches.

Consider, for example, the process $`B^0p\overline{p}K^0`$ reported in Ref. . If one were able to flavor-tag the $`B^0`$ so as to be sure it was not a $`\overline{B}^0`$, one would have an indication of the strangeness of the neutral kaon, since $`B^0`$ decays generally lead to $`S=1`$ and not $`S=1`$ states. One could then examine the $`K^0p`$ effective-mass spectrum for a low-mass peak.

No flavor tagging would be needed if one were to observe $`B^0K^+n\overline{p}`$. Given an observation of the neutron, one could then directly plot the $`K^+n`$ effective mass. However, neutrons are elusive in all detectors.

The charge-conjugate mode $`\overline{B}^0K^{}\overline{n}p`$ produces an antineutron whose annihilation in the calorimeter of the detector may provide enough of a constraint to permit kinematic reconstruction, especially if the opposite-side $`B^0`$ is reconstructed as well. One then would search the $`K^{}\overline{n}`$ effective-mass spectrum for evidence of the $`\overline{\mathrm{\Theta }}^{}`$.

If one can identify an antineutron in $`B^+K^0p\overline{n}`$, one can plot the $`K^0p`$ effective mass with reasonable confidence that the neutral kaon is not a $`\overline{K}^0`$, since a $`B^+`$ charmless decay is much more likely to yield an anti-strange $`\overline{s}`$ quark than an $`s`$ quark. If one replaces the $`\overline{n}`$ in this case with $`\overline{p}\pi ^+`$, the reconstruction of the decay is much more straightforward.

We summarize some decay modes of $`B`$ mesons useful for searching for the $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$ in Table I. Examples of quark diagrams associated with the production of $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$ in $`B`$ decays are given in Figs. 7 and 8. The weak subprocess of interest is $`\overline{b}\overline{s}q\overline{q}`$, where $`q=u,d`$.

These figures are clearly very similar to those associated with the production of the charmed exotic baryon depicted in the previous Section. There may be some differences associated with differences in the structure of the corresponding weak vertices. In particular, in the penguin diagrams it is not clear how directly the light $`q\overline{q}`$ pair can be associated with the weak vertex; it may arise as a result of rescattering from the $`\overline{b}\overline{s}c\overline{c}`$ subprocess, in which case Figs. 7 and 8 may represent an oversimplification.

VI. SPECIAL FEATURES OF $`𝚼\mathbf{(}\mathrm{𝟏}S\mathbf{)}`$ DECAYS

The decays of $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(1S)`$ lead to large numbers of baryons in the final state , and even (anti)deuterons have been observed . Thus, it is reasonable to expect $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(1S)`$ decay products to include multi-quark states beyond $`q\overline{q}`$ and $`qqq`$ if they exist.

The neutral light-quark quantum numbers (isospin and strangeness) of the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(1S)`$ are an asset in searching for exotic states via missing-mass techniques. One simply looks for a decay $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(1S)X+Y`$, reconstructing all particles in $`Y`$ and plotting the missing mass in $`X`$. If desired, $`X`$ or $`Y`$ may be selected for the presence of a baryon or a baryon-antibaryon pair. Or, one may simply plot a mass of the appropriate subsystem.

Suppose one is looking for an exotic meson with quark content $`X=uu\overline{d}\overline{d}`$. One can reconstruct the subsystem $`Y`$ in any of a number of ways, such as $`\rho ^{}\rho ^{}`$ or $`p\overline{p}\pi ^{}\pi ^{}`$, and plot the missing mass in $`X`$, or one can directly plot $`M(\rho ^+\rho ^+)`$ or $`M(p\overline{p}\pi ^+\pi ^+)`$. In searching for $`X_s=uu\overline{s}\overline{d}`$ one can choose $`Y`$ to be (e.g.) $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\overline{p}\pi ^{}`$ or $`K^{}\pi ^{}(m\pi ^0)(m=0,1,2,\mathrm{})`$. One can select for a system $`X`$ with strangeness $`S=1`$, baryon number $`B=1`$, and charge $`Q=1`$ (the quantum numbers of the reputed $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+`$) by choosing the subsystem $`Y`$ to have $`S=1`$, $`B=1`$, and $`Q=1`$, for instance by taking $`Y=\overline{p}K^{}\pi ^+`$.

The CLEO Collaboration has recently amassed a sample of 21 million $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(1S)`$ decays, far exceeding that available previously . With the enhanced particle identification capabilities and excellent neutral particle detection of the CLEO-III Detector, this sample should be an excellent one in which to search for exotic systems with internal quantum numbers beyond those of $`q\overline{q}`$ and $`qqq`$.

VII. POSSIBILITIES WITH CHARM

The Cabibbo-favored decays of a charmed quark, $`csu\overline{d}`$, lead to a state with three quarks of distinct flavor. The decay $`D^+=c\overline{d}su\overline{d}\overline{d}`$ leads to an exotic state. The weakness of final-state interactions in such states may be one reason why the lifetime of the $`D^+`$ is longer than that of the $`D^0`$ or $`D_s^+`$, for which the Cabibbo-favored final states are not exotic .

One can then look directly for exotic final states in the decays $`D^+X^0+Y_{S=1}^+`$, where $`X^0=\gamma ,\pi ^0,\mathrm{}`$ is used to measure the missing mass of the strange subsystem $`Y_{S=1}^+`$. One has to ensure that $`Y^+`$ has negative strangeness since if it is non-strange, it will not be exotic. Similarly, the decay $`D^0\pi ^{}Y_{S=1}^+`$ can be used to probe the missing mass of the subsystem $`Y`$. Although $`D`$ decays do not involve enough energy to produce exotic resonances decaying to baryon-antibaryon pairs, they should be able to populate the lighter mass ranges proposed in Ref. .

Decay of the $`J/\psi `$ into light-quark states may allow probes of the lower mass range for exotic systems, using techniques mentioned in the previous Section. Even the decay $`J/\psi \mathrm{\Theta }^+\overline{\mathrm{\Theta }}^{}`$ would be just barely kinematically allowed for a $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ of mass 1540 MeV/$`c^2`$. A search for the $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ in $`J/\psi `$ and $`\psi (2S)`$ decays has revealed no evidence for the state so far .

VIII. SUMMARY

Systems containing heavy quarks are potentially a rich source of information on exotic mesons and baryons containing lighter quarks. We have shown how such information may be obtained from $`B`$, $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(1S)`$, and charm decays. Both $`B`$ decays and $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}(1S)`$ provide unique advantages in searching for the $`\mathrm{\Theta }^+(1540)`$ recently reported in several experiments, since the final states of interest – $`K^0p`$ or $`K^+n`$ – can be easily identified under some cirumstances. For example, $`B`$ decays favor a particular strangeness ($`b`$ quarks give rise to $`s`$ quarks, while $`\overline{b}`$ quarks give rise to $`\overline{s}`$ quarks). The nearly hermetic detectors constructed to study $`B`$ physics have some sensitivity to antineutrons, allowing the study of the $`K^{}\overline{n}`$ final state. (Note added: The reader’s attention should also be drawn to the recent Refs.  which cite the present work and offer further suggestions.)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Roy Briere, Sasha Glazov, Bob Jaffe, Marek Karliner, Igor Klebanov, Peter Lepage, Harry Lipkin, Jim Napolitano, Shmuel Nussinov, Shoichi Sasaki, Gregg Thayer, Jana Thayer, Bruce Yabsley, and John Yelton for discussions, and the Laboratory of Elementary Particle Physics at Cornell for hospitality during this research. This work was supported in part by the United States Department of Energy through Grant No. DE FG02 90ER40560.


text:
# Multiplying unitary random matrices – universality and spectral properties

## 1 Introduction

A key feature of random matrix theory is that many properties of random matrix models do not depend on the fine details of these models but only on some very general symmetry properties and a very limited number of numerical coefficients (usually just a single coefficient is enough). These universal properties facilitate the widespread applications of random matrix models in various fields since one can use the models to learn something about the behavior of complex systems without knowing all the precise microscopic details of these systems.

The simplest example of such a behavior is the eigenvalue density of a matrix with entries independently distributed according to some probability distribution. Then the eigenvalue density in the $`N\mathrm{}`$ limit follows Wigner’s semicircle law with the scale set just by the second moment of the distribution. All the dependence on other properties of the initial probability distribution disappears. In this work we will uncover a similar type of universality in a different context.

The aim of this paper is study infinite products of unitary random matrices, and derive their properties in the large $`N`$ limit. This can be interpreted as a multiplicative diffusion process on the unitary group333Recently matrix valued multiplicative diffusion has been considered for $`2\times 2`$ real matrices in  and for infinite hermitian and complex matrices in .. A natural physical interpretation would be of a quantum-mechanical evolution governed by a hamiltonian which changes randomly in time. Another possibility would be the modelling of Wilson loops in lattice gauge theory. In this paper we will not examine further these possible application but rather concentrate on mathematically solving the model.

We show that the eigenvalue density exhibits universality properties i.e. it only depends on the second moment of the random hamiltonian which generates the stochastic evolution. But of course the resulting eigenvalue density is much more complex than the semicircle law. We derive equations for the eigenvalue density, give explicit expression for the lowest moments and study the properties of the model close to a phase transition where the eigenvalue support begins to cover the whole unit circle.

## 2 Multiplicative unitary diffusion

We consider the product of $`M`$ unitary $`N\times N`$ random matrices $`U_k`$ in the $`M,N\mathrm{}`$ limit:

$$U=\underset{M\mathrm{}}{lim}\underset{N\mathrm{}}{lim}\underset{k=1}{\overset{M}{}}U_k,$$
(1)
where the $`U_k`$’s are generated by

$$U_k=e^{i\epsilon H_k},$$
(2)
and where $`\epsilon =\sqrt{t/M}`$. Such a scaling is standard for diffusive processes and works also very well for matrix-valued diffusion processes studied in  and . $`t`$ is then a real parameter corresponding to ‘diffusive’ evolution time and the continuum limit $`M\mathrm{}`$ exists. The generators of the evolution $`H_k`$ are $`N\times N`$ hermitian matrices drawn from a probability distribution

$$P(H)e^{N\text{tr}V(H)}$$
(3)
where we assume that the first moment $`m_1=\frac{1}{N}\text{tr}H`$ vanishes $`m_1=0`$. We will show below that the spectral properties of (1) depend only on the second moment $`m_2`$ of the distribution (3)

$$m_2=\frac{1}{N}\text{tr}H^2.$$
(4)
The main aim of this paper is to find the eigenvalue distribution of the product (1)

$$\rho (\theta ,t)=\frac{1}{N}\underset{j=1}{\overset{N}{}}ie^{i\theta }\delta (e^{i\theta }e^{i\theta _j}),$$
(5)
where the $`e^{i\theta _j}`$ are the eigenvalues of $`U`$ defined through (1).

In the next section we will use free random variable methods to derive an equation from which one can get $`\rho (\theta ,t)`$. Sometimes we will omit the second argument but of course the dependence on $`t`$ will be there.

## 3 The S-transform method

The main difficulty encountered in  when considering products of random matrices was the necessity to deal with nonhermitian matrices and eigenvalues covering two dimensional regions of the complex plane. Here fortunately, since the product matrices are always unitary, the eigenvalues lie on the unit circle and hence they can be uniquely reconstructed from just the knowledge of the moments. Therefore all information is encoded in the asymptotic expansion of the Green’s function

$$G(z)=_0^{2\pi }\frac{\rho (\theta )}{ze^{i\theta }}𝑑\theta .$$
(6)
Our aim now is to obtain the spectral density $`\rho _{PROD}(\theta )`$ of product $`U=_{k=1}^MU_k`$, equivalently the corresponding Green’s function $`G_{PROD}(z)`$, from the spectral density $`\rho _H(\theta )`$ for the generator $`H`$.

To do that we use $`S`$-transforms introduced in . Firstly we define an auxiliary function $`\chi (z)`$ through:

$$\frac{1}{\chi }G\left(\frac{1}{\chi }\right)1=z;$$
(7)
Then the $`S`$-transform is:

$$S(z)=\frac{1+z}{z}\chi (z).$$
(8)
Their main property is that the $`S`$-transform of a product of random matrices is a product of $`S`$-transforms of the individual factors. Before we apply this setup to (1) let us note that putting together the two previous equations we arrive at a functional relation satisfied by $`S`$ and $`G`$:

$$\frac{1}{zS}G\left(\frac{1+z}{z}\frac{1}{S}\right)=1.$$
(9)
In our case all single matrix Green’s functions are the same since they come from the same distribution so we can write:

$$S_{PROD}(z)=\underset{M\mathrm{}}{lim}\underset{i=1}{\overset{M}{}}S_i(z)=\underset{M\mathrm{}}{lim}\left(S_1(z)\right)^M,$$
(10)
Let us now find $`S_1(z)`$. The eigenvalue density of $`U_1=e^{i\epsilon H}`$ is given by

$$\rho _1(\theta ,\epsilon )=\frac{1}{\epsilon }\rho _H\left(\frac{\theta }{\epsilon }\right).$$
(11)
where $`\epsilon =\sqrt{t/M}`$. Inserting (11) and the definition (6) into (9) leads to an equation for $`S_1`$:

$$\frac{1}{\epsilon }\frac{\rho _H\left(\frac{\theta }{\epsilon }\right)}{1+ze^{i\theta }zS_1}𝑑\theta =1.$$
(12)
From the form of (10) we see that we need to calculate $`S_1`$ only to the order $`𝒪(\epsilon ^2)`$. Substituting $`u=\theta /\epsilon `$ and expanding in Taylor series in $`\epsilon `$ we obtain:

$$\rho _H(u)\left(1+i\epsilon uz+(u^2z^2\frac{1}{2}u^2z+sz)\epsilon ^2+𝒪(\epsilon ^3)\right)𝑑u=1,$$
(13)
where $`s=s(z)`$ comes from Taylor expansion444Here we used the assumption that the first moment of $`H`$ vanishes. $`S_1(z)=1+s(z)\epsilon ^2+𝒪(\epsilon ^3)`$.

We may now calculate $`s(z)`$

$$s(z)=(z+1/2)u^2(z+1/2)m_2.$$
(14)
From (10) we may now obtain the $`S`$-transform for product:

$$S_{PROD}=\underset{M\mathrm{}}{lim}\left(S_1\right)^M=\underset{M\mathrm{}}{lim}\left(1+\frac{t}{M}s(z)\right)^M=e^{t(z+\frac{1}{2})m_2}.$$
(15)
This result shows that $`S_{PROD}`$ depends only on the second moment $`m_2`$ of $`H`$. So in the limit $`M\mathrm{}`$ we obtain universal behavior of the system independent of the spectral density of generator of the stochastic evolution $`H`$, as long as the first moment vanishes (no drift) and the second moment is finite. It will be interesting to consider cases where these assumptions are violated which would lead to anomalous diffusion. We leave these problems for future investigation.

The final step is to come back from $`S_{PROD}`$ to the Green’s function $`G_{PROD}(z,t)`$ (from now on we drop the subscript). It is convenient to introduce auxiliary function $`f(z,t)`$ as:

$$G(z,t)=\frac{1+f(t,z)}{z}.$$
(16)
It is easy to check that $`f`$ fulfills an equation: $`f\left(\frac{1}{\chi (z)}\right)=z`$. This means that $`f`$ and $`1/\chi `$ are functional inverses of each other so the following relation $`1/\chi (f)=z`$ is also true. This observation, together with the result (15) and the definition (8) leads us to the final equation:

$$zf=\left(1+f\right)e^{t(f+\frac{1}{2})m_2}.$$
(17)
This equation encodes all the spectral properties of the unitary diffusion process (1). In the next section we will proceed to investigate some of its properties.

## 4 The dynamical properties of the unitary diffusion

In this section we analyze the dynamical behavior of unitary matrix diffusion. For small times $`t`$ the eigenvalues will be concentrated only in a small neighbourhood of $`\theta =0`$. For longer times the support of the eigenvalue density $`\rho `$ will expand and when some critical time $`t_c`$ is reached the eigenvalues will fill the whole circle. But of course the eigenvalue density $`\rho `$ will be nonuniform. In fact we expect a critical behavior close to $`\theta =\pi `$ with nonstandard fractional eigenvalue spacing. Only later for $`t\mathrm{}`$ the eigenvalues will become uniformly spread over the whole unit circle. In fig. 1 we show numerical results for the eigenvalue density obtained by generating unitary matrices and compare it to the one extracted from (17) (see below).

In this section we will quantitatively analyze this behavior.

### The support of the eigenvalue distribution and the critical time $`t_c`$

Although one cannot find an analytical formula for the eigenvalue density one can analytically find the edges of the eigenvalue support. These occur when the Green’s function has an infinite derivative $`_zG=\mathrm{}`$. Differentiating (17) with respect to $`z`$ gives

$$1=\frac{_zf}{f^2}\left(1+m_2tf+m_2tf^2\right)e^{t(f+\frac{1}{2})m_2}.$$
(18)
So the end points are determined through the solutions of equation $`1+m_2tf+m_2tf^2=0`$. Once we know $`f`$ we can reconstruct the end-points $`z`$ using (17). The result is

$$z_{edge}=\frac{\sqrt{4m_2t}+i\sqrt{m_2t}}{\sqrt{4m_2t}i\sqrt{m_2t}}e^{\frac{i}{2}\sqrt{m_2t}\sqrt{4m_2t}}$$
(19)
and its complex conjugate $`z_{edge}^{}`$. When these two solution are equal ($`z_{edge}=z_{edge}^{}=1`$), the eigenvalues will cover the whole circle. This will happen for the critical time

$$t_c=\frac{4}{m_2}.$$
(20)
### The moments of $`U`$

Another quantity which can be analytically calculated are the moments of $`U`$. The coefficients of the auxiliary function $`f`$ around $`z=\mathrm{}`$

$$f(z)=\underset{k=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{a_k}{z^k},$$
(21)
are indeed directly linked to the moments:

$$a_k=\frac{1}{N}\text{tr}U^k.$$
(22)
So inserting (21) into (17) allows us to find the moments iteratively. The expressions for the lowest ones are:

$`a_1`$ $`=`$ $`e^{\frac{1}{2}m_2t}`$ (23)
$`a_2`$ $`=`$ $`e^{m_2t}\left(1+m_2t\right)`$ (24)
$`a_3`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}e^{\frac{3m_2t}{2}}(26m_2t+3m_2^2t^2)`$ (25)
$`a_4`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}e^{2m_2t}\left(3+18m_2t24m_2^2t^2+8m_2^3t^3\right)`$ (26)
$`a_5`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{24}}e^{\frac{5m_2t}{2}}(24240m_2t+600m_2^2t^2500m_2^3t^3+125m_2^4t^4)`$ (27)
In fig. 2 we compare the formulae for the lowest 4 moments with numerical simulations of the unitary matrix diffusion and find complete agreement.

### The eigenvalue density

The equation (17) allows us to directly reconstruct the Green’s function. However it is very simple to recover also the eigenvalue density. This follows from the observation that the moments of $`U`$ are just the Fourier coefficients of the eigenvalue density $`\rho (\theta )`$

$$\frac{1}{N}\text{tr}U^k=_0^{2\pi }\rho (\theta )e^{ik\theta }.$$
(28)
Using the relation of $`f`$ to moments derived earlier, and the symmetry $`\rho (\theta )=\rho (\theta )`$ one finds finally

$$\rho (\theta )=\frac{1}{2\pi }\text{Re }\left(\frac{1}{2}+f\right).$$
(29)
Equation (17) may be easily solved numerically. In fig. 1, we show the resulting eigenvalue density together with numerical simulations for various times $`t`$.

### Critical behavior at $`t=t_c`$ and level spacing

At $`t=t_c`$ the edges of the eigenvalue support touch at $`z=1`$. Typically in such cases we expect new critical type of behavior and nonstandard scaling of eigenvalue spacing with $`N`$. Let us analyze now this behavior. Inserting $`t=t_c`$ and $`f=1/2+F`$ to (17) we obtain:

$$z=\frac{F+1/2}{F1/2}e^{4F},$$
(30)
To find the behavior close to $`z=1`$ (equivalent to $`\theta =\pi `$) we expand the left hand side of (30) in $`F`$ and put $`z=1+iy`$ to get

$$1+iy1\frac{16F^3}{3}.$$
(31)
Using the relation between $`f`$ and the eigenvalue density (29) we thus find the behavior close to $`\theta =\pi `$:

$$\rho (\theta )\left\{\frac{1}{2\pi }\left(\frac{3}{16}\right)^{\frac{1}{3}}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\pi }{6}\right\}|\theta \pi |^{\frac{1}{3}}.$$
(32)
Such behavior of the eigenvalue density leads to nonstandard eigenvalue spacing and signifies the appearance of new universal regime on the scale of eigenvalue spacing (analogous to Airy universality and $`1/N^{2/3}`$ spacing on the edges of the eigenvalue distribution of a generic hermitian random matrix  in contrast to the standard $`1/N`$ spacing in the classical Wigner-Dyson regime ).

In our case, the number of eigenvalues between $`\pi `$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is approximately equal to $`nN(\mathrm{\Lambda }\pi )^{4/3}`$. Reexpressing $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ in terms of $`n`$ shows that the eigenvalue spacing in the vicinity of $`\theta =\pi `$ scales like $`1/N^{3/4}`$. A similar scaling appeared in a certain class of chiral random matrix models at finite temperature . It would be interesting to compare these regimes and/or try to apply the methods of  to the case at hand. We leave this problem for further investigation.

## 5 Discussion

In this paper we considered multiplicative unitary matrix diffusion generated by random hermitian matrices. We found the eigenvalue density as a function of evolution time in the large $`N`$ limit using $`S`$-transform methods. The eigenvalue distribution turns out to be universal and depends only on the second moment of the random hermitian matrix which generates the diffusion process.

We found that at a critical time of evolution $`t=t_c`$ the eigenvalues start to fill the whole unit circle, and close to $`\theta =\pi `$ a nonstandard eigenvalue spacing $`1/N^{3/4}`$ sets in which signifies the appearance of a new critical regime.

There are various further issues that one could investigate. Firstly, relaxing the assumption of the existence of the second moment might lead to defining anomalous diffusion processes. Secondly it would be interesting to study microscopic properties of these unitary matrices, however in order to do that new methods have to be developed. Thirdly a more detailed investigation of the critical behavior at $`t=t_c`$ close to $`\theta =\pi `$ would be interesting and last but not least the application of these results to some physical situations.

Acknowledgments. We would like to thank Maciej A. Nowak for numerous discussions. RJ would like to thank the Niels Bohr Institute for hospitality while this work was being completed. This work was supported in part by KBN grants 2P03B09622 (2002-2004), 2P03B08225 (2003-2006). RJ was supported by “MaPhySto”, Network in Mathematical Physics and Stochastics financed by the Danish National Research Foundation.


text:
# Interplay between the magnetic fluctuations and superconductivity in the lanthanum cuprates

## Abstract

We report the analysis of the magnetic fluctuations in the superconducing $`\mathrm{La}_{2\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Sr}_\mathrm{x}\mathrm{CuO}_4`$ and the related lanthanum cuprates having the different symmetry of the low temperature structure. The NMR and ESR investigations revealed the dynamical coexistence of the superconductivity and the antiferromagnetic correlations in the large part of superconductivity region of the phase diagram. We show that for all compounds, independent on their low temperature symmetry and on their superconducting properties, the enhancement of the spin stiffness near 1/8 doping takes place.

preprint: APS/123-QED

The interest to the microscopic phase separation in the high-$`T_c`$ superconducting materials has received a strong impetus after the discovery of stripe correlations gb1 . They were observed only in the compounds specially doped with the rare earth ions whose role is to induce the low temperature tetragonal (LTT) phase favorable for the pinning of the stripe fluctuations. Recent neutron scattering experiments gb2  in the low temperature orthorhombic (LTO) phase of $`\mathrm{La}_{2\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Sr}_\mathrm{x}\mathrm{CuO}_4`$ with $`x=0.12`$ reveal the presence of modulated antiferromagnetic order very similar to that found in LTT compound $`\mathrm{La}_{1.6\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Nd}_{0.4}\mathrm{Sr}_\mathrm{x}\mathrm{CuO}_4`$. But on the larger time scale the magnetic fluctuations in $`\mathrm{La}_{2\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Sr}_\mathrm{x}\mathrm{CuO}_4`$ are dynamical especially for the superconducting state and their relevance to the stripe structure is a matter of debate. In particular, the dynamical character of the microscopic phase separation hinders the investigation of its properties by means of low frequency local methods such as conventional NMR gb3 ; gb4 .

The main aim of the present work is to analyze the phase diagram and the properties of magnetic fluctuations for superconducting $`\mathrm{La}_{2\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Sr}_\mathrm{x}\mathrm{CuO}_4`$ and related compounds with a help of experiments whose characteristic frequency is shifted to larger values in comparison with the conventional NMR. We consider ESR ($`\nu 10`$ $`\mathrm{GHz}`$) and high field NMR ($`\nu 0.1`$ $`\mathrm{GHz}`$) measurements which are focused on a comparative analysis of the magnetic fluctuations for the different metalloxides. With this purpose we discuss the ESR data obtained for such compounds as $`\mathrm{La}_{2\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Sr}_\mathrm{x}\mathrm{CuO}_4`$ (LSCO) gb5 , $`\mathrm{La}_{2\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Ba}_\mathrm{x}\mathrm{CuO}_4`$ (LBCO) ad3 , $`\mathrm{La}_{2\mathrm{x}\mathrm{y}}\mathrm{Eu}_\mathrm{y}\mathrm{Sr}_\mathrm{x}\mathrm{CuO}_4`$ (LESCO) ad4  together with the conventional NMR data for $`\mathrm{La}_{2\mathrm{x}\mathrm{y}}\mathrm{Nd}_\mathrm{y}\mathrm{Sr}_\mathrm{x}\mathrm{CuO}_4`$ (LNSCO) gb8  and new high field NMR data for superconducting LSCO. All the measurements were carried out on powder samples with various hole doping. For LSCO the doping level covers the entire superconducting region of the phase diagram, for LBCO we studied the doping region in the vicinity of the well known $`T_{c\text{ }}`$dip, whereas the LESCO and LNSCO series correspond to the nonsuperconducting LTT phase. The samples which were used for the ESR measurements were doped with 1 at. % of Gd, used as ESR probe gb5 . Such tiny concentration of Gd ensured only the small suppression of $`T_c`$ via pair breaking.

We analyzed the temperature and concentration dependence of the width of the most intense component of multiline $`\mathrm{Gd}^{3+}`$ ESR spectrum, corresponding to the fine splitting of the spin states $`S=7/2`$ in the crystalline electric field gb5 . The typical temperature dependence of the linewidth $`\delta H`$ is shown in Fig.1.

The temperature behaviour for $`T>T_c`$ is qualitatively very similar for all samples under study: a linear dependence of $`\delta H`$ on temperature which is followed by the rapid growth of the linewidth at low $`T`$. But after cooling below 40K the behaviour of superconducting and nonsuperconducting samples becomes different: the linewidth of superconducting LSCO exhibits the downturn starting at a temperature $`T_m`$ dependent on $`x`$ whereas for other samples which are not bulk superconductors the linewidth continues to grow upon further lowering temperature (See Fig.1).

This behaviour may be explained if to take into account that in addition to the important but temperature independent residual inhomogeneous broadening the linewidth is given by different homogeneous contributions linked to the magnetic properties of $`\mathrm{CuO}_2`$ planes:

i) the interaction of $`\mathrm{Gd}^{3+}`$ spins with the charge carriers, i.e. the Korringa relaxation channel. The simplest Korringa term in the linewidth is $`\delta H=a+bT`$ with $`b=4\pi (JN_F)^2P_M`$ (Ref.gb6, ), where $`P_M=[S(S+1)M(M+1)]`$ \- is the squared matrix element of the Gd spin transitions between the $`M`$ and $`M+1`$ states, $`N_F`$ is the density of states at the Fermi level, $`J`$ is the coupling constant between the Gd and charge carriers spins gb5 . The factor $`P_M`$ describes the Barnes-Plefka enhancement gb6  of the relaxation with respect to the standard Korringa rate. Such an enhancement occurs in exchange-coupled crystal field split systems where the g-factors of localized and itinerant electrons are approximately equal but the relaxation of conduction electrons towards the ”lattice” is strong enough to inhibit bottleneck effects. For the system under study it was discussed in Ref.gb5, . Note, that the enhancement of the linear slope for LESCO compound relative to that for LSCO seen in Fig.1 is due to the influence of the depopulation of the first excited magnetic Eu level ad4 .

ii) the interaction of Gd with copper spins, giving rise to homogeneous broadening of Gd ESR line (a close analogue of nuclear spin-lattice relaxation):

$$\delta H=\frac{1}{2}(\gamma H)^2P_M\left[\left(\tau /3\right)+\left(2\tau /3\right)/(1+(\omega \tau )^2)\right]$$
(1)
where $`\tau `$ is the magnetic fluctuations life-time, $`H`$ is the internal magnetic field at Gd site. Following Ref.gb8,  we assume the activation law for the fluctuation lifetime temperature dependence $`\tau =\tau _{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{exp}(E_a/kT)`$ with $`\tau _{\mathrm{}}`$ being the lifetime at the infinite temperature and $`E_a`$ \- the activation energy, proportional to the spin stiffness $`\rho _s`$ $`\left(E_a=2\pi \rho _s\right)`$.

The second contribution describes the standard Bloembergen-Purcell-Pound (BPP) behaviour: the broadening of the ESR line upon cooling with the downturn at certain freezing temperature $`T_m`$ corresponding to $`\omega \tau =1`$. Here $`\omega `$ is the resonant frequency. This expression is written for the case when the fluctuating magnetic fields responsible for Gd spin relaxation are induced by local Cu moments. In the polycrystalline samples the averaging over the random orientation of the local Cu moments with respect to the external magnetic field yields by a factor of 2 larger probability of their perpendicular orientation as compared to the collinear one.

We observed that depending on the Sr content the linewidth behaviour transforms from the BPP-like (with the maximum at $`T_m`$) to the pure Korringa (linear) temperature dependence. Basing on the observation that the relative weight of the BPP-contribution, compared with the Korringa one, decreases with increasing Sr doping we conclude that at low $`x`$ the Gd spin probes almost magnetically correlated state and at the high $`x`$ end - almost nonmagnetic metal. Such a transformation may be explained it terms of the microscopical phase separation to the metallic and AF correlated phases. It is worth to remind that very soon after the discovery of the high $`T_c`$ superconductivity in cuprates it was suggested gb10 , that the microscopical phase coexistence is the inherent feature of these materials. Note that according to the phase diagram shown in Fig.2 the obtained $`T_m`$ values are lower than the respective $`T_c`$, although for certain hole doping they are lying close to each other. The relative amount of the AF phase falls abruptly in the vicinity of $`x=0.20`$ so that for $`x=0.24`$ any traces of it are absent. One cannot exclude that this boundary is connected with the existence of the widely discussed quantum critical point ad7  at this doping values.

The different temperature dependences of the linewidths for the superconducting and nonsuperconducting compounds may be consistently explained assuming that for the superconducting samples the linewidth below $`T_c`$ is governed by fluctuating fields which are transversal to the constant field responsible for the Zeeman splitting of the Gd spin states (the second term in Eq.(1) for $`\delta H`$). Since these fluctuations are induced by Cu moments lying in the CuO$`_\text{2}`$ planes, it means that Gd ions are subjected to the constant magnetic field normal to these planes. This may indicate that the magnetic flux lines penetrating in the layered superconduting sample tend to orient normally to the basal planes where the circulating superconducting currents flow (it is also possible, that Gd ions pin the magnetic fluctuations connected with the normal vortex cores). The important argument in favor of the magnetic fluctuations contribution to the Gd ESR linewidth is given by the fact that the BPP peak at $`T=T_m(x=0.10)16`$ K is in a reasonable agreement with that observed near 4 K in the 139La nuclear spin relaxation rate temperature dependence for LSCO compound with $`x=0.10`$ at the frequency of 140 MHz gb11 .

In principle there might be also a second possibility of the different low temperature behaviour of the linewidth for superconducting samples in comparison with that for nonsuperconducting ones. The nonresonant field dependent microwave absorption in the superconducting state may distort the shape of the ESR spectrum. But these distortions should be especially pronounced for the broad lines, typically for the samples with the small amount of holes, whereas the temperature $`T_m`$, characteristic for small $`x`$, is considerably lower than $`T_c`$. Thus the possible distortion of ESR lineshape owing to the nonresonant microwave absorption as the main reason for the apparent narrowing of the ESR line below $`T_c`$ seems to be improbable.

Since the measurements were carried out at nonzero external field it is very important to consider the flux lattice effects. At typical ESR fields of approximately $`0.3`$ T, oriented normally to the CuO$`_\text{2}`$ layers, the period of lattice is 860 Å, whereas the vortex cores sizes for LSCO are approximately 20 Å. As the upper critical field amounts to 62 T, it is clear that in the case of ESR the vortex cores occupy only 0.5% of the CuO$`_\text{2}`$ planes. According to Ref.ad5, ; ad6,  the Cu spins in the vortex cores may be AF ordered. Therefore the phase diagram in Fig.2 indicates that not only the spins in the normal vortex cores are AF correlated, but the AF correlations are spread over the distances of the order of magnetic correlation length which at low doping reaches 600-700 Å ad6 .

Numerical simulations of the Gd ESR linewidths for the compounds with the different Sr content enable us to estimate the values of the parameters in the expression for the linewidth. For example the maximal effective internal field $`H`$ in the rare earth positions is about 200 Oe; the life time $`\tau _{\mathrm{}}`$, which was found to be material dependent, for LSCO is equal to $`\tau _{\mathrm{}}=0.310^{12}`$ sec, and the activation energies $`E_a`$ for all investigated compounds are shown in Figs.2, 3. Note that since the influence of the Nd magnetic moments for the LNSCO compound hinders the ESR measurements the activation energy for this compound was estimated from the measurements of the nuclear spin relaxation on Cu and La nuclei.

The enhancement of $`E_a`$ (that is of a spin stiffness $`\rho _s`$) near $`x=0.12`$ shown in Fig.3 gives evidence of the developed antiferromagnetic correlations for all investigated compounds and explains both the anomalously narrow peak in inelastic neutron scattering gb7  and the elastic incommensurate peak with a narrow q-width gb2  reported for the superconducting $`\mathrm{La}_{2\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Sr}_\mathrm{x}\mathrm{CuO}_4`$ for this Sr doping. This indicates the important role of the commensurability and gives evidence of the plane character of the inhomogeneous spin and charge distributions. The maximal activation energies are 80 K for LSCO, 144 K for LBCO, 160 K for LESCO and 143 K for LNSCO. Note that for LBCO and LESCO the signatures of the bulk superconductivity ad3 ; ad4  become visible upon the suppression (in course of the Ba or Sr doping) of the activation energy down to 80-85 K. Therefore it is plausible to assume that these values of the activation energy are probably the critical ones for the realization of the bulk superconducting state. The corresponding boundary is shown in Fig.3. Fluctuations with the higher activation energies (spin stiffness) are effectively pinned and suppress the superconductivity.

To obtain the information about the ordered magnetic moments for the compounds with the enhanced spin stiffness the NMR measurements at 20-25 T were carried out in a high homogeneity resistive magnet of the NHMFL in Tallahassee FL. The temperature and doping dependencies of 63,65Cu and 139La NMR field sweep spectra of the oriented powders $`\mathrm{La}_{2\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{Sr}_\mathrm{x}\mathrm{CuO}_4`$ were studied. According to the previous La NQR results gb3 ; gb11  the measurements of oriented powder samples in a magnetic field perpendicular to c axis revealed that for Sr content near 1/8 the central lines of the observed spectra both for Cu and La exhibit the broadening upon cooling below 40-50 K (Fig.4).

Such a behaviour is connected with the slowing down of the magnetic fluctuations, which are gradually slowing down upon ordering. The broadening of the La NMR line allows us to estimate that the additional magnetic field at La nucleus is 0.015 T. If we consider that for the antiferromagnet $`\mathrm{La}_2\mathrm{CuO}_4`$ the copper moment of 0.64$`\mu _B`$ induces at the La site the field of 0.1 T gb12 , then the effective magnetic moment in the present case is $`0.09\mu _B`$. Note that the manifestation of the magnetic order only in the vicinity of $`x=1/8`$, when the AF structure is commensurate with the lattice, indicates that the magnetic inhomogeneities are of a plane character.

In conclusion our investigation reveals that for all studied compounds independent on the symmetry type (LTO or LTT) in the neighbourhood of $`1/8`$ doping the enhancement of the spin stiffness takes place. The compounds with the spin stiffness larger than the certain critical value (See Fig.3) reveal no bulk superconductivity.

According to the phase diagram the inherent feature of the superconducting state in cuprates is the presence of frozen antiferromagnetic correlations. Such a coexistence seems to be a result of phase separation at the microscopic scale as it was discussed in pioneering paper of Gor’kov and Sokol gb10 .

In the neighbourhood of $`1/8`$ doping this coexistence may be realized in a form of dynamic stripes, since the corresponding enhancement of the spin-stiffness reveals the plane character of the spin (and charge) inhomogeneities.

One of the authors (G.B.T.) is grateful to L.P.Gor’kov for the valuable discussions of the phase separation specifics for the cuprates. This work is partially supported through the RFFR Grant N 01-02-17533.


text:
# Untitled Document

Operator Equations, Separation of Variables and

Relativistic Alterations

Robert A. Herrmann**Partially funded by a grant from the United States Naval Academy Research Council.

Mathematics department

United States Naval Academy

572C Holloway Rd.

Annapolis, MD 21402-5002

ABSTRACT. In this paper, a simple and unified method is developed that predicts the relativistic alterations of physical measures when the behavior of a natural system is characterized by means of a specific operator equation. Separation of variables is the simple underlying procedure.

Key Words and Phrases. Gravitational redshift, transverse Doppler effect, mass alteration, general and special relativity, separation of variables, partial differential equations.

1992 Mathematics Subject Classifications. 83A05, 83C99, 35A08

1. Introduction.

It is often a difficult problem to find a simple and unified mathematical approach to physical science derivations. The term “derivation” refers to the somewhat informal “proof” method used within the physical sciences that might be formalized when physical axioms are specifically included. Often the relativistic alterations in physical measures are obtained by means of essentially different derivations that are somewhat ad hoc in character and may appear to have no simple underlying approach. With respect to natural system behavior that can be characterized by means of a special operator equation, a unifying approach seems to exist.

In a typical undergraduate differential equations course, the method of separation of variables is introduced in a first attempt to solve the one dimensional heat or wave partial differential equation. This same approach may be the unifying factor that allows one to derive the relativistic alterations for all natural system measures that are modeled by a specific operator equation. Further, from the mathematicians point of view, a derivation in generalized form would be the most appropriate.

First, consider the Schwarzschild metric

$$dS^2=\lambda (cdt^m)^2(1/\lambda )(dR^m)^2(R^m)^2(\mathrm{sin}^2\theta ^m(d\varphi ^m)^2+(d\theta ^m)^2),$$
$`(1.1)`$
where, as usual, $`\lambda =(12GM/(c^2R^m)),`$ $`G`$ is the gravitational constant, $`M`$ the mass of a spherically symmetric homogeneous object, $`R^m`$ the radial distance from the center of the object and the superscript $`m`$ indicates measurements taken for the behavior of a natural system influenced by the gravitational field. Next consider the basic chronotopic interval (i.e. line element)

$$dS^2=(cdt^s)^2(dr^s)^2,$$
$`(1.2)`$
where $`c`$ is the velocity of light and $`(dr^s)^2=(dx^s)^2+(dy^s)^2+(dz^s)^2.`$ Transforming (1.2) into spherical coordinates yields

$$dS^2=(cdt^s)^2(dR^s)^2(R^s)^2(\mathrm{sin}^2\theta ^s(d\varphi ^s)^2+(d\theta ^s)^2).$$
$`(1.3)`$
The subscripts or superscripts $`s`$ represent local measurements at a spatial point where gravity affects the measurements. The subscripts or superscripts $`m`$ represent local measurements, where gravitational effects vanish. These measurements are compared. However, expressions comparing gravitational effects at two spatial points within a gravitational field can be obtained immediately by comparing the effects at each point with the m-measurements where the effects vanish. Further, when astronomical and atomic distances are compared, then (1.3) can be assumed to apply approximately to many observers within the universe. This is especially the case if an observer is affected by a second gravitational field, in which case (1.3) is used as a local line element relating measures for laboratory standards.

Following the usual practice for radiation purposes, the representative atomic systems are considered as momentarily at rest. Hence $`dR^m=d\varphi ^m=d\theta ^m=dR^s=d\varphi ^s=d\theta ^s=0.`$ This yields from (1.1) $`dS^2=\lambda (cdt^m)^2`$ and from (1.3) $`dS^2=(cdt^s)^2.`$ Thus, for this atomic system case, the differentials $`dt^m`$ and $`dt^s`$ are related by the expression

$$\gamma dt^m=dt^s,$$
$`(1.4)`$
where $`\gamma =\sqrt{\lambda }.`$

2. The Derivation Method.

Suppose that certain aspects of a natural system’s behavior are governed by a function $`T(x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_n,t)`$ that satisfies an expression $`D(T)=k(T/t),`$ where $`D`$ is a (functional) separating operator and $`k`$ is a universal constant. In solving such expressions, the function $`T`$ is often considered as separable and $`D`$ is the identity on temporal functions. In this case, let $`T(x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_n,t)=h(x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_n)f(t).`$ Then $`D(T)(x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_n,t)=(D(h)(x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_n))f(t)=(kh(x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_n))(df/dt)`$ and is an invariant separated form.

Let $`(x_1^s,x_2^s,\mathrm{},x_n^s,t^s)`$ corresponded to measurements taken of the behavior of a natural system that is influenced only by (1.3) and using identical modes of measurement let $`(x_1^m,x_2^m,\mathrm{},x_n^m,t^m)`$ corresponded to measurements taken of the behavior of a natural system that is influenced by (1.1). \[Note that this is a “measurement” and not a “transformation” language derivation.\] Now suppose that $`T(x_1^s,x_2^s,\mathrm{},x_n^s,t^s)=h(x_1^s,x_2^s,\mathrm{},x_n^s)f(t^s).`$ Assume that $`T`$ is a universal function and that separation is an invariant procedure. Hence, let the values $`h(x_1^s,x_2^s,\mathrm{},x_n^s)=H(x_1^m,x_2^m,\mathrm{},x_n^m)`$ and the values $`f(t^s)=F(t^m)`$ and $`T(x_1^m,x_2^m,\mathrm{},x_n^m,t^m)=H(x_1^m,x_2^m,\mathrm{},x_n^m)F(t^m).`$ One obtains with respect to $`s`$ by application of the chain rule

$$\lambda ^s=\left(\frac{D_s(h)}{h}\right)(x_1^s,x_2^s,\mathrm{},x_n^s)=k\frac{1}{f(t^s)}\frac{df}{dt^s}=k\frac{1}{F(t^m)}\frac{dF}{dt^m}\frac{dt^m}{dt^s}.$$
$`(2.1)`$
With respect to $`m,`$

$$\left(\frac{D_m(H)}{H}\right)(x_1^m,x_2^m,\mathrm{},x_n^m)=k\frac{1}{F(t^m)}\frac{dF}{dt^m}=\lambda ^m.$$
$`(2.2)`$
Consequently, $`\gamma \lambda ^s=\lambda ^m.`$

Suppose that $`T=\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is the total wave function, $`D`$ is the operator $`^2p,`$ where $`n=3,`$ the constant $`k,`$ and function $`p`$ are those associated with the classical time-dependent Schrödinger equation for an atomic system as it appears in Evans \[2, p. 56\]. It is not assumed that such a Schrödinger type equation predicts any other behavior except that it reasonably approximates the discrete energy levels associated with atomic system radiation and that the frequency of such radiation may be obtained, at least approximately, from the predicted energy variations. The eigenvalues for this separable solution correspond to energy levels $`E^s`$ and $`E^m`$ for such a radiating atomic system. Thus $`\gamma E^s=E^m.`$ Radiation occurs when there is a discrete change in the energy levels. This yields

$$\gamma \mathrm{\Delta }E^s=\mathrm{\Delta }E^m.$$
$`(2.3)`$
Now simply divide (2.3) by the Planck constant and obtain the basic gravitational frequency redshift expression $`\gamma \nu ^s=\nu ^m`$ as stated in Bergmann \[1, p. 222\].

Since this actual derivation is slightly generalized, other operator expressions can be substituted for $`D.`$ For another prediction, consider substituting the Laplacian $`^2`$ for $`D.`$ This would yield for an appropriate object an alteration due to the gravitational field of the usual temperature function obtained when the PDE for internal heat transfer is solved.

3. Additional Applications.

Consider the special theory linear effect line element

$$dS^2=\lambda (cdt^m)^2(1/\lambda )(dr^m)^2,$$
$`(3.1)`$
where $`\lambda =(1v^2/c^2)`$ and $`v`$ is a constant relative velocity. Suppose a special theory relativistic effect is considered to take place within an atomic system itself and is assumed to be the same effect whether motion is transverse or receding or approaching the observer, then this is modeled with respect to special theory effects by letting $`dr^m=dr^s=0`$ in (1.2) and (3.1). Hence (1.4) holds for this physical scenario. Now the same argument used to obtain the gravitational redshift can be applied in order to obtain the relativistic (i.e. transverse Doppler) redshift prediction $`\gamma \nu ^s=\nu ^m.`$ Ives and Stilwell  were the first to experimentally verify this prediction.

Finally, consider a freely moving particle of mass $`M`$ moving in a “straight” line with constant relative velocity $`v_E.`$ For a Hamilton characteristic function $`S^{},`$ the classical Hamilton-Jacobi equation becomes $`(S^{}/r)^2=2M(S^{}/t)`$ \[5, p. 451\]. Suppose that $`S^{}(r,t)=h(r)f(t).`$ Again consider line elements (1.2) and (3.1) while letting the universal nature of $`S^{}`$ and invariance of separation imply that $`h(r^s)=H(r^m),f(t^s)=F(t^m).`$ The same argument used for the relativistic redshift derivation again yields equation (1.4). Let $`D=(()/r)^2.`$ The same procedure used to obtain (2.1) and (2.2) yields

$$\left(\frac{h(r^s)}{r^s}\right)^2\left(\frac{1}{h(r^s)}\right)=2\frac{M^s}{f^2(t^s)}\frac{df}{dt^s}=M^s\lambda _1^s=$$

$$2\frac{M^s}{F^2(t^m)}\frac{dF}{dt^m}\frac{dt^m}{dt^s}=M^s\lambda _1^m/\gamma .$$
$`(3.2)`$
With respect to $`m,`$

$$\left(\frac{H(r^m)}{r^m}\right)^2\left(\frac{1}{H(r^m)}\right)=2\frac{M^m}{F^2(t^m)}\frac{dF}{dt^m}=M^m\lambda _1^m.$$
$`(3.3)`$
In (3.2) and (3.3), the quantities $`M^s`$ and $`M^m`$ are obtained by means of an identical mode of measurement that characterizes “mass.” Assuming that the two separated forms in (3.2) and (3.3) are invariant, leads to the special theory mass expression $`M^m=(1/\gamma )M^s.`$ These examples amply demonstrate the utility of the separation of variables approach in obtaining various relativistic alterations in measured physical quantities.

References.

1. Bergmann, G. Introduction to the Theory of Relativity, Dover, 1976.

2. Evans, R. D. The Atomic Nucleus, McGraw-Hill, 1955.

3. Herrmann, R. A. An operator equation and relativistic alterations in the time for radioactive decay, Internat. J. Math. Math. Sci. (To appear)

4. Ives, H. and G. Stilwell. Experimental study of the rate of a moving atomic clock, J. Opt. Soc. Am., 28(1939) 215–301.

5. Synge, J. L. and B.A. Griffith, Principles of Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, 1959.