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# Relative hyperbolicity and right-angled Coxeter groups

## 1. Introduction

The theory of (word) hyperbolic groups, initiated in the 1980s by M. Gromov in , is a rich one. The desirable geometric structure of such groups often provides a great deal of insight into the combinatorial structure of the group itself. Gromov suggested a generalization of the notion of hyperbolicity, wherein a group would be said to be relatively hyperbolic with respect to a given collection of subgroups (known as parabolic subgroups).

In , B. Farb presented the first rigorous definition of relative hyperbolicity. Though his definition is the one adopted in this paper, as well as in a number of others, it is not the only definition. B. Bowditch () and A. Yaman () have presented alternative definitions of relative hyperbolicity. A. Szczepański (in ) studied the relationship of these definitions, showing that the latter two are equivalent, and imply the first. In , Bowditch shows that if a group is relatively hyperbolic in the sense of Farb and furthermore satisfies Farb’s “bounded coset penetration” (BCP) property, then it is relatively hyperbolic in the sense of Bowditch and Gromov-Yaman. If $`G`$ is relatively hyperbolic in the sense of Farb, it is often said to be relatively hyperbolic in the weak sense.

The objects of study in this paper are right-angled Coxeter groups. Recall that a Coxeter system $`(W,S)`$ is a pair in which $`W`$ is a group (called a Coxeter group) and $`S=\{s_i\}_{iI}`$ for which there is a presentation

$$S|R$$

where

$$R=\{(s_is_j)^{m_{ij}}|m_{ij}\{1,2,\mathrm{},\mathrm{}\},m_{ij}=m_{ji},\mathrm{and}m_{ij}=1i=j\}.$$

(In case $`m_{ij}=\mathrm{}`$, the element $`s_is_j`$ has infinite order.)

Recall that for each subset $`TS`$, the subgroup $`W_T`$ of $`W`$ generated by the elements of $`T`$ is also a Coxeter group, with system $`(W_T,T)`$ (see ). Such a subgroup is called a (standard) parabolic subgroup.

If $`m_{ij}\{1,2,\mathrm{}\}`$ for every $`i,jI`$, we call $`(W,S)`$ (and $`W`$) right-angled. In his dissertation (), D. Radcliffe showed that the Coxeter presentation corresponding to a given right-angled Coxeter group is essentially unique, in that for any two fundamental generating sets $`S`$ and $`S^{}`$, there exists an automorphism $`\alpha \mathrm{Aut}(W)`$ such that $`\alpha (S)=S^{}`$.

The information contained in a Coxeter system can be captured graphically by means of a Coxeter diagram. The Coxeter diagram $`𝒱=𝒱(W,S)`$ corresponding to the system $`(W,S)`$ is an edge-labeled graph with vertex set in one-to-one correspondence with the set $`S`$, and for which there is an edge $`[s_is_j]`$ labeled $`m_{ij}`$ between any two vertices $`s_is_j`$ whenever $`m_{ij}<\mathrm{}`$. (In this paper, we omit the comma in the notation for an edge of a graph.) It is easy to see that Radcliffe’s rigidity result is equivalent to saying that to a given right-angled Coxeter group, there is a unique diagram, every edge of which has label $`2`$. For this reason, we often suppress mention of the generating set $`S`$.

The following theorem follows from the work of G. Moussong ():

###### Theorem 1.1.

\[Moussong\] Let $`W`$ be a right-angled Coxeter group, with corresponding diagram $`𝒱`$. Then $`W`$ is word hyperbolic if and only if $`𝒱`$ contains no achordal simple circuits $`\{[ab],[bc],[cd],[da]\}`$ of length $`4`$.

That is, $`W`$ is hyperbolic provided we see no squares without diagonals in $`𝒱`$. (It is not hard to see that such squares imply the existence of flats in the Cayley graph of $`W`$, arising from the presence of the subgroup $`D_{\mathrm{}}\times D_{\mathrm{}}`$.) A very natural way to attempt to overcome this obstacle to hyperbolicity would be to “quotient” by one of the diagonals of such a square, in effect collapsing one of the dimensions in the corresponding subgroup $`HD_{\mathrm{}}\times D_{\mathrm{}}`$. In fact, that is just what we will do. The result is this paper’s main theorem:

###### Theorem 1.2.

Let $`W`$ be a right-angled Coxeter group with diagram $`𝒱`$. For each achordal simple circuit $`\{[a_ib_i],[b_ic_i],[c_id_i],[d_ia_i]\}`$ in $`𝒱`$, select a diagonal $`\{a_i,c_i\}`$. Then $`W`$ is relatively hyperbolic (in the sense of Farb) relative to the collection of subgroups $`\left\{W_{\{a_i,c_i\}}\right\}`$ for the above choice of diagonals.

## 2. Relative hyperbolicity

We now recall the definition of relative hyperbolicity due to Farb.

Suppose that $`G`$ is a finitely generated group with distinguished generating set $`S`$. Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }(G,S)`$ be the Cayley graph for $`G`$ with respect to the set $`S`$. We consider $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ as a metric graph, where each edge has length $`1`$. We will denote the vertex of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ corresponding to $`gG`$ by $`v(g)`$, or simply by $`g`$ when this notation will not be confusing.

Let $`\{H_i\}_{iI}`$ be a collection of subgroups of $`G`$ (for our purposes $`|I|<\mathrm{}`$). We construct a new graph, $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}=\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}(\{H_i\}_{iI})`$ as follows. For each left coset $`gH_i`$ ($`gG,iI`$), we add a new vertex, denoted $`v(gH_i)`$, to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$; for each element $`g^{}G`$ lying in the coset $`gH_i`$, we add an edge from the new vertex $`v(gH_i)`$ to the vertex $`v(g^{})\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Define the length of each of the new edges to be $`1/2`$. The graph $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ so obtained is called the coned-off Cayley graph of $`G`$ with respect to the collection $`\{H_i\}_{iI}`$.

The effect of adding the new vertices is to create “shortcuts” which pass through left cosets; in particular, the distance from $`v(1)`$ to $`v(g)`$ is $`1`$ for any $`gH_i`$, for some $`iI`$.

Clearly the geometric structure of $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ may be very different from that of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. If $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$, with the metric defined in the paragraphs above, is a hyperbolic metric space, we say that $`G`$ is relatively hyperbolic, relative to the collection $`\{H_i\}_{iI}`$. For details on hyperbolic metric spaces and their desirable properties, we refer the reader to . Here we merely remind that hyperbolic metric spaces can be roughly characterized by possessing “thin” geodesic triangles. (The precise condition that we will verify is contained below in Proposition 2.1.)

A number of results regarding relatively hyperbolic groups have been proven. A good source of examples is the paper  by A. Szczepański. Regarding the relative hyperbolicity of Coxeter groups and related groups, little has been shown. In , I. Kapovich and P. Schupp show that large-type Artin groups are relatively hyperbolic relative to a certain collection of rank-$`2`$ subgroups. As was done in the latter paper, here we will rely upon the following useful result due to P. Papasoglu (in ):

###### Proposition 2.1.

Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be a connected graph with simplicial metric $`d`$. Then $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is hyperbolic if and only if there is a number $`\delta >0`$ such that for any points $`x,y\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ (not necessarily vertices), any two geodesic paths from $`x`$ to $`y`$ in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are $`\delta `$-Hausdorff close.

(See the remark in  regarding applicability of the result as originally stated to our situation.)

A graph with the simplicial metric can be obtained obtained from $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ by subdividing each of the original edges of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. However, it is not difficult to see that if the condition in Proposition 2.1 can be established for the original metric on $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$, then the condition holds also for the simplicial metric (perhaps with a different constant $`\delta `$, of course). In fact, it is clear that we need only verify that the condition holds for two vertices $`x=v(g_1)`$ and $`y=v(g_2)`$ in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

## 3. Admissible Coxeter groups

We first focus our attention on a certain class of right-angled Coxeter groups which are (at least intuitively) easier to deal with than right-angled groups in general.

Let $`W`$ be right-angled, and let $`𝒱`$ be its diagram. A simple circuit of length $`n`$ in the diagram $`𝒱`$ is a closed path $`C=\{[s_1s_2],\mathrm{},[s_ns_1]\}`$ in $`𝒱`$ such that $`s_is_j`$ for all $`1i<jn`$. We identify each circuit with its cyclic permutations. A circuit $`C`$ as above is called achordal if for any $`s_i,s_j`$, $`|ji|>1`$, $`s_i`$ and $`s_j`$ are not adjacent in $`𝒱`$.

Any achordal simple circuit $`\{[ab],[bc],[cd],[da]\}`$ in $`𝒱`$ of length $`4`$ is called a square. A diagonal of the square above is either one of the pairs $`\{a,c\}`$ or $`\{b,d\}`$. We call $`𝒱`$ (and also $`W`$) admissible if it is possible to choose a collection of diagonals, one for each square in $`𝒱`$, which are all disjoint from one another. We will also call such a choice of diagonals admissible. As examples, consider the Coxeter diagrams in Figure 1; $`𝒱_1`$ represents an admissible group, and $`𝒱_2`$, a group which is not admissible. (All edges are assumed to have label $`2`$.)

Now suppose that $`𝒱`$ is admissible, and select an admissible set of diagonals, $`\left\{\{a_i,c_i\}\right\}`$. Let $`H_i=W_{\{a_i,c_i\}}D_{\mathrm{}}`$. We now prove the main theorem in the restricted setting of admissible Coxeter groups:

###### Theorem 3.1.

Let $`W`$ be an admissible Coxeter group. Then $`W`$ is relatively hyperbolic relative to any collection of parabolic subgroups $`\left\{H_i\right\}`$ chosen as above (that is, corresponding to an admissible choice of diagonals).

In order to prove this, we must verify that the condition in Proposition 2.1 holds for admissible Coxeter groups. We do this by explaining the structure of geodesic paths in $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}=\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}\left(\{H_i\}\right)`$ between two vertices $`v(w_1)`$ and $`v(w_2)`$ in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }(W,S)`$. Having described the structure of such paths, we will be able to show that any two such paths with the same endpoints are $`\delta `$-close, where $`\delta `$ is independent of the choice of endpoints.

Having proven Theorem 3.1, we will (in the final section) indicate the minor changes that need be made in the arguments of Section 4 in order to prove the main theorem in general.

## 4. Geodesics in $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$

Throughout this section, both the group $`W`$ and the choice of diagonals made below are assumed to be admissible. We describe the collection of geodesics in $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ from $`1`$ to a given vertex $`w`$ in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, in terms of one such geodesic. Our description will enable an easy proof of Proposition 2.1 in the presence of admissibility, and therefore of Theorem 3.1.

First of all, let us note the following fact, which can be proven very easily using van Kampen diagrams.

###### Lemma 4.1.

Let $`(W,S)`$ be a right-angled Coxeter system, and let $`wW`$. Any two geodesic words (in the generators $`S`$) representing $`w`$ contain the same number of occurrences of each letter $`sS`$.

Lemma 4.1 actually follows from a more general result (which can also be proven using van Kampen diagrams):

###### Proposition 4.2.

Let $`(W,S)`$ be an arbitrary Coxeter system, and let $`wW`$. Any two geodesic words (in the generators $`S`$) representing $`w`$ contain the same number of letter from each conjugacy class of generators from $`S`$.

Indeed, Lemma 4.1 follows from Proposition 4.2 because in an even system (one in which every relator is of the form $`(st)^m`$, $`m`$ even), no two distinct generators are conjugate. Lemma 4.1 will be used frequently without mention.

Now to the geodesics. We will show that there are essentially two operations which can be applied in order to obtain new geodesics from a fixed geodesic. Having described these operations, we will show that the geodesics obtained from a single geodesic by means of these operations are uniformly close to the original geodesic.

Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }(W,S)`$ and $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}=\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}\left(\{H_i\}\right)`$ as in the preceding section. Let $`v(w_1)`$ and $`v(w_2)`$ be vertices in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. By translation, we can assume that $`w_1=1`$, and we rewrite $`w_2`$ as $`w`$. Through abuse of notation, we will often write the vertex $`v(w)`$ as $`w`$.

Suppose that $`\widehat{\gamma }`$ is a $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesic from $`1`$ to $`w`$. The path $`\widehat{\gamma }`$ can be broken up into blocks which correspond to subpaths in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and subpaths in $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. That is, $`\widehat{\gamma }=\alpha _1\beta _1\mathrm{}\alpha _k\beta _k`$, where $`\alpha _i`$ is a path

$$\{[w_{i1},w_{i1}s_1],[w_{i1}s_1,w_{i1}s_1s_2],\mathrm{}[w_{i1}s_1s_2\mathrm{}s_l,w_i]\}$$

where every vertex and every edge lies in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, and $`\beta _i`$ is a path of combinatorial length $`2`$:

$$\{[w_{i1},v(w_{i1}H_i)],[v(w_{i1}H_i),w_i=w_{i1}h_i]\},$$

for some $`h_iH_i`$. We call the paths $`\alpha _i`$ the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-blocks of $`\widehat{\gamma }`$ and the paths $`\beta _i`$ the $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks of $`\widehat{\gamma }`$.

One fact is obvious (by the geodesity of $`\widehat{\gamma }`$):

###### Lemma 4.3.

Each $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-block $`\alpha _i`$ of $`\widehat{\gamma }`$ is a geodesic in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

When it will not cause confusion, we do not distinguish between the path $`\alpha _i`$ and the word which labels this path.

We now construct a path, $`\gamma `$, in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, from $`\widehat{\gamma }`$. For each $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block $`\beta _i`$ in $`\widehat{\gamma }`$ as above, replace $`\beta _i`$ with the path $`\overline{\beta }_i`$ in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ from $`w_{i1}`$ to $`w_i=w_{i1}h_i`$ defined by the (unique) geodesic word in $`W_{\{a_i,c_i\}}`$ representing $`h_i`$. If $`\overline{\beta }_i`$ is a single letter, we call the corresponding $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block trivial; otherwise, we call the block non-trivial. We will often abuse terminology and call $`\overline{\beta }_i`$ (or even the label of this path) a $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block as well.

Performing all such replacements $`\beta _i\overline{\beta }_i`$ yields the path $`\overline{\gamma }`$. In general, $`\overline{\gamma }`$ may not be a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-geodesic, but it is nearly so. Namely, we have the following

###### Lemma 4.4.

Let $`\overline{\gamma }`$ be derived from $`\widehat{\gamma }`$ as above. Let $`h_i`$ be the geodesic word in $`H_i`$ corresponding to the $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block $`\beta _i`$. Then a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-geodesic $`\gamma `$ from $`1`$ to $`w`$ can be obtained from $`\overline{\gamma }`$ by canceling at most $`2`$ letters from each word $`h_i`$ arising from a non-trivial $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block.

###### Proof.

We appeal to an algorithm of Tits in . The results of this paper show that if a word $`w`$ in the letters $`S`$ is not geodesic, then a shorter representative for the same group element can be obtained from $`w`$ by performing successive commutations to bring two occurrences of the same letter next to each other, which can then be canceled.

It is clear that there can be no such cancellation of the letter $`a`$, where either $`a`$ occurs in both $`\alpha _{i_1}`$ and $`\alpha _{i_2}`$ or $`a`$ occurs in both $`\alpha _{i_1}`$ and $`h_{i_2}`$. (Otherwise we would be able to replace the appropriate words with shorter words and readjust the path $`\overline{\gamma }`$ to obtain a shorter (relative to both both $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$) path from $`1`$ to $`w`$, contrary to the geodesity of $`\widehat{\gamma }`$.) The same holds for trivial $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks $`\beta _i`$.

Thus we need only consider the case where the letter $`a`$ to be canceled occurs in two words $`h_{i_1}`$ and $`h_{i_2}`$ ($`i_1<i_2`$) coming from non-trivial $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks $`\beta _{i_1}`$ and $`\beta _{i_2}`$. (By admissibility, the other letter, $`c`$, in $`h_{i_1}`$ is the same as the other letter in $`h_{i_2}`$.) Suppose cancellation of $`a`$ does occur. In this case, since $`acca`$, $`h_{i_1}`$ ends with $`a`$ and $`h_{i_2}`$ begins with $`a`$, and $`a`$ commutes with every letter occurring in any word $`\alpha _j`$ or $`h_j`$ between $`h_{i_1}`$ and $`h_{i_2}`$. The letter $`c`$ cannot have such commutativity properties, as otherwise we would be able to commute the entire word $`h_{i_1}`$ past the intervening words and collapse the two $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks $`\beta _{i_1}`$ and $`\beta _{i_2}`$. We would thus obtain a $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-path from $`1`$ to $`w`$ with subpaths $`\alpha _i`$ identical to those of $`\overline{\gamma }`$, but with one fewer $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block, contradicting $`\widehat{\gamma }`$’s geodesity. Therefore we may cancel only one letter from the end of $`h_{i_1}`$ and one from the beginning of $`h_{i_2}`$.

It may be possible (if $`h_i`$ has length at least $`3`$) to cancel both the first and the last letters of $`h_i`$ in this fashion. ∎

Remark. One can use van Kampen diagrams to prove the above result, instead of appealing to . For applications of van Kampen diagrams to Coxeter groups and related groups, see , , and , for example. For details regarding van Kampen diagrams, the reader may consult  or .

The proof of Lemma 4.4 suggests a certain rigidity property that $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesics must satisfy. We say that two $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks $`\beta _1`$ and $`\beta _2`$ have the same type if they are both words in letters of the same diagonal, $`\{a,c\}`$. Arguments similar to the proof above can be used to verify

###### Lemma 4.5.

Let $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ and $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$ be two $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesics from $`1`$ to $`w`$. Then the non-trivial $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks of $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ are the same type, up to multiplicity, as those of $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$. (In fact, corresponding $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks $`\beta `$ and $`\beta ^{}`$ give rise to words $`h`$ and $`h^{}`$ which differ by at most $`2`$ letters, as in Lemma 4.4.)

As a consequence of these lemmata, there is only one fundamental operation by means of which we may obtain the $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks of one $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesic, $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$, from the $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks of another, $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$, with the same endpoints. Namely, suppose $`\beta _{i_1}`$ and $`\beta _{i_2}`$ are of the same type (corresponding to $`H=W_{\{a,c\}}`$). Suppose that the letter $`a`$ commutes with every letter in any block lying between $`\beta _{i_1}`$ and $`\beta _{i_2}`$. Our operation then consists of replacing $`h_{i_1}`$ with $`h_{i_1}a`$ and $`h_{i_2}`$ with $`ah_{i_2}`$. We call an application of this operation an insertion-deletion (ID). ID operations may be performed a number of times on a given geodesic.

Now note that it is possible that some $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks may commute with one another and so the relative order of the blocks in the geodesics $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ and $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$ may not be the same. Likewise, given two $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesics, the letters which appear in the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-blocks of each geodesic may appear in a different order in each path as well. Furthermore, some such letters may commute with certain of the $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks, leading to greater variation. However, this variation is controllable: we now define a procedure by means of which every $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesic from $`1`$ to $`w`$ can be obtained, once we have in hand one such geodesic, $`\widehat{\gamma }`$.

Let

$$\overline{\gamma }=\alpha _1\overline{\beta }_1\mathrm{}\alpha _k\overline{\beta }_k$$

be obtained from $`\widehat{\gamma }`$ by means of the replacements $`\beta _i\overline{\beta }_i`$. As before, let $`h_i`$ be the unique geodesic word labeling $`\overline{\beta }_i`$. Let $`w=\alpha _1h_1\mathrm{}\alpha _kh_k`$; that is, $`w`$ is the word labeling $`\overline{\gamma }`$.

We now describe all words $`\overline{\gamma }_1`$ (with label $`w_1=_Ww`$) which can be obtained from a $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesic $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ which in turn has the same endpoints as $`\widehat{\gamma }`$. Such a word $`\overline{\gamma }_1`$ will be called nice; its label will also be called nice. In particular, each subword $`h_i`$ of $`w`$ appears undisturbed in the label of any nice word. (As an example, if $`𝒱`$ consists of the square $`\{[ab],[bc],[cd],[da]\}`$, and if $`\{a,c\}`$ is the selected diagonal, then $`acab`$ and $`acba`$ are both geodesics representing the same element as $`baca`$, whereas only the first is nice.) We assume (often without mention) throughout the remainder of the section that every word $`\overline{\gamma }`$ is nice.

We define a syllable of $`w`$ to be either a letter in some $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-block $`\alpha _i`$ or a single $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block $`h_i`$ in its entirety. We write $`w`$ for the syllable length of $`w`$ (that is, the number of syllables occurring in $`w`$). Clearly every nice word $`w_1`$ satisfies $`w=w_1`$.

Certain of the syllables of the word $`w`$ are forced to occur before certain others, in any nice word $`w_1`$. That is, for instance, if $`stts`$ and the first occurrence of $`s`$ precedes the first occurrence of $`t`$ in $`w`$, then in any nice word $`w_1`$, the first occurrence of $`s`$ must precede the first occurrence of $`t`$. It is possible (although not necessary for our purposes) to assemble a complete description of these precedence relationships that arise in the word $`w`$.

Example. Consider the group $`W`$ with diagram shown in Figure 2.

We select the diagonals $`\{a,c\}`$ and $`\{b,f\}`$. Consider the word $`acabedbfbc`$ (which has $`6`$ syllables). In any nice word $`w_1`$ such that $`w=_Ww_1`$, $`aca`$ must precede each of $`e`$, $`d`$, $`c`$, and $`bfb`$, but may follow the first $`b`$. Also, $`d`$ must follow $`aca`$, $`b`$, and $`e`$, and must precede $`bfb`$, but may either precede or follow $`c`$.

From similar considerations, it is possible to determine, for a given syllable $`x`$ of $`w`$, which syllables of $`w`$ may appear before $`x`$ in some nice word $`w_1`$ such that $`w=_Ww_1`$. Of course, any syllable preceding $`x`$ in $`w`$ may precede $`x`$ in some $`w_1`$. Furthermore, any syllable $`x^{}`$ which occurs after $`x`$ in $`w`$ and which commutes with both every syllable lying between $`x`$ and $`x^{}`$, and with $`x`$ itself can also precede $`x`$ in some nice word $`w_1`$.

Example. Returning to the previous example, $`d`$ can be preceded by each of $`aca`$, $`b`$, $`e`$, and $`c`$.

Remark. As the reader may have noticed, for the purposes of establishing rules of precedence, as above, we may consider distinct occurrences of the same letter $`s`$ as different letters (or as indexed copies of the same letter). This fact is used implicitly throughout the remainder of this section.

Consider any syllable $`x`$ occurring in $`w`$. We say that $`x`$ is $`k`$-forced if in any nice word $`w_1=_Ww`$, $`x`$ must appear in the first $`k`$ syllables of $`w_1`$. For instance, every syllable in $`w`$ is $`w`$-forced, and in the above example, the syllable $`d`$ is $`5`$-forced.

As we will soon see, any prefix of a nice word $`w_1`$ of syllable length $`k`$ will contain a certain number of $`k`$-forced syllables, as well (perhaps) as a number of other syllables are not $`k`$-forced. Syllables that occur in a prefix of $`w_1`$ of syllable length $`k`$ which are not $`k`$-forced will be called $`k`$-free.

###### Lemma 4.6.

Let $`w_1`$ be a nice word such that $`w=_Ww_1`$, and let $`p(k)`$ be the prefix of $`w_1`$ of syllable length $`k`$. Then $`p(k)=_Wp_1(k)p_2(k)`$, where every syllable in $`p_1(k)`$ is $`k`$-forced, and every syllable in $`p_2(k)`$ is $`k`$-free.

###### Proof.

Let $`x`$ be any $`k`$-free syllable in $`p(k)`$, and let $`y`$ be a $`k`$-forced syllable occurring after $`x`$ in $`p(k)`$. It must be possible to commute $`x`$ past $`y`$ (and indeed past every intervening syllable), as otherwise $`x`$ too would be $`k`$-forced. Therefore every $`k`$-free syllable can be commuted past every $`k`$-forced syllable, and $`p(k)`$ can be rewritten as claimed. ∎

Being $`k`$-forced does not depend on the choice of nice word, so the word $`p_1(k)`$ contains the same syllables, regardless of our choice of nice word $`w_1`$. Moreover, although these syllables are bound by rules of precedence (as above), it is clear that the word $`p_1(k)`$ obtained from a nice word $`w_1`$ can be modified by commutations to obtain the word $`p_1(k)`$ corresponding to any other nice word $`w_2`$. The following fact results:

###### Lemma 4.7.

We may choose the same word $`p_1(k)`$ (as in Lemma 4.6) for every nice word $`w_1`$ such that $`w=_Ww_1`$.

This fact is promising, as it indicates how we may prove that any two $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesics are uniformly close to one another. Indeed, suppose that for every $`k`$, $`kp_1(k)M`$ for some $`M`$, and let $`\gamma (p_1)`$ be the $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesic from $`1`$ to $`v=v(p_1)`$ in $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ which is determined by $`p_1`$ in the obvious manner. Let $`w_1`$ and $`w_2`$ be nice words such that $`w=_Ww_i`$, $`i=1,2`$, and such that no ID operations need be performed in transforming $`w_1`$ to $`w_2`$. Let $`v_i`$ be the point on the path in $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ with label $`w_i`$ of $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-distance $`k`$ from $`1`$. Then

$$d_{\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}}(v_1,v_2)d_{\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}}(v_1,v)+d_{\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}}(v,v_2)2M.$$

If we can uniformly bound $`M`$ (that is, show that it is independent of the choice of $`w`$), we will be nearly done. (Because in this case, corresponding points on geodesic paths obtained from one another without the use of ID operations will be uniformly close.)

For a fixed system $`(W,S)`$ and admissible choice of diagonals, let $`M`$ be one less than the maximal number of syllables which mutually commute with one another in any possible word $`w`$. (For instance, in the above examples, $`M=1`$.) The value of $`M`$ can be determined easily from the diagram $`𝒱`$ and from the choice of diagonals.

###### Proposition 4.8.

Let $`w`$ label a nice $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-geodesic $`\gamma `$. For each $`k`$, $`1kw`$, define $`p_1(k)`$ as above. Then for every $`k`$, $`1kw`$, $`kp_1(k)M`$.

###### Proof.

For any word $`w`$ and any $`k`$, $`1kw`$, denote by $`n(k,w)`$ the number of syllables of $`w`$ which are $`k`$-forced in $`w`$. We need to show that $`kn(k,w)M`$, for every $`k`$, $`1kr`$.

We prove this fact by induction on the syllable length of $`w`$. The result is clearly true if $`w=1`$. Assume it to be proven in case $`wr1`$, and let $`w=r`$.

From $`w`$ we create a shorter word, $`w^{}`$, by removing a single syllable. Namely, let $`x`$ be any syllable of $`w`$ which is $`k`$-forced, for $`k`$ minimal among all syllables of $`x`$. We claim that $`x`$ may be commuted to the front of $`w`$. If this were not the case, some syllable, $`y`$, which precedes $`x`$, satisfies $`xyyx`$. In this case, strictly fewer syllables of $`w`$ can precede $`y`$ as can precede $`x`$, so that $`y`$ is $`k`$-forced for a smaller value of $`k`$ than is $`x`$, contrary to our choice of $`x`$.

Therefore $`w=_Wxw^{}`$ for some $`w^{}`$, $`w^{}=r1`$. It is clear that $`w^{}`$ is a nice word (that is, that it labels a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-geodesic $`\gamma ^{}`$ which arises from a $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesic $`\widehat{\gamma }^{}`$ by replacements $`\beta _i\overline{\beta }_i`$ as before).

Consider any syllable $`y`$, $`yx`$ in $`w`$ (the same syllable appears in $`w^{}`$). If $`y`$ is $`k`$-forced in $`w^{}`$, then it is clearly $`(k+1)`$-forced in $`w`$ ($`x`$ may precede it). Moreover, $`x`$ is $`(k+1)`$-forced in $`w`$ as well. Thus $`n(k+1,w)n(k,w^{})+1`$.

Fix $`k2`$ such that $`n(k,w)2`$. By the inductive hypothesis,

$$(k1)n(k1,w^{})M.$$

Thus

$$kn(k,w)k(n(k1,w^{})+1)=(k1)n(k1,w^{})M.$$

Therefore we need only show that $`kn(k,w)M`$ when $`n(k,w)=1`$; that is, when $`x`$ is the only syllable which is $`k`$-forced. It suffices to show that for any choice of $`w`$, there is some syllable which is $`(M+1)`$-forced.

As above, let $`x`$ denote any syllable which is $`k`$-forced, for $`k`$ minimal among all $`x`$ in $`w`$.

We construct a set $`S_1`$ of syllables of $`w`$, all of which commute with one another, in the following fashion. Initially, $`S_1`$ consists of the first syllable of $`w`$. We add to this set the second syllable of $`w`$ if it commutes with the first. Thereafter, we consider each syllable $`y`$ in turn, adding it to $`S_1`$ if and only if

1. $`y`$ commutes with each syllable already included in $`S_1`$, and

2. $`y`$ can be commuted to the front of the word $`w`$.

It is easy to show that $`xS_1`$.

Let $`m=|S_1|`$. By the definition of $`M`$, $`mM+1`$. We now claim that $`x`$ is $`m`$-forced (this will finish our proof).

Suppose that $`S_1=\{x_1,\mathrm{},x_{m1},x\}`$. Without loss of generality, we can write $`w`$ as $`x_1\mathrm{}x_{m1}xw^{\prime \prime }`$ for some word $`w^{\prime \prime }`$.

Assume that $`x`$ is not $`m`$-forced, and assume first that $`x`$ is a single letter. Thus there is some syllable $`yS_1`$ such that $`yx=xy`$, but $`yx_ix_iy`$, for some $`i`$, $`1im1`$. We may assume that $`y`$ is the first such syllable to occur after $`x`$ in $`w`$, and by commuting, we may assume that $`i=m1`$. Assume for now that both $`x_{m1}`$ and $`y`$ are also single letters. By the minimality in our choice of $`x`$, there must be a syllable $`y^{}`$ following $`x`$ in $`w`$ such that $`x_{m1}`$ and $`y`$ both commute with $`y^{}`$, but $`x`$ does not. (In fact, from our choice of $`y`$, this must be true of the first syllable following $`x`$ which does not commute with $`x`$.) Assume for now that $`y^{}`$ too is a single letter.

We have found a square in the diagram $`𝒱`$, consisting of the letters $`\{x,x_{m1},y^{},y\}`$. Therefore either $`\{x,y^{}\}`$ or $`\{x_{m1},y\}`$ must have been selected as a diagonal. However, either choice violates the assumption that each of the letters $`x`$, $`x_{m1}`$, $`y`$, and $`y^{}`$ is a syllable in its own right. (This is so because in either case we realize a non-trivial $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block consisting of two of these letters.)

There are a number ($`15`$, to be exact) of other cases to consider, depending on which of the syllables $`x`$, $`x_{m1}`$, $`y`$, and $`y^{}`$ are single letters, and which stem from non-trivial $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks. In each case, we may argue much as above, obtaining either a similar contradiction, or a contradiction to the very admissibility of the group $`W`$. (The latter contradiction arises, for instance, when $`x`$ and $`y`$ are single letters and $`x_{m1}`$ and $`y^{}`$ come from non-trivial $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks.)

Therefore $`x`$ is $`m`$-forced, and is thus $`(M+1)`$-forced. This concludes the proof. ∎

What have we now shown? Let $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ and $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$ both be $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesics between the vertices $`1`$ and $`w`$ in $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$. Then if $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$ can be obtained from $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ without applying ID operations (i.e., by commutations of syllables only), $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ and $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$ are $`2M`$-Hausdorff close, where $`M`$ is defined as above.

In order to prove Proposition 2.1 (and therefore Theorem 3.1), it suffices to show that if $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$ and can be obtained from $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ by applying only ID operations, then the paths are $`\delta `$-close, for some $`\delta >0`$. (We can first apply ID operations to make sure that all $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks which occur in two given nice geodesics are identical up to commutation, and then perform commutations to obtain one geodesic from the other.)

Indeed, this is so. The $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-distance between corresponding points on two $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesics which differ only by application of ID operations is uniformly bounded by a constant which (like $`M`$) is related to the structure of $`𝒱`$ and the choice of diagonals.

Each ID operation, like a balanced pair of parentheses, has an “opening” and a “closing”. In the notation used before to define ID operations, the “opening” occurs when the word $`h_{i_1}`$ is replaced by the word $`h_{i_1}a`$, and the closing when $`h_{i_2}`$ is replaced by $`ah_{i_2}`$. The greatest distance between corresponding points on two geodesics differing only by ID operations is obtained when the number of “unclosed” pairs is maximal. (This distance at most the number of unclosed pairs at that point). A necessary (though not in general sufficient) condition for each of the ID operations inserting and deleting the letters $`a_1,a_2,\mathrm{},a_k`$ to be simultaneously in an open state is that each $`a_i`$ commutes with $`a_j`$, $`j>i`$. Thus the maximal number of unclosed pairs at any time is bounded above by the maximal number of generators which commute with a given generator of $`S`$.

Therefore, Proposition 2.1 and Theorem 3.1 are proven. Moreover, an explicit “constant of relative hyperbolicity” can be computed, merely by examining the diagram $`𝒱`$ and the admissible choice of diagonals.

## 5. The main theorem in general

We now indicate the changes that must be made in the above argument in order to prove Theorem 1.2 in general. The chief difficulty stems from the fact that if $`W`$ (or the choice of diagonals) is not admissible, then a single letter $`sS`$ may appear in more than one diagonal.

However, the first four results of Section 4 remain true in the general case. In particular, we need only cancel at most $`2`$ letters from each non-trivial $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block in order to obtain a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-geodesic from a $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesic. Moreover, ID operations are still valid, although now an ID operation can effect the exchange of a letter between two $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks of different type (which share a single letter).

Lemma 4.5 is no longer valid. As before, given two $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesics with the same endpoints in $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$, $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ and $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$, we obtain $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-geodesics $`\gamma _1`$ and $`\gamma _2`$ by first replacing each $`\beta _i`$ with $`\overline{\beta }_i`$, and then by applying ID operations. In order to obtain $`\gamma _2`$ from $`\gamma _1`$, we must modify the $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks that occur in $`\gamma _1`$ without changing the syllable length of its label. This can be done step-by-step, where at each step we either leave fixed the number of $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks (merely shifting letters from one block to another), or decrease the number of $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks by one, adding $`1`$ to the total length of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-blocks $`\alpha _i`$.

An operation which accomplishes this first goal is called a shift operation. Let $`\{a,b\}`$, $`\{b,c\}`$, $`\{c,d\}`$, and $`\{d,e\}`$ all be selected diagonals. Suppose that the word $`w`$ contains the subword $`(ab)^mw_1cdw_2(ed)^n`$, and that both $`bw_1=w_1b`$ and $`dw_2=w_2d`$ hold in $`W`$. The most general form of shift involves replacing the subword above with the subword $`(ab)^{m1}aw_1bcw_2(de)^nd`$ (both of which have the same number of syllables), or vice versa. Of course, the words $`w_i`$ may be trivial. More than one shift can be performed in an overlapping sequence, each syllable passing on a single letter to the next, in the obvious fashion. In this case only the first and the last syllables involved in the shift can have length greater than $`2`$.

A second way in which the first goal can be accomplished is by applying an exchange operation. Suppose that $`\{a,b\}`$, $`\{a,c\}`$, $`\{b,d\}`$, and $`\{c,d\}`$ are all selected diagonals, and that $`bc=cb`$. Furthermore, assume that both $`b`$ and $`c`$ commute with the word $`w_1`$. In its most general form, an exchange consists of replacing the subword $`abw_1cd`$ of $`w`$ with the subword $`acw_1bd`$. As with shifts, there can be sequences of overlapping exchanges.

How do we effect a transformation in which a $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block disappears and the total length of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-blocks $`\alpha _i`$ is increased by $`1`$? The disappearing $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block must have length $`2`$, and one of its letters must be “absorbed” into another $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-block. We’ve seen this behavior already, in ID operations which replace $`(ab)^mw_1(ac)`$ with $`(ab)^maw_1c`$, for example. Another way this can be accomplished is by a variant sort of exchange, in which the word $`(ab)w_1(cd)w_2(ed)^n`$ is replaced by the word $`(ac)bw_1w_2(de)^nd`$ (or vice versa), where $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks are indicated by parentheses.

These new operations differ from ID operations in that the type of syllables present is (in general) modified. However, each single new operation can be seen as a composition of two ID operations, where the word resulting from the application of the first ID operation is not a $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesic. (In an exchange, there is a commutation of letters in between the two ID operations.) For this reason, we may treat shifts and exchanges much as we would ID operations. Indeed, keeping track of “openings” and “closings” of sequences of shifts and exchanges as we did with ID operations, it is not difficult to verify the following fact.

###### Proposition 5.1.

Let $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ and $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$ be $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesics which can be obtained from one another through application of ID operations, shifts, and exchanges only. Then corresponding points on these two geodesics are uniformly $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-close.

We are almost done now. We first note the following analogue of Lemma 4.5:

###### Proposition 5.2.

Let $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ and $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$ be $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesics with the same endpoints, $`1`$ and $`w`$, in $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$. Then the $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks of $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$ can be obtained from the $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks of $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ by application of ID operations, shifts, and exchanges.

###### Proof.

Let $`\overline{\gamma }_i`$ be the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-path resulting from $`\widehat{\gamma }_i`$ be the replacements $`\beta _i\overline{\beta }_i`$ as before. Both $`\overline{\gamma }_1`$ and $`\overline{\gamma }_2`$ are nice words representing the same group element. By applying ID operations, we can transform each of these paths into a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-geodesic. The label of one of these paths can be obtained from the label of the other by commutations whose net effect must not increase the syllable length of the word in question. We have defined the operations above precisely in order to describe all ways in which this can be done. ∎

Now suppose we are given two $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ geodesics, $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ and $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$, with the same endpoints, $`1`$ and $`w`$, in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. By applying ID operations, shifts, and exchanges, we may obtain from $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ a new $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-geodesic, $`\widehat{\gamma }_1^{}`$, which has the same $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$-blocks as $`\widehat{\gamma }_2`$, although in a different order. By Proposition 5.1, corresponding points on $`\widehat{\gamma }_1`$ and $`\widehat{\gamma }_1^{}`$ are uniformly close to one another in $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$. In order to prove Theorem 1.2, we need only show that geodesics which differ only by the order of their syllables are uniformly close.

However, the proof of Proposition 4.8 in the more general setting goes through almost exactly as before. The only difference is that now we can no longer derive a contradiction to admissibility (such admissibility assumptions are not made!). We only contradict the syllabification of the geodesic, as was done in the proof of Proposition 4.8 above.


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# Ages and Metallicities of Hickson Compact Group Galaxies

## 1 Introduction

Hickson Compact Groups (HCGs) were defined by Hickson (1982) to be spatially compact collections of four or more galaxies that are relatively isolated from their general surroundings. The original selection was made without knowing individual redshifts of the galaxies. Consequently a few galaxies have been shown to be merely chance projections. Although claims were made that such projections were a major contributor to the appearance of HCGs (e.g. Mamon 1986; Hernquist, Katz & Weinberg 1995), the reality of most HCGs is now accepted (e.g. Ponman et al. 1996; Tovmassian et al. 2000).

The space density of galaxies in HCGs is very high, and comparable to that at the centres of galaxy clusters. Furthermore the velocity dispersions within HCGs are quite low ($``$200 km s-1). These two conditions imply that HCGs are the galactic environments in which the effects of mergers and interactions should be most pronounced. Signs of mergers and interactions have indeed been found in HCGs (e.g. Rubin, Hunter & Ford 1991; Forbes 1992; Mendes de Olivera & Hickson 1994; Jones, Ponman & Forbes 2000). However, the merging rates and starburst/AGN activity seem to be lower than expected (Zepf & Whitmore 1991; Coziol et al. 1997; Verdes-Montenegro et al. 1998). It has also been shown (Ponman et al. 1996) that most HCGs are nearly or fully virialized systems, indicating that most are fairly evolved. This is surprising, given the short crossing times in most HCGs, as such groups should be unstable and merge into a single massive galaxy within the Hubble time (White 1990). These considerations have prompted speculation about the formation and evolution of HCGs. One possibility is that the galaxies do merge, and form a single massive elliptical galaxy, but, with secondary infall of surrounding galaxies, the systems maintain their status as HCGs (Governato, Tozzi & Cavaliere 1996). A second possibility is that loose groups may be continously collapsing to form more compact groups (Diaferio, Gell & Ramella 1994). Alternatively, simulations suggest that if the dark matter is distributed in a common group halo, rather than individual galaxy halos, merging is suppressed and HCGs would be dynamically long-lived systems (Athanassoula, Makino & Bosma 1997).

It is also useful to consider the predictions of the various models of galaxy formation. For instance, Kauffmann (1996) used a semi-analytical approach to modeling the hierarchical formation of galaxies in different environments, finding a bimodal age distribution in dark matter halos of size 1013 M, which includes HCGs, small group and field galaxies. In such halos the Kauffmann models predict the central luminous ellipticals to have younger average ages than their less luminous neighbours. On the other hand, the N-body-SPH monolithic collapse models of elliptical galaxy formation of Chiosi & Carraro (2002) predict younger ages for low mass galaxies than for those with high mass.

One way to discriminate between the different evolutionary models would be to determine ages and chemical compositions of a number of early-type galaxies in HCGs for comparison to those of galaxies in other environments. For example, are they generally old (indicating a low interaction rate) like galaxies in the centre of clusters, or is there evidence of an enhanced interaction rate as indicated by the younger stellar populations often seen in loose group and field galaxies?

In this paper we use an approach which has been successfully applied to galaxies in clusters, loose groups and the field, i.e. using Lick indices to obtain relative ages and metalicities (e.g. Gonzalez 1993; Kuntschner 2000; Trager et al. 2000, hereafter T00; Poggianti et al. 2001; Kuntschner et al. 2002; Proctor & Sansom 2002, hereafter PS02; Terlevich & Forbes 2002). Here we extend these techniques to HCGs for the first time. The results for HCGs are compared to galaxies in different environments and the predictions of galaxy formation models. We assume H0=75 km s-1 Mpc-1 throughout.

## 2 The Sample

Groups were chosen from the Hickson Compact Group Catalog (Hickson 1982). The groups were HCG 4, 14, 16, 22, 25, 32, 40, 42, 62 and 86. The spectra of several galaxies not in HCGs were also obtained. These include three field Arp-Madore galaxies NGC 2502, NGC 3203 and NGC 6684, 2 galaxies in the massive loose group NGC 5044, and NGC 3305 located in the loose group LGG211 (Garcia 1993). Our emphasis was to obtain spectra for the early-type galaxies. However, a number of spiral galaxies were also observed. A number of galaxies failed to achieve a suitable signal-to-noise and have been omitted (see Section 4). The remaining galaxies exhibit signal-to-noise ratios of between 20 and 60. These include a total of 17 early-type galaxies and 9 spiral bulges in HCGs, and 6 early-type galaxies in groups.

## 3 Observations and Initial Data Reduction

Spectra were obtained on the ESO NTT telescope on 2000 April 9-11th and 2000 Dec. 30-31st – 2001 Jan. 1st (hereafter 2001 Jan run). Table 1 summarises the observational parameters. Seeing was around 1 arcsec for both observing runs. The observations consist of a combination of long-slit and multi-object spectrograph (MOS) spectra obtained using the red arm of the EMMI instrument. All MOS masks had a slit-width 1.87 arcsec. Long-slit spectra (slit-width 2.0 arcsec) were taken of additional galaxies not covered by the MOS observations. In general, slits were not aligned along a preferred axis of the galaxies. All spectra were taken with ESO Grism# 5 and cover the wavelength range from $``$4000 to 6600 Å. This wavelength range covers 25 Lick indices. However, redshift and vignetting effects cause the loss of indices at the extremes of this range. The spectral resolution was 6.4Å FWHM. Spectra of seven Lick standard stars, as well as spectrophotometric standards, were taken during the runs. Exposures of a He+Ar lamp, with an order sorting filter BG38, were taken for wavelength calibrations. Dome and sky flats were obtained for flat-fielding.

Initial data reductions were carried out using standard tasks within IRAF. Briefly, the data were bias-subtracted, trimmed, bad pixels and cosmic rays removed, and flat-fielding carried out using dome flats. Individual spectra were then extracted and sky-subtracted using the apall task. Sky-subtractions in MOS data are notoriously difficult, and despite careful selection of sky regions, sky-line residuals were evident in some MOS spectra after sky-subtraction. The method of analysis of these spectra was therefore designed to detect and ameliorate the effects of such residuals (see Section 5). Spectra were extinction corrected and flux calibrated using flux standard stars observed over several nights. For each galaxy we obtained three spectra of the same exposure time. These were co-added before extraction of the central regions. The extraction aperture was 10 pixels (2.7$`^{^{\prime \prime }}`$) wide for both the long-slit and MOS spectra.

Determination of recession velocity and velocity dispersion in galaxies was carried out using the IRAF task fxcor. The results of these determinations are given in Table 2. A comparison of velocity dispersion measurements with values published in Hypercat (http://www-obs.univ-lyon1.fr/hypercat/) are shown in Fig. 1. In this plot the data given in Table 2 have been aperture corrected to an effective aperture size of 1.19 h-1 kpc according to Jørgensen et al. (1995). The effective aperture is approximated in Jørgensen et al. (1995) by D=2.05$`\times `$(xy/$`\pi `$)1/2. This yields effective apertures of 2.6$`^{^{\prime \prime }}`$ for the MOS data and 2.7$`^{^{\prime \prime }}`$ for the long-slit data. The average value (2.65$`^{^{\prime \prime }}`$) was used for aperture corrections. The estimated extent of these apertures (in kiloparsec) are given in Table 2. Fig. 1 shows that comparisons between aperture corrected values of log $`\sigma `$ from this study and those given in Hypercat are generally within errors.

## 4 Measurement of Lick indices

Raw Lick indices were measured using our own code (see PS02). The code measures indices at the wavelength dependent resolution detailed in Worthey & Ottaviani (1997). The measured indices at this point still require correcting for both velocity dispersion and differences in flux calibration between our study and the Lick system.

### 4.1 Calibration to the Lick system

The procedure used for correcting Lick indices for galaxy velocity dispersion was the same as that given in PS02. Briefly, for galaxies in which the velocity dispersion, when combined in quadrature with the instrumental broadening, resulted in a resolution *higher* than that of the Lick system, the galaxy spectra were convolved with an appropriate Gaussian prior to index measurement. This procedure is clearly not applicable to galaxies in which the combined resolution exceeded that of Lick system. Therefore, indices were measured in 7 Lick standard stars after convolving the spectra with a series of Gaussians of known widths. This permits estimation of correction factors for indices in these galaxies. The method of calculating the correction factors was the same as detailed in PS02. The results from the present study were almost identical to those of PS02, as well as those given in Kuntschner (2000).

The final correction required in order to fully calibrate to the Lick system is to allow for differences in flux calibration. To estimate this correction, Lick indices were measured in each of the observed 7 Lick standard stars. Stars were broadened to the appropriate Lick resolution prior to index measurement (see PS02). The difference between our measurements of the Lick standard stars and those taken on the Lick/IDS system (Worthey et al. 1994) are given in Table 3. Differences are generally smaller than the scatter and typical rms error per observation of the Lick calibrators (Worthey et al. 1994). Nonetheless, these offsets were applied to the velocity dispersion corrected indices and the error in the mean added in quadrature to index errors for the purposes of SSP fitting (Section 5).

Comparison of Mg2 index measurements with values published in Hypercat are shown in Fig. 2. Data in this plot are all aperture corrected according to Jørgensen (1997). Only Mg2 is compared as no other indices have been reported in previous studies that include HCGs common to this work. Agreement can be seen to be reasonably good, although the scatter is slightly larger than the errors. The cause of this scatter is unknown. However, it should be noted that Mg2 is one of $``$20 indices used in the derivations of age and metallicity detailed in Section 5. Consequently, the effects on this (or any other) individual index on the final age/metallicity determinations is expected to be small.

### 4.2 Correlations with velocity dispersion

The trends of various indices with velocity dispersion are shown in Fig. 3. The thin line shown in the Mg2 plot is the correlation reported by Bernardi et al (1998). Thin lines in the remaining plots are from the data of Kuntschner (2000) for Fornax cluster galaxies (after conversion of line indices to a linear index scale and aperture correction). The thick lines are relations for spiral galaxy bulges from PS02 (after aperture correction). While there are small off-sets evident in some indices (most noticeably $`<`$Fe$`>`$), agreement with the previously published correlations are generally good.

### 4.3 Emission

A plot of H$`\beta `$ against Fe5015 is shown in Fig. 4. Both of these indices are susceptible to emission. It is clear from this diagram that a number of galaxies fall below the grids. This is consistent with the presence of emission in these galaxies. However, for galaxies lying just below the grids it *might* reflect an overestimation of H$`\beta `$ in the SSPs. Unfortunately, it was not deemed possible to estimate emission by the procedure of measuring \[OIII\]5007 (Gonzalez 1993) due to the relatively low signal-to-noise of the data and the small number of suitable template stars observed. The identification and handling of these emission affected indices was therefore carried out by consideration of *all* indices in a galaxy. This procedure is described in the Section 5.

## 5 Determinations of age, metallicity and abundance ratios

This section details the estimation of age, \[Fe/H\] and \[E/Fe\], where \[E/Fe\] is the abundance ratio of enhanced elements; C,O, Mg etc to Fe (see PS02). To facilitate comparison of results to the studies of T00, and PS02, determinations of log(age), \[Fe/H\] and \[E/Fe\] (hereafter; derived parameters) were carried out using Vazdekis (1999) single stellar populations (SSPs) and Tripicco & Bell (1995) index sensitivities, as described in PS02111T00 in fact used Worthey (1994) SSPs and a slightly different method of estimating derived parameters. However, these differences in combination result in values that differ by amounts similar to the quoted errors.. Briefly, each index in the model SSPs was interpolated to give a grid of values for -1$`<`$log(age)$`<`$1.25 dex and -1.675$`<`$\[Fe/H\]$`<`$0.5 dex in 0.025 dex steps. For each index, at each log(age), \[Fe/H\] step, values of the index were also estimated for -0.3$`<`$\[E/Fe\]$`<`$0.6 dex, again in 0.025 dex steps. These enhanced values were estimated by assuming an appropriate (55%/44%/3%) mix of the three stellar types whose index sensitivities were modeled by Tripicco & Bell (1995). The elements C, N, O, Mg, Na and Si were assumed to be in the enhanced group (i.e. E in \[E/Fe\]), while Fe, Ca and Cr were taken to be Fe peak elements. The fractional change in each index was then calculated by assuming that all elements in the enhanced group vary by the same amount when compared to the Fe peak elements. In this way a three dimensional grid (with axes; log(age), \[Fe/H\] and \[E/Fe\]) was generated for each index. The procedure used for estimating the derived parameters then involved simultaneously finding the best fit (by $`\chi ^2`$ minimisation) of as many observed indices as possible ($``$20) to the three dimensional grids of model indices.

The rational for using a large number of indices (rather than the 3 or 4 often used, e.g. Kuntschner et al. 2001; Kuntschner et al. 2002; Caldwell, Rose & Concannon 2003; Mehlert et al. 2003; Denicolo et al. 2003) was arrived at in the following way: While each index is, to some degree, sensitive to each of the derived parameters, the various degeneracies makes their estimation from individual indices impossible. As well as errors in observations and reductions, we must also consider the large number of uncertainties in the modeling (comparison of complex populations to SSPs, errors in the SSP grids themselves and the rather crude models of the effects of relative abundances). However, despite these difficulties, it remains true that each index does contain *some* information on each of the derived parameters. PS02 therefore postulated that, if a sufficiently large number of indices were employed it may be possible to extract this information with acceptable accuracy. In order to test this hypothesis, PS02 used various combinations of indices to estimate derived parameters, including estimates with all Balmer lines excluded from the fitting procedure, i.e. *using only metallicity sensitive indices*. The more common combinations of 3 or 4 indices were also tested. The estimates of derived parameters from the various combinations of indices were shown to be in good agreement with only moderate scatter ($``$ 0.1 dex) about values obtained using all indices (see table 11 of PS02). PS02 therefore concluded that *ages and metallicities can be derived without the use of Balmer lines if a sufficiently large number of indices are included in the fitting procedure*.

Given these considerations, the use of a large number of indices would seem to have several distinct advantages;

* The procedure is particularly useful in spectra that are not emission corrected, as affected indices can be identified and omitted from the determination (see below) with only a modest increase in errors.
* Derived parameters are less prone to reduction errors, e.g. flux calibration error, stray cosmic rays, skyline residuals, velocity dispersion error, errors in conversion to the Lick system, etc.
* Derived parameters are less prone to modeling errors in individual indices.

While the process of estimating derived parameters used here is based on that in PS02, there were some minor differences in methodology. Firstly, the molecular band indices were assumed to have an *additive* Tripicco & Bell (1995) correction (in line with Thomas et al. 2003). In addition, Ti was included amongst the enhanced elements for the application of Tripicco & Bell (1995). These modifications to the PS02 procedure make only small differences to the derived parameters. More importantly, due to the presence of emission affected indices and the signal-to-noise of our data, certain indices were ‘clipped’ from the fitting process using the following procedure. Initially the best fit age/\[Fe/H\]/\[E/Fe\] were estimated with (the emission affected) Balmer lines and Fe5015 excluded from the fitting procedure. Deviations of the observed Balmer lines and Fe5015 from the best fit SSP values were then considered, and indices whose observed value deviated by more than 3$`\sigma `$ from the best fit SSP value were deemed to be suffering from emission. These indices were then permanently excluded from the fitting process. A 3$`\sigma `$ offset in H$`\delta _A`$, H$`\delta _F`$, H$`\gamma _A`$, H$`\gamma _F`$ and H$`\beta `$ (with typical errors of $``$ 0.4, 0.3, 0.4, 0.3 and 0.2 $`\AA `$ respectively) corresponds to log(age) differences of $``$ 0.25, 0.45, 0.25, 0.35 and 0.5 dex. The clipping procedure therefore only excludes indices when derived parameter estimates obtained from the remaining indices differ significantly from that implied by the clipped index.

Once emission affected indices had been eliminated, another fit to SSP values was obtained, this time using all remaining indices. Again indices were clipped, this time using a 5$`\sigma `$ limit. The 5$`\sigma `$ clipping process was iterated (if necessary) until a fit was obtained in which no index deviated from best fit SSP values by more than 5$`\sigma `$. In fact only one galaxy (HCG86A) required a second iteration. All but one of the 5 indices clipped at this stage were found (by visual inspection) to be affected by sky-line residuals.

The final fit (with no indices deviating by more than 5$`\sigma `$) was taken as giving the final values. Indices affected by vignetting and those clipped from the fitting procedure have been omitted from Tables 5 to 8. The values of the derived parameters are given in Table 9 with subscript *raw*. This is to indicate that there a two further corrections that must be applied before values are fully calibrated.

The first correction relates to local abundance trends, as the values of \[E/Fe\]raw given in Table 9 are enhancements with respect to the stellar calibrators used in the construction of the SSPs. These stars were selected from the solar neighbourhood and therefore possess an inherent \[E/Fe\] that varies with \[Fe/H\] (e.g. Edvardsson et al. 1993; Gustafsson et al. 1999; Bensby, Felzing & Lundstrom 2003).

In order to understand the need for the local abundance ratio pattern correction, consider a galaxy, the observed spectra of which give derived parameters; \[E/Fe\]raw=0.0 and \[Fe/H\]=–0.5. This is equivalent to saying that the observed spectrum is best matched by the SSP with \[Fe/H\]=–0.5, *without* the need to adjust indices using the Tripicco & Bell (1995) abundance ratio sensitivities.

Now, the stellar library used to construct the SSP is composed of stars in the solar neighbourhood, and therefore reflect the local abundance ratio pattern. Thus the SSP at \[Fe/H\]=–0.5 is generated using stars with an \[E/Fe\] of $``$+0.25 dex (see, for example, Bensby, Feltzing & Lundstrom 2003). Therefore, given that the galaxy spectrum is best matched by the *unadjusted* \[Fe/H\]=–0.5 SSP, we must conclude that the SSP and the galaxy have the same \[E/Fe\] of +0.25 dex.

This example can be generalised by considering the value \[E/Fe\]raw to represent the offset between \[E/Fe\] in the galaxy and \[E/Fe\] in the best fit SSP. Finally, it should be noted that solar neighbourhood stars (and consequently the SSPs) with \[Fe/H\]$`>`$–1.0 have \[E/Fe\] that varies with \[Fe/H\]. This variation (see, for example, Bensby, Feltzing & Lundstrom 2003) can be approximated by;

$$[E/Fe]=0.5[Fe/H].$$
(1)
The correction for the local abundance ratio pattern therefore estimates the final value of \[E/Fe\] in galaxies with \[Fe/H\]$`>`$–1.0 using;

$$[E/Fe]_{final}=0.5[Fe/H]+[E/Fe]_{raw}.$$
(2)
This correction is clearly only approximate. A more accurate analysis must account for the variety of behaviours of elements within the E group with \[Fe/H\]. This issue will be addressed in future works.

In many previous works the correction outlined above is either omitted altogether (e.g. T00; Kuntschner et al. 2002) or applied only to galaxies with \[Fe/H\]$`<`$0 (e.g. PS02; Thomas et al. 2003). However, recent studies of local stars have suggested that it should be applied to all galaxies with \[Fe/H\]$`>`$-1.0, including those with \[Fe/H\]$`>`$0 (Felzing & Gustafsson 1998; Gustaffsson et al. 1999; Bensby et al. 2003; see Appendix B). This is the procedure adopted in this paper. The data of T00 and PS02 have also been corrected to make them consistent with the HCG analysis. A more complete justification and detailed account of this correction are given in Appendix B.

The second correction that must be made to the raw values is that for the varying size of apertures within and between studies. This correction was carried out by the procedure described in Appendix A1.2 of Jørgensen (1997) using equation A2 and values $`\alpha `$=+0.2 for \[Fe/H\]; $`\alpha `$=0.0 for \[E/Fe\]; and $`\alpha `$=–0.04 for log(age). These values were estimated from gradients in derived parameters found in Proctor (2002).

The final derived parameters (corrected for both aperture and local enhancement trends) are given in Table 9 with the subscript *corr*. It is these values upon which the following analysis is based. Values of \[E/H\] (where \[E/H\]=\[E/Fe\]+\[Fe/H\]) are also given in this table. \[E/H\] is used here, rather than the more commonly quoted \[Z/H\], as this aids in consideration of the correlations and temporal evolution of the two element groups of interest. However, the difference between \[E/H\] and \[Z/H\] is less than 0.04 dex for all galaxies in the sample.

## 6 Results and discussion

The results presented in this section are fully corrected to the Lick system. This includes both aperture correction and correction for the local abundance trends (see Appendix B). Plots include the measurements from T00 and PS02 data sets. From the present study we show results for 17 early-type galaxies and 9 spiral bulges in HCGs and 6 early-type galaxies in groups or the field. The T00 sample includes 49 early-type galaxies of which 11 are in the Fornax cluster, 8 are in the Virgo cluster and 30 are in low density environments (groups and field). NGC 221 and NGC 224 have been omitted from the original T00 sample due to the large aperture corrections required for such nearby galaxies. The PS02 sample includes 6 Virgo cluster early-type galaxies, 2 galaxies in HGC68 (NGC 5353 and NGC 5354), 9 early-type galaxies in loose groups and the field as well as 15 spiral bulges. The combined sample therefore contains 89 early-type galaxies and 24 spiral bulges, in a variety of environments.

### 6.1 Correlations for early-type galaxies

A plot of luminosity-weighted age against velocity dispersion for the combined data sets (Fig. 5) indicates that the galaxies in the three samples exhibit a large range of ages. The plot also indicates a trend between age and velocity dispersion for both E/S0s and spiral bulges. Such a trend for early-type galaxies is also evident in other studies (e.g. Caldwell et al. 2003; Denicolo et al. 2003; Mehlert et al. 2003). However, some care must be taken when interpreting this figure as old, low velocity dispersion (i.e. low luminosity) galaxies, which could populate the top left quadrant of the plot may be excluded from any sample by signal-to-noise limitations.

The broad range of ages found in the E/S0 galaxies of these studies permits testing of the Forbes & Ponman (1999) finding of a correlation between the residual of the Faber-Jackson relation and age. A plot of the Faber-Jackson relation for the data in the two studies is shown in Fig. 6. Values of MB were calculated using published distances to Virgo and Fornax clusters (16.8 and 18.4 Mpc respectively). However, for HCG and field galaxies, distances were calculated using simply recession velocities (a Hubble constant of 75 km s-1 Mpc-1 is assumed throughout). Fig. 6 (upper) shows that the relation given in Forbes & Ponman (1999) is reproduced with a rms scatter $``$ 0.8 mag. This scatter is equivalent to an uncertainty in distance estimates characterised by a recession velocity of only 350 km s-1, well within the random velocities of the field and group galaxies with respect to the Hubble flow. In the plot of residuals to the Faber-Jackson relation against age (lower plot) a correlation is also found with confidence $`>`$99.99%. This supports the Forbes & Ponman (1999) finding and gives us confidence that the age/metallicity degeneracy has indeed been broken in these studies.

Fig. 7 shows \[Fe/H\] and \[E/Fe\] (and their sum \[E/H\]) for early-type galaxies in the three studies, plotted against velocity dispersion and age. Bearing in mind that 89 galaxies are plotted in each of these figures, strong correlations of both \[Fe/H\] and \[E/H\] with age are evident. Fits were obtained (by least-squares fitting) to each of these relations. These are shown in Fig. 7 as solid lines. The fits were obtained using the field/loose group galaxies only, as these galaxies; i) span the largest ranges in both age and log velocity dispersion; ii) constitute over 50% of the combined sample; and iii) this environment was sampled in all three studies. The correlations shown in Fig. 7 are consistent with the results of PS02 and T00 (once differences in the applied correction for local abundance trends have been accounted for), and are also evident in the HCG data alone. Thus we find age–metallicity and age–abundance ratio relations which indicate that older galaxies are more Fe poor and $`\alpha `$-element enhanced that younger galaxies.

For \[E/H\], the strongest correlation is with velocity dispersion. This clearly indicates that while \[Fe/H\] and \[E/Fe\] are primarily dependent on age there is also some dependence on velocity dispersion. Fig. 7 also shows the residuals of fits to the correlations identified above (estimated by least squares fitting). It is evident from these plots that residuals to the \[Fe/H\]–log(age) relation correlate with log $`\sigma `$, while residuals to the \[E/H\]–log $`\sigma `$ relation correlate with log(age). There is also a suggestion that the residuals to the \[E/Fe\]–log(age) relation correlate with log $`\sigma `$, but this correlation is not statistically significant. It is also clear from the residuals in Fig. 7 that HCGs generally follow the field galaxy correlations reasonably well, albeit with a tendency for some HCG galaxies to exhibit lower \[Fe/H\] residuals and higher \[E/Fe\] residuals than both field and cluster galaxies. However, these galaxies exhibit some of the highest $`\alpha `$-enhancements in the combined sample. The offsets in residuals in these galaxies may then simply indicate limitations in the modeling process rather than real differences. It therefore seems unwise to draw any conclusions from these galaxies.

Given the dependence of \[Fe/H\], \[E/Fe\] and \[E/H\] on both age and velocity dispersion, and the similarity of the galaxies in all environments, full three dimensional fits of the form \[Fe/H\] = $`\alpha `$log(age)+$`\beta `$log($`\sigma `$)+$`\gamma `$ were found to the whole galaxy sample (see also T00). These fits gave;

$$[Fe/H]=0.60log(age)+0.65log\sigma 1.00$$
(3)
$$[E/Fe]=0.30log(age)+0.05log\sigma 0.20$$
(4)
$$[E/H]=0.25log(age)+0.60log\sigma 1.00$$
(5)
Equations 3 to 5 indicate that the gradients of \[Fe/H\] and \[E/H\] with age differ significantly, with the rate of Fe evolution approximately twice that of elements in the enhanced group. On the other hand, it is evident that the gradients of \[Fe/H\] and \[E/H\] with velocity dispersion are almost identical. This is a result of finding only a statistically insignificant correlation between \[E/Fe\] and velocity dispersion. This result is in stark contrast to the findings of many previous studies, including Trager et al. (2000) and PS02, the data from which have been re-analysed here. The discrepancy between the findings of this work and the previous studies is the result of differences in the local abundance ratio correction applied in each study (see Appendix B). This emphasises the importance of this (often overlooked) correction. The lack of correlation between \[E/Fe\] and velocity dispersion is interesting in the context of galaxy formation models, as the ‘semi-cosmological’ N-body-SPH models of Kawata (Kawata 2001; Kawata & Gibson 2003), which model the hierarchical formation of individual galaxies, fail to reproduce a correlation between \[E/Fe\] and velocity dispersion, while the N-body-SPH monolithic collapse models of Pipino & Matteuchi (2003) require gas infall timescales that anti-correlate with galaxy mass in order to reproduce the assumed correlation. This again underlines the importance of the local abundance ratio corrections required to fully calibrate the derived parameters.

In order to investigate possible variations in the derived parameters with environment we divided the sample into four categories; clusters, massive groups, HCGs and finally small groups/field. Cluster galaxies are those in Virgo and Fornax from T00 and PS02. Massive group galaxies include those in the NGC 5044 group and all other galaxies identified as having at least 10 neighbours in Garcia (1993). All remaining galaxies not in HCGs were attributed to the small group/field category. Galaxies with log $`\sigma `$ $``$ 2.075 were omitted from this analysis to ensure that the mass distribution in the different environments were as similar as possible. Averages of log $`\sigma `$ and the derived parameters for galaxies in each environment are presented in Table 4. Errors in the mean are also presented. The mean velocity dispersion and its range can be seen to be almost identical in the four environments. Table 4 also indicates that galaxies in low density environments (small groups/field) exhibit a lower average age (5.9 Gyr) than those in clusters (11.0 Gyr) and massive groups (10.2 Gyr). This is consistent with the results of previous authors (e.g. Rose et al. 1994; Kuntschner et al. 2002; Terlevich & Forbes 2002). It is also qualitatively consistent with the predictions of hierarchical formation models (e.g. Baugh, Cole & Frenk 1996; Kauffmann & Charlot 1998).

Galaxies in low density environments also appear to possess higher \[Fe/H\] than their cluster and massive group counterparts. This is again consistent with the findings of Rose et al. (1994). In order to test the effect of differences in the morphological mix (elliptical to S0) in each of the samples, average values of derived parameters were also calculated for elliptical galaxies only. No significant qualitative differences in the results shown in Table 4 were observed.

Comparison of HCG galaxies to galaxies in other environments (Table 4) therefore shows them to possess distributions of derived parameters more in keeping with those of galaxies in high density environments than those of galaxies in small groups and the field, i.e they are on average older and possess higher \[Fe/H\] than their low density environment equivalents. This is consistent with the findings of de la Rosa et al. (2001b) who also found such a difference in age and metallicity. However, the five early-type galaxies that are the brightest in their respective compact groups (i.e. HCG22A, HCG32A, HCG40A, HCG42A, HCG86A and HCG68A from PS02) have an average log(age) of 1.03 $`\pm `$ 0.07 dex (10.7 $`\pm `$ 1.9 Gyr). This is *older* than the average of the HCG sample as a whole, with the remaining galaxies having an average log(age) of 0.89 $`\pm `$ 0.07 dex (7.7 $`\pm `$ 1.4 Gyr). These findings contradict the prediction of the Kauffmann (1996) hierarchical formation models that the brightest galaxies in such groups should be the youngest. However, they are, at least qualitatively, consistent with the Chiosi & Carraro (2002) models of monolithic collapse, although these models do not appear to be able to explain the extremely young ages observed in some galaxies.

### 6.2 Correlations for spiral bulges

The HCG data for spiral bulges are in good agreement with PS02 in that they exhibit lower average ages than early-type galaxies and show strong correlations of both \[Fe/H\] and \[E/H\] with log $`\sigma `$ (Fig. 8). The gradient of the \[E/H\]–log $`\sigma `$ correlation in spiral bulges (0.65 dex/dex) is similar to that found in early-type galaxies (Equation 5). Indeed, combined \[E/H\]–log $`\sigma `$ plots of spiral bulges and early-type galaxies show a single overlapping relation (see Fig. 10). However, the gradient of the \[Fe/H\]–log $`\sigma `$ correlation in bulges (1.0 dex/dex) appears to differ from that in early-types (0.65 dex/dex). No correlations were found among the residuals to these correlations. Fig. 8 also indicates no significant differences in log(age), \[Fe/H\] or \[E/Fe\] between spiral bulges in HCGs and those in other environments. We note that Proctor (2002) showed that, even in edge-on systems, disc contamination was below 10%, in the central regions of spiral bulges. Disc contamination is therefore not considered significant in this study.

## 7 Conclusions

We have investigated the ages, metallicities and abundance ratios of galaxies in a variety of environments and compared them to those of Hickson Compact Group galaxies. It has been shown that early-type galaxies in all environments exhibit a range of ages. Residuals to the Faber-Jackson relation correlate reasonably well with age in all environments, consistent with Forbes & Ponman (1999) and giving confidence that the age/metallicity degeneracy has been broken.

Correlations were detected between age and velocity dispersion in both early- and late-type galaxies, with high velocity dispersion galaxies exhibiting older ages. This is, at leat qualitatively, consistent with previous studies as well as the monolithic collapse models of Chiosi & Carraro (2002). However, studies must be extended to lower velocity dispersions to confirm this finding.

The distributions of age in the various environments (HCGs, clusters, massive groups and small groups/field) confirmed the prediction of hierarchical formation models (e.g. Baugh et al. 1996; Kauffmann & Charlot 1998) and the findings of previous studies (e.g. Kuntschner et al. 2002; Terlevich & Forbes 2002) that galaxies in the field have a lower average age than those in clusters. However, the finding that HCGs more closely resemble cluster galaxies than those in the field is inconsistent with current hierarchical formation models. The brightest galaxies in HCGs were also shown to be *older* than their less luminous companions. This is in stark contrast with the Kauffmann (1996) prediction that the brightest galaxies in such groups should be younger than their less luminous neighbours.

Our study also confirmed the previously reported finding (de la Rosa et al. 2001b) that early-type galaxies in HCGs are more metal poor than field galaxies. This again suggests that the star formation histories of early-type galaxies in HCGs more closely resemble those of cluster galaxies than those in less dense environments such as small groups and the field.

Metallicities (given by \[Fe/H\] and \[E/H\]) were found to show strong correlations with both age and velocity dispersion for early-type galaxies in all environments. These correlations were shown to be consistent across all galaxy environments. The correlations of \[Fe/H\] and \[E/H\] with age were shown to differ significantly in that Fe abundance exhibits a rate of change approximately twice that of the $`\alpha `$-elements in the enhanced group. However, the \[Fe/H\] and \[E/H\] correlations with velocity dispersion have similar gradients, as we find no significant correlation between $`\alpha `$-element enhancement ration (\[E/Fe\]) and velocity dispersion. We therefore conclude that this correlation, that has been reported in many previous studies, is probably the result of a failure to fully calibrate the derived parameters to the Lick system. Specifically, the estimated values of \[E/Fe\] must be corrected for the pattern of \[E/Fe\] with \[Fe/H\] found in the local stars used to calibrate the Lick system.

Spiral bulges were shown to exhibit the same strong correlations of \[Fe/H\] and \[E/H\] with log $`\sigma `$ found in PS02. The \[E/H\]–log $`\sigma `$ relation in bulges was shown to be the same as that in early-type galaxies. However, the \[Fe/H\]–log $`\sigma `$ relations differ between early- and late-type galaxies. No correlations with age were identified. No evidence was found for variation of star formation histories in spiral bulges with environment. We therefore find that the star formation histories of the centres of spiral bulges differ significantly from those in the centres of early-type galaxies.

Acknowledgments
This work is based on observations made on the NTT, which is operated by ESO. The authors acknowledge the data analysis facilities provided by IRAF, which is distributed by the National Optical Astronomy Observatories and operated by AURA, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. R.P. thanks the Royal Society for funding that supported this work.

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## Appendix A Lick Indices

The indices presented in Tables 5 to 8 are for the galaxies in the present study. Indices are fully corrected to the Lick system but *not* aperture corrected. Indices affected by vignetting effects and those clipped from the fitting procedure (see Section 5) are omitted.

## Appendix B Aperture and abundance ratio correction

This section details the correction of derived parameters for the trends seen in the solar neighbourhood abundance ratios. Data from the studies of PS02 and T00 are included for comparison purposes. Interpretation of the data is discussed in the main body of the paper (Section 5).

### B.1 Local abundance ratio correction

Estimates of \[E/Fe\] in the three studies are derived by comparison of Lick indices in galaxies to SSP estimates based on collections of local stars. These estimates are clearly measurements of the difference between the \[E/Fe\] in the observed galaxies and that in local stars. This is important, as the abundance ratios of key elements (e.g. C, O and Mg) in stars in the solar neighbourhood have been shown to vary with \[Fe/H\], (Nissen & Edvardsson 1992; Edvardsson et al. 1993; Felzing & Gustafsson 1998; Gustafsson et al. 1999; Bensby et al. 2003). This effect must clearly be accounted for if we are to fully calibrate our estimates of \[E/Fe\] to the solar value. Indeed, it will be seen that, rather than being just a minor correction, consideration of this effect has a significant impact on correlations within the data. Consequently, this is a most important (and sometimes overlooked) aspect of the full calibration to the Lick system.

The most important elements for the analysis presented here are C, O, Mg, as these include the main elements upon which the enhancement sensitive indices used in this work (CN1, CN2, Ca4227, C24668, Mg1, Mg2 and Mgb) are dependent, and Fe to which the remainder of metallicity sensitive indices are most sensitive. We shall therefore concentrate on these elements in the discussion that follows.

Early studies of the pattern of abundance ratios in local stars (e.g. Nissen & Edvardsson 1992; Edvardsson et al. 1993) found that, in stars with \[Fe/H\]$`<`$0, strong anti-correlations exist between the abundances of various elements and \[Fe/H\]. The E group elements C, O and Mg were all shown to exhibit such a trend with a gradient $``$ –0.5 dex/dex. However, these studies suggested that, at higher \[Fe/H\] these anti-correlations disappeared, with all stars with \[Fe/H\]$`>`$0 having solar abundance ratios. More recent work (incorporating non-LTE considerations) has changed this picture somewhat. The studies of Felzing & Gustafsson (1998), Gustaffsson et al. (1999) and Bensby et al. (2003) showing that the trend seen at low metallicities continues at \[Fe/H\]$`>`$0, at least for O and C. It should be noted that C is the most important element in the estimation of indices in enhanced SSPs because, of the seven enhancement sensitive indices listed above, five are more sensitive to C than any other element. On the other hand, O is the element that dominates the E group in terms of mass. These two elements therefore dominate the mass of the E group elements as well as the sensitivities of the indices form which \[E/Fe\] is derived.

In the light of these findings the correction for the trend of decreasing \[E/Fe\] with \[Fe/H\], which was not included for \[Fe/H\]$`>`$0 in many preceding studies (including PS02), should be extended into this regime. To illustrate the effects of extending this correction Figures 9 and 10 show the results of terminating at \[Fe/H\]=0 and also continuing to higher \[Fe/H\]. We note that the lowest \[Fe/H\] in this study was -0.65 dex, well above the -1 dex at which the trends of elemental abundance with \[Fe/H\] change again (Feltzing & Gustafsson (1998). It can be seen in the plots of Figs 9 and 10 that this correction has profound effects on correlations in the data. For instance, weak \[E/Fe\]–log(age) and \[E/H\]–log $`\sigma `$ correlations are substantially strengthened by the correction, while an apparent correlation between \[E/Fe\] and log $`\sigma `$ is destroyed. A correlation also appears between \[E/Fe\] and \[Fe/H\] that was not apparent before application of the correction. This is not as surprising given that the magnitude of the correction is directly proportional to the \[Fe/H\] over the range it is applied. However, it is apparent that the correlation is only strengthened (not created) by the extension of the corrected regime to high \[Fe/H\]. It should also be noted that the extension to high \[Fe/H\] also has the effect of making the T00 and PS02 data consistent with those from the present study.