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# Constraints on Quasar Continuum, BELR, and BALR Physics from SDSS Composite Spectra

## 1. The Optical/UV Continuum

In the rest-frame optical and UV, after accounting for emission lines, quasars are reasonably well-described by a power-law continuum with a typical spectral index of $`\alpha _\nu 0.3`$$`0.5`$ (e.g., Francis et al. 1991; Vanden Berk et al. 2001).

Using data from Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS; York et al. 2003) quasars (Richards et al. 2002a), we find that the spread in the color distribution as measured by SDSS quasars is roughly $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha _\nu =\pm 0.25`$ ($`1\sigma `$) and is formally resolved (Richards et al. 2003). That is, the width of the distribution is much broader than the errors. Detailed analysis of the contributions of dust extinction (which is the most likely cause of the red tail in Figure 1; Hall et al. 2004a, this volume) and variability (Wilhite et al. 2004, this volume) are needed in order to accurately describe the intrinsic continua of quasars; however, the raw data already provide constraints for accretion disk models. We can confirm that the average color is significantly redder than is expected from a simplistic accretion disk modeled as a sum of blackbodies ($`\alpha _\nu =1/3`$; e.g., Shakura & Sunyaev 1973; Hubeny et al. 2000), but the bluest quasars can be even bluer than $`\alpha _\nu =1/3`$. Comparisons of the distribution of colors to accretion disk models will provide an important constraint on those models (e.g., Blaes 2004, this volume).

## 2. Broad Emission Line Region

The SDSS data can help improve our understanding of the broad emission line region (BELR) by studying the changes in the strengths and profiles of the broad emission lines as a function of their rest-frame optical/UV colors and as a function of the well-known blueshift of high-ionization emission lines (especially C IV) with respect to low-ionization and forbidden, narrow emission lines (Gaskell 1982; Richards et al. 2002b).

The SDSS data reveal that that blueshift of C IV may be caused by a lack of flux in the red wing rather than by a bulk blueward shift of the line since the blueshifted lines are also systematically weaker — perhaps due to an orientation and/or radiative transfer effect in a disk-wind (e.g., Chiang & Murray 1996). Although the composites in Figure 2 are normalized by redshift and luminosity, the fact that the blueshifted composites have weaker C IV emission suggests that the emission line blueshifts and the Baldwin (1977) Effect have the same physical basis. See Francis & Koratkar (1995) for confirmation of this relationship in another sample of quasars. Not correcting redshifts for these blueshifts may be the reason that SPCA analyses (Shang & Wills 2004, this volume; Yip et al. 2004, this volume) find a Baldwin Effect in the apparent line cores rather than the red wing of the line; see Vanden Berk et al. (2004, this volume) for supporting evidence. Furthermore, how well one can measure the mass of a quasar from its C IV profile clearly depends on the exact nature of these blueshifts (c.f., Vestergaard 2004a, this volume; Warner, Hamann, & Dietrich 2004, this volume).

We also find that quasar emission lines are a function of the optical/UV continuum slope (i.e., color). Figure 3 shows major emission line regions for composite spectra constructed from quasars with bluer and redder than average relative $`gi`$ colors (Richards et al. 2003). More work needs to be done to understand this relationship, but it is clear that these differences are not (solely) due to the redder quasars (those denoted ‘steep’ in Fig. 1) having more dust.

## 3. Broad Absorption Line Region

The SDSS quasar survey has already provided the largest sample to date of broad absorption line quasars. The most significant results are as follows. The balnicity index (Weymann et al. 1991) distribution increases steeply with decreasing absorption strength (Tolea, Krolik, & Tsvetanov 2003; Reichard et al. 2003a), which suggests that the true population of quasars with intrinsic absorption outflows is larger than is generally thought and also that quasars with wide high-velocity outflows may not be distinct from those with narrower low-velocity outflows. Analysis of the continuum and emission line regions of SDSS BALQSOs by Reichard et al. (2003b) suggests that the optically selected BALQSO sample is drawn from the same parent population as the nonBALQSO sample, but it does appear that the properties of BALQSOs (terminal velocity, ionization state, etc.) are not independent of the intrinsic color and emission line properties. Thus even though BALQSOs may not be a distinct population, certain types of quasars may be more likely to host certain kinds of BALs. For example, composites of intrinsically red and intrinsically blue BALQSOs (after correction for dust reddening) appear to have somewhat different broad absorption trough properties; see Figure 4.

## 4. Support for a Hybrid Model?

We suggest that the combination of the results from SDSS BALQSOs above and previous results (such as the difference between narrow absorption in flat- and steep-spectrum radio-loud quasars) lends support to a model where the disk-wind ranges from being nearly polar to nearly equatorial (with BAL or BAL-like outflows existing in all objects); see Figure 5. Such a scenario might result from a hybrid model which combines MHD and line-driven (LD) radiation pressure such as discussed by both Proga (2003) and Everett (2003). If this were the case, the Elvis (2000) picture (with polar NAL absorption regions and more equatorial BAL absorption regions; Figure 5, top) might be seen as being the ensemble average picture, rather than the picture of an individual quasar. Elvis (2000) discusses similar scenarios in relation to incorporating radio-loud quasars into the picture and how luminosity might affect the opening angle of the wind. Such a picture would create two orientation effects (the opening angle of the wind and the tilt of the disk) that may be difficult to disentangle; however such a scenario would open up some freedom to explain all known classes of AGN using a disk-wind model.

### Acknowledgments.

Funding for the creation and distribution of the SDSS Archive (http://www.sdss.org/) has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the Participating Institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Japanese Monbukagakusho, and the Max Planck Society.

The SDSS is managed by the Astrophysical Research Consortium (ARC) for the Participating Institutions. The Participating Institutions are The University of Chicago, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, The Johns Hopkins University, Los Alamos National Laboratory, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy (MPIA), the Max-Planck-Institute for Astrophysics (MPA), New Mexico State University, University of Pittsburgh, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington.

## References

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Elvis, M. 2000, ApJ, 545, 63

Everett, J. E. 2003, astro-ph/0212421

Francis, P. J., et al. 1991, ApJ, 373, 465

Francis, P. J., & Koratkar, A. 1995, MNRAS, 274, 504

Gaskell, C .M. 1982, ApJ, 263, 79

Hubeny, I., et al. 2000, ApJ, 533, 710

Proga, D. 2003, ApJ, 585, 406

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Reichard, T. A., et al. 2003b, AJ, in press

Richards, G. T., et al. 2002a, AJ, 123, 2945

Richards, G. T., et al. 2002b, AJ, 124, 1

Richards, G. T., et al. 2003, AJ, 126, 1131

Shakura, N. I., & Sunyaev, R. A. 1973, A&A, 24, 337

Tolea, A., Krolik, J. H., & Tsvetanov, Z. 2002, ApJ, 578, 31

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York, D. G., et al. 2000, AJ, 120, 1579

## Discussion

Antonucci: How much of the spread in colors do you think is due to variability of individual objects as they vary in luminosity?

Richards: Variability certainly contributes significantly to the spread, but it is not the dominant factor. We estimate that it contributes about $`0.05`$ (out of $`0.12`$) to the $`1\sigma `$ spread in color (or about $`0.1`$ of $`0.25`$ in $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha `$).


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# The homology of Heisenberg Lie algebras over fields of characteristic two

## Abstract.

The generating function of the Betti numbers of the Heisenberg Lie algebra over a field of characteristic $`2`$ is calculated using discrete Morse theory.

The author was supported by Marie Curie fellowship HPMD-CT-2001-00079

The Heisenberg Lie algebra of dimension $`2n+1`$, denoted by $`𝔥_n`$, is the vector space with basis $`B=\{z,x_1,\mathrm{},x_n,y_1,\mathrm{}y_n\}`$ where the only non-zero Lie products of basis elements are

$$[x_i,y_i]=[y_i,x_i]=z.$$

In this paper the Betti numbers of the homology of $`𝔥_n`$ over a field of characteristic $`2`$ is computed with the aid of algebraic discrete Morse theory from \[Skö\]. The notation from \[Skö\] will be freely used.

###### Theorem 1.

The generating function of the Betti numbers of the Heisenberg Lie algebra over a field of characteristic $`2`$ is

$$\underset{i0}{}dim_kH_i(𝔥_n)t^i=\frac{(1+t^3)(1+t)^{2n}+(t+t^2)(2t)^n}{1+t^2}$$

When the ground field of $`𝔥_n`$ has characteristic $`0`$, Santharoubane \[San83\] has shown that

$$dim_kH_i(𝔥_n)=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2n}{i}\right)\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{2n}{i2}\right),$$

(the need for the ground field to have characteristic $`0`$ is not explicitly mentioned).

Let us first recall the construction of the Chevalley–Eilenberg complex $`𝐕`$ of $`𝔥_n`$, whose homology is the homology of $`𝔥_n`$: the complex $`𝐕`$ is given by

$$0\stackrel{2n+1}{}𝔥_n\mathrm{}\stackrel{i}{}𝔥_n\mathrm{}\stackrel{2}{}𝔥_n𝔥_n0$$

with the differential

$$\overline{d}(w_1\mathrm{}w_n)=\underset{i<j}{}(1)^{i+j}[w_i,w_j]w_1\mathrm{}\widehat{w_i}\mathrm{}\widehat{w_j}\mathrm{}w_n$$

for $`w_iB`$.

The $`p`$-th homology (with trivial coefficients) of $`𝔥_n`$, can now be obtained as the $`p`$-th homology group of the complex $`𝐕`$.

If $`I=\{i_1,\mathrm{},i_s\}`$ is a subset of $`[n]`$, we will use the notation $`x_I`$ for the element $`x_{i_1}\mathrm{}x_{i_s}`$, (and similarly for $`y_I`$).

###### Proof.

The result is proved by constructing a Morse matching $`M`$ on the digraph $`G_𝐕`$, and showing that when $`\pi `$ is the projection coming from the splitting homotopy of $`M`$, we have that $`\pi (𝐕)`$ has trivial differential.

The decomposition of the Chevalley–Eilenberg complex we will use is the obvious; we consider the basis for $`𝐕`$ given by $`\{zx_Iy_J,x_Iy_JI,J[n]\}`$.

Let the matching $`M`$ consist of the following edges in $`G_𝐕`$:

$$x_Iy_Jzx_{I\{k\}}y_{J\{k\}}$$

whenever $`\mathrm{max}(I^cJ^c)<\mathrm{max}(IJ)`$ and $`k=\mathrm{max}(IJ)`$.

There are now two kinds of unmatched elements: first the elements $`zx_Iy_J`$, with $`\mathrm{max}(I^cJ^c)<\mathrm{max}(IJ)`$, and then the elements $`x_Iy_J`$, with $`\mathrm{max}(I^cJ^c)>\mathrm{max}(IJ)`$.

When $`x_Iy_JM^+`$, there is exactly one element $`zx_I^{}y_J^{}`$ with $`x_Iy_Jzx_I^{}y_J^{}`$ that is not in $`M^0`$, which implies that there can be no directed cycle in the graph $`G_𝐕^M`$. Together with the fact that for all edges in $`G_𝐕`$ the corresponding component of the differential is an isomorphism, this implies that $`M`$ is a Morse matching.

We will now see that the differential in $`\pi (𝐕)`$ is zero. For an element $`zx_Iy_JM^0`$ it is obvious that $`d\pi (zx_Iy_J)=\pi d(zx_Iy_J)=0`$. For $`x_Iy_JM^0`$ with $`m=\mathrm{max}(I^cJ^c)`$ we get that

$$\pi (x_Iy_J)=x_Iy_J+\underset{iIJ}{}x_{(I\{i\})\{m\}}y_{(J\{i\})\{m\}},$$

from which it is easily seen that $`d\pi (x_Iy_J)=0`$. From \[Skö, Theorem 1\] now follows that the $`i`$-th Betti number is equal to the number of unmatched vertices in homological degree $`i`$.

For the computation of the generating function we introduce the elements $`u_i=x_iy_i`$, and we begin by counting the critical vertices $`zx_Iy_Ju_K`$ and $`x_Iy_Ju_K`$ when $`IJ=L`$ for a fixed set $`L[n]`$.

If $`L=[n]`$, the critical vertices are all $`zx_Iy_J`$ and $`x_Iy_J`$ and they contribute with $`(1+t)(2t)^n`$ toward the homology.

If $`L[n]`$, then the critical vertices of the form $`zx_Iy_Ju_K`$ are those with $`\mathrm{max}\left([n](IJ)\right)K`$ so they contribute with $`t^3(2t)^{|L|}(1+t^2)^{n|L|1}`$ toward the homology. The critical vertices of the form $`x_Iy_Ju_K`$ are those with $`\mathrm{max}\left([n](IJ)\right)K`$ and thus contribute with $`(2t)^{|L|}(1+t^2)^{n|L|1}`$ toward the homology.

Summing up we get

$`f(t)`$ $`=(1+t)(2t)^n+(1+t^3){\displaystyle \underset{L[n]}{}}(2t)^{|L|}(1+t^2)^{n|L|1}`$
$`=(1+t)(2t)^n+(1+t^3){\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{n1}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{n}{i}}\right)(2t)^i(1+t^2)^{ni1}`$
$`=(1+t)(2t)^n+(1+t^3)(1+t^2)^1((1+2t+t^2)^n(2t)^n)`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{(1+t)(1+t^2)(2t)^n}{1+t^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{(1+t^3)(1+t)^{2n}(1+t^3)(2t)^n}{1+t^2}}`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{(1+t^3)(1+t)^{2n}+(t+t^2)(2t)^n}{1+t^2}}`$


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# Warm stellar matter with neutrino trapping

## I Introduction

Protoneutron stars appear as an outcome of the gravitational colapse of a massive star. During its early evolution a protoneutron star with an entropy per baryon of the order of 1 to 2 contains trapped neutrinos. After 10 to 20 seconds, the star stabilizes at practically zero temperature and no trapped neutrinos are left prak97 . The structure of compact stars is characterized by its mass and radius, which are obtained from appropriate equations of state (EOS) at densities about one order of magnitude higher than those observed in ordinary nuclei. EOS can be derived either from relativistic or potential models. The last ones are normally developed within a non relativistic formalism nonrel  and most of them are only suited at low densities because the EOS becomes acausal, i.e., the speed of sound exceeds the speed of light at densities which are relevant for neutron and protoneutron stars. Moreover, these models may lead to symmetry energies that decrease much more than expected beyond three times saturation density and this is a serious deficiency for neutron stars, which are highly asymmetric systems. In relativistic models these problems are not present. In this work we investigate the properties of hybrid stars formed by hadronic matter at low densities, mixed matter at intermediate densities and quark matter at high densities. We use the nonlinear Walecka model for the hadron phase walecka ; bb  and the MIT Bag bag  and the Nambu-Jona-Lasinio NJL ; Klevansky92  models for the quark matter.

In a previous work recente  we have used the same formalism in order to study the properties of hybrid stars obtained from EOS at different temperatures. We have checked that the maximum masses of hybrid stars obtained with the Bag model are of the order of $`1.6`$ M, smaller than the maximum masses obtained within the NJL model, $`1.9`$M. Even with a transition to a deconfinement phase the masses predicted can be quite high. However, the effect of temperature in the maximum masses allowed is not strong. The central energy densities, though, decrease with temperature. Some of the features exhibited for the Bag model were quite different from the ones obtained with the NJL model, due to the chiral conservation mechanism implicit in the latter one.

In this work, we verify the importance of including trapped neutrinos and consider entropies from zero to 2 Boltzmann units. Most of the formulae used for the lagrangian densities, energies, pressures, partition functions, etc, are not shown in this paper because they are standard equations and can be seen, among others, in Ref. recente . We compare the properties of warm stars obtained within the NJL model and the MIT bag model, namely, strangeness content, neutrino fraction, onset of hyperons, mixed phase and quark phase, maximum allowed mass and interior composition.

The present paper is organized as follows: in Sec. II the lagrangian densities of the models used in the hadronic and quark matter are described, important relations and parameter sets are displayed and the mixed phase is implemented. The results are shown and discussed in Sec. III and in the last Sec. some remarks are made.

## II Formalism

For the hadron phase we have used the nonlinear Walecka model with the inclusion of hyperons. The lagrangian density of the model reads:

$$_{NLWM}=\underset{B}{}\overline{\psi }_B\left[\gamma _\mu \left(i^\mu g_{vB}V^\mu g_{\rho B}𝐭𝐛^\mu \right)(M_Bg_{sB}\varphi )\right]\psi _B$$

$$+\frac{1}{2}(_\mu \varphi ^\mu \varphi m_s^2\varphi ^2)\frac{1}{3!}\kappa \varphi ^3\frac{1}{4!}\lambda \varphi ^4$$

$$\frac{1}{4}\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{\Omega }^{\mu \nu }+\frac{1}{2}m_v^2V_\mu V^\mu +\frac{1}{4!}\xi g_v^4(V_\mu V^\mu )^2\frac{1}{4}𝐁_{\mu \nu }𝐁^{\mu \nu }+\frac{1}{2}m_\rho ^2𝐛_\mu 𝐛^\mu $$

$$+\underset{l}{}\overline{\psi }_l\left(i\gamma _\mu ^\mu m_l\right)\psi _l,$$
(1)
with $`_B`$ extending over the eight baryons, $`g_{sB}=x_{sB}g_s,g_{vB}=x_{vB}g_v,g_{\rho B}=x_{\rho B}g_\rho `$ and $`x_{sB}`$, $`x_{vB}`$ and $`x_{\rho B}`$ are equal to $`1`$ for the nucleons and acquire different values in different parametrizations for the other baryons, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mu \nu }=_\mu V_\nu _\nu V_\mu `$, $`𝐁_{\mu \nu }=_\mu 𝐛_\nu _\nu 𝐛_\mu g_\rho (𝐛_\mu \times 𝐛_\nu )`$ and $`𝐭`$ is the isospin operator.

We have chosen to work with a parametrization which describes the properties of saturating nuclear matter proposed in Glen00 , since other common parameter sets, namely, TM1 tm1  and NL3 nl3  proved to be inadequate because, due to the inclusion of hyperons, the nucleon mass becomes negative at relatively low densities. The chosen parameters are $`g_s^2/m_s^2=11.79`$ fm2, $`g_v^2/m_v^2=7.148`$ fm2, $`g_\rho ^2/m_\rho ^2=4.41`$ fm2, $`\kappa /M=0.005896`$ and $`\lambda =0.0006426`$, for which the binding energy is -16.3 MeV at the saturation density $`\rho _0=0.153`$ fm-1, the symmetry coefficient is 32.5 MeV, the compression modulus is 300 MeV and the effective mass is $`0.7M`$. For the meson-hyperon coupling constants we have opted for two sets discussed in the literature : set a) according to gm91 ; Glen00  we choose the hyperon coupling constants constrained by the binding of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ hyperon in nuclear matter, hypernuclear levels and neutron star masses ($`x_\sigma =0.7`$ and $`x_\omega =x_\rho =0.783`$) and assume that the couplings to the $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Xi }`$ are equal to those of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ hyperon; set b) we take $`x_{sB}=x_{vB}=x_{\rho B}=\sqrt{2/3}`$ as in moszk ; ghosh . This choice is based on quark counting arguments.

The lagrangian density for the MIT bag model is identical to the one for the leptons, except for the degeneracy factor, which also accounts for the number of quark colors. In the energy density a factor $`+B`$ and in the pressure a factor $`B`$ are inserted. This factor is responsible for the simulation of confinement. For the Bag model, we have taken B1/4=190 MeV.

For the NJL model, the lagrangian density is

$`L`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{q}(i\gamma ^\mu _\mu m)q+g_S{\displaystyle \underset{a=0}{\overset{8}{}}}[(\overline{q}\lambda ^aq)^2+(\overline{q}i\gamma _5\lambda ^aq)^2]`$ (2)
$`+`$ $`g_D\{\text{det}[\overline{q}_i(1+\gamma _5)q_j]+\text{det}[\overline{q}_i(1\gamma _5)q_j]\},`$
where $`q=(u,d,s)`$ are the quark fields and $`\lambda _a`$ $`(\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}a\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}8})`$ are the U(3) flavor matrices. The model parameters are: $`m=\text{diag}(m_u,m_d,m_s)`$, the current quark mass matrix ($`m_d=m_u`$), the coupling constants $`g_S`$ and $`g_D`$ and the cutoff in three-momentum space, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$.

We consider the set of parameters Ruivo99 ; kun89 : $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=631.4`$ MeV, $`g_S\mathrm{\Lambda }^2=1.824`$, $`g_D\mathrm{\Lambda }^5=9.4`$, $`m_u=m_d=5.6`$ MeV and $`m_s=135.6`$ MeV which where fitted to the following properties: $`m_\pi =139`$ MeV, $`f_\pi =93.0`$ MeV, $`m_K=495.7`$ MeV, $`f_K=98.9`$ MeV, $`\overline{u}u=\overline{d}d=(246.7\text{ MeV})^3`$ and $`\overline{s}s=(266.9\text{ MeV})^3`$.

The condition of chemical equilibrium is imposed through the two independent chemical potentials for neutrons $`\mu _n`$ and electrons $`\mu _e`$ and it implies that the chemical potential of baryon $`B_i`$ is $`\mu _{B_i}=Q_i^B\mu _nQ_i^e\mu _e,`$ where $`Q_i^e`$ and $`Q_i^B`$ are, respectively, the electric and baryonic charge of baryon or quark $`i`$. Charge neutrality implies $`_{B_i}Q_i^e\rho _{B_i}+_lq_l\rho _l=0`$ where $`q_l`$ stands for the electric charges of leptons. In the mixed phase charge neutrality is imposed globally, $`\chi \rho _c^{QP}+(1\chi )\rho _c^{HP}+\rho _c^l=0,`$ where $`\rho _c^{iP}`$ is the charge density of the phase $`i`$, $`\chi `$ is the volume fraction occupied by the quark phase and $`\rho _c^l`$ is the electric charge density of leptons. We consider a uniform background of leptons in the mixed phase since Coulomb interaction has not been taken into account. According to the Gibbs conditions for phase coexistence, the baryon chemical potentials, temperatures and pressures have to be identical in both phases, i.e., $`\mu _{HP,n}=\mu _{QP,n}=\mu _n,`$ $`\mu _{HP,e}=\mu _{QP,e}=\mu _e,`$ $`T_{HP}=T_{QP},P_{HP}(\mu _n,\mu _eT)=P_{QP}(\mu _n,\mu _e,T),`$ reflecting the needs of chemical, thermal and mechanical equilibrium, respectively.

If neutrino trapping is imposed to the system, the beta equilibrium condition is altered to $`\mu _{B_i}=Q_i^B\mu _nQ_i^e(\mu _e\mu _{\nu _e}).`$ In this work we have not included trapped muon neutrinos. Because of the imposition of trapping the total leptonic number is conserved, i.e., $`Y_L=Y_e+Y_{\nu _e}=0.4`$. As already mentioned, neutrino trapping is important during the cooling of the protoneutron star. Hence, at $`S=0`$ ($`T=0`$), it is not an expected mechanism. Even though, we have chosen to show some results with neutrino trapping at $`S=0`$ only for the sake of comparison with results in the literature and with results for higher entropies.

In the following section the results obtained are shown and discussed.

## III Results and discussion

In all figures shown, unless stated otherwise, set a) for the meson-hyperon coupling constants was used.

In Fig. 1, the EOSs obtained with both quark models are displayed for $`S=0`$, $`S=1`$ and $`S=2`$ with neutrino trapping ($`Y_L=0.4`$) and no neutrinos ($`Y_{\nu _e}=0`$). One can immediatly see that the EOS are harder and the mixed phase appears at higher densities if neutrino trapping is required independently of the model used. The energy density for the onset of the mixed phase can also be seen in Tables I to IV. In general, the effect of temperature both in neutrino rich and neutrino poor matter is to decrease the density for the onset of the mixed phase. The only exception corresponds to neutrino poor matter obtained using the Bag model por the quark phase. This, however does not affect the maximum mass of a stable star which in all cases decreases with increasing entropy, more strongly when the Bag model is used. An existing difference between the EOS constructed with the NJL or the Bag model is the behavior of the respective EOS in the quark phase: contrary to the Bag model, the NJL model predicts an increase of the stiffness of the EOS both with increasing entropy and with neutrino trapping. However, this behaviour does not influence the properties of the compact stars because the calculated central densities of the most massive stellar configurations usually lie within the range of energy densities of the mixed phase, as shown in tables I to IV or are at most at the borderline of the quark phase.

As already discussed in recente , the presence of strangeness in the core and crust of neutron and proto-neutron stars has important consequences in understanding some of their properties. In Fig. 2 we show, for the different EOSs, the strangeness fraction defined as $`r_s=\chi r_s^{QP}+(1\chi )r_s^{HP}`$ with $`r_s^{QP}`$ and $`r_s^{HP}`$ the quark and hadronic strangeness fraction, respectively. For a quark phase described by the Bag model the strangeness fraction rises steadly and, at the onset of the pure quark phase it has almost reached 1/3 of the baryonic matter if no trapping is imposed. However, it reaches a lower value once neutrino trapping is enforced. This behavior is independent of the hyperon-meson coupling constants used in this work. The effect of the temperature is to increase the strangeness fraction. The NJL model predicts a different behavior. In the mixed phase the strangeness fraction decreases with density. This behavior is due to fact that for the densities at which the mixed phase occurs the mass of the strange quark is still very high. In the hadron and mixed phase the strangeness fraction depends on the parameter set employed and it is larger for set b). In general, temperature increases the strangeness content and trapping decreases the strangeness fraction. It is interesting to compare the Bag model and NJL model results. At 10$`\rho _0`$ we get with the NJL model a strangeness fraction of 0.25 for neutrino free matter and 0.18 with trapping. These numbers should be compared with the results obtained with the Bag model, respectively 0.31 and 0.27. This trend, which is valid for all densities except for the mixed phase with set a), is due to the large $`s`$-quark mass in the NJL and has consequences on the difference of the maximum baryonic mass of the stars with and without neutrino trapping.

Analysing Fig. 2 we can also discuss the model dependence of the hyperon and mixed phase onset. In general, there are larger fractions of hyperons if the NJL model is used. This is true for both the hadronic and the mixed phase and is a consequence of the large s-quark mass in this model. Trapping pushes the onset of hyperons, the mixed phase and the pure quark phase to higher energies. The pure quark phase is only slightly affected but the mixed phase can occur at a density that is $`12\rho _0`$ higher. For neutrino rich matter, the onset of hyperons in the NJL model always occurs before the onset of the mixed phase even for $`T=0`$, contrary to neutrino free matter. The imposition of trapped neutrinos influences the threshold of hyperons and quarks through the conditions of charge conservation and chemical equilibrium.

In order to better understand the importance of the neutrinos when neutrino trapping is imposed, in Fig. 3 the fraction of neutrinos is shown for increasing entropy. The behaviour encountered for the Bag model (all parameter sets used) and the NJL model for set a) is quite similar. It decreases at low densities when the electron fraction is still increasing with density and starts to increase in the hadron phase after the onset of hyperons, increases even more in the mixed and quark phases, where the fraction of electrons decreases continuously due to the onset of negative charged hyperons or the u and s-quarks. In the mixed phase described within NJL for set b), the neutrino fraction decreases, due to the decrease of hyperons and the very slow onset of the s-quark. In general, the amount of neutrinos depends on the fraction of hyperons and quarks present in each phase, which are determined by the model used. For any density the Bag model predicts higher neutrino yields.

Finally, in Fig. 4 the temperature is shown as a function of the baryon density for increasing entropy and for $`Y_{\nu _e}=0`$ and $`Y_L=0.4`$. The opening of new degrees of freedom has an important effect on the variation of temperature with density pons99 . Neutrino trapping makes the temperature vary more with baryonic density: temperature attains a higher value before the onset of the mixed phase because trapping hinders the onset of hyperons, e. g. of new degrees of freedom; on the other end temperature becomes lower in the quark phase because of the presence of more degrees of freedom , e. g. both leptons and quarks in opposition to the neutrino free matter which contains only quarks. Both with or without neutrino trapping the mixed phase is characterized by a decrease of the temperature. This behaviour, a colder high density EOS, is due to deconfinement, and therefore to the appearance of a greater number of degrees of freedom. A similar behaviour was obtained in spl00 .

Mixed protoneutron and neutron star profiles can be obtained from all the EOS studied by solving the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff (TOV) equations tov , resulting from a simplification of Einstein’s general relativity equations for spherically symmetric and static stars. In Tables I, II, III and IV we show the values obtained for the maximum gravitational and baryonic masses of a neutron or protoneutron star as function of the central density for the EOSs studied in this work and for three fixed entropies. The results are shown for the properties of the stars with and without neutrino trapping. In Tables I and II the GL force and the NJL model were used to derive the full EOS, while in Tables III and IV the EOS was obtained from the GL force and the MIT Bag model. Several conclusions can be drawn. For most EOSs studied, the central energy density $`\epsilon _0`$ of the most massive stable stars falls inside the mixed phase, whose energy density limits are shown as $`\epsilon _{min}`$ and $`\epsilon _{max}`$. This is always true for the stars described with the MIT bag model. The results obtained within the NJL model depend on the hyperon couplings used: for set a) the core of the most massive stars is a pure quark phase, both for neutrino rich or neutrino free matter. The maximum baryonic masses of the stars decrease with increasing entropy and are systematically larger if neutrino trapping is enforced. As a consequence, in the present description the most massive stars with neutrino trapping are unstable after cooling. Similar results have already been discussed for stars with strange matter prak97 ; vidana . Comparing Tables I, II and III, IV we conclude that the Bag model allows for smaller maximum gravitational masses, of the order $`1.9\text{ M}_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ if neutrino trapping is imposed and $`0.4\text{ M}_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ lower otherwise, than the NJL model, $`2.0\text{ M}_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ with neutrino trapping and $`0.15\text{ M}_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ lower without it. This has been checked also for other Bag constants. Comparing baryonic masses a similar conclusion is taken, i.e., within the Bag model the most massive stable stars with neutrino trapping are systematically $`0.4\text{ M}_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ higher than the corresponding neutrino free stars. This difference reduces to $`0.1\text{ M}_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ within the NJL model.

It is also seen that the maximum mass does not depend much on the hyperon couplings. One can also observe that the mixed phases start at higher densities if neutrino trapping is considered and they tend to shrink with increasing entropy. In general, changes in the maximum mass due to neutrino trapping are larger than those due to variations in the entropy of the system. Our results for the Bag model are systematically larger than those shown in prak97  where a bag constant equal to 197 MeV, corresponding to a harder quark EOS, was used. We do not discuss the radius of the maximum mass star because it is sensitive to the low density EOS and we did not describe properly this range of energy densities.

## IV Final Remarks

In the present paper we have studied the EOS for proto-neutron stars using both the Bag model and the NJL model for describing the quark phase and a relativistic mean-field description in which baryons interact via the exchange of $`\sigma ,\omega ,\rho `$ mesons for the hadron phase. The EOS were constructed with and without the imposition of neutrino trapping at three fixed entropies.

For the hadron part of the EOSs we have considered a parametrization which describes the properties of saturating nuclear matter proposed in Glen00 . For the hyperon meson coupling constants we have used two choices and verified that for the NJL model the onset of the mixed phase and the properties of the corresponding compact star are sensitive to the hyperon couplings.

Some properties of the EOSs, as the strangeness fraction and the amount of neutrinos show different patterns depending on the quark model used, NJL or Bag model. Both strangeness and neutrino fractions are higher within the MIT bag model. While the strangeness fraction increases monotonicaly with density for the MIT bag model, the NJL model predicts a decrease of the strangeness fraction in the mixed phase, due to the large s-quark mass.

The EOSs with trapped neutrinos are harder, have smaller mixed phases which occur at higher densities. These properties influence the properties of the corresponding compact stars: the maximum baryonic allowed mass of a stable star is higher when neutrinos are trapped. After cooling and deleptonization these stars will become unstable and decay into low mass blackholes prak97 ; vidana . However, it should be pointed out that the mass difference is much smaller within the NJL model. In this model, due to the only partial chiral symmetry restoration the s-quark mass is still quite high at the densities of interest for compact stars and therefore, the strange content is smaller than the one obtained with the Bag model.

Another important characteristic of the EOSs studied is the decrease of the temperature with density which occurs in the mixed phase. This is true for both models, NJL and bag model, and for neutrino trapped or neutrino free matter. The temperature decrease is much stronger for matter with trapped neutrinos.

Within the present formalism, the core of the most massive stable stars, with few exceptions, lies within the mixed phase, excluding the possibility of stars with a quark core. For the Bag model this fact is independent of the hyperon coupling, contrary to what is observed with the NJL model: within this model the existence of stars with a quark core depends on the hyperon couplings chosen.

For the quark phase we have chosen to use always unpaired quark matter. Recently, many authors shh ; ar ; bo ; arrw  have discussed the possibility that the quark matter is in a color-superconducting phase, in which quarks near the Fermi surface are paired, forming Cooper pairs which condense and break the color gauge symmetry mga . At sufficiently high density the favored phase is called color flavor locked phase, in which quarks of all three colors and all three flavors are allowed to pair. The consequences of using such paired quark phase in the construction of the EOS for the mixed phase are being investigated.

## ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was partially supported by CNPq (Brazil), CAPES(Brazil)/GRICES(Portugal) under project 100/03 and FEDER/FCT (Portugal) under the project POCTI/35308/FIS/2000.

Table I - Hybrid star properties for the EOS obtained with the GL force and the NJL model for fixed entropies and with neutrino trapping ($`Y_L=0.4`$).

|  | S | $`M_{\text{max}}/M_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ | $`M_{\text{B max}}/M_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ | $`\epsilon _0`$ (fm-4) | $`\epsilon _{min}`$ (fm-4) | $`\epsilon _{max}`$ (fm-4) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| set a) | 0 | 2.04 | 2.27 | 5.91 | 4.06 | 5.79 |
| $`x_s=0.7`$ | 1 | 2.04 | 2.26 | 5.53 | 4.21 | 5.47 |
| $`x_\omega =0.783=x_\rho `$ | 2 | 1.94 | 2.10 | 5.26 | 3.25 | 5.20 |
| set b) | 0 | 2.05 | 2.29 | 6.38 | 4.92 | 6.94 |
| $`x_H=\sqrt{2/3}`$ | 1 | 1.98 | 2.19 | 6.08 | 4.72 | 6.46 |
|  | 2 | 1.96 | 2.12 | 5.68 | 4.50 | 6.00 |

Table II - Hybrid star properties for the EOS obtained with the GL force and the NJL model for fixed entropies and no neutrino trapping ($`Y_{\nu _e}=0`$).

|  | S | $`M_{\text{max}}/M_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ | $`M_{\text{B max}}/M_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ | $`\epsilon _0`$ (fm-4) | $`\epsilon _{min}`$ (fm-4) | $`\epsilon _{max}`$ (fm-4) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| set a) | 0 | 1.91 | 2.20 | 4.90 | 1.30 | 5.21 |
| $`x_s=0.7`$ | 1 | 1.88 | 2.13 | 4.80 | 1.09 | 4.66 |
| $`x_\omega =0.783=x_\rho `$ | 2 | 1.82 | 2.01 | 4.66 | 1.01 | 4.28 |
| set b) | 0 | 1.84 | 2.09 | 6.26 | 4.60 | 7.25 |
| $`x_H=\sqrt{2/3}`$ | 1 | 1.84 | 2.09 | 5.91 | 4.35 | 6.62 |
|  | 2 | 1.82 | 2.02 | 5.33 | 3.18 | 5.66 |

Table III - Hybrid star properties for the EOS obtained with the GL force and the MIT Bag model for fixed entropies and with neutrino trapping ($`Y_L=0.4`$).

|  | S | $`M_{\text{max}}/M_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ | $`M_{\text{B max}}/M_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ | $`\epsilon _0`$ (fm-4) | $`\epsilon _{min}`$ (fm-4) | $`\epsilon _{max}`$ (fm-4) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| set a) | 0 | 2.00 | 2.22 | 5.06 | 2.73 | 7.38 |
| $`x_s=0.7`$ | 1 | 1.91 | 2.07 | 4.95 | 2.52 | 6.95 |
| $`x_\omega =x_\rho =0.783`$ | 2 | 1.83 | 1.92 | 4.76 | 2.53 | 6.75 |
| set b) | 0 | 1.98 | 2.19 | 5.26 | 3.47 | 7.38 |
| $`x_H=\sqrt{2/3}`$ | 1 | 1.93 | 2.00 | 5.06 | 3.03 | 6.99 |
|  | 2 | 1.81 | 2.19 | 5.35 | 2.98 | 6.82 |

Table IV - Hybrid star properties for the EOS obtained with the GL force and the MIT Bag model for fixed entropies and no neutrino trapping ($`Y_{\nu _e}=0`$).

|  | S | $`M_{\text{max}}/M_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ | $`M_{\text{B max}}/M_{{\scriptscriptstyle }}`$ | $`\epsilon _0`$ (fm-4) | $`\epsilon _{min}`$ (fm-4) | $`\epsilon _{max}`$ (fm-4) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| set a) | 0 | 1.64 | 1.83 | 4.50 | 1.53 | 6.00 |
| $`x_s=0.7`$ | 1 | 1.50 | 1.64 | 4.82 | 1.59 | 5.90 |
| $`x_\omega =x_\rho =0.783`$ | 2 | 1.50 | 1.62 | 4.60 | 1.67 | 5.73 |
| set b) | 0 | 1.64 | 1.83 | 4.50 | 1.81 | 6.06 |
| $`x_H=\sqrt{2/3}`$ | 1 | 1.51 | 1.57 | 4.65 | 1.87 | 6.00 |
|  | 2 | 1.51 | 1.63 | 4.64 | 1.98 | 5.81 |


text:
# Ground states of quantum kagomé antiferromagnets in a magnetic field

## Abstract

We study the ground state properties of a quantum antiferromagnet in the kagomé lattice in the presence of a magnetic field, paying particular attention to the stability of the plateau at magnetization $`1/3`$ of saturation. While the plateau is reinforced by certain deformations of the lattice, like the introduction of structural defect lines and against an Ising anisotropy, ground state correlations are seen to be quite different and the undistorted $`SU(2)`$ case appears to be rather special.

The interest in the study of quantum two-dimensional frustrated antiferromagnets has been boosted by recent high magnetic field experiments where different exotic situations have been observed. Generically, plateaux and jumps in the magnetization curve show up in materials realizing different frustrated structures tri  j1j2  SS  kago . In the case of the kagomé lattice, the nature of the ground state at zero field shows interesting features of a disordered spin liquid with a spin gap and a macroscopic number of low lying (spinless) excitations Lhuillier ; Mila . There is general consensus in that this lattice shows a clear plateau at magnetization $`1/3`$ of saturation nos  and that in this case the spin gap is larger than in the zero field case, making it more stable and potentially observable.

Prompted by these findings, we studied the antiferromagnetic (AF) Heisenberg model defined on the kagomé lattice focusing at the spinful state with $`M=1/3`$. We have allowed for different couplings along the different directions in the kagomé lattice and found that the plateau at $`1/3`$ survives this distortion and it is even enhanced. On the other hand, the ordering of the GS changes substantially at the isotropic point, whose nature is still under debate horda .

Interestingly, our results also reveal the emergence of a whole regime ($`J^{}/J<0.62`$), in which the spontaneous susceptibility diverges at $`M=1/3`$, i.e. all lower fields vanish $`M1/3`$. Recent magnetic field measurements in the novel cuprate Volborthite, Cu3V2O7(OH)2-2H2O Vol , which is apparently described by a distorted kagomé lattice like the one studied in the present paper, show no plateau at zero magnetization down to 1.8K. This could be taken as an indication that this material lies within the region of couplings slightly above $`J^{}/J0.62`$, where fairly small spin excitations are observed. If this turns out to be the case, this would imply that the predicted $`1/3`$ plateau could be accessible to the magnetic fields currently available, since this plateau opens up for fairly small field values within this range of couplings.

Turning to the GS orderings, it is important to emphasize that all studied samples at $`M=1/3`$ yield a rather small non-magnetic gap ($`\mathrm{\Delta }S^z=0`$) which is at least one order of magnitude smaller than the involved spin exchange interactions. We also observed that for $`J^{}/J=3/4`$ the spin pair correlations $`\sigma _0^z\sigma _𝐫^z`$ display long distance ferromagnetic (F) order along the $`J^{}`$-direction whereas the $`J`$-directions become clearly antiferromagnetic (AF), as is shown in Fig. 3 (We call this hereafter AF-F ordering). For $`J^{}/J>1`$ these AF-F orderings directions result exchanged.

A completely different scenario arises when $`J=J^{}`$, where though non-magnetic excitations still remain very small, the radial average over pair correlation functions resembles the characteristics of a $`\sqrt{3}\times \sqrt{3}`$ spin liquid rather than those of an ordered state. However, further work is needed to understand the GS structure in the isotropic $`SU(2)`$ case horda .

We have also studied the overlaps of the GS wave function with the real space $`\sigma ^z`$-configurations. Specifically, Fig. 3 displays the probabilities $`|s|\psi |^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$ of these $`|s`$-states after sorting their weights on the $`|\psi `$ GS of a given cluster. The key issue here is that a clean probability scale separation -more than one order of magnitude-, shows up between the AF-F configuration and the rest of the GS components. However, it should be stressed that the point $`J=J^{}`$ is special in that it exhibits an entirely different scenario. In that case the hierarchy of probability scales is smeared out completely and a much larger number of states seems to intervene on the pair correlations. The point here is that the maximum GS overlap can therefore be regarded as an alternative measure of order, so long as the hierarchical overlap distribution still holds.

We acknowledge useful discussions with A. Honecker and P.C.W. Holdsworth.


text:
# Melting Pattern of Diquark Condensates in Quark Matter

## Abstract

Thermal color superconducting phase transitions in high density three-flavor quark matter are investigated in the Ginzburg-Landau approach. Effects of nonzero strange quark mass, electric and color charge neutrality, and direct instantons are considered. Weak coupling calculations show that an interplay between the mass and electric neutrality effects near the critical temperature gives rise to three successive second-order phase transitions as the temperature increases: a modified color-flavor locked (mCFL) phase ($`ud`$, $`ds`$, and $`us`$ pairings) $``$ a “dSC” phase ($`ud`$ and $`ds`$ pairings) $``$ an isoscalar pairing phase ($`ud`$ pairing) $``$ a normal phase (no pairing). The dSC phase is novel in the sense that while all eight gluons are Meissner screened as in the mCFL phase, three out of nine quark quasiparticles are gapless.

Unraveling the phase structure at high baryon density is one of the most challenging problems in quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Among others, color superconductivity in cold dense quark matter has been discussed from various viewpoints BL ; RWA . In relation to real systems such as newly born compact stars in stellar collapse, it is important to study the color superconductivity not only as a function of the quark chemical potential $`\mu `$ but also as a function of the temperature $`T`$. This is because the possible presence of color superconducting quark matter in a star affects the star’s thermal evolution RST .

The purpose of this Letter is to investigate phase transitions in color superconducting quark matter with three flavors ($`uds`$) and three colors ($`RGB`$) near the transition temperatures. We consider a realistic situation in which nonzero strange quark mass $`m_s`$, electric and color charge neutrality, and direct instantons take effect. As we shall see in weak coupling ($`m_s,\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}\mu `$), the effects of nonzero $`m_s`$ and electric neutrality are important in that they induce multiple phase transitions that change the pattern of diquark pairing as $`T`$ increases. In particular, we find a new phase, which we call “dSC,” as an interface between a modified type of color-flavor locked (mCFL) phase and an isoscalar two-flavor (2SC) phase.

Throughout this Letter, we adopt the Ginzburg-Landau (GL) approach near the transition temperatures, which was previously used to study the massless three-flavor case IB ; IB3 ; MIHB  and is a more advantageous framework to weak coupling calculations than other mean-field approaches SRP ; abuki . In a realistic situation, the GL potential acquires the following corrections. First of all, nonzero $`m_s`$ affects the potential through the $`s`$ quark propagator abuki  in such a way as to lower the temperature at which a diquark condensate with $`s`$ quarks dissolves. This is because the pairing interaction due to one-gluon exchange is effectively diminished by $`m_s`$ if the pair contains the $`s`$ quark. Secondly, when quark matter with nonzero $`m_s`$ is beta equilibrated and neutralized by electrons near the transition temperatures, the chemical potentials between $`d,s`$ quarks and $`u`$ quarks differ. Through this chemical potential difference, the GL potential acquires another $`m_s`$ dependence, which is the essential origin of the dSC phase. Thirdly, the instanton contribution gives an $`m_s`$ dependence to the GL potential through the effective four-fermion interaction proportional to $`m_s`$. We finally note that in weak coupling, color neutrality makes negligible difference in the GL potential near the transition temperatures IB .

We assume that diquark pairing takes place in the color-flavor antisymmetric channel with $`J^P=0^+`$, which is predicted to be the most attractive channel in weak coupling brown . In this case, the pairing gap of a quark of color $`b`$ and flavor $`j`$ with that of color $`c`$ and flavor $`k`$ has the form $`\varphi _{bcjk}=ϵ_{abc}ϵ_{ijk}(𝐝_a)^i`$ IB . Here the 3$`\times `$ 3 matrix $`(𝐝_a)^i`$ transforms as a vector under $`G=SU(3)_C\times SU(3)_{L+R}\times U(1)_B`$ and belongs to the ($`3^{},3^{}`$) representation of $`SU(3)_C\times SU(3)_{L+R}`$.

For a homogeneous system of massless quarks $`(m_{u,d,s}=0)`$, the GL potential is invariant under $`SU(3)_C\times SU(3)_{L+R}`$ and valid near the critical temperature, $`T_c`$, common to all states belonging to the channel considered here. This potential reads IB ; PIS00

$`S=\overline{\alpha }{\displaystyle \underset{a}{}}|𝐝_a|^2+\beta _1({\displaystyle \underset{a}{}}|𝐝_a|^2)^2+\beta _2{\displaystyle \underset{ab}{}}|𝐝_{a}^{}{}_{}{}^{}𝐝_b|^2,`$ (1)
where $`(𝐝_a)^i=(d_a^u,d_a^d,d_a^s)`$ and the inner product is taken for flavor indices. In the weak coupling regime, the coefficients are IB

$`\beta _1=\beta _2={\displaystyle \frac{7\zeta (3)}{8(\pi T_c)^2}}N(\mu )\beta ,\overline{\alpha }=4N(\mu )t\alpha _0t,`$ (2)
where $`N(\mu )=\mu ^2/2\pi ^2`$ is the density of states at the Fermi surface, and $`t=(TT_c)/T_c`$ is the reduced temperature. With the parameters (2), one finds a second order phase transition at $`T=T_c`$ from the CFL phase ($`d_a^i\delta _a^i`$) to the normal phase ($`d_a^i=0`$) in mean-field theory IB .

Let us now consider the effect of a nonzero $`m_s`$ in the quark propagator on the GL potential. We assume $`m_{u,d}=0`$ for simplicity and consider the high density regime, $`m_s\mu `$. Near $`T_c`$ the leading effect of $`m_s`$ is to modify the quadratic term in the GL potential (1). The corrections to the quartic terms are subleading and negligible. Since $`m_s`$ affects only $`us`$ and $`ds`$ pairings, the correction to the quadratic term has the form

$`ϵ{\displaystyle \underset{a}{}}(|d_a^u|^2+|d_a^d|^2)=ϵ{\displaystyle \underset{a}{}}(|𝐝_a|^2|d_a^s|^2).`$ (3)
Note that this correction induces an asymmetry in the flavor structure of the CFL phase.

In weak coupling, $`ϵ`$ can be calculated by including $`m_s`$ in the Nambu-Gor’kov quark propagator when evaluating the thermodynamic potential. Following Ref. IB , we expand the thermodynamic potential not only in $`d_a^i`$ but also in $`m_s`$ up to $`𝒪(m_s^2)`$, and obtain

$`ϵ\alpha _0{\displaystyle \frac{m_s^2}{4\mu ^2}}\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mu }{T_c}}\right)2\alpha _0\sigma .`$ (4)
Here the dimensionless parameter $`\sigma `$ is given by

$`\sigma =\left({\displaystyle \frac{3\pi ^2}{8\sqrt{2}}}\right){\displaystyle \frac{m_s^2}{g\mu ^2}},`$ (5)
where $`g`$ is the QCD coupling constant. As long as $`\sigma 1`$, which is relevant at asymptotically high density, the following GL analysis near $`T_c`$ is valid. In the latter estimate in Eq. (4) we use the leading-order result in $`g`$, $`\mathrm{ln}(T_c/\mu )3\pi ^2/(\sqrt{2}g)`$ brown . This behavior of $`T_c`$ originates from the long-range color magnetic interaction which prevails in the relativistic regime. As a result of the modification by $`m_s`$ to $`\mathrm{ln}(T_c/\mu )`$, $`ϵ`$ has a positive value such that $`ud`$ pairing is favored over $`us`$ and $`ds`$ pairings. Consequently, the CFL phase becomes asymmetric in flavor space and its critical temperature is lowered, leading to the appearance of the 2SC phase ($`d_a^i\delta ^{is}`$) just below $`T_c`$ abuki . Note that Eq. (3) has no effect on the 2SC phase. We also note that $`T_c`$ itself is modified by $`m_s`$ through the modification of the normal medium as $`T_c(1+𝒪(g\sigma ))`$.

We turn to discuss effects of charge neutrality which also depend on $`m_s`$ as mentioned above. Under beta equilibrium and charge neutrality, the electron chemical potential $`\mu _e`$ and the shift $`\delta \mu _i`$ of the chemical potential of flavor $`i`$ from the average ($`\mu `$) are related by $`\delta \mu _i=q_i\mu _e`$, with electric charge $`q_i`$. We see from Ref. IB  that the thermodynamic-potential correction due to $`\delta \mu _i`$ has the form

$`\eta ({\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}{\displaystyle \underset{a}{}}|𝐝_a|^2{\displaystyle \underset{a}{}}|d_a^u|^2).`$ (6)
In weak coupling, where one may regard normal quark matter and electrons as noninteracting Fermi gases, $`\mu _e`$ is related to $`m_s`$ as $`\mu _e=m_s^2/4\mu `$. This estimate is valid in the vicinity of $`T_c`$ where corrections to $`\mu _e`$ by a finite pairing gap affect only the quartic terms in the GL potential. By combining this estimate with the weak coupling expression for $`\eta /\mu _e`$ given in Ref. IB , we obtain

$`\eta \alpha _0{\displaystyle \frac{m_s^2}{8\mu ^2}}\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mu }{T_c}}\right)\alpha _0\sigma .`$ (7)
Since $`\eta >0`$, $`ds`$ pairing is more favorable than $`ud`$ and $`us`$ pairings. This feature stems from the modification by $`\delta \mu _i`$ to the exponential factor of $`T_c`$, $`\mathrm{exp}[3\pi ^2/(\sqrt{2}g)]`$, which tends to increase (decrease) the critical temperature for $`ij`$ pairing when $`\delta \mu _i+\delta \mu _j>0(<0)`$.

We consider color neutrality of the system as well. In contrast to the case at $`T=0`$, however, it affects only the quartic terms in the GL potential through possible chemical potential differences between colors IB ; RIS , and in weak coupling its magnitude is suppressed by $`𝒪((T_c/g\mu )^2)`$ compared to the leading quartic terms. Thus color neutrality has no essential consequence to the phase transitions considered in this Letter. A major difference between corrections of the charge neutrality and the color neutrality is that the former shifts the quark chemical potentials even in the normal phase, while the latter works only when the pairing occurs. This is why the former is more important than the latter near $`T_c`$.

The direct instanton at nonzero $`m_s`$, which induces an effective four-fermion interaction between $`u`$ and $`d`$ quarks Sch , leads to a quadratic term in the GL potential, $`\zeta _a|d_a^s|^2`$. An explicit weak coupling calculation shows that $`\zeta \alpha _0(m_s/\mu )(\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{QCD}}/\mu )^9(1/g)^{14}`$. The negative sign indicates that the instanton favors $`ud`$ pairing as does one-gluon exchange \[see Eq. (3)\], but the magnitude of $`\zeta `$ is highly suppressed at high densities. Hereafter we will thus ignore instanton effects.

Since the two effects of nonzero $`m_s`$, characterized by Eqs. (3) and (6), favor $`ud`$ pairing and $`ds`$ pairing, respectively, the finite temperature transition from the CFL to the normal phase at $`m_s=0`$ is expected to be significantly modified. In fact, successive color-flavor unlocking transitions take place instead of a simultaneous unlocking of all color-flavor combinations. To describe this hierarchical thermal unlocking, it is convenient to introduce a parameterization,

$`d_a^i=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\mathrm{\Delta }_1\hfill & 0\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \mathrm{\Delta }_2\hfill & 0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & 0\hfill & \mathrm{\Delta }_3\hfill \end{array}\right),`$ (11)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{1,2,3}`$ are assumed without loss of generality to be real. We also name the phases for later convenience as

$`\begin{array}{cccc}\mathrm{\Delta }_{1,2,3}0\hfill & & :& \mathrm{mCFL},\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }_1=0,\hfill & \mathrm{\Delta }_{2,3}0\hfill & :& \mathrm{uSC},\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }_2=0,\hfill & \mathrm{\Delta }_{1,3}0\hfill & :& \mathrm{dSC},\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }_{1,2}=0,\hfill & \mathrm{\Delta }_30\hfill & :& 2\mathrm{S}\mathrm{C},\hfill \end{array}`$ (16)
where dSC (uSC) stands for superconductivity in which for $`d`$ ($`u`$) quarks all three colors are involved in the pairing.

In terms of the parameterization (11), the GL potential with corrections of $`𝒪(m_s^2)`$ to the quadratic term, Eqs. (3) and (6), reads

$`S`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{\alpha }^{}(\mathrm{\Delta }_1^2+\mathrm{\Delta }_2^2+\mathrm{\Delta }_3^2)ϵ\mathrm{\Delta }_3^2\eta \mathrm{\Delta }_1^2`$ (17)
$`+`$ $`\beta _1(\mathrm{\Delta }_1^2+\mathrm{\Delta }_2^2+\mathrm{\Delta }_3^2)^2+\beta _2(\mathrm{\Delta }_1^4+\mathrm{\Delta }_2^4+\mathrm{\Delta }_3^4),`$
where $`\overline{\alpha }^{}=\overline{\alpha }+ϵ+\frac{\eta }{3}`$.

We proceed to analyse the phase structure dictated by Eq. (17) with the weak coupling parameters (2), (4), and (7) up to leading order in $`g`$. In Figs. 1 and 2 the results obtained by solving the coupled algebraic equations, $`S/\mathrm{\Delta }_{1,2,3}=0`$, are summarized. Figure 1(a) shows the second-order phase transition, CFL $``$ normal for $`m_s=0`$. Figures 1(b,c) represent how the phase transitions and their critical temperatures bifurcate as we introduce (b) effects of a nonzero $`m_s`$ in the quark propagator and then (c) effects of charge neutrality. In case (b), two second-order phase transitions arise, mCFL (with $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1=\mathrm{\Delta }_2`$) $``$ 2SC at $`T=T_c^s(14\sigma )T_c`$, and 2SC $``$ normal at $`T=T_c`$. In case (c), there arises three successive second-order phase transitions, mCFL $``$ dSC at $`T=T_c^\mathrm{I}`$, dSC $``$ 2SC at $`T=T_c^{\mathrm{II}}`$, and 2SC $``$ normal at $`T=T_c^{\mathrm{III}}`$. Shown in Fig. 2 is the $`T`$-dependence of the gaps $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{1,2,3}`$ for case (c). All the gaps are continuous functions of $`T`$, but their slopes are discontinuous at the critical points, which reflects the second order nature of the transitions in the mean-field treatment of Eq. (17).

We may understand the bifurcation of the transition temperatures in weak coupling as follows. In the massless case (a), $`T_c`$ is degenerate between the CFL and 2SC phases, the chemical potential is common to all three flavors and colors, and the CFL phase is more favorable than the 2SC phase below $`T_c`$. As one goes from (a) to (b), nonzero $`m_s`$ sets in, which tends to suppress the pairing interactions including the $`s`$ quark. The critical temperature for the CFL phase is then lowered, which allows the 2SC phase to appear at temperatures between $`T_c^s`$ and $`T_c`$. As one goes from (b) to (c), charge neutrality sets in, which acts to decrease the chemical potential of $`u`$ quarks by $`(2/3)\mu _e`$ and increase that of $`d`$ and $`s`$ quarks by $`(1/3)\mu _e`$. Since $`\mu _e>0`$, the average chemical potential of quarks involved in $`ds`$ pairing increases, while those in $`ud`$ and $`us`$ pairings decrease equally. Accordingly, the transition temperatures further change from $`T_c`$ to $`T_c^{\mathrm{III}}`$ and from $`T_c^s`$ to $`T_c^\mathrm{I}`$ and $`T_c^{\mathrm{II}}`$.

Now we examine in more detail how the color-flavor unlocking in case (c) proceeds with increasing $`T`$ from the region below $`T_c^\mathrm{I}`$.

(i) Just below $`T_c^\mathrm{I}`$, we have a CFL-like phase, but the three gaps take different values, with an order $`\mathrm{\Delta }_3>\mathrm{\Delta }_1>\mathrm{\Delta }_20`$ (the mCFL phase). The reason why this order is realized can be understood from the GL potential (17). The $`ϵ`$-term and $`\eta `$-term in Eq. (17) tend to destabilize $`us`$ pairing ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_2`$) relative to $`ud`$ pairing ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_3`$) and $`ds`$ pairing ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_1`$). Since $`ϵ>\eta (>0)`$, $`ds`$ pairing is destabilized more effectively than $`ud`$ pairing. The value of each gap in the mCFL phase reads

$`\mathrm{\Delta }_3^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _0}{8\beta }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T_cT}{T_c}}+{\displaystyle \frac{8}{3}}\sigma \right),`$ (18)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }_1^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _0}{8\beta }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T_cT}{T_c}}{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}\sigma \right),`$ (19)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }_2^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _0}{8\beta }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T_cT}{T_c}}{\displaystyle \frac{16}{3}}\sigma \right).`$ (20)
The mCFL phase has only a global symmetry $`U(1)_{C+L+R}\times U(1)_{C+L+R}`$ in contrast to the global symmetry $`SU(3)_{C+L+R}`$ in the CFL phase with $`m_{u,d,s}=0`$. There are no gapless quark excitations in both mCFL and CFL phases. As $`T`$ increases, the first unlocking transition, the unlocking of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_2`$ (the pairing between $`Bu`$ and $`Rs`$ quarks), takes place at the critical temperature,

$`T_c^\mathrm{I}=\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{16}{3}}\sigma \right)T_c.`$ (21)
(ii) For $`T_c^\mathrm{I}<T<T_c^{\mathrm{II}}`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_2=0`$ and

$`\mathrm{\Delta }_3^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _0}{6\beta }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T_cT}{T_c}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}\sigma \right),`$ (22)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }_1^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _0}{6\beta }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T_cT}{T_c}}{\displaystyle \frac{7}{3}}\sigma \right).`$ (23)
In this phase, we have only $`ud`$ and $`ds`$ pairings (the dSC phase), and there is a manifest symmetry, $`U(1)_{C+L+R}\times U(1)_{C+L+R}\times U(1)_{C+V+B}\times U(1)_{C+V+B}`$. By diagonalizing the inverse quark propagator in the Nambu-Gor’kov representation, we find three gapless quark excitations in the color-flavor combinations: $`Bu`$, $`Rs`$, and a linear combination of $`Ru`$ and $`Bs`$. At $`T=T_c^{\mathrm{II}}`$, the second unlocking transition, the unlocking of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1`$ (the pairing between $`Gs`$ and $`Bd`$ quarks), takes place at the critical temperature,

$`T_c^{\mathrm{II}}=\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{7}{3}}\sigma \right)T_c.`$ (24)
(iii) For $`T_c^{\mathrm{II}}<T<T_c^{\mathrm{III}}`$, one finds the 2SC phase, which has only $`ud`$ pairing with

$`\mathrm{\Delta }_3^2={\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _0}{4\beta }}\left({\displaystyle \frac{T_cT}{T_c}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\sigma \right).`$ (25)
The 2SC phase has a symmetry $`SU(2)_C\times SU(2)_{L+R}\times U(1)_{C+B}\times U(1)_{L+R+B}`$ MIHB . In this phase the $`s`$ quark and $`B`$ quark excitations are gapless. The final unlocking transition where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_3`$ (the pairing between $`Rd`$ and $`Gu`$ quarks) vanishes occurs at

$`T_c^{\mathrm{III}}=\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}\sigma \right)T_c.`$ (26)
Above $`T_c^{\mathrm{III}}`$, the system is in the normal phase.

In Table I, we summarize the symmetry and the gapless quark modes in each phase discussed above. The number of gluons having nonzero Meissner masses, which is related to the remaining color symmetry, is also shown MITH . We note that more gapless quark modes may appear if the system is in the close vicinity of $`T_c^\mathrm{I}`$, $`T_c^{\mathrm{II}}`$, and $`T_c^{\mathrm{III}}`$ where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_2`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_3`$ are less than $`m_s^2/\mu `$ gapless .

So far, we have studied the phase transitions in the mean-field level. In weak coupling, as shown in Ref. MIHB  in the massless limit, thermally fluctuating gauge fields could change the order of the transitions described in Figs. 1 and 2. A detailed account on this effect will be reported elsewhere MITH ; here we recapitulate the important results. First, the second order transition, mCFL $``$ dSC, remains second order even in the presence of the thermal gluon fluctuations. This is because all eight gluons are Meissner screened at $`T=T_c^\mathrm{I}`$ and thus cannot induce a cubic term with respect to the order parameter in the GL potential. On the other hand, the transitions, dSC $``$ 2SC and 2SC $``$ normal, become weak first order since some gluons, which are massless in the high temperature phase, become Meissner screened in the low temperature phase (Table I).

In summary, we have investigated color-flavor unlockings at finite temperatures taking into account the strange quark mass and charge neutrality in the GL approach. We find three successive unlocking transitions, mCFL $``$ dSC $``$ 2SC$``$ normal, occurring in weak coupling. Most remarkably, the dSC phase appears between the mCFL and 2SC phases. In this phase all eight gluons are Meissner screened and the three quark excitations are gapless. The question of how the phase structure of neutral quark matter obtained near $`T_c`$ is connected to that at $`T=0`$, which approaches the CFL phase in the limit of high density, is an interesting open problem.

###### Acknowledgements.

We are grateful to G. Baym and H. Abuki for helpful discussions. This work was supported in part by RIKEN Special Postdoctoral Researchers Grant No. A11-52040 and No. A12-52010, and by the Grants-in-Aid of the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (No. 15540254).


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# Single-atom lasing induced atomic self trapping

## Abstract

We study motion and field dynamics of a single-atom laser consisting of a single incoherently pumped free atom moving in an optical high-Q resonator. For sufficient pumping, the system starts lasing whenever the atom is close to a field antinode. If the field mode eigenfrequency is larger than the atomic transition frequency, the generated laser light attracts the atom to the field antinode and cools its motion. Using quantum Monte Carlo wave function simulations, we investigate this coupled atom-field dynamics including photon recoil and cavity decay. In the regime of strong coupling, the generated field shows strong nonclassical features like photon antibunching, and the atom is spatially confined and cooled to sub-Doppler temperatures.

Optical cavity QED experiments using high finesse resonators and ultracold neutral atoms have seen tremendous progress towards larger coupling strength and interaction time in the past decade, becoming a fruitful test ground of quantum theory pinkse\_hood ; mckeever03a ; iontrap ; chapman03 ; photgun02 . One particular goal of cavity QED is a single-atom, single-mode laser. In analogy to the micromaser, a one atom laser using an atomic beam crossing an optical resonator has been realized some time ago an94 . However, although effectively only a single or a few atoms are present at a time, the short interaction times make this still a many particle device. Very recently important progress towards single particle lasing has been achieved by placing a small ion trap into a high-Q cavity iontrap ; meyer97 . This allows very long interaction times, but technical limits set by the ion trap still prevent to reach threshold.

In all optical setups the atoms are extremely cold at the beginning, but the light forces induced by the cavity field and pumping itself lead to fast heating. Even less than a single photon on average induces significant dissipation pinkse\_hood  and limits interaction times. By a proper choice of parameters, one can minimize this heating caused by light forces doherty01  or even use cavity induced cooling forces domokos03 ; horak97  to enlarge the trapping times. Alternatively, the addition of an extra dipole trapping potential led to much larger interaction times mckeever03b  and enabled the first realization of single atom lasing in the strong coupling regime mckeever03a . Here, steady state light output generated from one atom for almost a second was achieved from a three photon Raman type gain scheme.

In this Letter we go conceptually one step beyond and assume that no coherent field is applied to the atom or the mode and no extra atom trap is present. The cavity field is entirely generated by gain from the incoherently pumped atom. Neglecting atomic motion, such single atom laser models have been widely used in fundamental studies of quantum laser theory lasertheory . They constitute light sources with unique properties. For example, one is able to sustain a stationary single photon Fock state or generate highly sub-Poissonian output photonoutput . Note that the same single atom is present during the whole time here.

Extending these models, we include the atomic motion governed by the light forces of the laser field created by the atom itself. As expected, the proper accounting of the cavity field forces implies significant modifications of the system dynamics domokos03 . In general, the atomic motional variables and the dynamics of the internal variables are coupled and correlated or even entangled. The atom moves under the influence of the dipole force which depends on the mode intensity. This intensity in turn depends on the atomic position in a highly nonlinear way as the atom itself is the gain medium.

From a first guess, one could already expect some selftrapping effect if one chooses the parameters such that lasing only starts when the atom is close to a field antinode. The laser field then could generate an attractive potential keeping the atom in the vicinity of this antinode. Naively, this requires the lasing mode to be red detuned relative to the atomic transition frequency. In this case, though, the extra energy from the atomic transition is likely to be converted into kinetic energy heating the atom. Similarly, for a blue detuned cavity mode, one expects cooling but repulsion from the antinodes. However, the situation is a bit more complicated. As gain requires atomic inversion, an atom in steady state can still be a high field seeker for blue detuning, and the laser frequency is itself a dynamical quantity. Thus, we can still hope to find parameters where trapping, cooling, and lasing coincide. Of course, heating through spontaneous emission and dipole fluctuations will also be present. This makes the total dynamics hard to guess, which motivated us to study the problem in more detail.

Let us now define our model as simple as possible still containing the essential physics. For this we restrict ourselves to a two-level atom moving in a single strongly coupled cavity mode in one dimension. As in well proven approaches developed in the early days of laser theory lasertheory , incoherent pumping can be consistently modelled by inverse spontaneous emission at rate $`2\delta `$. Following standard procedures of quantum optics, we can derive the master equation $`\dot{\rho }=\rho `$ governing the time evolution of field and atom including atomic spontaneous emission at rate $`2\gamma `$ and cavity decay at rate $`2\kappa `$.

In a frame rotating at the mode frequency $`\omega _c`$ we get:

$`\rho `$ $`=i\mathrm{\Delta }[|ee|,\rho ]_{}g\mathrm{cos}(kx)\left([|eg|a,\rho ]_{}[a^{}|ge|,\rho ]_{}\right)`$
$`+\delta \left(2|eg|\rho |ge|[|gg|,\rho ]_+\right)+\gamma \left(2|ge|\rho |eg|[|ee|,\rho ]_+\right)+\kappa \left(2a\rho a^{}[a^{}a,\rho ]_+\right).`$ (1)
Here $`|g`$ ($`|e`$) and $`a`$ denote the atomic ground (excited) state and the field annihilation operator, respectively. The cavity mode with mode function $`\mathrm{cos}(kx)`$ and frequency $`\omega _c`$ is detuned from the atomic transition frequency $`\omega _a`$ by $`\mathrm{\Delta }=\omega _c\omega _a`$.

In a first step we look at the steady state of the system for fixed atomic position $`x`$ which enters the equations only via the coupling strength $`g\mathrm{cos}(kx)`$. In Fig. 1 we plot the photon number $`\overline{n}`$ (solid line), its scaled uncertainty $`\mathrm{\Delta }_n/\overline{n}`$ (dashed), and the atomic upper state population (dash-dotted) as a function of $`g`$ for fixed pump strength $`\delta =75\kappa =7.5\gamma `$ for large atom-field detuning $`\mathrm{\Delta }=250\kappa `$. As expected, the photon number depends upon $`g`$ in a nonlinear way and the system starts lasing only for sufficiently large $`g`$ when the atom is close to a field antinode. With growing photon number $`(\overline{n}>1)`$ the corresponding spectrum shown in the little inserts of Fig. 1 is blue shifted from the atomic resonance and acquires a width below the empty cavity linewidth. Hence, we can hope for stable trapping close to the antinode combined with lasing at these parameters.

Let us include atomic motion and check. Since the number of degrees of freedom is rather large now, we use a Monte Carlo wave function simulation technique to numerically approximate the solution of the master equation montecarlo . Averaging gives an approximate density operator $`\rho (t)`$ while analyzing individual trajectories provides extra insight in the microscopical dynamics.

We briefly review the method now. Defining a superoperator $`𝒮\rho =_i\widehat{C}_i\rho \widehat{C}_i^{}`$ based on collapse operators $`\widehat{C}_i`$ related to the quantum jumps, we get single trajectories by propagation with a non-hermitian Hamiltonian $`H\text{eff}`$

$$(𝒮)\rho =iH\text{eff}\rho +i\rho H\text{eff}^{},$$
(2)
in between stochastically occurring jumps. The jump probabilities within the interval $`[t,t+\mathrm{}t]`$ are given by $`p_i(t)=\psi (t)|\widehat{C}_i^{}\widehat{C}_i|\psi (t)\mathrm{}t`$. One first propagates $`|\psi (t)`$ using $`H\text{eff}`$ for one time step $`\mathrm{}t`$

$$|\psi (t+\mathrm{}t)=\mathrm{exp}(iH\text{eff}\mathrm{}t)|\psi (t)$$
(3)
an calculates $`p_i`$. Using random numbers $`r_i[0,1]`$ and comparing them to $`p_i(t)`$, one then decides on the occurrence of collapses $`|\psi \widehat{C}_i|\psi `$ at the end of $`\mathrm{}t`$. The jumps here include atomic decay ($`\sqrt{2\gamma }|ge|`$), cavity decay ($`\sqrt{2\kappa }a`$), and pump events ($`\sqrt{2\delta }|eg|`$).

Explicitly the effective Hamiltonian $`H\text{eff}`$ reads $`(\mathrm{}=1)`$

$`H\text{eff}=`$ $`i\delta |gg|(\mathrm{\Delta }+i\gamma )|ee|i\kappa a^{}a`$
$`ig\mathrm{cos}(kx)\left(|eg|aa^{}|ge|\right).`$ (4)
As the atomic temperature is well above the recoil limit, we treat the external atomic variables $`x`$ and $`p`$ classically domokos01 . Thus we have $`\dot{x}=p/m`$ and $`\dot{p}=F`$ to add to our equations. The force $`F`$ is given by

$$F=\psi |\frac{H\text{eff}}{x}|\psi =i\mathrm{}k\mathrm{sin}kx\psi |eg|a|\psi +\text{h.c.}$$
(5)
Finally, we have to truncate the Hilbert space $`=\text{span}\{|g,|e\}_F`$ ($`_F`$ is the Fock-space of the mode) at photon number $`N`$. Our state space thus contains the ground state $`|g,0`$ and $`N`$ manifolds separated by $`\omega _a`$ with states $`|g,n`$ and $`|e,n1`$, $`n=1\mathrm{}N`$. Any wave function is determined by $`2N+1`$ complex numbers,

$$|\psi =g_0|g,0+\underset{n=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left(g_n|g,n+e_n|e,n1\right),$$
(6)
where only $`2N`$ are independent due to normalization. Note that in contrast to most previous treatments of light forces in a cavity, we cannot adiabatically eliminate the excited state since we have to deal with an inverted atom.

Let us now examine stochastic simulation averages for typical cases. After turning on the pump, the mean photon number $`\overline{n}`$ increases rapidly and reaches a constant value within a few cavity relaxation times (Fig. 2). At the same time the atom gets trapped and remains captured in the potential of the light it has generated. In addtition we show the Mandel Q parameter ($`Q=(\overline{n^2}\overline{n}^2)/(\overline{n})1`$) as a measure of the field intensity noise.

Fig. 3 shows the atomic kinetic energy averaged over 4000 realizations in units of the Doppler temperature $`T_D=\mathrm{}\gamma /2`$ for the parameters of Fig. 2 where the mean photon number reaches $`\overline{n}=3.8`$. Starting at a very low velocity, the atom gets cooled (heated) for a wide range of positive (negative) detunings $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The inset shows the analogous result for $`\mathrm{\Delta }=250\kappa `$. This agrees with a simple energy conservation argument. The atom gains the internal energy $`\mathrm{}\omega _a`$ from a pump event. Subsequently it loses the energy $`\mathrm{}\omega _c`$ by stimulated emission into the cavity mode. The energy mismatch is compensated by the atomic center of mass motion which gets damped if $`\omega _c\omega _a>0`$. This argument is confirmed by a closer look at basic absorption and emission processes including Doppler shift from the atomic motion.

Naively one would guess that the atom is expelled from the interaction region of a blue shifted light field. However, this is not true for a partially inverted atom which still can be trapped near the mode antinodes. This feature is essential to allow steady state operation of our single-atom laser. The solid line in Fig. 4 shows the position distribution of an atom trapped after the cooling process of Fig. 3. Clearly, the atom spends most of the time in the vicinity of an antinode with a mean square distance of $`\overline{x^2}=(0.1\lambda )^2`$. This value decreases further for larger photon numbers. For $`\overline{n}12`$ (dashed line) we get $`\overline{x^2}=(0.07\lambda )^2`$ for a pump strength of $`\delta =80\kappa `$. The non-vanishing probability near $`x\pm \lambda /4`$ shows some remaining hopping of the atom between different trapping sites.

So far we calculated ensemble averages to investigate the motional characteristics. It is now quite interesting to look at individual trajectories $`|\psi (t)`$ to visualize the microscopic dynamics. Fig. 5a depicts a typical example of the photon number time evolution $`n`$ for a trapped atom for ten cavity relaxation times. Starting in a certain state $`|e,n`$, the system gets entangled with $`|g,n+1`$ owning to the atom-cavity coupling. The incoherent pumping projects it into the state $`|e,n+1`$ and creates a Fock state with $`n+1`$ photons. Unless a photon leaks out of the cavity or another one is created, the photonic state remains nearly unchanged for the following reasons. First, we chose a large detuning $`\mathrm{\Delta }=250\kappa `$ in order to keep the atom trapped at antinodes as good as possible. Second, the atom undergoes several jumps due to alternating spontaneous emission and pump events. After each of these cycles the system is again projected into the initial state $`|e,n+1`$, which gives the cascade shape of the photon number time evolution. Notice that the pumping process creates no coherence, as it would be e.g. in a lambda type system such as in photonoutput . Here ac Stark splitting of dressed states does not effect the probability of exciting the system which is solely given by the atomic ground state population and, hence, the system can be excited into states with higher photon numbers more easily. Nevertheless, for each trajectory the cavity field remains close to a Fock state with photon numbers varying around the mean value indicated by the dashed line. This behavior is demonstrated in Fig. 5b where the single trajectory Mandel factor – which describes the actual state of the cavity field – attains values close to $`q=1`$ as long as one photon is present at least. This is due to the fact that in each trajectory we know the number of pump and decay events. Statistical averaging over the pump events washes out this feature.

Let us now come back to ensemble averages of field properties. Fig. 6 depicts $`\overline{n}`$ and $`Q`$ as a function of $`\delta `$ with $`(\mathrm{\Delta },g)=(200\kappa ,100\kappa )`$ for $`\gamma =0`$. In general the field intensity is strongly fluctuating. These fluctuations are even more pronounced than for an atom at rest and in turn increase motional heating. Only for larger photon numbers the Mandel $`Q`$ parameter drops down to zero as for a coherent state (lasing).

In summary light forces significantly influence the dynamics of a single-atom laser. Surprisingly, for blue atom-field detuning several effects work together in a favorable way to facilitate steady state lasing in conjunction with mechanical cooling and trapping. Steady state temperatures below the Doppler limit are possible in spite of enhanced momentum diffusion due to fluctuations of the photon number. The light field shows nonclassical features and approximates a coherent state with a coherence time beyond the cavity lifetime only far above threshold. Although the description of the atom is oversimplified here, we believe that our central findings like enhanced trapping and self cooling with lasing still should be present in a real system.

This work was supported by the Austrian FWF under contract S1512. The authors thank P. Domokos and A. Kuhn for helpful discussions.


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# Time-resolved photometry of cataclysmic variables

## 1. MCT 2347-3144

MCT 2347-3144 is a cataclysmic variable detected by the Montreal-Cambridge-Tololo survey of subluminous blue stars (Lamontagne et al. 2000). No subsequent analysis and work had been done for this object so far.

The CCD photometric unfiltered observations were taken with the 1m telescope at SAAO during 4 consecutive nights in 2002 and 3 nights in 2003. Their duration varied from 3 to 4.2h and from 4.5 to 8h hours in 2002 and 2003 respectively.

The CCD frames were processed in a standard way for bias removal and flat field corrections using the IRAF analysis packages. Aperture photometry was conducted using the DAOPHOT procedures. The same comparison stars were used for the data reduction in both runs. The light curves of all the observing runs can be seen in Figures 1a and 1b for 2002 and 2003, respectively. The periodogram analysis on the data taken in 2002, revealed a period of 0.277d or 6.65h with a semi-amplitude of 0.144 mag. The corresponding phase diagram is given in Figure 1c, while the folded residuals, computed after subtraction of the corresponding periodicity from the folded data can be seen in Figure 1d. The high amplitude derived and the smooth phase diagram, led us to believe its reality. However, the maximum duration of one night’s observing run being less than the periodicity we had detected, still allowed some doubt. Therefore and in order to confirm the 6.65h period, we needed another observing run of greater duration, which we achieved in August 2003.

The 2003 light curve is given in Figure 1b, where it is evident that the mean magnitude of the cataclysmic variable differs between the two years: the object appears to be one magnitude brighter in 2003 compared to 2002. This could mean that in last August’s observing run it was in a high state or in a small outburst. Moreover MCT 2347-3144 shows a greater scatter in 2003 compared to 2002 and no evidence of the previous periodicity. The signal’s absence in 2003 is also evident from Figure 1b where the sinusoidal fit of the folded 2002 data is superimposed on the 2003 light curves.

## 2. V1193 Ori

V1193 Ori is a cataclysmic variable discovered accidentally by M. Hamuy while making a photometric sequence in 1986 (Maza, Hamuy, & Ruiz 1986). The confirmation of this CV belonging to the sub-class of nova-like variables came one year later by Bond et al. who obtained both high-speed photometry and spectroscopic observations. A short time scale variability with a peak-to-peak amplitude of 0.2 mag was present in their light curves but their power spectra showed no evidence of any periodicities. They reported the existence of an irregular flickering with a peak-to-peak amplitude of more than 0.15 mag. They considered their observations insufficient for establishing the orbital period. Warner & Nather (1988) obtained a 3.6h photometric run and reported rapid flickering activity of 0.25 mag but again no orbital modulation was evident in their light curve. Later on, time-resolved spectroscopy conducted by Ringwald, Thorstensen, & Hamwey (1944) revealed the existence of a 0.165d or 3.96h orbital period with an error of 43s.

Time-resolved photometry of this object was conducted for four consecutive nights during October 2002 at SAAO and for four more nights at Hoher List Observatory. Their duration varied from 1.7 to 4.7 hours and from 4 to 5 hours respectively. After the same standard procedures and Period analysis of the 2002 light curves we were able for the first time, to photometrically confirm the orbital period. We derive a period of 0.165d$`\pm `$0.00137d or 3.96h$`\pm `$0.0329h and a semi amplitude of 0.052 mag. The folding of the data on this period and the corresponding residuals can be seen in Figures 2a and 2b respectively. However, we were not able to detect the periodicity in 2003 when the system’s mean magnitude appeared to have increased by 0.4 mag.

Moreover we confirm the rapid flickering also dominating the light curves of all photometric observations of V1193 Ori. It has a large amplitude of 0.15 mag. From the folded residuals (Fig. 2b) it is evident that the detection of any periodicity becomes very difficult.

## 3. Discussion

The origin of the periodicity in V1193 Ori is not clear, but by looking at the phase diagram and taking into consideration the low amplitude, one thought is that it could be the extra light of the side of the secondary that is face on with the primary i.e. the irradiation of the companion star. This speculation is strengthened by the fact that H-$`\alpha `$ spectroscopy (Ringwald et al. 1994) revealed irradiation of the secondary.

Concerning MCT 2347-3144, we have checked that the absence of the periodic signal in 2003 cannot be attributed to poorer observing conditions. It must thus be related to the fact that the disc brightened. In order to develop a solid interpretation more work and observations are definitely called for.

## References

Lamontagne, R., Demers, S., Wesemael, F. & Fontaine, G., 2000, ApJ 119, 241

Maza, J., Hamuy, M. & Ruiz, M.T., 1986, IAU Circ. No 4172

Bond, H.E., Grauer, A.D., Burstein, D. & Maezke, R.O., 1987, PASP 99, 1097

Warner, B. & Nather, R.E., 1988, Inf. Bull. Variable Stars, No 3140

Ringwald, F.A., Thorstensen, J.R. & Hamwey, R.M., 1994, MNRAS 271, 323


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# Superfluid density in the underdoped YBa2Cu3O7-x: Evidence for 𝑑-density wave order of pseudogap

## Abstract

The investigation of the penetration depth $`\lambda _{ab}(T,p)`$ in YBa2Cu3O7-x crystals allowed to observe the following features of the superfluid density $`n_s(T,p)\lambda _{ab}^2(T,p)`$ as a function of temperature $`T<T_c/2`$ and carrier concentration $`0.078p0.16`$ in CuO2 planes: (i) $`n_s(0,p)`$ depends linearly on $`p`$, (ii) the derivative $`|dn_s(T,p)/dT|_{T0}`$ depends on $`p`$ slightly in the optimally and moderately doped regions ($`0.10<p0.16`$); however, it rapidly increases with $`p`$ further lowering and (iii) the latter finding is accompanied by the linear low-temperature dependence $`[\mathrm{\Delta }n_s(T)]T`$ changing to $`[\mathrm{\Delta }n_s(T)]\sqrt{T}`$. All these peculiarities can be treated in the framework of $`d`$-density wave scenario of electronic processes in underdoped high-Tc materials.

Last years a lot of efforts were devoted to study the nature and properties of pseudogap states of high-$`T_c`$ superconductors’ (HTSC) phase diagram. This area corresponds to lower concentration $`p`$ of holes per copper atom and lower critical temperatures $`T_c`$ in comparison with the optimal value $`p0.16`$ and the maximum temperature of the superconducting transition. In the underdoped region HTSC strongly differ from conventional materials, both in the normal and the superconducting states. This difference is likely to occur in $`p`$\- and $`T`$-dependences of the superfluid density $`n_s(T,p)`$ of heavily underdoped HTSC.

It is well known that in clean BCS $`d`$-wave superconductors (DSC) the dependence $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_s(T)n_s(T)n_s(0)`$ is linear on temperature $`TT_c`$: $`[\mathrm{\Delta }n_s(T)]T/\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$, where $`n_0n_s(0)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0\mathrm{\Delta }(0)`$ are the superfluid density and the superconducting gap amplitude at $`T=0`$. This dependence is confirmed by the measurements of the $`ab`$-plane penetration depth $`\lambda _{ab}(T)=\sqrt{m^{}/\mu _0e^2n_s(T)}`$: $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda _{ab}(T)T`$ at $`T<T_c/3`$, where $`\mu _0`$, $`m^{}`$ and $`e`$ are the vacuum permeability, the effective mass and the electronic charge, respectively. The derivative $`|dn_s(T)/dT|`$ at $`T0`$ determines $`n_0/\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ ratio. If thermally excited fermionic quasiparticles are the only important excitations even at $`p<0.16`$, then the slope of $`n_s(T)`$ curves at $`TT_c`$ is proportional to $`n_0(p)/\mathrm{\Delta }_0(p)`$ ratio: $`|dn_s(T)/dT|_{T0}n_0(p)/\mathrm{\Delta }_0(p)`$. The measurements of $`\lambda _{ab}(0)`$ in underdoped HTSC showed that the superfluid density $`n_0(p)\lambda _{ab}^2(0)`$ increases approximately linearly with $`p>0.08`$ reaching its maximum value at $`p0.16`$ Lor ; Ber .

When decreasing $`p<0.16`$ and hence approaching the dielectric phase, the role of electron correlations and phase fluctuations becomes increasingly significant. The generalized Fermi-liquid models (GFL) allow for this through $`p`$-dependent Landau parameter $`L(p)`$ Lee ; Mil1 ; Mil2  which includes $`n_0(p)`$. The values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0(p)`$ and $`L(p)`$ determine the doping dependence of the derivative $`|dn_s(T)/dT|_{T0}=L(p)/\mathrm{\Delta }_0(p)`$. In Ref. Lee  the ratio $`L(p)/\mathrm{\Delta }_0(p)`$ does not depend on $`p`$; the model Mil1  predicts $`L(p)/\mathrm{\Delta }_0(p)p^2`$. The measurements of YBa2Cu3O7-x single crystals Bonn  and oriented powders Pan  with the holes concentration $`p0.1`$ showed that the slope of $`n_s(T)`$ dependences at $`T0`$ is either slightly $`p`$-dependent Bonn , which agrees with Ref. Lee , or diminishes with decreasing $`p0.16`$ Pan , which contradicts the GFL models Lee ; Mil1 ; Mil2 .

Along with the above concept, there are a number of pseudogap concepts Timu ; Tall ; Sado ; Norm  proposed in order to describe the collapse of single-particle density of states near the Fermi level, experimentally observed in underdoped HTSC at $`TT_c`$ by various techniques. At microwave frequencies a breakdown of the normal skin-effect condition in some HTSC was also treated in terms of pseudogap state Sri1 . In Ref. Ding  the pseudogap order parameter was found to have the same $`d`$-wave symmetry as the superconducting one; it influences the quasiparticles spectrum at $`T<T_c`$ as well. In the precursor pairing model Kost , based on the formation of pair electron excitations with finite momentum at $`T>T_c`$, this influence leads to a rise of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0(p)`$ and decrease of $`n_0(p)`$ with $`p`$ lowering. Hence, the decrease of the derivative $`|dn_s(T)/dT|_{T0}n_0(p)/\mathrm{\Delta }_0(p)`$ is expected. The $`n_s(T,p)/n_0`$ dependences calculated in Ref. Levi  show that their low temperature slopes decrease with underdoping. An alternative behavior of $`|dn_s(T)/dT|`$ follows from magnetic precursor $`d`$-density wave (DDW) scenario of pseudogap Chak . In this model a DDW order parameter $`W(p,T)`$ is directly introduced into the quasi-particle band structure. At low energies the excitation spectrum of DDW consists of conventional fermionic particles and holes like that of DSC with which it competes at $`p<0.2`$. The DSC gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0(p)`$ steadily vanishes with $`p`$ decreasing, whereas the sum of zero-temperature squares $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0^2(p)+W_0^2(p)`$ remains constant Tew . In the issue, the DDW model predicts a growth of the slope of the $`n_s(T,p)/n_0`$ curves at low $`T`$ and $`p<0.1`$.

The present paper aims at the experimental verification of the theoretical predictions Lee ; Mil1 ; Mil2 ; Kost ; Levi ; Chak ; Tew . To fulfil the task, we investigated $`\lambda _{ab}(T)`$ dependences in YBa2Cu3O7-x single crystal with the oxygen deficiency varied in the range $`0.07x0.47`$. The experiments were performed by the ”hot-finger” technique Tru1  at the frequency of $`\omega /2\pi =9.4`$ GHz and in the temperature range $`5T200`$ K. The initial YBa2Cu3O6.93 crystal was grown in BaZrO3 crucible Erb  and had a rectangular shape with dimensions being $`1.6\times 0.4\times 0.1`$ mm3 Nef1 . To change the carrier density, we successively annealed the crystal in the air at various temperatures $`T500^{}`$ C Tru2 . Finally, five crystal states with critical temperatures $`T_c=92,80,70,57,41`$ K were investigated.

Using the empirical relation Tal1  $`T_c=T_{c,max}[182.6(p0.16)^2]`$ with $`T_{c,max}=92`$ K at $`p=0.16`$ ($`x=0.07`$), we get the concentrations $`p=0.12,0.106,0.092,0.078`$ for other four states of YBa2Cu3O7-x with lower $`T_c`$ values and $`x=0.26,0.33,0.40,0.47`$ respectively. According to $`ac`$-susceptibility measurements at the frequency of 100 kHz, superconducting transition width amounted to 0.1 K in the optimally doped state ($`p=0.16`$); however, the width increased with the decrease of $`p`$, having reached 4 K at $`p=0.078`$. The temperature dependences of the $`ab`$-plane surface resistance $`R_{ab}(T)`$ and reactance $`X_{ab}(T)`$ are shown in Fig. 1 for each of the five crystal states. At $`T<T_c/3`$ all $`R_{ab}(T)`$ curves are linear on $`T`$. The residual losses $`R_{ab}(T0)`$ do not exceed 40 $`\mu \mathrm{\Omega }`$. In more detail $`R_{ab}(T)`$ data will be discussed elsewhere Numssen . The $`X_{ab}(T)`$ dependences in Fig. 1 are constructed with allowance made for both (i) the contribution $`\mathrm{\Delta }X_{ab}^{th}(T)`$ of thermal expansion of the crystal which essentially affects the measured reactance shift $`\mathrm{\Delta }X_{ab}(T)`$ at $`T>0.9T_c`$, and (ii) the additive constant $`X_0`$ which is equal to the difference between the values of $`[\mathrm{\Delta }X_{ab}(T)+\mathrm{\Delta }X_{ab}^{th}(T)]`$ and $`R_{ab}(T)`$ at $`T>T_c`$: $`X_{ab}(T)=\mathrm{\Delta }X_{ab}(T)+\mathrm{\Delta }X_{ab}^{th}(T)+X_0`$ Nef1 . So, in the normal state for each of the five crystal states we have $`R_{ab}(T)=X_{ab}(T)`$ which implies the validity of the normal skin-effect condition. This finding enables to extract the absolute values of the $`ab`$-plane penetration depth $`\lambda _{ab}(T)=X_{ab}(T)/\omega \mu _0`$ from $`X_{ab}(T)`$ curves at $`T<T_c`$.

Fig. 2 shows the low temperature sections of $`\lambda _{ab}(T)`$ curves. The linear extrapolation (dashed lines) of these dependences at $`T<T_c/3`$ gives the following $`\lambda _{ab}(0)`$ values: 152, 170, 178, 190, 198 nm for $`p=0.16,0.12,0.106,0.092,0.078`$, respectively. The error in $`\lambda _{ab}(0)`$ is largely determined by the measurement accuracy of the additive constant $`X_0`$. In our experiments the root-mean-square difference between $`R_{ab}(T)`$ and $`X_{ab}(T)`$ in the normal state corresponded to about 5 nm accuracy in $`\lambda _{ab}(0)`$ value.

As follows from Fig. 3, halving of the concentration (namely, from $`p=0.16`$ to $`p=0.078`$) results in approximately two times smaller $`\lambda _{ab}^2(0)=n_0\mu _0e^2/m^{}`$ value. Similar behavior $`n_0(p)p`$ within the range $`0.08<p0.16`$ was observed by other groups Lor ; Ber . It is easily seen that this dependence contradicts Uemura’s relation $`n_0(p)T_c(p)`$ Uem . The naive linear extrapolation of the dashed line in Fig. 3 at $`p<0.08`$ leads to nonphysical result: $`n_0(p)`$ is finite at vanishing $`p`$. To the best of our knowledge there is no data of superfluid density measurements in HTSC at $`p<0.08`$. As for theoretical predictions, $`n_0`$ linearity on $`p`$ extends down to $`p=0`$ in the model Lee , while in the DDW scenario Tew ; Wan  it exists in the underdoped range of phase diagram where the DSC order parameter grows from zero to its maximal value (Fig. 1 from Ref. Wan ). The latter agrees with our data.

In Fig. 3 we also show the slopes $`|d\lambda _{ab}^2(T)/dT|_{T0}|dn_s(T)/dT|_{T0}`$ of $`\lambda _{ab}^2(T)`$ curves obtained from $`\lambda _{ab}(T)`$ dependences at $`T<T_c/3`$. The value of $`|d\lambda _{ab}^2(T)/dT|`$ changes slightly at $`0.1<p0.16`$ in accordance with Ref.Lee . However, it grows drastically at $`p0.1`$, namely, $`\lambda _{ab}^2(T)`$ slope increases 2.5 times with $`p`$ decrease from 0.12 to 0.08. $`|d\lambda _{ab}^2(T)/dT|p^2`$ dependence Mil1  is shown by solid line in Fig. 3 and roughly fits the data at $`p0.12`$. The dotted line drawn through $`|d\lambda _{ab}^2(T)/dT|`$ experimental points in Fig. 3 qualitatively agrees with the behavior of this quantity in the DDW model Tew ; Wan .

The temperature dependence of the superfluid density $`n_s(T)`$ at low $`T`$ in the heavily underdoped YBa2Cu3O7-x proves to be one more check-up of the DDW-scenario of pseudogap. $`\lambda _{ab}^2(0)/\lambda _{ab}^2(T)=n_s(T)/n_0`$ dependences obtained from the data in Fig. 2 are shown in Fig. 4 for different values of $`p`$. The solid line represents the DSC result. The evident peculiarities in Fig. 4 are the concavity of $`n_s(T)/n_0`$ curves corresponding to the heavily underdoped states ($`p=0.078`$ and $`p=0.092`$) and their deviation from DSC and the curves for $`p=0.16,0.12,0.106`$. It should be noted that these peculiarities do not strongly depend on $`\lambda _{ab}(0)`$ values. This is demonstrated in the inset to Fig. 4, where $`n_s(T)/n_0`$ experimental curve for $`p=0.092`$ is compared to the ones obtained using $`\lambda _{ab}(0)`$ increased (open stars) and decreased (solid stars) by 40 nm. Actually, the latter value is much higher than the experimental uncertainty.

The behavior of the superfluid density $`n_s(T)/n_0`$ in Fig. 4 contradicts the conclusions of the precursor pairing model Levi , but agrees with the DDW scenario Tew . According to Ref. Tew , at temperatures much smaller than the relevant energy scales $`W_0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$, only the nodal regions close to the points ($`\pi /2,\pi /2`$) and symmetry-related points on the Fermi surface will contribute to the suppression of the superfluid density. In a wide range of temperatures the $`n_s(T)`$ dependence will be linear for the optimally and moderately doped samples, in which $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ is larger than or comparable to $`W_0`$ and plays a leading role in the temperature dependence of the superfluid density. However, for the heavily underdoped samples the situation is quite different. Though in the asymptotically low-temperature regime the suppression of the superfluid density is linear on temperature, there is an intermediate temperature range over which the suppression actually behaves as $`\sqrt{T}`$. It is worth emphasizing that the authors of Ref. Tew  state that these features are independent of the precise $`W_0(p)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0(p)`$ functional forms. The only input that is needed is the existence of DDW order which diminishes with $`p`$ increase and complementary development of the DSC order. The DDW order eats away part of the superfluid density from an otherwise pure DSC system. Actually, in the intermediate temperature range $`0.1T_c<T0.5T_c`$ the experimental $`n_s(T)`$ curves in YBa2Cu3O6.60 and YBa2Cu3O6.53 with $`p<0.1`$ are not linear but similar to $`\sqrt{T}`$-dependences. This is confirmed by Fig. 5, where the measured curves $`\lambda _{ab}^2(T)n_s(T)`$ are compared with linear ($`T`$) in YBa2Cu3O6.67 ($`p=0.106`$) and $`\sqrt{T}`$-dependences $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda _{ab}^2(T)=3\sqrt{T}`$ ($`\lambda _{ab}`$ and $`T`$ are expressed in $`\mu `$m and K) in YBa2Cu3O6.60 ($`p=0.092`$) and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda _{ab}^2(T)=3.5\sqrt{T}`$ in YBa2Cu3O6.53 ($`p=0.078`$). Dashed lines in Fig. 5 correspond to the linear at $`T<T_c/3`$ dependences of $`\lambda _{ab}(T)`$ presented in Fig. 2 and extended to higher temperatures. It is also interesting that these peculiarities of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda _{ab}^2(T)`$ dependences in YBa2Cu3O6.60 and YBa2Cu3O6.53 are accompanied by inflection of the resistivity $`\rho _{ab}(T)`$ curves in the normal state of these samples which can be illustrated by Fig. 2 from Ref. Tru2 .

Thus, three main experimental observations of this paper, viz, (i) linear dependence of $`n_0(p)`$ in the range $`0.078p0.16`$, (ii) drastic increase of low-temperature $`n_s(T)`$ slope at $`p<0.1`$, and (iii) the deviation of $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_s(T)`$ dependence from universal BCS behavior $`[\mathrm{\Delta }n_s(T)]T`$ at $`T<T_c/2`$ towards $`[\mathrm{\Delta }n_s(T)]\sqrt{T}`$ with decreasing $`p<0.1`$, evidence the DDW scenario Chak ; Tew ; Wan  of electronic processes in underdoped HTSC. Nevertheless, the measurements of $`n_s(T)`$ at lower temperatures and in the high-quality samples with smaller carrier density are necessary for ultimate conclusion.

Helpful discussions with A.I. Larkin and Sudip Chakravarty are gratefully acknowledged. This research was supported by RFBR grants Nos. 03-02-16812 and 02-02-08004.