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# Dimensional Crossover in the effective second harmonic generation of films of random dielectrics

## I Introduction

Nonlinear response of random composite materials has been a subject of intensive research for many years. The nonlinear response in such composites may be affected by several factors. For example, the response can be greatly enhanced by local field effects, and the percolation effect could change the character of the system . In particular, enhancement of nonlinear optical response in random dielectrics may be useful for the design of novel switching devices in photonics and real-time coherent optical signal processors. A number of theoretical works have been developed specifically to weakly nonlinear composites . An excellent review on the recent developments of the subject has recently been given by Shalaev.

While most of the work have focused on nonlinear effects such as the Kerr effect, Hui et al have derived general expressions for the effective susceptibilities for second harmonic generation (SHG) and third harmonic generation (THG) in a binary composite of random dielectrics. In the dilute limit, the effective SHG and THG susceptibilities obtained in Refs. and  reduce to earlier expressions found by Levy et al.. For many applications and materials fabrication, samples in the form of thin films are essential. It is, therefore, useful to study the effective SHG in films of random dielectrics. In the present work, we consider films of random dielectrics consisting of spherical particles with nonlinear response embedded randomly in a linear host. We study the dependence of the effective SHG on the film thickness and the concentration of the nonlinear component. By invoking a modified effective-medium approximation (EMA) to incorporate the film thickness in the estimation of the local fields, together with our previous general expression for SHG susceptibility, the effective SHG susceptibility including the effect of film thickness can be calculated. The validity of our theory is tested against results obtained by numerical simulations on random nonlinear resistor networks of different thickness consisting of two different kinds of resistors. It is found that our EMA provides a good description of numerical results for the whole range of thicknesses corresponding to systems spanning from two dimensions to three dimensions.

The plan of the paper is as follows. In Sec.II, we present our formalism on the effective SHG susceptibility of films of random dielectrics. Section III gives a description on the model of numerical simulations. Results of numerical simulations are compared with theoretical results in Sec.IV.

## II Effective medium approximation for SHG in films

We consider a macroscopically inhomogeneous medium consisting of a random mixture of two types of materials. The materials $`a`$ and $`b`$ have different macroscopic D-E relations. If we only include the quadratic nonlinearities, the general form of the D-E relationship at zero frequency would be

$`D_i={\displaystyle \underset{j}{}}ϵ_{ij}E_j+{\displaystyle \underset{jk}{}}d_{ijk}E_jE_k,i=x,y,z,`$ (1)
where $`D_i`$ ($`E_i`$) is the $`i`$th component of the displacement (electric) field D (E). For simplicity, we consider a composite in which a volume fraction $`p`$ of nonlinear material $`a`$ is mixed with a volume fraction $`1p`$ of linear material $`b`$, i.e., $`d_{ijk}(𝐫)=d_{ijk}^a`$ for regions occupied by material $`a`$ and $`d_{ijk}(𝐫)=0`$ for regions occupied by material $`b`$. We also assume that the linear dielectric constants of both components are isotropic, i.e., $`ϵ_{ij}=ϵ^\alpha \delta _{ij}`$, with $`\alpha `$ = $`a`$ ($`b`$) for regions occupied by material $`a`$ ($`b`$). In general, when a monochromatic external field is applied, the nonlinearity of the component inside the composite will generate local potentials and fields at all harmonic frequencies. Here, we focus on the effective second harmonic generation (SHG) for a thin of thickness $`L`$.

For a finite frequency external applied field of the form

$$E_0(t)=E_{0,\omega }e^{i\omega t}+c.c.,$$
(2)
the effective SHG susceptibility can be extracted by considering the volume average of the displacement field at the frequency $`2\omega `$ in the inhomogeneous composite medium. A general expression for the effective SHG susceptibility has been derived in Ref.. The result is that to first order in the SHG susceptibility $`d_{ijk}`$, the effective SHG susceptibility is given by

$$(d_{2\omega ;\omega ,\omega }^e)_{ijk}=<K_{2\omega ;il}d_{lmn}K_{\omega ,mj}^TK_{\omega ,nk}^T>,$$
(3)
where $`<\mathrm{}>`$ denotes a volume average over the inhomogeneous medium. The tensors $`K`$ and $`K^T`$ are possible local field enhancement factors of the forms

$`K_{2\omega ;il}(𝐱)={\displaystyle \frac{E_{2\omega ;l}(𝐱)}{E_{0,2\omega ;i}}},`$ (4)
and

$`K_{\omega ;mj}^T(𝐱)={\displaystyle \frac{E_{\omega ;m}(𝐱)}{E_{0,\omega ;j}}},`$ (5)
with a similar expression for $`K_{\omega ;nk}^T(𝐱)`$. The tensor $`K_{\omega ;mj}^T(𝐱)`$, for example, is the induced $`m`$th Cartesian component of the electric field at position $`𝐱`$ and frequency $`\omega `$ when a field $`E_{0,\omega }`$ is applied in the $`j`$-th direction at the same frequency in a linear random medium of the same spatial inhomogeneous structure. Similar expression for the effective THG susceptibility can also be derived.

In a composite in which only the material $`a`$ is nonlinear, the effective SHG susceptibility takes on the simple form

$$𝐝_{2\omega ;\omega ,\omega }^e=p\frac{<E_{2\omega }^a𝐝_{2\omega ;\omega ,\omega }^aE_\omega ^aE_\omega ^a>}{E_{0,2\omega }E_{0,\omega }E_{0,\omega }}.$$
(6)
It is desirable to further develop a simple analytic approximation for the average of the local field factors in Eq.(6). One such approximation is the effective medium approximation (EMA). One possible effective medium approximation is to calculate the electric fields within each particle as if that particle is embedded in an effective medium with dielectric constant $`ϵ^e`$. In this approximation, Eq.(6) becomes

$$𝐝_{2\omega ;\omega ,\omega }^e=p𝐝_{2\omega ;\omega ,\omega }^a(\frac{Dϵ_{2\omega }^e}{ϵ_{2\omega }^a+(D1)ϵ_{2\omega }^e})(\frac{Dϵ_\omega ^e}{ϵ_\omega ^a+(D1)ϵ_\omega ^e})^2,$$
(7)
where $`D`$ is the spatial dimension and the subscripts $`\omega `$ and $`2\omega `$ specify the frequency at which the local field is evaluated.

The effective linear dielectric constants $`ϵ_\omega ^e`$ and $`ϵ_{2\omega }^e`$ can be evaluated from the usual EMA for linear random composites by

$$\underset{\alpha =a,b}{}p_\alpha (\frac{ϵ^\alpha ϵ^e}{ϵ^\alpha +(D1)ϵ^e})=0,$$
(8)
where $`p_\alpha `$ is the volume fraction of the $`\alpha `$th component and the summation is over the different components in the composite. For a thin film of thickness $`L`$, the behaviour of the system lies somewhere between $`D=2`$ for small thickness and $`D=3`$ for large thickness. To incorporate the effects of finite thicknesses, it is most convenient to convert the continuum description into a discrete version of the problem. In the discrete version, the system is considered to be a lattice consisting of $`N\times N\times L`$ sites, where $`L`$ is the number of layers. For a $`D`$-dimensional hypercubic lattice, the coordination number $`z`$, i.e., the number of nearest neighbors, is related to $`D`$ through $`D=z/2`$. For a single layer ($`L=1`$), $`z=4`$ and for a large number of layers ($`L\mathrm{}`$), the system is three dimensional with $`z=6`$. For a system of finite thickness $`L`$, the average coordination number becomes $`L`$-dependent and takes on

$$z(L)=2(3\frac{1}{L}).$$
(9)
Incorporating Eq.(9) into Eqs.(7) and (8) by replacing the dimensionality $`D`$ by $`z(L)/2`$ constitute a set of equations for a modified EMA for the effective SHG susceptibility of films of random dielectrics.

## III Numerical simulations using random nonlinear resistor network

To test the validity of the modified EMA for SHG susceptibility in a film of random dielectrics, we follow the approach in Ref. and perform numerical simulations using a random nonlinear resistor network. Such an approach has been applied previously with success to study linear optical properties and nonlinear properties such as the Kerr effect in random composites. To model a system of finite thickness, two types of bonds are placed randomly onto a $`N\times N\times L`$ lattice, with $`L`$ running from $`1`$ to $`N`$ modelling a 2D system ($`L=1`$) and 3D system ($`L=N`$), respectively. In the resistor network model, it is more convenient to define the model in terms of conductance of the bonds. With probability $`p`$, the bonds in the lattice are occupied by nonlinear components characterized by the two parameters: the linear conductance $`g^a`$ and the nonlinear susceptibility $`d`$, with the latter representing the response to two voltages at frequency $`\omega `$. With probability $`(1p)`$, the bonds are occupied by linear components characterized by a linear conductance $`g^b`$. To model a mixture of metallic and insulating components at finite frequencies, we take $`g^a`$ and $`g^b`$ to be of the forms

$$g^a(\omega )=\frac{1+i\omega RC\omega ^2LC}{R+i\omega L},$$
(10)
and

$$g^b(\omega )=i\omega C.$$
(11)
The nonlinear susceptibility $`d`$ of material $`a`$ is assumed to be independent of frequency, for simplicity. This choice of $`g^a`$ and $`g^b`$ has been widely used in studying the frequency response in random composites, because the ratio $`g^a/g^b`$ has the same form as the Drude dielectric function of a metal with the plasma frequence $`\omega _p=\sqrt{1/LC}`$ and relaxation time $`\tau =L/R`$. In what follows, the parameters are chosen to be $`C=1,L=1`$, and $`R=0.1`$, corresponding to a plasma frequency $`\omega _p=1`$.

The effective response of the random nonlinear resistor network can be studied by direct numerical simulations. Using the Kirchhoff’s law, the voltage at each node can be solved. Although the applied voltage imposed on the nonlinear network is taken to consist only of a component at frequency $`\omega `$, the voltage at each node inside the network has components at frequencies $`\omega `$ and $`2\omega `$. So, solving the Kirchhoff’s law leads to solving two equations $`I^{(\omega )}=0`$ and $`I^{(2\omega )}=0`$ at each node simultaneously, where the summation is over all the bonds connected to the node under consideration and $`I^{(\omega )}`$ and $`I^{(2\omega )}`$ are the component of the current corresponding to the frequency $`\omega `$ and $`2\omega `$, respectively. These two equations at each node must be solved self-consistently for the voltages at frequencies $`\omega `$ and $`2\omega `$, and the effective SHG can be then extracted. In what follows, we use a lattice of size 20$`\times `$20$`\times `$$`L`$, with an applied voltage set to unity. By varying the layer thickness $`L`$, dimensional crossover of the effective SHG response from 2D to 3D can be studied.

## IV Results and Discussion

Numerical simulations allow for the extraction of the effective linear and nonlinear response of the inhomogeneous system for different concentrations of the nonlinear component and for different film thicknesses. Results from numerical simulations can then be compared with those calculated via the modified EMA so as to establish the validity of the approximation. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the effective linear response $`g_{eff}`$ and effective SHG response $`d_e/d`$ of the random nonlinear network as a function of frequency $`\omega `$ for three values ($`p=0.1,0.5,0.9`$) of the concentration $`p`$. In each panel of the figures, the symbols give the simulation results and the lines give the EMA results. The symbols represent an average over 50 independent runs corresponding to different configurations of the random network. The EMA results are obtained by using Eqs.(7)-(9), with the dielectric constants replaced by the conductances. Four different layer thicknesses are studied for each value of the concentration.

In the dilute case ($`p=0.1`$), the concentration is lower than the percolation threshold regardless of the thickness, i.e., $`p<p_c`$ for both $`p_c(2D)`$ and $`p_c(3D)`$ in the bond percolation problem. In this case, isolated nonlinear bonds (component $`a`$) are surrounded by the insulating bonds (component $`b`$). In the continuum case, the situation corresponds to one in which isolated disks (or spheres) of component $`a`$ are embedded in a background of component $`b`$. The structure observed in $`g_{eff}`$ corresponds to the so-called surface plasmon resonance structure. The surface plasmon resonance peak shifts to lower frequency as the layer thickness increases. The shift is related to the change in the resonance frequency from $`\omega _p/\sqrt{3}`$ for an isolated sphere in 3D (large $`L`$) to $`\omega _p/\sqrt{2}`$ for an isolated disk in 2D ($`L=1`$). The real and imaginary parts of the nonlinear response normalized to the SHG coefficient of the nonlinear component $`d_e/d`$ show a corresponding resonance structure near the surface plasmon resonance frequency. The modified EMA captures the features reasonably well, with a better agreement for large values of $`L`$. It is reasonable in that the EMA, being a mean field approximation, is expected to work better in high spatial dimensions in which fluctuation effects are smaller. We also note that the simulation results indicate that the system picks up three dimensional character readily for not-so-large layer thicknesses.

For $`p=0.5`$, which is the percolation threshold for an infinite 2D system and higher than $`p_c(3D)`$, the numerical results for $`Re(g_{eff})`$ with $`L=1`$ show a broad structure with the values at low frequencies tend to be enhanced. For $`L2`$, large $`Re(g_{eff})`$, relative to the dilute case, at low frequencies indicates that the composite behaves effectively as a conducting (metallic) system. The greater the thickness, the larger is $`Re(g_{eff})`$. It is because the value of $`p=0.5`$ becomes increasingly larger than $`p_c`$ as $`L`$ increases, and the system shows increasingly dominating metallic character. The effective SHG response shows a broader structure with an enhanced $`d_e/d`$ compared with the dilute concentration case. The enhancement in the SHG response comes about from the enhancement in the local field applying on the nonlinear component when the system has more better conducting nonlinear component. The modified EMA, again, gives results in reasonable agreement with simulation results, indicating that incorporating a thickness-dependent coordination number into EMA can be used to estimate the effective SHG response in random dielectric systems.

For high concentrations ($`p=0.9`$) of the nonlinear component, the systems shows metallic behavior in the linear response, as shown in Fig.1. The behavior of the effective SHG susceptibility basically follows that of the case of $`p=0.5`$, with the appearance of a small resonance structure at low frequency. The structure is due to the isolated insulating component in an otherwise metallic background.

In both our numerical and EMA results, the SHG composite susceptibility is enhanced only relatively weakly over that of the pure SHG material. By contrast, such processes as Kerr nonlinearity are greatly enhanced in composite media. We believe this weak enhancement may occure because Eq. (6) involves the linear fields at two different frequencies. Thus, the enhancement will be smaller than when all the field enhancement factors are resonant at the same frequency. The enhancement is further weakened by randomness when both components are present in high concentrations, which causes the field enhancement factors to be broadened over a range of frequencies. At very low concentrations, despite the two frequencies, other studies have shown that the SHG enhancement is still large.

Also, our calculations assume that only the metallic component has a nonzero SHG susceptibility. We have done a few test EMA calculations in 2D, and find a somewhat larger enhancement, when only the nonmetallic component is nonlinear, with Im($`d_{eff}/d`$) and Re($`d_{eff}/d`$) reaching magnitudes as large as 4 or 5.

Expression (6) for the effective SHG susceptibility treats the composite as a homogeneous medium with effective properties, as is reasonable if the inhomogeneities are small compared to a wavelength. Since the medium is effectively homogeneous, the SHG emission will be in the form of a collimated beam. Besides this beam, there is another SHG contribution, resulting from scattering from the inhomogeneities. This contribution, which has a broad angular distribution, depends on particle size, unlike that calculated here. It has been seen in experiments on inhomogeneous metal-insulator films, and may be large near the percolation threshold.

## V Summary

We have studied the dependence of the effective SHG response in a random dielectric system as a function of the concentration of the nonlinear constituent and the systemn thickness. A modified EMA, based on a previous expression of the effective SHG derived by the authors coupled with a thickness-dependent coordination number, is proposed for the effective SHG response. Numerical simulations on a random network consisting of a mixture of nonlinear and linear conductances allow extraction of the effective linear and SHG response. It is found that the modified EMA gives results that are in reasonable agreement with the numerical simulation results. The system picks up three dimensional character for moderate film thicknesses. The results show that the modified EMA can be used as an effective tool for estimating the effective SHG response in random dielectric systems. The approximation can be applied to other systems consisting of nonlinear components. For example, the nonlinear SHG response may be associated with the poorer conductor of the two constituents. In this case, the contrast in the linear dielectric constants between the two constituents may produce an enhanced local field in the poorer conducting component and thus drive a greater SHG enhancement. Indeed, some preliminary calculations, using the EMA, do give rise to this increased enhancement.

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported in part by a grant from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong SAR Government through the grant CUHK4129/98P. One of us (DS) acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation through the grant DMR01-04987.


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# Angle-resolved photoemission using the circularly polarized light in Pb-Bi2212.

## Abstract

In a recent preprint Campuzano et al.CKV  have questioned the validity of our ARPES resultsCPOD  contradicting the interpretation of earlier photoemission experiments in terms of the time-reversal symmetry breaking in Bi2212Kaminski ; Simon . Here we highlight the principal results of our study and refute all the criticism.

To observe a time-reversal symmetry breaking caused by circulating currents in the pseudogap regime of cuprate superconductors an ARPES experiment using circularly polarized light was proposedVarma\_old . First experimental studies aiming to test this proposal gave negative results: the predicted effectFirst\_dichro  was observed at various temperatures and in differently doped samples thus rulling out its clear relation to the pseudogap phaseBorisDichro . However, recent observation of a small ($`4\%`$) dichroism in the ($`\pi `$, 0)-point of the underdoped Bi2212 upon entering the pseudogap regime has been interpreted in terms of the time-reversal symmetry violationKaminski . For this purpose, a new pattern of circulating currents was introduced, now breaking the reflection symmetry in the $`x=0`$ and $`y=0`$ mirror planesSimon , contrary to the previously predicted symmetry breaking in $`x=\pm y`$ mirror planesVarma\_old . In spite of several reformulationsCKV ; Kaminski ; Simon , the new criterion, suggested to judge whether the time-reversal symmetry is violated or not, is unequivocal: if the dichroic signal measured in the pseudogap state of an underdoped cuprate and corresponding to the photoemission within the $`x=0`$ and $`y=0`$ mirror planes is finite, the time-reversal symmetry is broken Planes . It is this criterion which we have exploited in our studyCPOD .

Formally speaking, this implies that one can solve the problem by simply measuring the photoemission intensity in, e.g., the ($`\pi `$, 0)-point using the right- and left-hand circularly polarized light and then consider the difference (dichroism). We call this a ”key experiment”. Obviously, in such a key experiment the following conditions should be satisfied: (i) no geometric chiralityPlanes  in the experimental setup; (ii) the light must be circularly polarized; (iii) the sample must be in the pseudogap state; (iv) the momentum of the outgoing photoelectrons should lie exactly in the crystal mirror plane. We show below that our experimental conditions fulfil all requirements and our results clearly indicate the absence of the effect in underdoped Pb-Bi2212.

To facilitate the comparison with the previous work, we have chosen a similar experimental geometry (see, for instance, Fig.1 in Ref. CPOD, ). In such an arrangement one measures the dichroic signal in a number of k-points introducing the geometric chirality of both signs and thus definitely fulfilling condition (i) for at least one direction. Condition (ii) is satisfied by utilizing the light from the wiggler-undulator beamline at ELETTRA which delivers $`90\%`$ circularly polarized radiation with the photon energy of 50 eV.

As stated in Ref. CPOD,  and clearly seen in Fig. 1, we have observed an anisotropic normal state pseudogap in our samples. Moreover, the size of the pseudogap and its momentum dependence are in a good agreement with the data published beforeDamascelli .

In order to fulfil the condition (iv) it is crucially important to fix a momentum scale, since the value of the dichroism determined for the k-points known to be in the mirror plane is decisive. In other words, that single direction for which condition (i) holds must be in the mirror plane. For this purpose we have recorded the spectra from a sufficiently large k-space region which included clearly dispersing features, symmetrical about the mirror plane (for details see Ref. CPOD, ). This procedure of the mirror plane determination is a distinguishing feature of our experiment.

We have performed tens of the aforementioned key experiments. The results of four typical key experiments on UD77K samples at 100 K have been presented in our manuscriptCPOD  and are shown in Fig. 2 here together with the auxilary data from other k-points. The size of the dichroism in the mirror plane is given by the value of the fit parameter a (see caption to Fig. 3). These values are all within the estimated average accuracy of the experiment $`0.5\%`$. As easily seen from Fig. 2, one can safely conclude the absence of any systematic deviations from zero for the k-points corresponding to the mirror planes.

We want to stress here once again that our results cannot be considered as manifestation of the time-reversal invariance of the electronic states in Pb-Bi2212. Using the clearly superior experimental setup compared to that of Kaminski et al.Kaminski  we observe a vanishingly small value of the dichroism in the mirror planes in our 5x1 superstructure-free underdoped Pb-Bi2212 samples, thus questioning the interpretationSimon  of earlier experiments in terms of the time reversal symmetry breaking.

Now we deal with the critical comments by Campuzano et al.CKV  (hereafter referred to as CKV).

The main concern of CKV is that no evidence was presented regarding the magnitude of the pseudogap in our samples. Once again showing in Fig. 1 well known to the community results, we demonstrate that there can be no more doubts in this respect. We are not aware of the technique which CKV used to arrive at the conclusion that the pseudogap in our Pb-Bi2212 samples is ”unnoticeable”, comparing the room temperature (!) intensity map taken on the overdoped sample (Fig. 1 e in Ref. CPOD, ) with the 100 K intensity maps recorded some 1/2 of the BZ size away on the underdoped sample (Fig. 3 a,b in Ref. CPOD, ). In any case, considering the data presented in Fig. 1, this technique yields apparently misleading results.

The tendency to compare actually incompatible things is again clearly seen in the following examples. CKV make two remarks as for the error bars (page 4 in Ref. CKV, ) presumably intended to uncover an inconsistency between the given values. These values are indeed very different because the precision of 0.002 Å-1 stated in the manuscript (not 0.001 Å-1 as given by CKV) is related to the determination of the zero in the momentum scale whereas $`\pm 0.004`$ Å-1 gives the overall accuracy of the experimentAccuracy , and the latter, in fact, includes the former. Further, in their attempt to observe the desired effect in our data by manipulation of the curves from the Figs. 3 e, f (Ref. CPOD, ), CKV make a series of factual errors. First of all, the room temperature curve was shown in Fig. 3 e (Ref. CPOD, ) only to demonstrate the application of our additional criterion (see below) and therefore was far from being central in our discussion. Nevertheless, we compare again our data with the data of Kaminski et al. in Fig. 3 here, this time also in the same momentum range. Apparent qualitative and quantitative disagreement with the results presented in Fig. 3 g in Ref. Kaminski,  is clearly seen. The linear fit to the room temperature data points crosses the horizontal axis at 0.009 Å-1. This value, being equal to the shift of the extrema of the full-range curve shown in Fig. 3 e (Ref. CPOD, ) most likely originates from the residual misalignments at room temperature as was explained in the manuscriptCPOD  on page 4. Moreover, it is the room temperature curve that appears to be displaced giving the approximately seven times smaller dichroism in the mirror plane (or nearly four times smaller shift in Å-1, not ”about 1/2” as claimed by CKV) than the one observed in Ref. Kaminski,  in the pseudogap regime. Disregarding our explanation in terms of the misalignments one may still try to consider the relative shift of the point on the momentum axis for which the dichroism is zero as a measure of the ”effect” which though sets in at room temperature. Needless to say that the error bars for this quantity, which is a difference of two other quantities determined in separate experiments, are calculated as a sum of the error bars corresponding to these two experiments. Careful reading of the manuscriptCPOD  (page 5) reveals that the error bars of $`\pm 0.005`$ Å-1 are given for these particular cases. Thus the relative shift of the crossing point on the momentum axis of 0.01 Å-1 (see Fig. 3) is within the total error bars ($`\pm 0.01`$ Å-1). Therefore the statement that we have observed the ”anticipated effect” is not correct.

When listing the reasons for non-observation of a similar effect in our experiments on page 5 of their preprint, CKV stated that the overall dichroism caused by the geometric effect is twice weaker than that observed earlierKaminski  and related this to the smaller degree of the circular polarization, wrongly claiming that no information about this is given in our manuscript. Again, the choice of the data sets for the comparison is poor. The data shown in Fig. 3 e and f are taken in the second Brillouin zone. To compare the magnitude of the dichroic signal due to the geometric effect it is instructive to compare, e.g., the data from the overdoped samples shown in Fig. 2 d (Ref. CPOD, ) and Fig. 3 c (Ref. Kaminski, ), which are taken under comparable conditions. The quantitative agreement is remarkable, which is not surprising since the degree of the circular polarization used in our study is only slightly higher (90$`\%`$ vs. 86$`\%`$). The precise location of the wanted information in our manuscript follows: page 1, last paragraph, first sentence.

There is no systematic shift also in the two data sets presented in Fig. 3 c in Ref. CPOD,  (Fig. 2 a, b here). As already mentioned in our manuscriptCPOD , at zero momentum the linear fits cross the vertical axis at 0.16$`\%`$ and -0.41$`\%`$, respectively, both values being within the error bars of $`0.5\%`$. Again, if one considers the relative shift, it is easy to see that the value of 0.16+0.41=0.57$`\%`$ is within the total error bars calculated as a sum of the error bars corresponding to the two key experiments.

As stated above and in accordance with the earlier experimentsKaminski , predictionsVarma\_old  and interpretationsSimon , we believe that the key experiments should be carried out in the pseudogap state despite the effort of CKV to gradually ”adjust” the criterion from the check of the reflection symmetry in the pseudogap state to the shift of the $`𝐃(𝐤)`$ curve with temperature in Ref. CKV, . Naturally, auxilary experiments are needed to ensure the generality of the observations, for instance, like those we show in Ref. CPOD,  for the overdoped sample where the effect is not expected. One may also check whether the effect is zero for, e. g., a polycrystalline gold sample but the absence of higher temperature data in Fig. 3 d (Ref. CPOD, ) by no means depreciates the significance of the key experiment. We note, that such ”zero-checks” become vitally important when a non-zero value of dichroism is detected in the mirror plane, just as in Ref. Kaminski, . From this point of view our experiments can be considered as ”zero-check” performed on 5x1 superstructure-free crystalsSuperstructure .

Another concern of CKV is the intensity of the maximum of the full-range curve shown in Fig. 3 d (Ref. CPOD, ) as a function of temperature. It is not clear to us why such routinely observed variations of the dichroic signal away from the mirror plane with temperature (also seen in Fig. 3 c in Ref. Kaminski, ) ”should be equal within the stated error bar of 0.05$`\%`$”. We have never stated either this or the error bars of 0.05$`\%`$ for this relatively unimportant momentum region for the effect.

Contrary to what is stated in Ref. CKV, , we neither consider the momentum coordinate of zero $`𝐃_𝐍`$ equivalent to 0 nor give any error bars for the data shown in Fig. 4 b (Ref. CPOD, ). Instead, we explain that the alignment of the sample is extremely difficult in this particular situation (which obviously implies larger errors) and that there is no evidence for dramatic temperature dependent changes in the region of interest.

The lineshape analysis criterion developed by us can also be used as an alternative to the absolute intensity criterion described above. We have found that the $`𝐃_𝐍`$ and D-curves, when recorded in a significantly wider momentum range than in Ref. Kaminski, , are nonmonotonic and in certain cases possess well defined extrema. In addtion, it turned out that these extrema are symmetrically located if the sample is properly aligned. The equations in our manuscript show that the lineshape of the $`𝐃_𝐍`$-curve is essentially insensitive to the parameter $`\alpha `$, the ratio of the photon fluxes for plus and minus helicities, which is crucial for the absolute intensity method. The criterion works as follows. According to the expectations, the sought effect should be maximal in the ($`\pi `$, 0)-point (Ref. Simon, , page 3). We illustrate two possible scenarios in Fig. 4 where the superposition of the geometric and intrinsic signals is seen to exhibit considerable variations in its lineshape. A narrow intrinsic effect would produce noticeable features near the mirror plane whereas the wider one would shift the extrema. Note, that to judge whether the effect is present or not, one does not require precise knowledge of the vertical scale. The idea of our approach is based on the trivial fact that the sum of an odd and even functions would inevitably break the reflection antisymmetry of the geometric dichroism. There is however one exception when our approach does not work. One may declare now that the sought signal should be constant as a function of k. This seems to be suggested in Ref. CKV, , to quote the paper ”… Only the value of the whole curve $`𝐃(𝐤)`$, including at f1 and f2 should move with respect to that without time-reversal violation …”. We want to notice that the momentum range in which we measure the dichroism is typically $``$ 0.3 Å-1 which is more than a third of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-($`\pi `$, 0) distance. The assumption that the sought effect should be k-independent on such a scale is in apparent contradiction with the theoretical expectationsSimon .

Exactly because of such possible ”variations” in the description of the intrinsic dichroism we did not make any decisive conclusions based purely on this method in the manuscript, contrary to what is stated by CKV. We only used it partially and in some cases, checking momentum positions of the maxima and minima to monitor misalignments. In particular, the displacement of the room temperature curve heavily referenced by CKV from Fig.3 e (Ref.CPOD, ), has been shown to originate from a misalignment as both extrema were shifted in a characteristic way. Obviously enough, the statements of CKV about the ”misconception” are not supported by the facts.

To summarize, we have presented the main results of our previous study which unambiguously proove the absence of the effect in Pb-Bi2212. We have also addressed all questions rised by CKV in their recent preprint. It turns out that every critical comment is either erroneous or irrelevant, thus being not able to question the validity of our results.


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# Understanding of the freeze-out in ultra-relativistic heavy-ion collisionsTalk given at the 2nd Warsaw meeting on correlations and resonances, Oct. 15–18, 2003, Warsaw, Poland

(December 11, 2003)

## Abstract

I discuss the quantities and effects important for the freeze-out and outline a formalism for the description of continuous decoupling of particles from the fireball. Then I present a calculation of the scattering rates of pions at various temperatures and argue that it is important to take continuous particle decoupling into account when modelling the collision dynamics.

Hadronic single-particle spectra and correlations carry information about the freeze-out state of the fireball which results from the collective expansion of the strongly interacting matter. Often, the freeze-out state is being modelled in framework of the Cooper-Frye  mechanism where all particles—regardless their identity and/or momentum—are emitted from a single sharp three-dimensional freeze-out hypersurface. This is the case for most hydrodynamic simulations. A question appears: does the assumption of a common sharp three-dimensional freeze-out still provide reliable approximation of the real process?

In case of a sharp freeze-out, the freeze-out hypersurface is usually characterised by some prescription. There were some attempts to identify a universal freeze-out criterion , i.e., a condition which determines the freeze-out hypersurface for heavy-ion collisions of any size and at any ultrarelativistic energy. In case of the continuous gradual decoupling there is no hypersurface to be determined and the concept of a universal freeze-out criterion is not applicable. I will focus on gradual decoupling since the sharp freeze-out can be defined as its limiting case.

Let me focus on the mechanism of freeze-out and identify the important effects and quantities. Freeze-out occurs when scattering ceases. It has been suggested that the mean-free path is the relevant quantity to look at . Here, densities of the individual species are weighted with cross-sections for scattering on them. An example: density of nucleons is much more important for pion scattering rate than the density of pions, because the $`\pi `$N cross-section is bigger than the one for $`\pi \pi `$ scattering. The CERES collaboration argued that the “universal” pion mean-free path at freeze-out should be something of the order of 1 fm (maybe 2–3 fm) .

On the first sight, this is rather surprising, because this length is much shorter than the size of the system. So far, however, we did not mention the expansion and the decrease of the density due to it. In rough terms, freeze-out occurs when the rate of the density decrease becomes comparable or larger than the scattering rate . The picture is the following: at the moment of scattering the particle has some finite mean-free path $`\lambda `$ and thus would be expected to scatter after some time. However, if the density drops fast enough, after passing the length $`\lambda `$ our particle may find itself in an environment of very low density such that no other scattering occurs.

In  we used the formalism of escape probabilities (conceived earlier by other authors, e.g. ) and focused on the dependence of the escape probability on temperature and the momentum of pions. By using this formalism one qualitatively goes beyond probing the mean-free path and the rate of density decrease; particles now decouple from a finite four-volume. Sharp freeze-out is realised as a limiting case of this more general case, when the escape probabilities of all particles change from 0 to 1 in a very narrow space-time region.

The escape probability can be determined as

$$𝒫(x,\tau ,p)=\mathrm{exp}\left(_\tau ^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\overline{\tau }(x+v\overline{\tau },p)\right),$$
(1)
where $``$ is the scattering rate. The opacity integral in this equation is evaluated along the expected trajectory of a particle with momentum $`p`$ and the position characterised by $`x`$ and $`\tau `$ if it moved straight. The integrated scattering rate gives the average number of collisions the particle would suffer on this trajectory. Assumptions about the chemical composition of the medium are included in calculation of $``$, while the density decrease rate determines its time dependence and thus the value of the resulting integral.

As an example of the fireball expansion we assumed in  a particle with $`p_t=0`$ in the centre of the fireball which does not move transversely but just waits until the surrounding matter decays. Then we only need a prescription for the time dependence of $``$ for which we take an ansatz:

$$(\tau )=_0\left(\frac{\tau _0}{\tau }\right)^\alpha ,$$
(2)
where $`\alpha >1`$ and $`_0`$ is the scattering rate at time $`\tau _0`$. This corresponds to a fireball expanding longitudinally in a boost-invariant manner and transversely with the following dependence of the transverse flow rapidity on radial coordinate $`r`$:

$$\eta _t(r,\tau )=\frac{\alpha 1}{2}\frac{r}{\tau }.$$
(3)
The escape probability in this toy model then reads

$$𝒫(p_t=0,r=0)=\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{_0\tau _0}{\alpha 1}\right)=\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{_0}{2\eta _t(r,\tau _0)/r}\right).$$
(4)
Obviously, larger $`_0`$ leads to smaller escape probability, whereas stronger expansion is encoded in larger $`\alpha `$ and/or $`\eta _t`$ and increases the value of $`𝒫`$.

We calculated the scattering rate of negative pions in thermal hadronic gas as

$$(p)=\underset{i}{}d^3k\rho _i(k)\sigma _i^{}(s)|v_\pi v_i|^{}.$$
(5)
Here, $`\rho _i(k)`$ is the density of particles on which the pion scatters, $`\sigma _i^{}(s)`$ is the collinear cross-section, and $`|v_\pi v_i|^{}`$ is the relative velocity of the pion to the other scattering partner in the CMS of the pair. We integrate over the momenta of the scatterers and sum over following species as scattering partners: $`i=\pi ,N,\overline{N},K,\rho ,\mathrm{\Delta },\overline{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$. For the cross-section we use a parametrisation of hadron scattering via resonances (see ). For the temperatures we assumed values of 90, 100, and 120 MeV. We estimated the chemical potentials in such a way that we reproduced data on pion phase-space density at the SPS  and RHIC  and the ratios of $`dN/dy`$ of different species at midrapidity .

In Fig. 1 I compare pion scattering rates in hadronic gases corresponding to those at the SPS and at RHIC. The contribution from nucleons and antinucleons to the total scattering rate increases little when moving from SPS to the higher energy system. A higher phase-space density of pions at RHIC  leads to larger pion contribution, but the total scattering rate is not dominated by pions and therefore does not change much. Quantitatively, about 10% relative contribution is shifted from baryons to mesons when going from SPS to RHIC.

A summary of results is plotted in Fig. 2. The scattering rate drops with temperature. When we use eq. (4) and a realistic estimate of the transverse rapidity gradient , reasonable escape probabilities ($``$ 30–50%) are obtained for $`T100\text{MeV}`$. Note that this was inferred for a particle with $`p_t=0`$ in centre of the fireball.

One can see that regardless the assumed temperature and chemical potentials higher momentum particles always have smaller scattering rate and thus decouple easier. This suggests that the freeze-out can be sequential: high momenta first, low momenta later. A sequential freeze-out might be an additional cause of the $`M_t`$ dependence of the HBT radii, if high-$`p_t`$ pions decouple earlier and from a smaller fireball than the low-$`p_t`$ ones. Such a scenario, however, must be studied in more detail. Nevertheless, it represents an interesting alternative to the blast-wave model, which seems to have problems in reproducing data on HBT radii .

Due to the momentum dependence of the scattering rate, collapsing the whole decoupling four-volume into a sharp three-dimensional freeze-out hypersurface seems an unreliable approximation.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Beautiful mathematics and its application in physics is one of the main characteristics of Balchandran’s work. The application of topological ideas in physics permeates throughout most of Bal’s papers. It is a pleasure to read them and I personally have always found them enlightening. A collection of some of these can be found in the monograph.

Topological configurations have played important role in our understanding of condensed matter as well as particle physics. In high energy physics they appear as finite energy or finite ( Euclidean-) action solutions of non linear classical field equations while in string theory they are p-brane configurations with non zero charges defined by space integrals of differential forms of appropriate ranks.  Magnetic systems are understood in terms of domain formation, phase transitions in two dimensional systems with continuous symmetries are explained in terms of formation of vortices.  In particle physics our only understanding of the famous $`U(1)`$ problem is in terms of the instanton solution.  Formation of vortices, domain walls and magnetic monopoles have relevance in cosmology.  Also one of the ideas which recently acquired considerable interest is the possibility that our 4-dimensional space time may be a topological defect of a 3-brane type extending in a higher dimensional space time.  Unlike the classical Kaluza Klein theory where one assumed that the extra dimensions should be small and cover a compact manifold in this paradigm the extra dimensions can be large and non compact.  This freedom allows a reformulation of one of the basic questions of fundamental physics, namely, why the planck mass is so much larger than the electroweak symmetry breaking scale. . In this contribution we shall give a very brief review of some of these ideas. In section 2 we start from the Kosterliz-Thouless description of phase transitions in two dimensional systems with continuous symmetries in terms of vortex formations and go on to the vortex solutions in 3 and higher dimensions. In section 3 we discuss very briefly the formation of walls, and fermion localization on them. In section 4 we mention some examples in string theory.

## 2 Vortices in 1+1 and higher dimensions

### 2.1 1+1 dimensions

Consider a field $`\theta (x)`$ in $`1+1`$ dimensions which takes its values in a circle. The Hamiltonian is

$$H=J/2d^2x_i\theta _i\theta $$
(1)
The non triviality of this system is related to the fact that $`\theta (x)`$ ia an angle. Shifting $`\theta (x)`$ by an $`x`$ independent angle does not change $`H`$. Thus there is a continuous $`U(1)`$ symmetry in this problem. It is not hard to show that this symmetry can not be broken spontaneously in $`1+1`$ dimensions. The low temperature fluctuations are spin waves with power law correlations. Therefore there can not be a phase transitions which is triggered by spontaneous symmetry breaking. There is a continuous line of critical points with temperature dependent exponent. It was shown by Kosterlitz and Thouless that actually a sharply defined transition temperature does exist and the phase transition proceeds by the formation of vortices.  These configurations are defined by those $`\theta (x)`$ for which $`\theta (x)`$ are multiple valued, viz.$`_C𝑑l_i_i\theta =2n\pi n`$, where $`C`$ is a contour which encircles the origin and $`n`$ is any integer. Away from the origin one can write ( we take n=1 case)$`_i\theta (x)=(0,1/r)`$.The energy of this configuration will be $`E=\pi Jln(L/a)`$. Here $`a`$ is a short distance cut off, the lattice spacing in spin systems to which these considerations are normally applied, and $`L`$ is the size of the system. Since the center of the vortex can be located at any one of the $`(L/a)^2`$ points on the lattice the entropy for the creation of a vortex will be $`S=ln(L/a)^2`$. The free energy associated with the creation of a vortex can easily be obtained to be $`F=ETS=(\pi J2T)ln(L/a)`$. There is thus a critical temperature $`T_c=\pi J/2`$ above which the quasi order of the spin waves are unstable against formation of single vortices. Below $`T_c`$ we have only vortex-antivortex pair. As $`T`$ increases the size of vortex-antivortex pair increases and above $`T_c`$ the pair becomes unstable. This destabilize the quasi order of the low $`T`$ spin waves and makes the correlations to decay exponentially. This is the KT description of phase transitions in two dimensional spin systems with continuous symmetries. Note that the formation of vortices in this system is entirely due to topology, namely, the fact that $`\theta `$ takes its values on a $`S^1`$ and that $`\pi _1(S^1)=Z`$.

### 2.2 Higher than 2-dimensions

For the application in particle physics and cosmology the interesting case arises when we couple gauge fields to scalars in some representation of the gauge group. The scalars are assumed to have a potential which allows spontaneous breaking of the gauge symmetry $`G`$ to one of its subgroups $`H`$. It is the topology of the vacuum manifold $`G/H`$ which plays the key role in ensuring the existence of topologically non trivial configurations. The simplest case is to have a U(1)gauge theory coupled to a complex scalar field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. In 3 space dimensions, provided that the charge of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is twice that of the electron, this will give the Ginzburg-Landau description of the BCS theory of superconductivity. The spontaneous breaking of the $`U(1)`$ symmetry gives rise to a finite penetration depth. This so called Meissner effect can also be seen in $`2+1`$ dimensional gauge theories of Chern Simons type without a need for spontaneous symmetry breaking. However, unlike the Higgs induced order which disappears at some finite temperature, the CS induced Meissner effect does not seem to vanish at any $`T_c`$. The penetration depth remains finite at all temperature, at least in perturbation theory.  Abrikozov demonstrated the formation of vortices in the LG model and discussed their physical relevance for type II superconductivity.  The same system was then studied by Nielsen and Olesen in the context of $`3+1`$ dimensional scalar electrodynamics.  Here the vortices will appear as static solutions. Their formation was thought to be relevant for quark confinement. Another very interesting consequence of this type of solution is the localization of fermionic zero modes to the core of the vortex. The fact that this does indeed happen was shown in Ref. . We shall come back to this issue in the following section and discuss it in some detail in 6 dimensions. If the localized fermions are electrically charged they can lead to the formation of superconduction cosmic strings.

One can proceed to higher than $`4`$ dimensions and apply these ideas to brane world scenarios. The simplest model for our world as a brane extending in a higher dimensional space time is perhaps the one constructed by Rubakov and Shaposhnikov.  In the absence of gravity this model consists of a scalar field with an appropriate self coupling to allow for the spontaneous breaking of a $`Z_2`$ symmetry. Denote the fifth coordinate by $`r`$ and the first four coordinates by $`x^\mu `$. The r-dependent (and $`x^\mu `$ independent) kink solution for the scalar field will be seen as a 3-brane localized along the $`r`$ axis. Its thickness will be given by the thickness of the kink, which in turn is determined by the Compton wavelength of the scalar particle. The interesting result of Rubakov and Shaposhnikov was to show that if we study the solutions of the 5-dimensional Dirac equation in the kink background we shall find two, 4-dimensional chiral configurations. Only one of them has a normalizable kinetic energy and is localized to the wall. This result should be contrasted with the Kaluza Klein ideas according to which the extra dimensions are assumed to be compact contrary to the non compact r coordinate. Also to obtain chiral fermions one needed to start from an even dimensional theory with fundamental gauge fields coupled to chiral fermions in the higher dimensional space time.   If we couple a charged scalar to the bosonic part of the same 6-dimensional system we can search for vortex solution. Such a solution has indeed been found and has been interpreted as a 4-dimensional universe sitting at the core of the vortex.  In order for the 4-dimensional physics to reside at the core one needs to find physical mechanisms which localize the higher-dimensional fields to the 3-dimensional brane residing at the core and whose world volume is our 4-dimensional space-time. In general the localization of fermions is relatively straightforward in the presence of warped geometry and non trivial Yang-Mills backgrounds. In the specific vortex background the relevant equations can be reduced to a form which agrees with the familiar case of $`3+1`$ dimensional problem near the core of the vortex.  Far from the core they are different.  It turns out that the gauge field fluctuations also do localize. However, there is no mass gap in the spectrum of the localized gauge fields to separate them from the bulk excitations. The fermion spectrum on the other hand does have a mass gap. In the absence of such a gap for the gauge fields it is unclear how one can neglect the bulk modes and consider only the localized modes. Many aspects of the localization problem recently has been a subject of an intense study.  Allowing for non compact internal dimensions raised some early hopes for a solution of the cosmological constant problem. ’  As mentioned before, recently the idea of a non compact extra dimension raised the hope of reformulating the well known hierarchy problem. Another reformulation of the same problem is in the context of a large but compact extra dimension , although the idea of a large compact extra dimensions is not new.

### 2.3 Vortices in 6-dimensions

Now we go a little more into the detail of the 6-dimensional vortex solution. We are interested in a warped geometry for the space-time and vortex configuration for the gauge-scalar system. The background geometry is defined by the metric,

$$ds^2=e^A(r)\eta _{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu +dr^2+e^B(r)a^2d\theta ^2$$

where $`\mu ,\nu =0,1,2,3`$ and $`a`$ is the radius of $`S^1`$ covered by the $`\theta `$ coordinate. The ansatz for the gauge field $`A_M`$ and the scalar $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ will be a Nielsen-Olesen vortex solution. $`\mathrm{\Phi }=f(r)e^{in\theta }`$ and $`aeA=(P(r)n)d\theta .`$ The functions $`f(r)`$ and $`P(r)`$ satisfy the following boundary conditions

$$\begin{array}{cc}f(0)=0,\hfill & f(\mathrm{})=f_0\hfill \\ P(0)=n,\hfill & P(\mathrm{})=0\hfill \end{array}$$
(2.3)
In Ref.  it was shown that the above ansatz solves the bosonic background equations. There are solutions with different boundary conditions for the metrical fields $`A`$ and $`B`$. The boundary conditions of interest for us which localize fields of spin $`0,1/2\text{and}\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}1}`$ are, as $`r0`$, given by $`A(r)0\text{and}B(r)2\text{ln}(r/a)`$, while as $`r\mathrm{}`$ we should demand $`A(r)=B(r)2cr`$, where $`c`$ is a positive constant.

As has been explained in Ref.  in order to find the correct anzatz for the $`U(1)`$ gauge field we need to identify the unbroken symmetry group which leaves the background geometry as well as the vortex configuration invariant. This leads us to the identification

$$V_i^{(1)}=\frac{1}{ae}P(r)W_i(x),andh_{i\theta }=e^BW_i(x)$$
(2.6)
where $`W_i`$ is a function of $`x^\mu `$ only, and i=1,2 are the transverse directions in $`D=4`$. It is the gauge field of the unbroken $`U(1)`$. This anstaz leads to the following kinetic energy for $`W_i`$ fields

$$S(W_\mu )=\frac{1}{2a^2e^2}d^6xe^{\frac{1}{2}B}\left(P^2(r)+\frac{a^2e^2}{\kappa ^2}e^B\right)_\nu W_i^\nu W_i$$
(2.7)
The r-integral is converging quite rapidly and we obtain a normalizable effective action for $`W_i`$.

Note that in the above formula we have the bilinear part of the Maxwell action in the light cone gauge . For that reason only the transverse components of the gauge field appear in the action. In the non covariant gauge used in this calculation the light cone components $`V_{}`$ of the gauge field fluctuations and $`h_M`$ of the gravitational fluctuations are set to zero. The equations of motions for the remaining longitudinal components $`V_+`$ and $`h_{+M}`$ then are determined in terms of the transverse components $`V_i`$ and $`h_{ij}`$, etc. In this way the redundant components disappear completely from the formalism. This simplifies the spectrum analysis of the massless modes .

## 3 Fermions

Fermion localization on defects has many interesting physical implications. Here we consider three examples. The first is basically a two dimensional phenomena which results from the fact that the $`1+3`$ dimensional Dirac equation in the background of a Nielsen-Olesesn string has localized zero modes.  These modes are massless and propagate with the speed of light along the string. It was shown by Witten that, if charged, they can lead to superconducting cosmic strings.  Their presence in grand unifying theories have significant cosmological implications.

The second example concerns the existence of fermion zero modes in D=6 in a vortex background and warped geometry. Their presence leads to D=4 QED near the core of the vortex. . In the absence of gravity the only way to find normalizable solutions of Dirac equation in the background of a vortex in $`1+3`$ dimensions is to introduce a Yukawa coupling as it was originally done in Re.. In the presence of gravity and warped geometry, however, there exist normalizable zero mode solutions even in the absence of Yukawa couplings. For the consistency of the starting theory one needs to make the six dimensional theory free from chiral anomalies. This can be done. In fact there exist anomaly free supergravity models in $`D=6`$ with ungauged  or gauged  R-symmetries. Furthermore it has been shown that the spectrum of localized fermions is separated by a mass gap from the bulk fermions. Thus unlike the vector bosons they have a very clean physical interpretation in the context of brane world scenarios.

To study the problem of fermion mass gap we need only to consider the large $`r`$ limit, for which, the Yukawa and Majorana mass terms in the fermionic part of the action can be neglected, and the equations for bulk modes read (we consider only $`4_+`$ six-dimensional fermion, the case of $`4_{}`$ is treated in full analogy) :

$`\mathrm{e}^{+\mathrm{i}\theta }\left(_r+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{i}}{a}}\mathrm{e}^{B/2}_\theta \right)\psi ^L`$ $`=`$ $`m_fe^{\frac{1}{2}A2^re^{\frac{B}{2}}e_LA_\theta 𝑑\rho }\psi ^R,`$ (2.7)
$`\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}\theta }\left(_r{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{i}}{a}}\mathrm{e}^{B/2}_\theta \right)\psi ^R`$ $`=`$ $`m_fe^{\frac{1}{2}A+2^re^{\frac{B}{2}}e_LA_\theta 𝑑\rho }\psi ^L.`$
The ansatz $`\psi _L=e^{im\theta }\psi _L^m`$, $`\psi _R=e^{i(m+1)\theta }\psi _L^m`$ removes the angular dependence and leads, for large $`r`$, to the following asymptotic solutions

$$\psi _L\frac{1}{\sqrt{z}}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{12ne_L/e}{2am_f}z\right)\left(C_1\mathrm{sin}(Sz)+C_2\mathrm{cos}(Sz)\right),$$
(2.7)
where $`z=\frac{m_f}{c}e^{cr}`$ and $`S^2=1\frac{(mne_L/e+\frac{1}{2})^2}{(am_f)^2}`$. From this we immediately see that the charged bulk fermions are massive, $`m_f>\frac{1}{a}|m\frac{ne_L}{e}+\frac{1}{2}|`$, since the combination of $`m`$ and $`n`$ in $`S^2`$ is exactly the electric charge. There are of course also charged localized fermions which are massless.

For our third example we mention only in passing how fermion localization on a domain wall has been employed to give a non perturbative definition of chiral gauge theories, i.e a way of defining chiral fermions on the lattice without running into the doubling problem.

Let us consider a 5-dimensional space-time. Assume that there is a 4-dimensional wall sitting at some point on the time axis, as opposed to the spatial $`r`$-axis discussed before. This system has a time dependent mass term in the Hamiltonian. The time dependence is simply given by $`sign(t)`$, which is $`+1`$ for positive $`t`$ and $`1`$ for negative $`t`$. There are a finite number of chiral fermion modes localized to the wall. Kaplan made the interesting suggestion that this fact may be used to solve the long standing problem of defining Euclidean lattice chiral gauge theories by identifying the wall with the 4-dimensional Euclidean space.  Narayanan and Neuberger removed the shortcomings of this idea and turned it into a formalism for a non perturbative definition of chiral gauge theories. They gave a formula for the chiral Dirac operator as the overlap between two vectors in the Hilbert space of this set up.  These vectors are denoted by $`|A`$ and $`|A+`$ in the notation of Re , where $`A`$ refers to the gauge field. The chiral Dirac determinant is then identified with their inner product and chiral anomalies have their root in the phase of this complex functional. Several aspects of this prescription has been examined in detail. In particular it has been shown that the formalism correctly reproduces all one loop amplitudes for slowly varying external gauge fields, including chiral gauge and gravitational anomalies .

## 4 String Theory

Superstring theory allows for phenomena which may not exist or not easy to observe in field theory. For example it is possible that the topology of a Calabi-Yau manifold undergoes a change without creating a singularity in space time physics. This happens by passing through a conifold point in the moduli space of CY manifolds. Starting with a smooth CY with Euler number $`\chi `$ one can shrink $`N`$ $`S^3`$’s to single points, thereby obtaining a singular manifold with the Euler number of $`\chi +N`$ sitting at a conifold singularity in the moduli space. In the next step one replaces each singular point with a $`S^2`$ to obtain a smooth CY with an Euler number of $`\chi +2N`$.

A beautiful interpretation of this conifold transition is as follows: Consider a $`D_3`$ brane wrapped around a $`S^3`$ in compactification space of the type IIB string on some $`CY_3`$ three folds. The low energy dynamics of the moduli fields is described by a $`\sigma `$ model targeted on $`CY_3`$. These fields in their time evolution encounter a conifold singularity which corresponds to vanishing $`S^3`$’s. The vanishing volume of the wrapped $`D_3`$ brane in its turn gives rise to the emergence of the massless states in the low energy spectrum. Thus physically, the appearance of singularity is equivalent to the emergence of new massless multiplets in the 4-dimensional spectrum.

Conifolds enter many other discussions in string theory. One very interesting case is the demonstration by Witten that the free energy of a $`U(N)`$ Chern-Simons theory on $`S^3`$ equals the free energy of topological open strings targeted on the cotangent bundle of $`S^3`$, which is a deformed conifold. The free energy of the CS theory can be formally expanded as $`E=_{g=0,h=1}C_{g,h}N^{2g2}\lambda ^{2g2+h}`$, where $`\lambda =\frac{k}{N+k}`$. According to Witten each term in the above sum can be interpreted as the free energy of an open string diagram on a world sheet of genus $`g`$ and $`h`$ boundaries.Assume we perform the sum over $`h`$. The result should be an expression of the form $`E=_{g=0}^{\mathrm{}}N^{2g2}F(\lambda )`$ which looks like the topological sum over all closed string world sheet, each term representing the contribution of a genus $`g`$ surface. The string coupling constant $`g_s`$ is clearly proportional to $`1/N`$ and vanishes as $`N`$ goes to infinity. In fact one can calculate $`F_g`$ for all values of $`g`$ and show that each $`F_g`$ is identical to the free energy of a closed string targeted on a small resolution of a $`CY_3`$. Thus it seems that summing over the boundaries of the world sheet generates a transition from a $`S^3`$ deformed conifold through a singular conifold to a small resolution.

## Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Misha Shaposhnikov for collaboration and many useful discussions. I would also like to thank the organizers of the Balfest for inviting me to make this contribution. The work reported here has been partially supported by the EU fund, CT-200-00148.


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# Doppler broadening of the iron line and 𝑅-Γ correlation in black hole binaries

## 1 Correlation between spectral and timing parameters

The results presented in Fig.2 are based on the publicly available data of a number of RXTE/PCA (Brandt et al., 1996) observations of Cyg X–1, GX339-4 and GS1354–644 performed from 1996–1999. The spectral model and procedures for spectral approximation and for fitting the power density spectra are described in (Gilfanov et al., 1999, 2000; Revnivtsev et al., 2001). We emphasize, that the model used for spectral approximation of the data is obviously oversimplified and does not include a number of physically important effects. Some of the parameters, for example, the binary system inclination, were fixed at fiducial values. Consequently, the best fit values do not necessarily represent the exact values of the physically interesting parameters. Particularly subject to various uncertainties is the reflection scaling factor $`R\mathrm{\Omega }/2\pi `$, (Zdziarski et al., 2003). This might explain the values of $`R`$ exceeding unity, obtained for some of the spectra. However, as was shown in (Gilfanov et al., 1999) and (Revnivtsev et al., 2001), the model does correctly rank the spectra according to the strength of the reflected component and the slope of the underlying power law.

## 2 Toy models

The photon index $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of the Comptonized radiation is controlled by the Compton amplification factor $`A`$ which equals to the ratio of the energy deposited into the electrons to the flux of soft seed photons to the Comptonization region. The concrete shape of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(A)`$ relation depends on the ratio $`T_{bb}/T_e`$ of the temperatures of the seed photons and the electrons, the Thomson optical depth and the geometry. In the simplest although not unique scenario the correlation between the amplitude of the reflected component $`R`$ and the slope of the Comptonized spectrum $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ (Fig.2) could be understood assuming that there is a positive correlation between the solid angle subtended by the reflecting media, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{refl}`$, and the flux of the soft photons to the Comptonization region (Zdziarski et al., 1999). Existence of such correlation is a strong argument in favor of the reflecting media being the primary source of the soft seed photons to the Comptonization region. In the absence of strong beaming effects a correlation between $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{refl}`$ and the seed photons flux should be expected since an increase of the solid angle of the disk seen by the hot electrons ($`=\mathrm{\Omega }_{refl}`$) should generally lead to the increase of the fraction of the disk emission reaching the Comptonization region.

In order to demonstrate that such geometrical effects can explain the observed dependence $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(R)`$ we consider two idealized models having different mechanism of change of the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{refl}`$. In the first, disk-spheroid model, an optically thin uniform hot sphere with radius $`R_{sph}`$ is surrounded with an optically thick cold disk with an inner radius $`R_{disk}`$ (e.g. Poutanen et al., 1997), the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{refl}`$ depending on the ratio $`R_{disk}/R_{sph}`$. Propagation of the disk inner edge towards/inwards the hot sphere (decrease of $`R_{disk}/R_{sph}`$) leads to an increase of the reflection scaling factor, a decrease of the the Compton amplification factor $`A`$ and a steepening of the Comptonized spectrum. In such context the model was first studied by Zdziarski et al. (1999) and we used their results to calculate the relation between the $`R`$ and $`A`$. In the second, plasma ejection model, proposed by Beloborodov (1999), value of the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{refl}`$ is defined by bulk motion of the emitting plasma with mildly relativistic velocity towards or away from the disk, which itself remains unchanged. Both models predict relation between reflection $`R`$ and $`A`$ which can be translated to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(R)`$ given a dependence $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(A)`$ of the photon index of Comptonized spectrum on the amplification factor. The latter was approximated by:

$$A=(1e^{\tau _T})\frac{1\mathrm{\Gamma }}{2\mathrm{\Gamma }}\frac{\left(\frac{T_e}{T_{bb}}\right)^{2\mathrm{\Gamma }}1}{\left(\frac{T_e}{T_{bb}}\right)^{1\mathrm{\Gamma }}1}+e^{\tau _T}$$

This formula is based on a representation of the Comptonized spectrum by a power law in the energy range $`3kT_{bb}3kT_e`$ and agrees with the results of the Monte-Carlo calculations with reasonable accuracy for optical depth $`\tau _T1`$ and $`T_{bb}/T_e10^510^3`$ (Fig.3).

The expected $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(R)`$ relations are shown in Fig.2. With a proper tuning of the parameters both models can reproduce the observed shape of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(R)`$ dependence and in this respect are virtually indistinguishable. The observed range of the reflection $`R0.31`$ and the slope $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1.52.2`$ can be explained assuming variation of the disk radius in from $`R_{disk}R_{sph}`$ to $`R_{disk}0`$ in the disk-spheroid model or variation of the bulk motion velocity from $`v0.4c`$ away from the disk to $`v0`$ in the plasma ejection model. Finally, it should be emphasized that these idealized models do not include a number of important effects which might affect the particular shape of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(R)`$ dependence.

## 3 Doppler broadening of iron line

The spectrum of emission, reflected from a Keplerian accretion disk is expected to be modified by the Doppler and special and general relativity effects (Fabian, 1991). If increase of the reflection is caused by the decrease of the inner radius of the accretion disk, as predicted in the truncated disk picture, a correlation should be expected between the amplitude of reflected emission and its Doppler broadening, in particular the Doppler width of the fluorescent iron line. Such a correlation is a generic prediction of the truncated disk models and might be used to discriminate between different assumptions about geometry of the accretion flow. The energy resolution of RXTE/PCA is not adequate to study relativistic smearing of the reflection features with sufficient degree of confidence. However, the data shown in Fig.4 might present an evidence in favor of a correlated behavior of the reflection and Doppler broadening of the fluorescent line of iron.

Speculating further, if the characteristic frequencies of variability are proportional to the Keplerian frequency at the inner boundary of the disk, they should scale as

$$\nu _{QPO}\omega _KR_{\mathrm{disk}}^{3/2}$$

As the reflected emission is likely to originate primarily from the innermost parts of the accretion disk, closest to the source of Comptonized radiation, the effect of the Doppler broadening should be proportional to the Keplerian linear velocity at the inner edge of the disk:

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }E}{E}\frac{\mathrm{v}_K}{c}\mathrm{sin}iR_{\mathrm{disk}}^{1/2}\mathrm{sin}i$$

Therefore, one might expect, that the characteristic frequencies of variability and the Doppler broadening of the fluorescent line should be related via:

$$\nu _{QPO}\frac{\left(\mathrm{\Delta }E/E\right)^3}{M_{\mathrm{BH}}\mathrm{sin}^3i}$$

where $`M_{\mathrm{BH}}`$ is the black hole mass and $`i`$ is inclination of the binary system. The PCA data indicate, that such dependence might indeed be the case (Fig.4). If confirmed with higher energy resolution observations, this result will have a significant impact on our understanding of the geometry of the accretion flow in vicinity of the compact object and of the nature of the characteristic frequencies of variability. In particular, it will lend support to the truncated disk picture, confirming that the spectral variations are indeed related to changes of the position of the inner disk boundary and that characteristic variability frequencies are proportional to the Keplerian frequency at the inner boundary of the accretion disk.


text:
# Rotation of Jets from Young Stars: New Clues from the Hubble Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph 1footnote 11footnote 1Based on observations made with the NASA/ESA 𝐻𝑢𝑏𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑒, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS5-26555.

## 1 Introduction

A key question in star formation research concerns the mechanisms behind the launch of jets from young stars. These jets are believed to play an important role in the removal of excess angular momentum from the system, thus allowing accretion of matter onto the star up to its final mass. It is generally acknowledged that magneto-centrifugal forces are responsible for jet launching. In particular in the so-called ‘disk-wind’ model (e.g. Ferreira, 1997; Königl & Pudritz, 2000) the jet is launched from the disk surface within a few AU from the star; while in the ’X-wind’ model Shu et al. (2000) the base of the flow is located at a few stellar radii from the source. To date, resolution constraints on observations have impeded progress in validating the magneto-centrifugal mechanism, since jet launching occurs on small scales (i.e. less than 20 AU from the star); moreover, infall and outflow kinematics are complex and confused close to the source, that is often heavily embedded. Recently, however, interesting results have been obtained from observations of jets from more evolved, less embedded T Tauri stars (TTSs) for which the jet can be optically traced back to its origin.

Observational backing for canonical models would require, for example, proof of rotation around the symmetry axis, close to the base where the jet is launched. The first hint of jet rotation was reported for the HH 212 system Davis et al. (2000). However the knots were located at 2$`\times `$103 \- 104 AU from the jet source. Independently, asymmetries in velocities within the first 110 AU of the outflow from the T Tauri star DG Tau were found (Bacciotti et al., 2002), indicative of rotation. These results were obtained through an analysis of high angular resolution spectra taken with the Hubble Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (HST/STIS), aimed at probing the acceleration and collimation region of a stellar jet. Further confirmation of the rotation hypothesis came from Owens Valley Radio Observatory (OVRO) observations, which report the sense of rotation of the disk of DG Tau to be the same as that of the jet Testi et al. (2002). Moreover, the derived toroidal velocities in the observed portion of the jet were seen to be in agreement with the predictions of the magneto-centrifugal models, and indeed they can be used to find the location on the disk plane of the launching point of the wind (Bacciotti et al., 2002; Anderson et al., 2003; Dougados et al., 2003; Pesenti et al., 2003).

These results motivated us to conduct an optical STIS survey to establish conclusively whether jets from young stars rotate. We report findings for another three sources (of eight in the survey sample) for which the data have already been acquired, i.e. the bi-polar jets from the TTSs TH28 and RW Aur, and the blue-shifted jet from LkH$`\alpha `$321.

## 2 Observations

Observations were made of the jets associated with TH28, LkH$`\alpha `$321 and RW Aur using HST/STIS on June 22, August 20, and October 3, 2002 respectively (proposal ID 9435). An aperture of 52 $`\times `$ 0.1 arcsec2 was used with the G750M grating which gave a spectral sampling of 0.554 Å pixel-1, corresponding to a radial velocity of $``$ 25 km s-1 for the wavelength range covered. The angular sampling was 0$`\mathrm{}`$.05 pixel-1. An acquisition of the stellar peak intensity prior to science observations allowed the slit to be centered accurately on the star before being offset to a position perpendicular to the jet axis at 0$`\mathrm{}`$.3 from the source. We assume inclination angles (w.r.t. the plane of the sky) of 10$`\mathrm{°}`$ for TH28 Krautter (1986), 44$`\mathrm{°}`$ for RW Aur López-Martín et al. (2003), and 45$`\mathrm{°}`$ for LkH$`\alpha `$321 (arbitrary, since unknown, although it may have a large inclination angle from spectro-astrometric measurements Whelan et al. (2003)). The offset of 0$`\mathrm{}`$.3 then represents a deprojected distance of $``$ 51, 195 and 233 AU along the jet for TH28, RW Aur, and LkH$`\alpha `$321, respectively. The only exception was in the case of the RW Aur blue-shifted jet lobe where the slit was placed at 0$`\mathrm{}`$.2 due to lack of line emission at 0$`\mathrm{}`$.3 Woitas et al. (2002). Spectra were obtained of the blue- and red-shifted lobes, using exposure times of 2200 and 2700 seconds respectively, for the bi-polar jets associated with TH28 and RW Aur. In the case of LkH$`\alpha `$321, only the blue-shifted lobe was detectable and so two spectra of this lobe, with exposure times of 2200 and 2700 seconds, were obtained and summed to increase the signal-to-noise of the faint emission lines. In total, this yielded five spectra, in the transverse direction at the base of the jets, which included H$`\alpha `$ and the forbidden emission lines (FELs) \[OI\]$`\lambda \lambda `$6300,6363, \[NII\]$`\lambda \lambda `$6548,6583, \[SII\]$`\lambda \lambda `$6716,6731. Data were calibrated through the standard HST pipeline, subtraction of the reflected stellar continuum was performed, and hot/dark pixels were removed.

## 3 Results

In order to determine whether rotation is present in the jet channel, the difference in velocities on either side of the jet axis was analysed. Position-velocity contour plots for a sample of emission lines are shown in Figure 1, top panels. All radial velocities are systemic, i.e. they are quoted with respect to the mean heliocentric velocity of the star, which has been measured from photospheric lines to be +5 km s-1 for TH28 Graham et al. (1988), +23 km s-1 for RW Aur Woitas et al. (2003) and -7 km s-1 for LkH$`\alpha `$321 (E. Whelan, priv. comm.). The lower order contours trace the outer jet channel where the jet is not so well collimated and where the lower velocities lie. If rotation is present, there will be a difference in radial velocities between the two sides of the jet. This difference will be evident graphically as a skew in the contours of the transverse position-velocity diagram. Such a skew is indeed observed in all three cases in the outer contour lines. This suggests the presence of rotation in at least the low velocity component (LVC) of the flow near the outer borders of the jet channel. The high velocity component (HVC), which is located much closer to the jet axis and gives rise to the emission peak Bacciotti et al. (2000), appears not to be spatially resolved in our spectra. For this reason we cannot resolve any velocity difference in the HVC between the the two sides of the flow, i.e. we cannot detect rotation for this velocity component.

To give a quantitative estimate of the observed velocity shifts, it was firstly necessary to ensure that we measure velocity offsets at equal distances on either side of the jet axis. To this purpose we assumed that the peak of the (HVC) emission traces the position of the axis, and measured its distance from the nominal center of the slit, with a Gaussian fit along the cross-dispersion direction. We then shifted the line emission re-centering the HVC peak on the nominal zero arcsecond position. In all cases a small offset ($``$ 0.4 pixels) was required, Table 2. The offsets have different sign and magnitude for the three targets, indicating that this is not an instrumental systematic effect. Instead, pixel shift values for emission lines in opposite jet lobes are consistent with a maximum misalignment $``$ 2 degrees with respect to the perpendicular of the actual jet axis at sub-arcsecond scales. This resulted in a displacement of the peak intensity of up to 0$`\mathrm{}`$.02, a quantity which would produce a marginal asymmetry in radial velocity estimated to be at most 20$`\%`$ if uncorrected Bacciotti et al. (2002). This error was, however, avoided as the emission was brought on-axis prior to analysis.

The peak intensities of pixel rows on either side of the central row were then compared for velocity differences, Figure 1, bottom panels. The intensity profiles of each pair of pixel rows symmetric about the jet axis was plotted (e.g. $`\pm `$0$`\mathrm{}`$.1, or as indicated in each box). The single curve at the bottom in each case is the intensity of the central on-axis pixel row. Two methods were used in velocity measurements: a cross-correlation technique, which analyses the overall displacement of lines and is independent of the shape of the line profile; and a Gaussian fitting technique, which acts as a suitable check given the simple shape of the line profile in most cases. Specifically, each pair of pixel rows, mirrored in distance from the jet axis, was cross-correlated, and Gaussian fits for each pair of rows were also compared. The outcomes of the two methods are consistent, showing clear radial velocity differences of 10 to 25 ($`\pm `$ 5) km s-1 for opposing jet edges. Results are listed in Table 3, in which we report the measured radial velocity differences in the direction of the oriented slit, corresponding to a direction specified in the first column of the Table. In a small number of cases, flagged in the table with a $``$ symbol, the emission had to be filtered out of a background which was causing velocity measurements to be artifically changed due to either: relatively strong HVC presence; oversubtraction of the background; or low signal-to-noise at crucial positions. The overall results are illustrated graphically in Figures 2 to 4.

Finally, the radial velocity profile across each jet is shown in Figure 5. In the red-shifted lobes of TH28 and RW Aur, the on-axis radial velocity is clearly the highest and the value reduces as the edges of the jet are approached. The blue-shifted lobes are not so clear as the emission is fainter and often more scattered. Data reduction in these cases often required isolation of the lower velocity component from the HVC (as marked in Table 3) to identify elements of rotation. However radial velocities in this figure include the HVC, and so rotation is not apparent in all cases.

From the results of this spectral analysis, combined with the inclination angles, we find poloidal velocities for the RW Aur jet of 144 - 227 km s-1 in the red lobe and 245 - 288 km s-1 in the blue lobe - this velocity asymmetry is well known from previous observations, Woitas et al. (2002); for TH28 jet of 115 - 288 km s-1 in the red lobe and 230 - 374 km s-1 in the blue lobe - an asymmetry which was also previously recorded, Graham et al. (1988); and for LkH$`\alpha `$321 of 540 - 550 km s-1. Toroidal velocities derived from the outer positional radial velocity shifts, being less affected by projection effects (see Section 4), are in the ranges of: 7 to 17 km s-1 for both lobes of RW Aur; 5 to 13 km s-1 for the red lobe of TH28; 4 to 8 km s-1 for the blue lobe of TH28; and 4 to 9 km s-1 for the blue lobe of LkH$`\alpha `$321. (Note that, in the ranges given above, the higher poloidal velocities lie at distances closest to the rotation axis, and these correspond to the lower toroidal and radial velocities.)

## 4 Discussion

Assuming that emission from the jet is axially symmetric, we interpret our findings of velocity differences between the two sides of the jet flow, Table 3 and Figures 2 to 4, as evidence for rotation at the base of the jet. Most importantly, for TH28 and RW Aur, the red and blue jet lobes were found to rotate in the same direction. This implies that the helicity in the red and blue lobes (i.e. the handedness of toroidal with respect to the poloidal velocity) is opposite in opposite directions, a result predicted by MHD models where the ambient field is wrapped around due to disk rotation.

Before looking at each target individually, there are a few general comments to be made about the results in Table 3. Firstly, the velocity difference measurements close to the jet axis, i.e. at the 0$`\mathrm{}`$.05 position, are noticeably smaller than points further away, and where the emission is detectable at 0$`\mathrm{}`$.2 and beyond, velocity differences are higher than at intermediate distances. This effect may at first appear in contradiction with the notion that the central portions of the jet should rotate faster. A detailed comparison with disk-wind model predictions (Pesenti et al., 2003, and Dougados et al., 2003) shows, however, that the apparent decrease of the observed velocity difference toward the jet axis is likely to be due to projection and beam smearing effects. Since the emission is optically thin we see, along the line of sight, the sum of the contributions emitted from regions in the jet that rotate with different toroidal velocities. This causes a reduction of the observed velocity shift. Such an effect is more important for regions closer to the axis, while the values measured at the outer jet borders are less contaminated and so are in better agreement with theoretically predicted toroidal velocities. In other words this effect does not reflect a true kinematic feature, but is expected on the basis of MHD acceleration models when combined with our observational mode. Secondly, it should be noted that the size of velocity differences in different emission lines does not represent scattering around an average value but rather is due to the fact that emission has its origin at different positions along the line of sight. And lastly, the \[NII\] lines show higher velocity differences than other emission lines, a result that illustrates how they trace the central more collimated higher velocity region of the flow (see Bacciotti et al., 2000, López-Martín et al., 2003, Pesenti et al., 2003).

The results for the TH28 red-shifted jet lobe are clearest. Velocity differences alomg the SW - NE direction are positive, with a few exceptions mainly in the \[SII\] lines. Also, the data close to the jet axis are not well resolved as explained above. The stronger \[OI\] and \[NII\] lines have values of 5 and 6 km s-1 at 0$`\mathrm{}`$.05 from the axis compared to 10 to 20 km s-1 further from the axis, while the outer jet channel seems to have higher radial velocity differences of about 24 km s-1. Values in the blue-shifted jet lobe are less clear, but \[NII\] and \[OI\] emission give positive differences consistent with the red-shifted lobe. All other usable data points fall within the error bars about zero. Globally, we find evidence that both lobes of the jet rotate in a clockwise direction, looking down the blue-shifted jet lobe towards the source, with a measured radial velocity difference of 10 to 25 km s-1.

The RW Aur jet also shows clear indications of rotational velocities. Exceptions include the \[SII\]$`\lambda `$6731 values in the red-shifted lobe. Also points close to the jet axis show smaller radial velocity differences due to strong unresolved HVC emission. However, the \[OI\] lines give clear results with higher radial velocity difference evident at 0$`\mathrm{}`$.2 from the jet axis. The blue-shifted lobe is less definite, but nevertheless velocity differences outside the error bars are positive in line with the red-shifted lobe. Overall, results show an anti-clockwise rotation looking down the blue-shifted jet lobe towards the source, again with radial velocity differences of 10 to 25 km s-1. These findings are consistent in magnitude and direction with results of similar research on the RW Aur jet Woitas et al. (2003) in which rotational velocities in the same direction of 10 to 20 km s-1 have been observed, in the form of velocity differences between the borders of the flow. For this study HST/STIS was also used, but the spectra were taken in a set of positions across the jet with the slit direction parallel to the jet axis.

In the case of LkH$`\alpha `$321, which is located at 550 pc (more than three times the distance of the other targets) the emission lines were very faint despite having combined two spectra to increase the signal-to-noise ratio. Nevertheless, velocity differences in the range of -5 to -30 km s-1 have been measured, although evidence of rotation is weaker in this case. The sense of rotation for LkH$`\alpha `$321 is measured as anti-clockwise looking down the blue-shifted lobe towards the star. In this jet we are able to measure rotation at higher velocities because of a number of factors: LkH$`\alpha `$321 is farther away meaning we are looking further along the jet (233 AU from the source, projected distance) to a point where it has widened and so we can resolve higher velocities; a large inclination angle (which appears to be the case from spectro-astrometric measurements Whelan et al. (2003)) would mean that the poloidal and radial velocities approach each other; and finally this is a larger mass T Tauri star, since it has spectral type G1 Chavarría-K. et al. (1981), implying higher velocities in the outer resolvable regions of the jet.

It is reassuring that we obtain negative shifts in the case of LkH$`\alpha `$321, as opposed to the positive shifts observed for the other two sources because, as we are comparing the same rows on the CCD detector in all cases, it means we are not measuring an instrumental effect. Conceiveably, a slight misalignment of the slit with respect to the transverse direction of the jet (i.e inaccurate position angle used in the pointing of the instrument) may produce an effect similar to rotation. In this case, the position of the real jet axis will then be shifted with respect to the nominal zero arcsec position. We have shifted the spectral image back to the zero arcsec position as previously discussed (Section 3), but the angle subtended remains a problem. It could produce a rotation signature even in a non-rotating jet, since the HVC and LVC are at different spatial locations on the CCD with respect to the zero arcsec row of pixels, implying that we are not probing symmetric regions of the jet with respect to its real axis. Given such a misalignment has occurred, the extent of the contamination does not have, however, a dramatic affect on our results, as can be seen from the fact that the pixel shift requirements for TH28 and LKH$`\alpha `$321 (Table 2) are in the same direction but the sense of rotation of their jets is opposite. For RW Aur, the same PA was used here for slit positioning as in a previous study Woitas et al. (2003), where it was found that the magnitude of the false rotation signature contamination due to incorrect PA was, at most, 1 - 5 km s-1. However, the sense of the false signature is in fact opposite in direction to that of the jet’s rotation, and so the values we have measured are actually lower limits. Apart from this, the only other obvious effect which could produce a contour skew mimicking rotation is asymmetrical interaction with the local environment on either side of the propagating jet, e.g. asymmetrical mass entrainment leading to asymmetrical poloidal velocities. However such mimicking is unlikely because (apart from the fact that asymmetrical entrainment should also produce enhanced emission at one border of the flow, which is not seen in our spectra) we see the same asymmetry in both the red and blue shifted jet lobes where present, and the magnitudes of the deduced toroidal velocity differences are in the range predicted by theory (as discussed below).

Overall, our observations are in line with the observations of the jet from the T Tauri star DG Tau Bacciotti et al. (2002). In that case, by using simple and general relationships governing the physics of magnetically launched disk winds together with an observationally based estimate of the ratio, $`R`$, between the mass flux in the jet and the mass flux accreted through the disk ($`R`$ $``$ 0.1), it was demonstrated that the observed velocity differences were in the expected range, Bacciotti et al. (2002); Anderson et al. (2003); Dougados et al. (2003). These values compare well with our results, which therefore support the magneto-centrifugal scenario. Furthermore, our toroidal and poloidal velocities have the same ratio as theoretical predictions Vlahakis et al. (2000), and we can use these velocities, $`v_{\varphi ,\mathrm{}}`$ and $`v_{p,\mathrm{}}`$ measured at a distance, $`\varpi _{\mathrm{}}`$, from the rotation axis, to obtain values for the wind-launch region in terms of distance from the rotation axis along the disk plane, $`\varpi _0`$. Using Equation 1 Anderson et al. (2003),

$`\varpi _0`$ $``$ $`0.7AU\left({\displaystyle \frac{\varpi _{\mathrm{}}}{10AU}}\right)^{2/3}\left({\displaystyle \frac{v_{\varphi ,\mathrm{}}}{10kms^1}}\right)^{2/3}`$ (1)
$`\times \left({\displaystyle \frac{v_{p,\mathrm{}}}{100kms^1}}\right)^{4/3}\left({\displaystyle \frac{M_{}}{1M_{}}}\right)^{1/3}`$
and assuming all three sources are of mass M $``$ 1M, which is a reasonable approximation given the weak dependence on M, we obtain values for $`\varpi _0`$ as shown in Table 4. We have chosen measurements at 0$`\mathrm{}`$.1 and 0$`\mathrm{}`$.2 from the jet axis as limits of a suitable range, being less contaminated by projection effects. Where emission was faint, values corresponding to 0”.05 were used, but it should be noted that these are less accurate. Also, the values at 0$`\mathrm{}`$.1 are less precise than those at 0$`\mathrm{}`$.2, when both are present, since increased projection effects close to the jet axis tend to reduce the line of sight averaged vϕ,∞, and hence the resulting value of $`\varpi _0`$ (Pesenti et al 2003). Considering the red-shifted jet-lobes which both have very strong signal-to-noise in \[OI\] and \[NII\] emission lines, we calculate a wind-launch region spanning 0.3 to 1.6 AU, in keeping with previous estimates for DG Tau of $``$ 1.8 AU Bacciotti et al. (2002) and $``$ 0.3 to 4 AU Anderson et al. (2003). The observational evidence presented here supports the idea that disk winds are launched, via the magneto-centrifugal mechanism (e.g. Königl & Pudritz, 2000), at radii within a few AU of the star. Determination of the most appropriate model however will have to await higher spatial and spectral resolution observations in the future.

## 5 Conclusions

The jets from the three young stars observed, TH28, RW Aur and LkH$`\alpha `$321, show distinct and systematic radial velocity asymmetries in opposing positions with respect to the jet axis, at 0′′.2 - 0′′.3 from the source. Although the on-axis higher velocity component of the jet remains unresolved, radial velocity differences in the lower velocity component located in the outer jet channel are found to be on the order of 10 to 25 ($`\pm `$5) km s-1. For the bi-polar jets from TH28 and RW Aur, the velocity differences have the same sign in both lobes. We interpret these radial velocity asymmetries as rotation signatures in the region where the jet has been collimated but has not yet manifestly interacted with the environment. Therefore the sense of rotation of the jets, looking down the blue-shifted lobe towards the star, is clockwise for TH28, and anti-clockwise for RW Aur and LkH$`\alpha `$321.

Our findings are reinforced in a number of ways: the velocity differences are of the same magnitude as those measured in the similar DG Tau jet of 5 to 10 km s-1 Bacciotti et al. (2002), which was shown to be in agreement with the predictions of MHD disk-wind models Bacciotti et al. (2002); Anderson et al. (2003); Dougados et al. (2003); Pesenti et al. (2003); they are in line with similar research on the RW Aur jet Woitas et al. (2003) which yields rotational velocities of 10 to 20 km s-1, with the same sense of rotation; and finally, they lead to values for the distance of the LVC footpoint from the central axis of $``$ 0.5 - 2 AU, consistent with the models of magneto-centrifugal launching Anderson et al. (2003).

Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Marcello Felli, Catherine Dougados, Emma Whelan and Jonathan Ferreira for useful comments and suggestions. D.C. and T.P.R. would like to acknowledge support for their research from Enterprise Ireland and J. E. and J. W. likewise wish to acknowledge support from the Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt under grant number 50 OR 0009. We would also like to thank the anonymous referee for useful comments.