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# The Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect as a probe of the galaxy formation process

## 1 Introduction

The currently standard hierarchical clustering paradigm for large scale structure formation in a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM universe has successfully confronted a broad variety of observations, ranging from the formation of galaxy clusters, to large scale velocity fields, to power spectra of the galaxy distribution and of the microwave background, and more (see, e.g., Spergel et al. 2003 ). However, the theory of formation and evolution of galaxies is not in a very satisfactory state. Serious challenges have emerged in the last years (Silk 2002 ): the excess of predicted small scale structure; the persistent inability of even the best semi-analytic models (Devriendt Guiderdoni 2000 ; Cole et al. 2000 ; Somerville et al. 2000 ; Menci et al. 2002 ) to account for the surface density of massive galaxies at substantial redshifts detected by (sub)-mm surveys with SCUBA and MAMBO (Blain et al. 2002 ; Scott et al. 2002 ) and by deep K-band surveys (Cimatti e al. 2002 ; Kashikawa e al. 2002 ); the difficulties to account for the distribution of velocity dispersions of low-ionization damped Lyman-$`\alpha `$ systems at $`z>1.5`$ (Prochaska Wolfe 2001 ; Prochaska Wolfe 2002 ); the low predicted specific angular momentum of galactic disks (Navarro Steinmetz 2000 ; Eke et al. 2001 ); the observational evidence contradicting the existence of the central cusp in the dark matter distribution, predicted by numerical simulations (Navarro et al. 1997 ; Moore et al. 1999 ; Klypin et al. 2001 ). On larger scales, the observed relationship between X-ray luminosity and gas temperature for groups of galaxies strongly deviates from expectations of the simplest hierarchical clustering models.

Solutions of these problems may require advances in different fields that may include particle physics (self-interacting dark matter?), deviations from a power law of the power spectrum of primordial density perturbations (as may be suggested by WMAP data, Spergel et al. 2003 ), or the astrophysics of galaxy formation and evolution. In any case, a better understanding of the complex physical processes governing the galaxy formation is mandatory.

We discuss here how unique information may be provided by the Sunyaev-Zeldovich (SZ) effect. In fact, the the proto-galactic gas is expected to have a large thermal energy content, leading to a detectable SZ signal, both when the protogalaxy collapses with the gas shock-heated to the virial temperature (Rees Ostriker 1977 ; White Rees 1978 ), and in a later phase as the result of strong feedback from a flaring active nucleus (Ikeuchi 1981 ; Natarajan et al. 1998 ; Natarajan Sigurdssson 1999 ; Aghanim et al. 2000 ; Platania et al. 2002 ; Lapi et al. 2003 ).

## 2 Galaxy-scale Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect

Let us consider a fully ionized gas with a thermal energy density $`ϵ_{\mathrm{gas}}`$, within the virial radius

$$R_{\mathrm{vir}}=\left(\frac{3M_{\mathrm{vir}}}{4\pi \rho _{\mathrm{vir}}}\right)^{1/3}\mathrm{1.6\hspace{0.17em}10}^2h^{2/3}(1+z_{\mathrm{vir}})^1\left(\frac{M_{\mathrm{vir}}}{10^{12}M_{}}\right)^{1/3}\text{kpc},$$
(1)
where $`h`$ is the Hubble constant in units of $`100\text{km}\text{s}^1\text{Mpc}^1`$ and $`\rho _{\mathrm{vir}}200\rho _u`$, $`\rho _u=\mathrm{1.88\hspace{0.17em}10}^{29}h^2(1+z_{\mathrm{vir}})^3\text{g}\text{cm}^3`$ is the mean density of the universe at the virialization redshift $`z_{\mathrm{vir}}`$.

The Comptonization parameter $`y`$, characterizing the amplitude of the Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect due to this gas, can be estimated as (Zeldovich Sunyaev 1969 ):

$$y\frac{1}{4}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ}{ϵ_{\mathrm{CMB}}};$$
(2)
here $`ϵ_{\mathrm{CMB}}=a_{BB}T_{\mathrm{CMB}}^44.2\times 10^{13}(1+z)^4\text{erg}\text{cm}^3`$, $`a_{BB}`$ being the black-body constant and $`T_{\mathrm{CMB}}=T_0(1+z)`$ the temperature of the cosmic microwave background (CMB). The amount $`\mathrm{\Delta }ϵ`$ of gas thermal energy transferred to the CMB through Thomson scattering is :

$$\mathrm{\Delta }ϵϵ_{\mathrm{gas}}\frac{2(R_{\mathrm{vir}}/c)}{t_c},$$
(3)
$`t_c`$ being the gas cooling time by Thomson scattering.

A useful reference value for the thermal energy content of the gas, $`E_{\mathrm{gas}}`$ is its binding energy ($`E_{\mathrm{b},\mathrm{gas}}=M_{\mathrm{gas}}v_{\mathrm{vir}}^2`$, $`v_{\mathrm{vir}}=162h^{1/3}(1+z)^{1/2}(M_{\mathrm{vir}}/10^{12}M_{})^{1/3}\text{km}\text{s}^1`$ being the circular velocity of the galaxy at its virial radius, cf. Navarro et al. 1997 ; Bullock et al. 2001 ). The amplitude of the SZ dip in the Rayleigh-Jeans region can be written as:

$$\left|\mathrm{\Delta }T\right|_{\mathrm{RJ}}=2yT_{\mathrm{CMB}}1.7\left(\frac{h}{0.5}\right)^2\left(\frac{1+z_{\mathrm{vir}}}{3.5}\right)^3\frac{M_{\mathrm{gas}}/M_{\mathrm{vir}}}{0.1}\frac{M_{\mathrm{vir}}}{10^{12}M_{}}\frac{E_{\mathrm{gas}}}{E_{\mathrm{b},\mathrm{gas}}}\mu \text{K}.$$
(4)
Although current estimates of the ratio of the mass in stars to the total mass in massive spheroidal galaxies yield average values of $`M_{\mathrm{star}}/M_{\mathrm{vir}}0.03`$ (McKay et al. 2001 ; Marinoni Hudson 2002 ), a value of $`M_{\mathrm{gas}}/M_{\mathrm{vir}}0.1`$, close to the cosmic ratio between baryon and total mass density, is likely to be more appropriate for proto-galaxies before a large fraction of the initial gas mass is swept off by the combined action of supernova explosions and of quasar feedback.

The SZ effect in Eq. (4) shows up on small (typically sub-arcmin) angular scales. Quasar-driven blast-waves could inject into the ISM an amount of energy several times higher than the gas binding energy, thus producing larger, if much rarer, SZ signals.

## 3 SZ effect from quasar feedback

Impressively many lines of evidence converge in indicating that the formation of super-massive black holes powering nuclear activity is intimately linked to the formation of their host galaxies (Ferrarese 2002 ; Yu Tremaine 2002 . These include:

* the discovery that Massive Dark Objects (MDOs), with masses in the range $`10^6`$$`3\times 10^9M_{}`$ and a mass function matching that of baryons accreted onto black holes during the quasar activity (Salucci et al. 1999 ), are present in essentially all local galaxies with a substantial spheroidal component (Kormendy Richstone 1995 ; Magorrian et al. 1998 ; van der Marel 1999 ; Kormendy Gebhardt 2001 );
* the tight correlation between the MDO mass (MBH) and the velocity dispersion ($`\sigma `$) of stars in the host galaxy (Magorrian et al. 1998 ; Ferrarese Merritt 2000 ; Gebhardt et al. 2000 ; Tremaine et al. 2002 ), the mass of the spheroidal component (McLure Dunlop 2002 ; Dunlop et al. 2003 ), and the mass of the dark halo Ferrarese 2002 ; recently Shields et al. (2003)  have found that the MBH$`\sigma `$ correlation is already present at redshift up to $`3`$;
* the correspondence between the luminosity function of active star-forming galaxies at $`z3`$, the B-band luminosity function of quasars, and the mass function of dark halos at the same redshift (Haehnelt et al. 1998 ; Monaco et al. 2000 );
* the similarity between the evolutionary histories of the luminosity densities of galaxies and quasars (e.g. Cavaliere Vittorini 1998 ).

As a consequence, the evolutionary histories of both active nuclei and spheroidal galaxies (or galactic bulges) can only be understood if we properly allow for their mutual feedback. As discussed by Granato et al. 2001 ; Granato et al. 2003 ), the mutual feedback between galaxies and quasars during their early evolutionary stages may indeed be the key to overcome some of the crises of the currently standard scenario for galaxy evolution.

One ingredient of the scenario proposed by Granato et al. 2003  are powerful quasar driven outflows, carrying a considerable fraction of the quasar bolometric luminosity, $`L_{\mathrm{bol}}`$, increasing as $`L_{\mathrm{bol}}^{1/2}`$ (for emission close to the Eddington limit). For large enough galaxies ($`M_{\mathrm{vir}}10^{12}M_{}`$), the interstellar medium (ISM) is eventually swept out, and, correspondingly, the star-formation is switched off, on shorter timescales for more massive objects. The outflows are expected to be highly supersonic, and therefore liable to induce strong shocks, transiently heating the interstellar gas to temperatures exceeding the virial value.

A black-hole (BH) accreting a mass $`M_{\mathrm{BH}}`$ with a mass to radiation conversion efficiency $`ϵ_{\mathrm{BH}}`$ releases an energy $`E_{\mathrm{BH}}=ϵ_{\mathrm{BH}}M_{\mathrm{BH}}c^2`$. We adopt the standard value for the efficiency $`ϵ_{\mathrm{BH}}=0.1`$ and assume that a fraction $`f_h=0.1`$ of the energy is fed in kinetic form and generates strong shocks turning it into heat. Actually the fraction, $`f_h`$, of energy going into heating of the interstellar gas may be a function of the BH mass, or of the bolometric luminosity of the active nucleus (AGN). For example, Granato et al. 2003  argue that, based on the model for AGN-driven outflows by Murray et al. 1995 , for emission at the Eddington limit, the fraction of bolometric luminosity released in kinetic form increases as $`L_{\mathrm{bol}}^{1/2}`$. This conclusion is, however, model-dependent and we prefer the simpler assumption of a constant value for $`f_h`$, that may be viewed as an effective, luminosity weighted value. As discussed by Cavaliere et al. 2002 ; Platania et al. 2002 , $`f_h0.1`$ can account for the pre-heating of the intergalactic medium in groups of galaxies.

Using the recent re-assessment by Tremaine et al. 2002  of the well known correlation between the BH mass and the stellar velocity dispersion

$$M_{\mathrm{BH}}=\mathrm{1.4\hspace{0.17em}10}^8\left(\frac{\sigma }{200\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}}\right)^4\mathrm{M}_{}.$$
(5)
we get

$$\frac{E_{\mathrm{BH}}}{E_{\mathrm{b},\mathrm{gas}}}4.7\left(\frac{h}{0.5}\right)^{2/3}\frac{ϵ_{\mathrm{BH}}}{0.1}\frac{f_h}{0.1}\frac{1+z_{\mathrm{vir}}}{3.5}\left(\frac{M_{\mathrm{gas}}/M_{\mathrm{vir}}}{0.1}\right)^1\left(\frac{M_{\mathrm{vir}}}{10^{12}M_{}}\right)^{1/3}.$$
(6)
The amplitude of the SZ dip in the Rayleigh-Jeans region due to quasar heating of the gas is then estimated as:

$$\left|\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T}{T}\right)_{\mathrm{RJ}}\right|1.8\times 10^5\frac{f_h}{0.1}\left(\frac{h}{0.5}\right)^2\left(\frac{ϵ_{\mathrm{BH}}}{0.1}\right)^{1/2}\left(\frac{E_{\mathrm{BH}}}{10^{62}}\right)^{1/2}\left(\frac{1+z}{3.5}\right)^3.$$
(7)
Following Platania et al. 2002 , we adopt an isothermal density profile of the galaxy. The virial radius, encompassing a mean density of $`200\rho _u`$, is then:

$$R_{\mathrm{vir}}120\left(\frac{h}{0.5}\right)^1\left(\frac{E_{\mathrm{BH}}}{10^{62}}\right)^{1/4}\left(\frac{ϵ_{\mathrm{BH}}}{0.1}\right)^{1/4}\left(\frac{1+z_{\mathrm{vir}}}{3.5}\right)^{3/2}\text{kpc},$$
(8)
corresponding to an angular radius:

$`\theta _{SZ}17^{\prime \prime }\left({\displaystyle \frac{E_{\mathrm{BH}}}{10^{62}}}\right)^{1/4}\left({\displaystyle \frac{ϵ_{\mathrm{BH}}}{0.1}}\right)^{1/4}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1+z_{\mathrm{vir}}}{3.5}}\right)^{3/2}{\displaystyle \frac{d_A(2.5)}{d_A(z)}},`$ (9)
where $`d_A(z)`$ is the angular diameter distance.

## 4 Counts and small-scale fluctuations

The ”flux density”, which in the Rayleigh-Jeans region is actually negative, associated to the SZ effect is given by (neglecting relativistic corrections):

$$S_{\mathrm{SZ}}(\nu )=\frac{2\left(kT_{\mathrm{CMB}}\right)^3}{(hc)^2}g(x)y\omega ,$$
(10)
where $`\omega =\pi \theta _{\mathrm{SZ}}^2`$ and

$$g(x)=\frac{x^4e^x}{\left(e^x1\right)^2}\left(x\frac{e^x+1}{e^x1}4\right),$$
(11)
with $`x=h\nu /kT_{\mathrm{CMB}}`$.

### 4.1 Quasar-driven SZ signals

The counts of quasar-driven SZ signals, and the corresponding small scale fluctuations, can be estimated from the evolving B-band luminosity function of quasars, $`\varphi (L_B,z)`$, relating the total amount of energy released, $`E_{\mathrm{BH}}`$, to the B-band luminosity, $`L_B`$. If the quasar radiates at the Eddington limit $`E_{\mathrm{BH}}=k_{\mathrm{bol}}L_Bt_S`$, where $`k_{\mathrm{bol}}`$ is the bolometric correction and $`t_S4.5\times 10^7\text{yr}`$ is the quasar lifetime for $`ϵ_{\mathrm{BH}}=0.1`$.

The lifetime, $`t_{\mathrm{SZ}}`$, of the transient SZ effect due to the quasar-driven blast-waves is approximately the time for the shock to reach the outer border of the host galaxy. Using the expression (Ostriker McKee 1988 ) for the evolution with time of the radius of a self-similar blast-wave expanding in a medium with an isothermal density profile, $`\rho r^2`$, we have:

$$t_{\mathrm{SZ}}1.5\times 10^8\left(\frac{h}{0.5}\right)^{3/2}\left(\frac{E_{\mathrm{BH}}}{10^{62}\text{erg}}\right)^{1/8}\left(\frac{ϵ_{\mathrm{BH}}}{0.1}\right)^{5/8}\left(\frac{f_h}{0.1}\right)^{1/2}\left(\frac{1+z}{3.5}\right)^{9/4}\text{yr}.$$
(12)
The number density of SZ sources per unit interval of SZ “flux” $`S_{\mathrm{SZ}}`$ can then be estimated as

$$\varphi _{\mathrm{SZ}}(S_{\mathrm{SZ}},z)=\varphi (L_B,z)\frac{t_{\mathrm{SZ}}}{t_{\mathrm{q},\mathrm{opt}}}\frac{dL_B}{dS_{\mathrm{SZ}}},$$
(13)
where $`L_B(S_{\mathrm{SZ}},z)`$ is the blue luminosity of a quasar at redshift $`z`$ causing an SZ flux $`S_{\mathrm{SZ}}`$, and $`t_{\mathrm{q},\mathrm{opt}}`$ is the duration of the optically bright phase of the quasar evolution.

Figure 1 shows, as an example, the predicted counts at 30 GHz, as a function of $`S_{\mathrm{SZ}}`$, obtained adopting the exponential model for the evolving luminosity function of quasars derived by Pei 1995  for an Einstein-de Sitter universe, an Hubble constant of $`50\text{km}\text{s}^1\text{Mpc}^1`$, and an optical spectral index of quasars $`\alpha =0.5`$ ($`S_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$). The parameters have been set at $`ϵ_{\mathrm{BH}}=0.1`$, $`f_h=0.1`$, $`k_{\mathrm{bol}}=10`$, $`t_{\mathrm{q},\mathrm{opt}}=10^7\text{yr}`$.

### 4.2 SZ signals from proto-galactic gas at virial temperature

As discussed by Granato et al. 2001  quasars can be used as effective signposts for massive spheroidal galaxies in their early evolutionary phases; this allows us to bypass the uncertainties in the normalization of the primordial perturbation spectrum affecting estimates based on the various versions of the Press & Schechter formalism. According to Ferrarese 2003 , the mass of their dark-matter halo, $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$, is related to the mass of the central black-hole by:

$$\frac{M_{\mathrm{BH}}}{10^8M_{}}0.1\left(\frac{M_{\mathrm{vir}}}{10^{12}M_{}}\right)^{1.65}.$$
(14)
Under the assumption that quasars emit at the Eddington limit, the number density of sources with gas at virial temperature, producing SZ dips of amplitude given by Eq. (4), can be straightforwardly related to the quasar luminosity function $`\varphi (L_B,z)`$ by an equation analog to Eq. (13), replacing $`t_{\mathrm{SZ}}`$ with the gas cooling time, $`t_{\mathrm{cool}}`$.

The counts shown in Fig. 1 refer to the same cosmological model and the same lifetime of the quasar optically bright phase as above and to $`M_{\mathrm{gas}}/M_{\mathrm{vir}}=0.1`$. As for the cooling time, which is rather uncertain, we have made the extreme assumption that $`t_{\mathrm{cool}}=t_{\mathrm{exp}}`$. Thus the counts plotted have to be taken as upper limits.

### 4.3 Small scale fluctuations

The Poisson fluctuations are straightforwardly computed from the counts; since the latter are very steep, the results are insensitive to the upper flux density cutoff.

To estimate fluctuations due to clustering we adopted the spatial correlation function of quasars estimated by Croom et al. 2002  for an Einstein-de Sitter universe ($`\xi (r)=(r/r_0)^{1.58}`$, with $`r_0=4.29h^1`$Mpc, constant in comoving coordinates), cut-off at $`r=3r_0`$.

The power spectra of fluctuations due to both the gas in virial equilibrium and heated by the quasar feedback are compared, in Fig. 2, with the recent measurements of arcminute scale fluctuations at 30 GHz by the CBI (Mason et al. 2003 ) and BIMA (Dawson et al. 2002 ) experiments. We stress again that our estimated of signal from the gas at the virial temperature is based on an over-simplified treatment. In fact, the thermal history of the protogalactic gas is quite complex: only a fraction of it may be heated to the virial temperature (Binney 2003 ; Birnboim Dekel 2003 ); cooling may be relatively rapid in the densest regions; on the other hand, significant heating may be provided by supernovae and by the central active nucleus. Also, we expect that (Granato et al. 2003 ), particularly in the case of the most massive halos virializing at high $`z`$, the quasar feedback removes the residual interstellar gas on a timescale ranging to 0.5 to a few Gyrs. Thus, again, the results shown in Fig. 2 are (possibly generous) upper limits.

## 5 Discussion and conclusions

Evidences of statistically significant detections at 30 GHz of arcminute scale fluctuations in excess of predictions for primordial anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background (CMB) and also in excess of the estimated contamination by extragalactic radio sources have recently been obtained by the CBI (Mason et al. 2003 ) and BIMA (Dawson et al. 2002 ) experiments.

It may be noted that, although the CBI group applied a quite elaborated treatment of radio-sources, the sensitivity of their 31 GHz point source observations does not really guarantee proper allowance for this foreground. Their strategy comprised pointed 31 GHz observations with a $`4\sigma `$ detection limit of $`S_{31\mathrm{G}\mathrm{H}\mathrm{z}}=6`$mJy, of all NVSS sources with $`S_{1.4\mathrm{GHz}}6`$mJy and a direct survey reaching a flux limit of $`S_{\mathrm{lim},31\mathrm{G}\mathrm{H}\mathrm{z}}=6`$mJy, over an area of 1.8 square degrees. If the slope of their 31 GHz counts keeps constant down to flux densities several times lower than $`S_{\mathrm{lim},31\mathrm{G}\mathrm{H}\mathrm{z}}`$, the Poisson fluctuations due to sources below the detection limit amount to $`30\mu `$K, and may entirely account for the measured signal. Thus, their excess signal (15-$`30\mu `$K in the multipole range $`\mathrm{}=2000`$–4000) may be more conservatively interpreted as an upper limit.

The BIMA group (Dawson et al. 2002 ) carried out a VLA survey at 4.8 GHz of their fields down to a flux density limit of $`150\mu `$Jy to identify and remove point sources. In this case, the residual contamination is indeed likely to be small, at the cost of a loss of sensitivity.

If indeed the detected signal cannot be attributed to extragalactic radio sources, its most likely source is the thermal SZ effect (Gnedin Jaffe 2001 ). The SZ within rich clusters of galaxies has been extensively investigated (Komatsu Kitayama 1999 ; Bond et al. 2003 ). The estimated power spectrum was found to be very sensitive to the normalization ($`\sigma _8`$) of the density perturbation spectrum. A normalization $`\sigma _81`$, somewhat higher than indicated by other data sets, is apparently required to account for the CBI data. High resolution hydrodynamical simulations of structure formation (Zhang et al. 2002 ; White et al. 2002 ) have highlighted the presence of substantial SZ structure on sub-arcmin scales.

We have carried out an analytical investigation of the SZ signals associated to the formation of spheroidal galaxies. We find that they are potentially able to account for the BIMA results. Proto-galactic gas heated at the virial temperature and with a cooling time comparable with the expansion time may provide the dominant contribution; in this case we expect clustering fluctuations of amplitude comparable to Poisson fluctuations, although with a flatter power spectrum.

Potentially detectable SZ signals can also be produced by strong feedback from the central active nucleus. It is, in fact, becoming increasingly clear that the interplay between star-formation and nuclear activity plays a key role in shaping the early evolution of both the host galaxy and the active nucleus. The enormous amounts of energy that the active nuclei (AGNs) release to their environment, not only in radiative but also in kinetic form, can strongly influence the gas both in the host galaxy and in the surrounding intergalactic medium, with conspicuous effects on X-ray emission and on the SZ signal. A flaring AGN can drive an energetic shock, causing a transient, strong rise of the average gas pressure and, consequently, of the amplitude of the SZ effect. These signals are much rarer but can individually reach substantially higher values.

High frequency surveys with sub-arcmin resolution can directly detect individual SZ sources. We expect a surface density of $`1\text{deg}^2`$ at $`S_{30\mathrm{G}\mathrm{H}\mathrm{z}}1`$mJy. Of course, the counts at these relatively bright fluxes are likely dominated by SZ effects in clusters of galaxies, which however should be easily distinguishable because of their much larger angular size and much lower redshift.

We thus conclude that the SZ effect is an effective probe of the thermal state of the gas, of its evolution and, in particular, of the AGN feedback. The main parameter governing the global effect on the ambient medium of the energy released by AGNs is the ratio, $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$, between the amount of energy deposited in the medium and the binding energy of the receiving gas (Cavaliere et al. 2002 ). $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E`$ can plausibly be $`1`$ for very massive galaxies and small groups, but is $`1`$ for rich clusters. Qualitatively different effects are therefore expected in the two cases. If $`\mathrm{\Delta }E/E1`$ the energy injection heats the gas and partially ejects it out of the potential well. This may lead directly to a correlation between the black-hole mass and the velocity dispersion of stars (or the bulge mass) with slope and normalization in nice agreement with the data. Also, the ensuing increase of the gas temperature and decrease of the X-ray luminosity (because of the decreased gas density) may explain the deviation of the observed $`T`$$`L_X`$ from predictions of the hierarchical clustering scenario, in the presence of gravitational effects only. Ongoing and forthcoming high resolution surveys in the cm/mm region may directly test this scenario. Clearly the SZ effect is a much more effective probe of the thermal energy content of the plasma than the X-ray emission. The former is in fact an almost perfect calorimeter (Birkinshaw 1999 ), being directly proportional to the thermal energy. On the contrary, X-ray emission is very sensitive to the details of the density distribution of the emitting gas.

Work supported in part by ASI and MIUR.


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# Spatially extended K i 𝜆7699 emission in the nebula of VY CMa: Kinematics and geometry

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Due to enhanced mass loss during the final stages of stellar evolution, red supergiants are surrounded by extended gas and dust envelopes. This material forms the pre-supernova circumstellar environment, or may get swept-up to form a ring nebula if the star evolves blueward to become a luminous blue variable or Wolf-Rayet star. In a brief phase when mass-loss peaks, these stars can have circumstellar nebulae dense enough to emit OH masers and strong thermal infrared (IR) emission from dust that may obscure the star (OH/IR stars). Among the most luminous red supergiants above 105.5 L, only a handful in our Galaxy are OH/IR stars — one of the most luminous is the M5e Ia supergiant VY Canis Majoris. At a distance of 1.5 kpc (Herbig 1972; Lada & Reid 1978; Marvel 1997), its luminosity is 105.7 L.

VY CMa is a special case among the most luminous red supergiants, because of its spectacular reflection nebula, with strong polarization (Herbig 1972) and intricate knotty and filamentary structure seen in Hubble Space Telescope (HST) and ground-based IR images (Kastner & Weintraub 1998; Monnier et al. 1999; Smith et al. 2001). These studies revealed a chaotic and highly asymmetric distribution of dust in the circumstellar environment. VY CMa also has strong SiO, H2O, and OH maser emission (Knowles et al. 1969; Buhl et al. 1974). Proper motions and Doppler shifts of these masers have repeatedly been interpreted to suggest that VY CMa is surrounded by an expanding disk-like distribution of material with the polar axis oriented northeast-southwest (van Blerkom & Auer 1976; Rosen et al. 1978; Benson & Mutel 1979, 1982; Morris & Bowers 1980; Bowers et al. 1983; Deguchi et al. 1983; Richards et al. 1998). These maser studies only probe material close to the star, and seem hard to reconcile with the severely asymmetric arrangement of knots, arcs, and chaotic filaments seen at larger radii in optical HST images (Smith et al. 2001; see Figure 1), or the asymmetric structure near the star in the IR (Monnier et al. 1999). A disk-like geometry implies axial symmetry, so perhaps the receding part of the nebula is obscured by foreground material. Nebulae around red supergiants are neutral dusty reflection nebulae, without convenient diagnostics of the geometry and kinematics like the bright H$`\alpha `$ or \[N ii\] lines commonly used in studies of nebulae around hot stars.

Spectroscopically, VY CMa is unique among red supergiants because the resonance lines of K i $`\lambda `$7665 and $`\lambda `$7699 are seen strongly in emission (Wallerstein 1958; Humphreys 1970; Wallerstein & Gonzalez 2001), accompanied by P Cygni absorption. The K i lines arise in cool gas at $``$700 to 1000 K (Wallerstein 1958), comparable to dust temperatures near the star (Monnier et al. 1999; Smith et al. 2001). Its spectrum is also unusual in that it shows emission from TiO, ScO, Ti i, Cr i, Rb i, Ba ii, etc. (Joy 1942; Wallerstein 1958, 1986; Hyland et al. 1969; Wallerstein & Gonzalez 2001). Emission from the K i lines is sometimes seen in extended envelopes of red supergiants, including Betelgeuse (Bernat & Lambert 1976; Bernat et al. 1978; Mauron et al. 1984; Plez & Lambert 1994, 2002), but the extreme strength of K i emission in the spectrum of the central star is rare.

This Letter reports the discovery that the previously-known K i emission in the star’s spectrum is accompanied by bright extendedi emission from VY CMa’s nebula. The K i lines are by far the brightest emission lines throughout the IR and visual-wavelength spectrum of the nebula. K i emission traces roughly the same spatial extent as the reflection nebula, and yields interesting clues to the kinematics and geometry of VY CMa’s circumstellar environment.

## 2 OBSERVATIONS

High-resolution optical spectra of VY CMa were obtained at the European Southern Observatory (ESO) at La Silla, Chile on the nights of 8, 10, and 11 March 2003 using the ESO Multi-Mode Instrument (EMMI) on the New Technology Telescope (NTT). Cross-dispersed echelle spectra were obtained using EMMI’s red CCD (a 4096$`\times `$4096 pixel MIT/LL detector) with the number 10 echelle grating and grism 6 for order separation. The separation between adjacent orders on the CCD allows for some spatial information to be recorded with a $``$13$`\mathrm{}`$ long slit aperture; this is well-suited to VY CMa’s compact reflection nebula (Figure 1). On all three observing nights the seeing was quite good, varying from 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$6 to 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$8 on average. To sample this good seeing and to maximize spectral resolution, a narrow 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$8-wide slit aperture was used. This configuration yielded a spectral resolution of $`R=\lambda /\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda \mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}35},000`$ (8 km s-1), and a pixel scale of 0$`\stackrel{}{.}`$166 $`\times `$ 0.0517 Å (or $``$2 km s-1 at a wavelength of 7699 Å). Wavelength calibration was accomplished using observations of an internal emission lamp; heliocentric velocities for the K i $`\lambda `$7699 line are quoted here. Several different slit positions and orientations were used to sample the spectrum of various features seen in images, as shown in Figure 1$`b`$. Discussion in this Letter is limited to the velocity structure of the very bright K i $`\lambda `$7699 emission line, since the other K i line at 7665 Å is strongly affected by absorption in the atmospheric A-band, and no other line in the spectrum had comparable brightness in the ejecta. Figure 2 shows the resulting position-velocity diagrams for K i $`\lambda `$7699 at the various slit orientations in Figure 1$`b`$.

## 3 DISCUSSION

The observations presented here were exploratory, and the most significant result is the discovery of bright intrinsici emission from the nebula around VY CMa — this extended K i emission is not simply a dusty reflection of the star’s K i emission line, but rather, it is intrinsic emission from the gas in the nebula itself.111This is immediately apparent because some of the emission is blueshifted, whereas reflection by expanding dust can only cause redshifted emision. A salient example is the Homunculus nebula around $`\eta `$ Carinae (Smith et al. 2003). It is therefore a powerful diagnostic of the kinematics and geometry of the extended nebula. Inferring quantities like column densities and mass-loss rates from the K i emission requires detailed modeling beyond the scope of this short Letter (see the models of K i emission for the nebula of Betelgeuse; Jura & Morris 1981; Rodgers & Glassgold 1991; Glassgold & Huggins 1986), but the information provided here can hopefully be useful in such an investigation. A qualitative description of the data is given here, and some clues to the kinematics and geometry of the nebula are discussed. Figure 3 shows spectral intensity tracings at a few selected positions, and Table 2 collects some measurements from these tracings, such as the flux-weighted centroid velocity ($`v_{\mathrm{cen}}`$), the emission equivalent width (EW), the flux ratio of reflected continuum to the central star’s continuum ($`F`$/$`F_{}`$), and the intensity ratio of the extended K i emission compared to the emission line seen in the star (I/I). Uncertainty in $`I`$/$`I_{}`$, $`F`$/$`F_{}`$, and the EW is a few percent, or as much as $`\pm `$10% in the faintest outer “halo” spectrum. The values for EW, $`F`$/$`F_{}`$, and $`I`$/$`I_{}`$ in Table 2 were corrected for instrumental scattering using observed values of $`F`$/$`F_{}`$ for a point source.

### 3.1 Kinematic Structure

Examining Figures 2 and 3, it is obvious that the kinematic structure of K i $`\lambda `$7699 in VY CMa’s circumstellar nebula is complex, and not easily explained by spherical or axial symmetry. This is consistent with qualitative inspection of HST images of the nebula, which suggest either highly asymmetric mass ejection or selective extinction (or both; Smith et al. 2001; Kastner & Weintraub 1998). In general, bright K i emission with strong Doppler shifts is confined to within about 5$`\mathrm{}`$ from the star, and strong emission features can usually be associated with knots or filaments in images of the nebula (Figure 1). Many positions show multiple velocity components along the same line of sight, especially the bright knots like S and SW. The curved nebulous tail (CNT; see Herbig 1972) shows interesting kinematic structure (see slit position E in Figure 2, which runs along the CNT). Near the star it is redshifted by about 20 km s-1 (compared to $`v_{\mathrm{sys}}`$), and this Doppler shift gradually decreases to match $`v_{\mathrm{sys}}`$ at the apex of the CNT farthest from the star. Thus, the CNT might either be a bubble like Arc1 moving near the plane of the sky, or an expanding equatorial ring. Overall, the material with strong K i emission and chaotic kinematic structure is seen mainly toward the southwest of the star, in the brightest part of the reflection nebula.

Self absorption is not uniformly distributed either. Blueshifted absorption is seen in the bright central parts of the nebula near the star, and is concentrated toward the north and northeast. Ratio images also showed enhanced reddening toward the northeast (Smith et al. 2001). No absorption is seen more than 1$`\mathrm{}`$ from the star toward the southwest direction. The narrow absorption shows a velocity gradient with position: It shifts from about $`+`$20 km s-1 (heliocentric) at a few arcseconds northwest of the star, reaching almost 0 km s-1 at positions a few arcsec east of the star.

While the faint outer halo has an emission profile almost identical to that of the star (Figure 3), the P Cyg absorption component is missing. The K i equivalent width in the halo is also nearly identical to the star (Table 2), so at large radii this halo is probably a pure reflection nebula. However, the missing P Cyg absorption component indicates that other lines of sight do not see the P Cyg absorption. Either the stellar wind of VY CMa is asymmetric, or the absorption is not a “real” P Cyg component formed in the wind, but is instead localized self absorption in the nebula.

### 3.2 Systemic velocity

At more than 5$`\mathrm{}`$ from the star in most position-velocity diagrams in Figure 2, a very faint emission component is seen at nearly the same velocity as that of the star. Images of VY CMa reveal a faint, fairly uniform scattering halo extending beyond 5$`\mathrm{}`$ from the star as well (Smith et al. 2001). Figure 3 shows an average of several different positions in this outer halo. This is not simply instrumental scattering of the bright star, because the P Cyg absorption is missing in the outer parts. This outer halo may be the best tracer of the systemic velocity of VY CMa. Table 2 gives the flux-weighted centroid velocity of K i in the halo, indicating a likely systemic velocity of $`+`$40.0$`\pm `$1.5 km s-1 (heliocentric), or $`+`$21 km s-1 (LSR). This agrees with various other indicators of VY CMa’s systemic velocity, varying between $`+`$37 and $`+`$44 km s-1 (Wallerstein 1986; Bowers et al. 1983; Deguchi et al. 1983; Reid & Dickinson 1976; Neufeld et al. 1999; Harwit & Bergin 2002), and is close to the systemic velocity of molecular clouds associated with the nearby cluster NGC 2362 ($`+`$18 km s-1 LSR; Lada & Reid 1978).

### 3.3 Episodic ejection

Deep HST images of VY CMa revealed a filamentary arc about 5$`\mathrm{}`$ southwest of the star (Arc 1 in Figure 1$`a`$) that provoked speculation about asymmetric, episodic mass ejection due to stellar activity (Smith et al. 2001). Slit positions D, G, and H in Figure 1$`b`$ were placed to study the velocity structure of Arc 1, and the results are striking. K i emission associated with Arc 1 is strongly blueshifted. Interestingly, it seems to show a quasi-Hubble law, perhaps composed of several clumps seen best in Figure 2 G and H. Its blueshift increases with separation from the star, reaching a maximum of about $``$40 km s-1 with respect to the star at a separation of 5$`\mathrm{}`$. (The emission feature at $``$3$`\mathrm{}`$ and $`+`$60 km s-1 in Figure 2 G and H may be Arc 2, consistent with the high reddening of Arc 2 in images; see Smith et al. 2001.) A Hubble-like flow would imply a single ejection episode, strengthening the hypothesis that Arc 1 is due to an asymmetric eruption from the star’s surface.

The pseudo ‘Hubble constant’ for this flow is roughly $``$7.2 km s-1 arcsec-1. Without proper motions, the projection angle out of the plane of the sky $`\psi `$ is unknown, but at a distance of 1.5 kpc, the observed velocity structure implies an age of $`t1000/(\mathrm{tan}\psi )`$ years.

The spatial extent of the K i emission associated with Arc 1 suggests that the emission line originates mainly in the filled interior of a bubble outlined by Arc 1. Perhaps reflected light in images traces a thin filamentary dust shell swept up by the expanding gas emitting K i.

### 3.4 Comparison with Betelgeuse

Neutral potassium emission has been observed in the circumstellar environment of Betelgeuse as well, out to radii of roughly 50$`\mathrm{}`$ (Plez & Lambert 2002), whereas the brightest K i reaches roughly 5$`\mathrm{}`$ from VY CMa. Since VY CMa is about 10 times farther away, the actual radial extent of the K i emission is comparable around these two stars. However, the K i in VY CMa’s circumstellar shell is much brighter with respect to the star; I/I is a factor of 103 to 104 stronger in VY CMa. Note that Betelgeuse shows no K i emission in the direct stellar spectrum, so Plez & Lambert measured $`I_{}`$ as the continuum flux in a 1-Å bin; thus, $`I`$/$`I_{}`$ in Table 2 needs to be multiplied by a factor of 4.75 (the EW of K i $`\lambda `$7699 for the star) for direct comparison with Betelgeuse. This relatively bright extended K i emission is partly due to the fact that direct photospheric light from VY CMa is obscured by its own circumstellar dust (Smith et al. 2001; Kastner & Weintraub 1998; Herbig 1972). Perhaps even the “stellar” K i emission arises in unresolved circumstellar ejecta, but appears so strong because the star is occulted. This may help explain the mystery of the unusually-bright K i emission from VY CMa. However, understanding the physical conditions in the gas that gives rise to the bright K i emission, the potassium abundance, the mass-loss rate, and other properties will require quantitative modeling of the observed nebular spectrum.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Support was provided by NASA through grant HF-01166.01A from the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. I thank an anonymous referee for helpful comments.


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# Astrophysical inputs on the SUSY dark matter annihilation detectability

(January 8, 2004)

## Abstract

If dark matter (DM), which is considered to constitute most of the mass of galaxies, is made of supersymmetric (SUSY) particles, the centers of galaxies should emit $`\gamma `$-rays produced by their self-annihilation. We present accurate estimates of continuum $`\gamma `$-ray fluxes due to neutralino annihilation in the central regions of the Milky Way. We use detailed models of our Galaxy, which satisfy available observational data, and include some important physical processes, which were previously neglected. Our models predict that spatially extended annihilation signal should be detected at high confidence levels by incoming experiments assuming that neutralinos make up most of the DM in the Universe and that they annihilate according to current SUSY models.

preprint: APS/123-QED

There is an increasing hope that the new generation of Imaging Atmospheric $`\stackrel{ˇ}{C}`$erenkov Telescopes (IACTs) would detect in the very near future the $`\gamma `$-ray signal coming from the annihilation products of the SUSY DM in galaxy halos (e.g., Bergstrom98 ; Baltz00 ; TO ; Stoehr ). The success of such a detection in competition with other indirect or direct experiments including accelerators will solve one of the most fundamental questions in Astrophysics and Particle Physics: the nature of the dark matter. The lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP) has been proposed to be a suitable candidate for the non-baryonic cold DM (Goldberg ; Ellis84 , see also Primack ; Jungman  for a review). The LSP is stable in SUSY models where R-parity is conserved Weinberg ; HS ; Allanach  and its annihilation cross section and mass has the appropriate relic densities Jungman ; Edsjo03  in the range allowed by WMAP, i.e. $`0.095<\mathrm{\Omega }_{CDM}h^2<0.129`$ Spergel . We focus in the Minimal Supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model of particle physics (MSSM) where the LSP is the neutralino ($`\chi `$). New upper limits on the neutralino mass ($`m_\chi `$) have been estimated due to the constrains on the neutralino relic densities $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\chi h^2`$ provided by WMAP; $`m_\chi <1500`$GeV based on the MSSM including minimal supergravity (mSUGRA) Ellis03 ; Edsjo03 . A lower limit of $`m_\chi 100`$GeV has been set by the accelerators Hagiwara .

The number of neutralino annihilations in galaxy halos and therefore the expected gamma signal arriving at the Earth depends not only on the adopted SUSY model but also strongly depends on the DM density $`\rho _{dm}(r)`$. This is why the central region $`r<200`$pc of the Milky Way, where the density is the largest, is the favorite site to search for this signal. The expected total number of continuum $`\gamma `$-ray photons received per unit time and per unit area, from a circular aperture on the sky of width $`\sigma _\mathrm{t}`$ (the resolution of the telescope) observing at a given direction $`\mathrm{\Psi }_0`$ relative to the center of the Milky Way can be written as:

$`F(E>E_{\mathrm{th}})={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4\pi }}\mathrm{YSUS}U(\mathrm{\Psi }_0),`$ (1)
$$\mathrm{YSUS}=\frac{N_\gamma \sigma v}{2m_\chi ^2},U(\mathrm{\Psi }_0)=J(\mathrm{\Psi })B(\mathrm{\Omega })𝑑\mathrm{\Omega },$$

where the factor YSUS (back-spelled SUSY) depends only on the physics of annihilating particles and all the astrophysical properties (such as the DM distribution and geometry considerations) appear only in the factor $`U(\mathrm{\Psi }_0)`$. This factor also accounts for the beam smearing, where $`J(\mathrm{\Psi })=_{l.o.s}\rho _{dm}^2(r)𝑑l`$, $`dl=\pm rdr/\sqrt{r^2d_{}^2\mathrm{sin}^2\mathrm{\Psi }},`$ is the integral of the line-of-sight of the square of the DM density along the direction $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$, and $`B(\mathrm{\Omega })d\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the Gaussian beam of the telescope:

$$B(\mathrm{\Omega })d\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{\theta ^2}{2\sigma _t^2}\right]sin\theta d\theta d\phi .$$
(2)
The angles $`\theta `$ and $`\phi `$ are related with the direction of observation $`\mathrm{\Psi }_0`$ and the line-of-sight angle $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ by $`\mathrm{cos}\mathrm{\Psi }=\mathrm{cos}\mathrm{\Psi }_0\mathrm{cos}\theta +\mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Psi }_0\mathrm{sin}\theta \mathrm{cos}\phi `$. We have assumed spherical symmetry for the DM particles around the Galactic Center and that the observer is located in the Calactic equatorial plane at a distance $`d_{}`$ (here 8.0 kpc).

The factor YSUS/$`4\pi `$ represents the isotropic probability of $`\gamma `$-ray production per unit of DM density. It can be determined for any SUSY model given the neutralino mass $`m_\chi `$, the number of continuum $`\gamma `$-ray photons $`N_\gamma `$ emitted per annihilation, with energy above the IACT energy threshold ($`E_{th}`$), and the thermally average cross section $`\sigma v`$ of the DM particles. We can then estimate a YSUS parameter range, given a neutralino mass interval of $`1001500`$GeV, and a cross section $`\sigma v`$ interval of $`5\times 10^{27}3\times 10^{26}`$ $`cm^3s^1`$ obtained for a sample of MSSM models computed in Stoehr ; Tasi  with relic densities in agreement with the WMAP constrains. The number of continuum gamma photons produced per annihilation Nγ is obtained by integrating the continuum spectrum given by the decay of $`\pi ^0`$ mesons produced in the fragmentation of quarks. It can be well approximated by the eq.(18) in TO , i.e. $`N_\gamma =5/6x^{3/2}10/3x+5\sqrt{x}+5/(6\sqrt{x})10/3`$, where $`xE_{\mathrm{th}}/m_\chi `$. This gives values of the YSUS parameter in the range of $`10^{34}`$ to $`10^{30}`$ photons GeV$`{}_{}{}^{2}cm^3s^1`$ for $`E_{th}`$ from 1 to 400 GeV.

A cuspy DM halo $`\rho _{dm}(r)`$ r predicted by the simulations of the Cold Dark Matter with the cosmological constant ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM ) is often assumed for the calculations of $`U(\mathrm{\Psi }_0)`$ (e.g., Bergstrom98 ; Baltz00 ; TO ; Stoehr ; Bergstrom99 ; Calcaneo ; UBEL ; HD ; TS ; Tasi ; Evans ). Cosmological $`N`$body simulations indicate that the distribution of DM in relaxed halos varies between two shapes: the NFW NFW  density profile $`\rho (r)=\rho _0/x(1+x)^2,`$ $`xr/r_s`$ with asymptotic slope $`\alpha =1`$ and the steeper Moore et al. Moore98  profile $`\rho (r)=\rho _0/x^{1.5}(1+x)^{1.5}`$, $`\alpha =1.5`$. The density of DM also depends on two parameters of the approximations: the virial mass $`M_{\mathrm{vir}}`$ and the concentration $`Cr_{\mathrm{vir}}/r_s`$, where $`r_s`$ is the characteristic radius of assumed approximation. For Milky Way-size halos the average concentration $`C=15`$ and the $`1\sigma `$-variance is $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{log}(C)=0.11`$. For Moore et al profile we define concentration as $`C_{moore}=C_{\mathrm{NFW}}1.72`$.

Milky Way mass models with adiabatic compression.— The predictions for the DM halos are valid only for halos without baryons. When normal gas (“baryons”) loses its energy through radiative processes, it falls to the central region of forming galaxy. As the result of this redistribution of mass, the gravitational potential in the center changes substantially. The dark matter must react to this deeper potential by moving closer to the center and increasing its density. This increase in the DM density is often treated using adiabatic invariants. This is justified because there is a limit to the time-scale of changes in the mass distribution: changes of the potential at a given radius cannot happen faster than the dynamical time-scale defined by the mass inside the radius. Adiabatic contraction of dark matter in a collapsing protogalaxy was used already in 1962 ELS . In 1980, Zeldovich et al. Zeldovich  used it to set constraints of properties of elementary particles (annihilating massive neutrinos). They were also the first to present analytical expression for adiabatic compression (for pure radial orbits) and to make numerical tests to confirm that the mechanism works. The present form of analytical approximation (circular orbits) was introduced in Blumenthal . If $`M_{\mathrm{in}}(r_{\mathrm{in}})`$ is the initial distribution of mass (the one predicted by cosmological simulations), then the final (after compression and formation of galaxy) mass distribution is given by $`M_{\mathrm{fin}}(r)r=M_{\mathrm{in}}(r_{\mathrm{in}})r_{\mathrm{in}}`$, where $`M_{\mathrm{fin}}=M_{\mathrm{DM}}+M_{\mathrm{bar}}`$. This approximation was tested in numerical simulations White85 ; JNB . The approximation assumes that orbits are circular and, thus $`M(r)`$ is the mass inside the orbit. This is not true for elongated orbits: mass $`M(r)`$ is smaller than the real mass, which a particle “feels” when it travels along elongated trajectory. This difference in masses requires a relatively small correction: mass $`M`$ should be replaced by the mass inside time-averaged radius of trajectories passing through given radius $`r`$: $`M_{\mathrm{fin}}(r)r=M_{\mathrm{in}}(r_{\mathrm{in}})r_{\mathrm{in}}`$. We find the correction using Monte Carlo realizations of trajectories in the NFW equilibrium halo and finding the time-averaged radii $`x1.72x^{0.82}/(1+5x)^{0.085}`$, $`xr/r_s`$. This approximation predicts smaller contraction in the central regions, where individual trajectories are very elongated. It gives better fits than the standard approximation when compared with realistic cosmological simulations Kravtsov2004 .

In order to make realistic predictions for annihilation rates, we construct two detailed models of the Milky Way Galaxy by redoing the full analysis of numerous observational data collected in Klypin02 . The models are compatible with the available observational data for the Milky Way and their main parameters are given in Table 1. More details on the model ingredients and the existing observational constrains can be found in Klypin02 . Fig. 1 presents the distribution of mass and density in the models. While all observations were included, some of them are more important than others. The solar neighborhood is relatively well studied and, thus, provides important observational constraints. In Table 1 we present two local parameters: the total density of matter inside 1.1 kpc $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\mathrm{total}}`$ (obtained from kinematics of stars) and the surface density of gas and stellar components $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\mathrm{baryon}}`$. Circular velocity $`V_{\mathrm{circ}}`$ at 3 kpc distance from the center provides another crucial constraint on models as emphasized in BinneyEvans . It is difficult to estimate errors of this parameter because of uncertain contribution of the galactic bar. We use $`\pm 5`$km/s error, which is realistic, but it can be even twice larger. Probably the most debated constraint is coming from counts of microlensing events in the direction of the galactic bulge. Our models are expected to have the optical depth of microlensing events $`\tau =1.21.6\times 10^6`$ and, thus, they are compatible with the values of $`\tau `$ determined recently from the observations $`\tau =11.5\times 10^6`$ AfonPopo , but are excluded if $`\tau >2\times 10^6`$ (see Klypin02  for a detailed discussion on the bulge optical depth in our models).

Gamma-ray annihilation observability in the Milky Way.— The expected neutralino annihilation gamma flux, in units of YSUS/$`10^{32}`$, can be computed from Eq. 1 for the compressed DM density profile provided by our Milky Way models as a function of the angular distance $`\mathrm{\Psi }_0`$ from the Galactic Center. In Fig. 2 we show the predicted fluxes. We also show as a comparison the expected flux for the uncompressed NFW density profile. The flux profiles were determined for a typical IACT of resolution $`\sigma _t=0.1^{}`$ and solid angle $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }=10^5sr`$. We have multiplied the flux profiles by a factor of 1.7 quoted by Stoehr et al. Stoehr  to account for the presence of substructure inside the Milky Way halo Klypin99 ; Moore99 .

The success of a detection requires that the minimum detectable gamma flux Fmin for an exposure of t seconds, given an IACT of effective area $`A_{\mathrm{eff}}`$, angular resolution $`\sigma _\mathrm{t}`$ and threshold energy $`E_{\mathrm{th}}`$ exceeds a significant number $`M_s`$ of standard deviations ($`M_s\sigma `$) the background noise $`\sqrt{N_b}`$, i.e. $`F_{\mathrm{min}}A_{\mathrm{eff}}t/\sqrt{N_b}`$ $`M_s`$ (see, e.g., Bergstrom98 ; TO ). The background counts ($`N_b`$) due to electronic and hadronic (cosmic protons and helium nucleids) cosmic ray showers have been estimated using the following expressions Bergstrom98 : $`N_e=3\times 10^2E_{\mathrm{th}}^{2.3}tA_{\mathrm{eff}}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega },`$ $`N_h=6.1\times 10^3E_{\mathrm{th}}^{1.7}tA_{\mathrm{eff}}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Omega }`$. As an additional background, one has to consider also the contamination due to isolated muons which depending on the f.o.v. and altitude location of the telescope may be even the dominant background at some energy range (the “muon wall”). Preliminary studies Manel  show that the muon background could be as relevant as the hadronic background at $`E_{\mathrm{th}}100GeV`$ while it can be effectively rejected at lower $`E_{\mathrm{th}}`$. The diffuse galactic and extragalactic gamma radiation are negligible compare to this background. Gamma point-like sources within the f.o.v can be resolved and taken out a posteriori. The $`E_{\mathrm{th}}`$ of an IACT depends on the zenith angle of observation. The Galactic Center is visible at different zenith angles by all present IACTs (e.g. CANGAROO-III, H.E.S.S.,MAGIC, VERITAS), but in the best case an $`E_{\mathrm{th}}`$ of about 100 GeV can be achieved. Nevertheless, future planed installations may reduce the $`E_{\mathrm{th}}`$ below 10 GeV. The $`A_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ is also sensible to the zenith angle of observation, here we choose a value of $`1\times 10^9`$ cm2. This detectability condition will allow us to compute the $`5\sigma `$ minimum detectable flux Fmin in 250 hours of integration with a typical IACT of $`A_{\mathrm{eff}}=1\times 10^9`$ cm2 and $`E_{\mathrm{th}}=100`$GeV (dashed line in Fig. 2). At a given distance from the Galactic Center only the flux values, for a particular model of the Milky Way, greater than Fmin will be detected. The detection will be much harder and may result only in a central spot in the case of an IACT with higher $`E_{\mathrm{th}}`$, as the YSUS parameter declines with $`E_{\mathrm{th}}`$ (see Fig. 2).

The Milky Way models presented here include adiabatic compression and likely will result in a detection of the annihilation signal no matter what was the initial (uncompressed) DM density profile. For current experiments this detection will be successful only for the very central regions, less than $`0.4^{}`$ in the case of the Model A and close to $`1^{}`$ in the case of the Model B. The compressed Moore et al. DM profile will provide a more extended gamma flux profile. The uncompressed NFW DM profile of the Model A will not be detected even in the direction of the Galactic Center. On the other hand, even the uncompressed Moore et al. profile of the Model B will give a positive detection in the very inner regions of the Milky Way.

The effect of the adiabatic compression included in our Milky Way mass models, which was previously ignored, is a crucial factor. It should be emphasized that for the central $`3`$kpc of the Milky Way, where the baryons dominate, it does not make sense to use the dark matter profiles provided by cosmological N-body simulations: the DM must fall into the deep potential well created by the collapsed baryons. Thus, the models presented here are not extreme: they are the starting point for realistic predictions of the annihilation fluxes. One can envision few mechanisms to reduce the effect of the compression. Transfer of the angular momentum to the dark matter as suggested in Klypin02  is an option. Yet, recent simulations of formation of bars indicate that it is difficult to arrange a significant transfer of the angular momentum to the dark matter. The DM density in the central few parsec can be reduced if the central black hole formed by spiraling and merging of two black holes Ulio . It can also be changed (probably reduced) by scattering of DM particles by stars in the central 2 pc GnedinPrimack . If this happens, the flux from the central 2 pc can be significantly reduced. Yet, it will only decrease the amplitude of the central spike. The signal from $`0.4^{}`$ still could be detected because it mostly comes from distances 30-50 pc, which are much less affected by the uncertain physics around the black hole.

###### Acknowledgements.

We acknowledge support of NASA and NSF grants to NMSU. We thank J. Primack, O. Gnedin, J. Betancort, A. Tasitsiomi and W. Wittek for discussions.


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# Rings in the haloes of planetary nebulaeBased on observations obtained at: the 2.5 INT telescope of the Isaac Newton Group and the 2.6m NOT telescope operated by NOTSA in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de Los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias; the 3.5m NTT and the 2.2 MPG/ESO at the European Southern Observatory in Chile; and the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by AURA for NASA under contract NAS5-26555.

## 1 Introduction

Most PNe have multiple shells around their central stars. Modern simulations allow us to interpret the formation of most of these shells. We know, for instance, that the typical double-shell structure of the bright inner body of round and elliptical PNe is the result of the combination of wind interaction (producing the so-called inner rims) and that photo-ionization effects are responsible for producing the attached shells. For a detailed discussion see e.g. Mellema (M94 (1994)) and Schönberner et al. (SSSKB (1997)).

Around the inner nebula, with 1000 times lower surface brightness, an extended ionized halo has been found in 60% of the PNe for which proper imaging has been obtained (Corradi et al. 2003, hereafter CSSP03). These haloes are interpreted as being matter lost at the end of the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase, their edges being the signature of the last thermal pulse (Steffen & Schönberner Ste03 (2003)).

In recent years, a new puzzling component has been discovered in the inner regions of PNe haloes. High resolution imaging done mainly with the Hubble Space Telescope has revealed the presence of so-called ‘rings’ in four PNe: Hb 5, NGC 6543, NGC 7027 (Terzian & Hajian TH00 (2000)), and NGC 3918 (CSSP03), as well as around six proto-PNe and one AGB star (see the review by Su 2004). The name ‘rings’ is somewhat misleading in that these structures just appear to be rings when projected on the sky. They are more likely to be ‘shells’. But since the nomenclature of morphological features in PNe is already somewhat confused, we will use what seems to be the most widely accepted name, namely ‘rings’. Note that Soker (2002, 2004) refers to them as ‘M-arcs’. Their formation, occurring when the star loses mass at the highest rate during its evolution, is relevant to understanding the physical processes producing the ultimate ejection of the envelope of low- and intermediate-mass stars. To date, however, very little is known about the physical and dynamical properties of these rings, especially in the PNe phase where, so far, they were considered to be a rare phenomenon. In this paper, we present the results of an extensive search for such rings in PNe haloes. We find them in eight more PNe, showing that rings are quite common, and thus strengthening the idea that the physical processes producing the rings is of general importance to understand mass loss in the latest phase of the AGB.

## 2 Observations

The observational targets were mainly chosen from the list of PNe with haloes in CSSP03. The original images were carefully reanalysed, and for several targets for which hints of the existence of rings were found we obtained new deep images. It must be stressed that often the main limitation in searching for this kind of structures is not the spatial resolution of the observations, but the instrumental scattered light as discussed in CSSP03. For this reason, we obtained most of the new images with the prime-focus Wide Field Camera (WFC, pixel scale 0′′.33) at the 2.5m Isaac Newton Telescope (INT) at La Palma, which has a clean point-spread function. We obtained deep \[Oiii\] and/or H$`\alpha `$+\[Nii\] images. The \[Oiii\] filter bandpass does not include any other important emission lines beside the \[Oiii\] doublet at $`\lambda `$=$`500.7`$ and $`495.9`$ nm. The H$`\alpha `$+\[Nii\] filter includes both the emission from hydrogen H$`\alpha `$ and that from the singly ionized nitrogen doublet at $`\lambda `$=$`654.8`$ and $`658.3`$ nm. Exposures were split into several sub-exposures to limit the effects caused by over-saturation of the inner bright nebula (i.e. charge overflow). For the same reason we sometimes positioned the inner nebula in the gap between CCDs in the four-chip mosaic of the WFC. \[Oiii\] images of NGC 7009 were also obtained with the Wide Field Imager (WFI, pixel scale 0′′.24) of the 2.2mMPG/ESO telescope at La Silla, Chile, under good seeing conditions. \[Oiii\] images of NGC 6543 and NGC 7027 were obtained with the 2.6m Nordic Optical Telescope (NOT) at the ORM and its multi-mode instrument ALFOSC (pixel scale 0′′.19). The images were reduced in a standard way using the IRAF and MIDAS packages. The observations with the INT+WFC were partially reduced by R. Greimel and C. Davenport through the instrument pipeline. A summary of the new observations is presented in Tab. 1.

In addition, the HST archive was searched for the deepest images of a number of nebulae known or suspected to have rings.

## 3 Image analysis: finding and enhancing the rings

The new images clearly reveal the existence of rings in several of our target PNe. However, rings are not easily visualized in greyscale or colour plots, as they are located in the inner regions of the haloes whose surface brightness has a very steep radial profile with a large dynamic range. In order to better highlight the rings and measure their properties, we processed the images in several different ways. Good results are obtained by taking the logarithmic derivative of the images. This method is described in Corradi et al. (2004). An even better way to enhance the rings is to divide the original image by its smoothed version, using any kind of algorithm with a smoothing scale-length of the order of the rings spacing. We call this as the smoothing algorithm. Nearly identical results are obtained by processing images with what we call the sda (shift, divide, and add) algorithm. One first produces four “shift” images, by applying to the original frame $`I(x,y)`$ a shift of $`p`$ pixels to the right, left, up and down, respectively. Then the original image is divided by each of the shift images, and the four ratio maps are summed up together producing the final image $`I_{sda}`$. In symbols:

$`I_{sda}={\displaystyle \frac{I(x,y)}{I(xp,y)}}+{\displaystyle \frac{I(x,y)}{I(x+p,y)}}+{\displaystyle \frac{I(x,y)}{I(x,yp)}}+{\displaystyle \frac{I(x,y)}{I(x,y+p)}}.`$
In this way, pixels corresponding to the larger surface brightness of the rings are enhanced by division by an “average” surface brightness of the halo in that region. The sda procedure was tested in several ways, to make sure that no artificial rings are created by the algorithm and that the location of the rings remains the same. We created a model image with a $`r^3`$ surface brightness profile and, superimposed, sinusoidal fluctuations with amplitude 20% the value of the local intensity and period equal to 20 pixels, simulating a halo with rings. The sda algorithm was then applied using shifts $`p=10,15,20,25,30`$ pix. For any choice of $`p`$, rings are effectively enhanced. The only spurious effect is the appearance, for shift values $`20`$ pix, of slight distortions of the circular symmetry, but even in the directions where the effect is the largest, the original spacing between rings is always preserved with a high accuracy.

We processed with the three algorithms all the new ground-based images, as well as the \[Oiii\] images of IC 2448, NGC 1535 and NGC 3918 from CSSP03, and the HST images of NGC 6881 (H$`\alpha `$) and NGC 7026 (\[Nii\]). For the sda processing, according to the results of the tests, a shift value equal to or smaller than the average ring spacing was adopted. In all PNe, rings show up using any of the three algorithms (and except for IC 2448 and NGC 1535 they are also clearly detected in the non-processed images). Faint rings are better enhanced using the smoothing algorithm or the sda one, rather than taking derivative images. The sda algorithm, which produces nearly identical results to the smoothing method for the external regions, provides a better enhancement of the innermost ring, as smoothing in this region is affected by the abrupt change of slope of the surface brightness profile due to the nearby bright rim and shell.

Logarithmic greyscale displays of the original frames, the images processed using the sda algorithm, and visual fits of the detected rings are presented in Figs. 1 and 2.

## 4 Description of individual nebulae

The individual PNe are discussed below, and a summary of the properties of their ring systems (including objects discussed by Su 2004) is presented in Tab. 2.

### 4.1 IC 2448

CSSP03 conservatively put this object in the list of PNe with no haloes because of the possibility that the diffuse, featureless luminosity detected around the central body of the PN is instrumental scattered light. The processing of their original, high-quality \[Oiii\] image (seeing 0′′.6) reveals the presence of fluctuations of the radial surface brightness profile that can be roughly described as a system of three or more rings in an extended AGB halo. Rings are not as well defined as in other PNe, and show some sign of non-circularity and/or offsets from the central star.

### 4.2 NGC 40

In addition to the structure in the faint halo around this nebula, our deep H$`\alpha `$+\[Nii\] image reveals the existence of a system of three concentric inner rings centred on the central star. Fragments of one or two external rings are also found. NGC 40 is a low excitation nebula, and no halo is visible in the \[Oiii\] images.

### 4.3 NGC 1535

Processing of the original \[Oiii\] image by CSSP03 (seeing 0′′.6) reveals the presence of at least two rings and a fragment (arc) of an outer one. Rings are broad and non circular. A recent image taken with the INT+WFC, in spite of having a lower spatial resolution (seeing 1′′.5), confirms the presence and properties of such broad rings, thus excluding the possibility that they are instrumental artifacts.

### 4.4 NGC 3242

The \[Oiii\] INT+WFC image shows three clear rings and fragments of two other outer ones. The innermost two rings are faintly visible in archival HST images. The rings are concentric and the spacing between them is variable. They are also visible in the H$`\alpha `$+\[Nii\] image by CSSP03.

### 4.5 NGC 3918

The rings in the halo of this nebula were noted by CSSP03. Data processing of their image confirms that there are at least 8 concentric circular rings with a spacing that increases from 2′′ for the innermost ones, to 3′′.8 for the second last one. The outermost ring is slightly offset by a couple of arcseconds to the North-West and has a radius 6′′.6 larger than the preceding one (but we might be missing an intermediate ring). It also appears to be more intense than the previous few ones, defining a sharp edge of the system of rings. The actual edge of the AGB halo, presumably corresponding to the last thermal pulse, is at a much larger distance from the central star, see CSSP03.

### 4.6 NGC 6543

Our deep \[Oiii\] images confirm the results of the detailed analysis of the HST data by Balick et al. (2001), with the possible addition of two more outer rings out to a distance of $`50^{\prime \prime }`$ from the central star. For this reason, our new images are not presented in Figs. 1 and 2.

### 4.7 NGC 6881

Three roughly circular, equally spaced arcs are barely visible in H$`\alpha `$ HST archive images along the directions perpendicular to the bipolar lobes.

### 4.8 NGC 7009

The new INT and MPG ground-based images reveal the existence of at least six rings in the inner regions of the knotty halo of this PN. As in the other cases, rings are best visible in the sda processed image, and show clear deviations from the circular symmetry (in Fig. 1, a visual fit for the northern side of the nebula fits the southern side poorly), with possible intersection between adjacent rings. The spacing between the rings is variable.

### 4.9 NGC 7026

Two arcs (whose centre is slightly offset from the central star) are possibly identified in \[Nii\] HST images, but this is the weakest case of all our new detections. This is in fact the only case in which our image processing does not enhance the possible rings, probably because of the highly structured local surface brightness distribution (including strong radial features).

### 4.10 NGC 7027

The reflection rings of this object were discussed by e.g. Su (2004). Our new deep \[Oiii\] images (not presented in Figs. 1 and 2) confirm their results, showing evidence for a few other faint outer rings up to a distance from the central star of $`50^{\prime \prime }`$.

### 4.11 NGC 7662

A new, clear system of 4 rings is found in this PN. The rings are approximately concentric, but with some hints of non-circularity and offset from the central star (the latter for the outer rings).

## 5 General properties of rings

### 5.1 Detection rate

Rings are found in PNe of different morphological classes: elliptical nebulae (NGC 40, NGC 1535 and IC 2448), ellipticals with low-ionization small-scale structures like FLIERS (NGC 3242 and NGC 7662), more collimated nebulae with jets (NGC 3918, NGC 6543 and NGC 7009), and bipolars (Hb 5, NGC 6881, NGC 7026, and NGC 7027, the latter also probably bipolar, see Bains et al. 2003). Note also that some of the PNe with detected rings, namely NGC 40, NGC 6543 and NGC 7026 have hydrogen deficient central stars.

CSSP03 list 21 PNe possessing bona-fide AGB haloes. Including the haloes with rings revealed in this paper for IC 2448, NGC 40, and NGC 1535, this makes 24 non-bipolar PNe known to have AGB haloes. The present analysis of the CSSPO3 sample (including the new deep images and the HST archive ones) allowed us to discovered rings in 8 of these 24 PNe, i.e. some 35% of the sample of AGB haloes investigated. Considering that CSSP03 estimate that $``$60% of the whole sample of Galactic PNe have ionized AGB haloes, we derive that the lower limit for the frequency of rings in round and elliptical PNe is 20%. The real figure can be much higher, as high-quality images needed to detect rings (or even to reveal haloes) are not available for the whole CSSP03 sample. One is therefore tempted to ask whether rings exist in all PNe? The database of CSSP03 contains some haloes with no apparent evidence for rings. These are for example CN 1-5, IC 2165, NGC 2022, NGC 2792, NGC 6826 and PB4. Except for NGC 6826, however, all these PNe are located at systematically larger distances (several kpc) than those with detected rings, most of which lie at about 1 kpc from the Sun, see Tab. 2. This is also reflected by a systematically smaller apparent size of the haloes of PNe with no rings. The resolution in the ground-based images just may not be sufficient to detect rings in those distant PNe. We therefore conclude that the 35% occurrence rate in the present study is a lower limit, and the possibility that rings are present in the majority of or all PNe cannot be excluded.

The situation for bipolar PNe is more uncertain, as we do not even know whether this class of objects has AGB haloes, at least in the sense as defined by CSSP03. However, having found arcs in several objects, it is likely that also for this class of nebulae circular rings/arcs are common. Therefore bipolar lobes would excavate through pretty spherical initial circumstellar density distributions, exacerbating the problem of a sudden turn from spherical to highly collimated mass loss at the end of the AGB (e.g. Sahai Sah02 (2002)). This is supported by the finding of rings and arcs in several bipolar proto-PNe (Su 2004). With the present data, we cannot say if the rings of Hb 5, NGC 6881 and NGC 7026 are seen in direct or reflected light as is the case in NGC 7027 and the proto-PNe.

### 5.2 Post-AGB and post-ionization ages

Some of the models proposed to explain the formation of rings predict that during the PN phase rings would persist only few thousand years after photo-ionization (Meijerink et al. 2003, hereafter MMS03). Unfortunately, measuring how long the ring systems have been photo-ionized is a hard task for individual PNe. In principle, this could be done if the luminosity and temperature of their central stars (CSs) are accurately known. A comparison with the theoretical tracks would then allow us to determine their stellar mass and post-AGB age. This is however extremely difficult to do, as the evolutionary timescales are strongly dependent on mass, which on the horizontal part of the post-AGB tracks mainly depends on luminosity, the determination of which suffers from the large uncertainties in the distance to individual PNe. We attempted this kind of analysis, using both the data from the CSs in CSSP03 and those from Mal’kov (1997), but for individual objects the results show large discrepancies between the two different data sets, making this kind of analysis impracticable. All we can conclude at present, in a statistical sense, is that PNe with rings do not exhibit a clear trend in their locations in the HR diagram as compared to the global sample of PNe haloes as shown in Fig. 4 of CSSP03. In addition, even if the CS could be precisely located in the HR diagram, the post-AGB age at which haloes and their rings became photo-ionized cannot be accurately determined, as it depends not only on the CS mass but also on the circumstellar density distribution at the end of the AGB, which is not well known. More details about this point can be found in Perinotto et al. (2003), who showed that the post-AGB age at which the inner halo becomes photo-ionized is $``$3500 yrs for a ‘standard’ CS of M=0.605 M and the AGB mass distribution computed by Steffen & Schönberner (Ste03 (2003)). The situation is more uncertain for larger masses (M$``$0.625 M) for which this time scale would be lower although it may also happen that these haloes are never ionized.

An alternative measurement for the age of a PN is the kinematic age: its size divided by its expansion velocity. According to the models in Schönberner et al. (1997), the kinematic age of the attached shell of an elliptical PN provides a better estimate of the true post-AGB age of the nebula than that of the rim. We list on the abscissae of Fig 3 the kinematic ages of the elliptical PNe with rings, computed for their shells using the kinematic data from the literature or from our unpublished echellograms (except for NGC 40 where no attached shell is present, we used the age of the rim instead). To compute the linear sizes, we used the distances listed in the last column of Tab. 2, which were determined by taking a weighted average of the values from the catalogue of Acker et al. (SESO (1992)), or taken from recent papers with individual distance determinations (Reed et al. Re99 (1999) for NGC 6543 and Palen et al. Pa02 (2002) for IC 2448). All nebulae except NGC 1535 (age=7500 yrs) have kinematic post-AGB ages smaller than 4500 yrs. If we subtract from this age the time from the end of the AGB to the first photo-ionization of the halo (3500 yrs for a CS of 0.605 M111Obviously, for post-AGB ages smaller than 3500 yrs, the photo-ionization of the halo must have occurred earlier.), the numbers imply that, in a broad statistical sense, the observed rings are still in the phase before they are predicted to vanish because of photo-ionization effects (MMS03). This conclusion would still hold if a slightly different distance scale, like the one in CSSP03, is adopted.

The post-AGB ages of bipolar PNe in our sample are not relevant in this discussion because their rings may not be ionized; in any case, they are all younger than two thousand years according to the adopted distances and spatiokinematic studies in the literature (Solf & Weinberger SW84 (1984), Corradi & Schwarz CS93 (1993), Guerrero & Manchado Gue98 (1998), Bains et al. Ba03 (2003)).

### 5.3 Duration of the mass loss modulation producing the rings

Once the distance and expansion velocity of a PN are known, the radius of the outermost ring allows us to estimate the age of the system. We assume a halo expansion velocity of 15 km s-1 (see CSSP03) for all PNe, since individual kinematic measurements are mostly lacking, a general handicap when studying PN haloes.

If we subtract the “kinematic” post-AGB age of the PNe from the age of the outermost ring, we obtain an estimate of the duration of the phase of mass loss modulation at the end of the AGB producing the rings. This is shown in Fig. 4: the duration of the phase spans from 6000 yrs for IC 2448 and NGC 7009 to a maximum of 14000-18000 yrs for NGC 40, NGC 1535, NGC 6543 and NGC 7027. The other bipolar PNe show durations less than 5000 yrs, but they should be considered highly uncertain because the region where rings are found is very faint, and we may have missed some rings.

Therefore, since it is likely that fainter rings in other PNe in our sample were missed, we conclude that the phase of mass modulation giving rise to the rings might characterize the last 10000 to 20000 yrs of AGB evolution. CSSP03 showed in their Tab. 4 that for these PNe the time elapsed since the last AGB thermal pulse (whose signature is the limb-brightened edge of the AGB halo) is typically factors 1.8 to 4 longer than the ages in Fig. 4. Thus, even when we missed a few faint rings, we conclude that the formation of rings is not associated with thermal pulses.

### 5.4 Ring geometry and spacing

All PNe of our sample show some variation in the spacing between the rings. The most regular cases seem to be NGC 40 and NGC 7662. Most other systems of rings (Hb 5, NGC 1535, NGC 3242, NGC 3918, NGC 6543, NGC 7009) have definitely a variable spacing, with some (weak) evidence that spacing increases with distance from the central star. NGC 1535, NGC 7009 and NGC 7027 also show clear deviations from circularity, with some rings intersecting each other and in some cases with centres offset from the central star. IC 2448 and NGC 7026 have poorly defined rings and are not considered in this analysis.

The range of spacing values spanned by each system of rings is listed in Tab. 2. The average spacing for each PN, transformed to a linear scale using the adopted distances, is displayed in the ordinate of Fig. 3, and ranges from 0.007 pc (Hb 5) to 0.063 pc (NGC 1535). There is also an apparent trend for bipolar PNe (dotted histogram) to have smaller spacings than elliptical PNe, but this is not statistically significant because of the small sample. Adopting an expansion velocity of 15 km s-1, these spacings corresponds to timescales for the mass loss fluctuations of between 400 and 4000 yr (see the right y-axis of Fig. 3).

Most interestingly, Fig. 3 shows that the average spacing correlates with the post-AGB age of the nebula, suggesting the existence of evolutionary effects in the ring spacing. This is even more clearly indicated by the fact that the spacing in the six proto-PNe listed by Su (2004) is systematically and significantly smaller than that of our sample of PNe, ranging between 80 and 600 yr if the same expansion velocity of 15 km s-1 is adopted. In Fig. 3, we indicate with dotted lines how points would move if the distances were off by a factor of two (33% on each side of the adopted value). The distance enters linearly in both the estimate of the linear spacing and the kinematical age and may therefore cause a false correlation to appear. From the dotted lines it can be seen that if the distances of the three objects (NGC 1535, NGC 40 and NGC 7662) that better define the linear correlation in Fig. 3, are overestimated by a factor of $``$$`<`$ $`2`$, the evidence for the existence of the correlation would be weaker. Our result should therefore be treated with some caution.

### 5.5 Surface brightness profiles and peak-to-continuum ratio

Radial surface brightness profiles of the inner haloes of our sample of elliptical PNe were extracted at position angles corresponding to the minor axis of the rims/shells. In most cases, a power law $`Ir^\gamma `$ provides a fairly good fit to the surface brightness profiles in the region of the rings (especially for IC 2448, NGC 3242, and NGC 7662), with $`\gamma `$ ranging from 3.3 to 4.5. In the case of IC 2448 and NGC 3242, $`\gamma `$ decreases abruptly to shallower slopes at the end of the region occupied by the rings; in other cases, like NGC 40, NGC 1535, NGC 3918 and NGC 7009, the slope of the power-law shows a more systematic and continuous decrease with radius, and this is even more pronounced in the two PNe with no rings (NGC 6826 and NGC 2022) which we consider for comparison. These surface brightness slopes correspond to density profiles in the regions of the rings steeper than $`\rho ^2`$, in some cases as steep as $`\rho ^3`$. This confirms that mass loss increases substantially at the end of the AGB phase (e.g. Steffen & Schönberner Ste03 (2003)).

Once this large-scale trend was removed, we estimated the surface brightness contrast between the ring peaks and the (pseudo)continuum (or, in other words, half the contrast between the ring peaks and dips). Limited spatial resolution (through seeing or finite mirror size) reduces the true peak-to-continuum intensity contrast. An estimate of this can be found by comparing ground-based and HST data. We compared the HST ACS \[Oiii\] images of NGC 6543 (instrumental resolution 0′′.05) with those obtained at the NOT (seeing 0′′.8). For different rings (whose typical width is 2′′ and spacing 2′′.9), the peak-to-continuum ratio in the NOT images is measured to be between 5% and 10% lower than in the HST images, where it reaches a maximum value of 1.2. In other PNe of our sample, spacing between rings is equal to or larger than that of NGC 6543, so that if the ratio between the width and spacing does not vary dramatically, we do not expect that the estimate of the peak-to-continuum ratios using our ground-based images underestimates the real values much more than the amount found for NGC 6543.

In all nebulae, we find that the peak-to-continuum intensity ratio is strongly variable within the same system of rings. The maximum peak-to-continuum ratio measured for each PN is reported in Tab. 2. Even considering seeing effects, these numbers are systematically lower than for the sample of proto-PNe in Su (2004). We find however, no (anti)correlation with the kinematical post-AGB age of our nebulae. This could be explained by the large dispersion and irregularity in the peak-to-continuum contrast for individual rings within the same nebula, which make the values listed in Tab. 2 just an order of magnitude number. Note also that the rings in proto-PNe show up in reflected light, whereas the ionized haloes produce intrinsic emission, which may also account for some of the differences.

For bipolar PNe, reliable measurements of the peak-to-continuum surface brightness can only be done for Hb 5 and NGC 7027. The values listed by Su (2004) are also listed in Tab. 2.

## 6 Discussion, interpretation and conclusions

In spite of the paucity of data available so far, the origin of rings in PNe haloes has been widely debated, and a number of formation mechanisms has been proposed. These include binary interaction (Mastrodemos & Morris 1999), magnetic activity cycles (Soker 2000, García-Segura et al. 2001), instabilities in dust-driven winds (Simis et al. 2001) and stellar oscillations (van Horn et al. 2003, Zijlstra et al. 2002, Soker 2004). These models all produce rings morphologically similar to the observed ones, and only a detailed study of their physical and dynamical properties will allow us to distiguish the models. A first start of this was made by MMS03, who followed the evolution of rings produced by dust-driven wind instabilities using radiative hydrodynamic modelling, resulting in emission properties, line ratios, and line shapes.

The main differences between the models are in the way the rings are supported, and, at least in the published versions of the models, the amplitudes of the variations. In the case of magnetic field reversals, the rings are supported by magnetic fields, material collecting in areas of low magnetic pressure. This makes for stationary rings and the authors claim that this will provide for the required longevity. In the other cases the rings are dynamic, corresponding to waves (density and velocity variations) set up by variations in the mass loss either caused by variations at the base of the wind (dust-driven wind instabilities or stellar oscillations), or created by the interaction with a companion star. Such dynamic rings will ultimately disappear, the time scale depending on the amplitude of the waves, and the sound speed in the wind material. The latter means that this process will be slow while the wind is neutral and speed up after ionization. A simple estimate can be derived from the ratio of the extent of the ring area and the sound speed, giving values of 100 000 yrs during the neutral phase and several 1000 yrs during the ionized phase.

The distinction between magnetic and dynamically supported rings is not as clear cut as that though, since photo-ionization will raise the thermal pressure of the wind, making the magnetic pressure insignificant compared to the thermal pressure. This probably means that the evolution of the rings during the ionized phase will be similar in all models, but detailed magneto-hydrodynamic modelling should confirm this.

The simulations of MMS03 showed that the original velocity variations in the wind in case of dynamically supported winds is only important for survival of the rings during their neutral phase. Raising the pressure of the rings by photo-ionization will strengthen the waves and much higher velocity variations are then induced.

The simulations in MMS03 show a number of properties which are consistent with our new sample of rings. Firstly, the spacing of the rings tends to increase with time. This is due to the slow merging of the waves, a process which takes place from the start in the dynamically supported case, and will probably only start after ionization in the magnetically supported case. Although the indications for this in the data are not conclusive, comparing the typical spacing in the proto-PNe from Su (2004) with our PNe shows this to be significant. The models also predict a weakening of the amplitude of the rings over time, for which we also find some, albeit marginal, evidence.

As to the observed amplitudes, one should realize that the rings are not discrete entities, but rather density variations which we see in projection. It is therefore not trivial to interpret the observed values which may also be affected by temperature variations, boosting the forbidden lines of \[Oiii\] and \[Nii\]. Taking the published results of MMS03 we see that the amplitudes are rather modest, of order 1.1 (see their Figs. 10 and 11) and therefore comparable to the observed values. The slope of the surface brightness profile seems to be shallower than in the observations, but since the average AGB mass loss was taken to be constant in the simulations, this is not surprising.

In general then, the observed properties of the rings make sense within the frame work of the dust-driven wind instability model explored by MMS03. However, as these authors pointed out, this does not necessarily mean that other models are excluded. Basically, any model which leads to dynamically supported rings can be expected to give such results, although it would be nice to see this confirmed by simulations, especially for the magnetic reversal models. In any case, all models should now face the evidence that rings are frequently found (and in all morphological classes), and the proposed formation mechanism should apply to a large fraction of AGB stars producing PNe.

Concluding, we have shown in the present paper that rings are common in PNe haloes, and thus of general relevance in the discussion of the large mass loss increase that characterises the latest AGB evolution. Testable predictions (especially in terms of the physical and dynamical properties of the rings) which are able to distinguish among all the different formation mechanisms proposed are however presently lacking, and would be highly desirable in order to allow further progress in this recent and important issue of the AGB and post-AGB evolution.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank M. Azzaro and R. Greimel at the ING for taking some of the images at the INT during service time, and R. Mendez and I. Saviane at ESO for taking the WFI images of NGC 7009. The research of GM has been made possible by a fellowship of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.