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# STRONGLY DISTORTED BARYON WAVE–FUNCTIONS: HYPERON BETA–DECAY AND THE SPIN OF THE Λ AND THE NUCLEON11footnote 1Talk presented at the international conference Symmetry and Spin Prague, July 2000. To appear in the Proceedings.

## 1 Introduction and Motivation

Using results on the axial current matrix elements from deep–inelastic scattering as well as hyperon beta–decay data together with flavor covariance results in sizable polarizations for the non–strange quarks, $`\mathrm{\Delta }U_\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mathrm{\Delta }D_\mathrm{\Lambda }0.20`$ together with $`\mathrm{\Delta }S_\mathrm{\Lambda }0.60`$ for the strange quark inside the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$–hyperon . The assumption of flavor covariance is motivated by the feature that the Cabibbo scheme  utilizing the $`F`$&$`D`$ parameterization for the flavor changing axial charges works unexpectedly well  as the comparison in table 1 exemplifies.

To account for flavor symmetry breaking effects we consider the Skyrme model approach in which baryons emerge as solitons in an effective meson theory. In such models baryon states are obtained by quantizing the large amplitude fluctuations (zero modes) about the soliton. Exact eigenstates are obtained for any strength of symmetry breaking . We focus on a picture with the symmetry breaking mainly residing in the baryon wave–functions, including important contributions which would be missed in a first order treatment. In contrast, we assume that the current operators, from which the charges are computed, are dominated by their flavor covariant components. This approach approximately reproduces the data with no (or only minor) explicit symmetry breaking in the charge operators. In addition we present the results obtained from a realistic vector meson soliton model that supports the suggested picture. Details omitted here may be traced from ref .

## 2 Symmetry Breaking in the Baryon Wave–Functions

Here we review the collective coordinate quantization for the low–lying $`\frac{1}{2}^+`$ and $`\frac{3}{2}^+`$ baryons in soliton models. The collective coordinates $`A`$ are introduced via

$$U(\stackrel{}{r},t)=A(t)U_0(\stackrel{}{r})A^{}(t),A(t)SU(3).$$
(1)
$`U_0(\stackrel{}{r})`$ describes the soliton embedded in the isospin subgroup. A prototype model Largangian for the chiral field $`U(\stackrel{}{r},t)`$ would consist of the Skyrme model supplemented by the Wess–Zumino–Witten term as well as suitable symmetry breaking pieces. We parameterize the collective coordinates by eight “Euler–angles”

$$A=D_2(\widehat{I})\mathrm{e}^{i\nu \lambda _4}D_2(\widehat{R})\mathrm{e}^{i(\rho /\sqrt{3})\lambda _8},$$
(2)
where $`D_2`$ denote rotation matrices of three Euler–angles for each, rotations in isospace ($`\widehat{I}`$) and coordinate–space ($`\widehat{R}`$). Substituting (1) into the model Lagrangian yields upon canonical quantization the Hamiltonian for the collective coordinates $`A`$:

$$H=H_\mathrm{s}+\frac{3}{4}\gamma \mathrm{sin}^2\nu .$$
(3)
The symmetric piece of this collective Hamiltonian only contains Casimir operators and may be expressed in terms of the $`SU(3)`$–right generators $`R_a(a=1,\mathrm{},8)`$:

$$H_\mathrm{s}=M_{\mathrm{cl}}+\frac{1}{2\alpha ^2}\underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}R_i^2+\frac{1}{2\beta ^2}\underset{\alpha =4}{\overset{7}{}}R_\alpha ^2.$$
(4)
$`M_{\mathrm{cl}},\alpha ^2,\beta ^2`$ and $`\gamma `$ are functionals of the soliton, $`U_0(\stackrel{}{r})`$. The generators $`R_a`$ can be expressed in terms of derivatives with respect to the ‘Euler–angles’. The eigenvalue problem $`H\mathrm{\Psi }=ϵ\mathrm{\Psi }`$ reduces to sets of ordinary second order differential equations for isoscalar functions which only depend on the strangeness changing angle $`\nu `$ . Only the product $`\omega ^2=\frac{3}{2}\gamma \beta ^2`$ appears in these differential equations which is thus interpreted as the effective strength of the flavor symmetry breaking. A value in the range $`5\stackrel{<}{}\omega ^2\stackrel{<}{}8`$ is required to obtain reasonable agreement with the empirical mass differences for the $`\frac{1}{2}^+`$ and $`\frac{3}{2}^+`$ baryons .

## 3 Charge Operators

In the soliton description the effect of the derivative type symmetry breaking terms is mainly indirect. They provide the splitting between the various decay constants and thus increase $`\gamma `$ which is proportional to $`f_K^2m_K^2f_\pi ^2m_\pi ^21.5f_\pi ^2(m_K^2m_\pi ^2)`$. Otherwise the derivative type symmetry breaking terms may be omitted. Whence there are no symmetry breaking terms in current operators and the non–singlet axial charge operator is parameterized as ($`a=1,\mathrm{},8,i=1,2,3`$)

$$d^3rA_i^{(a)}=c_1D_{ai}c_2D_{a8}R_i+c_3\underset{\alpha ,\beta =4}{\overset{7}{}}d_{i\alpha \beta }D_{a\alpha }R_\beta ,$$
(5)
where $`D_{ab}=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{tr}\left(\lambda _aA\lambda _bA^{}\right)`$. In the limit $`\omega ^2\mathrm{}`$ (integrating out strange degrees of freedom) the strangeness contribution to the axial charge of the nucleon should vanish. Noting that $`N|D_{83}|N0`$ and $`N|_{\alpha ,\beta =4}^7d_{3\alpha \beta }D_{8\alpha }R_\beta |N0`$ while $`N|D_{88}|N1`$ for $`\omega ^2\mathrm{}`$, we demand

$$d^3rA_i^{(0)}=2\sqrt{3}c_2R_ii=1,2,3.$$
(6)
for the axial singlet current because it leads to the strangeness projection, $`A_i^{(s)}=(A_i^{(0)}2\sqrt{3}A_i^{(8)})/3`$ that vanishes for $`\omega ^2\mathrm{}`$. Actually all model calculations in the literature  are consistent with this requirement. In order to completely describe the hyperon beta–decays we also demand matrix elements of the vector charges. These are obtained from the operator

$$d^3rV_0^{(a)}=\underset{b=1}{\overset{8}{}}D_{ab}R_b=L_a,$$
(7)
which introduces the $`SU(3)`$–left generators $`L_a`$.

The values for $`g_A`$ and $`g_V`$ (only $`g_A`$ for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^+\mathrm{\Lambda }e^+\nu _e`$) are obtained from the matrix elements of respectively the operators in eqs (5) and (7), sandwiched between the eigenstates of the full Hamiltonian (3). We choose $`c_2`$ according the proton spin puzzle and subsequently determine $`c_1`$ and $`c_3`$ at $`\omega _{\mathrm{fix}}^2=6.0`$ such that the nucleon axial charge, $`g_A`$ and the $`g_A/g_V`$ ratio for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }pe^{}\overline{\nu }_e`$ are reproduced222In this section we will not address the problem of the too small model prediction for $`g_A`$ but rather use the empirical value $`g_A=1.258`$ as an input to determine the $`c_n`$.. We are not only left with predictions for the other decay parameters but we can also study the variation with symmetry breaking. This is shown in figure 1.

The dependence on flavor symmetry breaking is very moderate333However, the individual matrix elements entering the ratios $`g_A/g_V`$ vary strongly with $`\omega ^2`$ . and the results can be viewed as reasonably agreeing with the empirical data, cf. table 1. The observed independence of $`\omega ^2`$ shows that these predictions are not sensitive to the choice of $`\omega _{\mathrm{fix}}^2`$. We therefore have a two parameter ($`c_1`$ and $`c_3`$, $`c_2`$ is fixed from $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }_N`$) fit of the hyperon beta–decays. The two transitions, $`np`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }p`$, which are not shown in figure 1, exhibit a similar neglegible dependence on $`\omega ^2`$. Comparing the results in figure 1 with the data in table 1 we see that the calculation using the strongly distorted wave–functions agrees equally well with the empirical data as the flavor symmetric $`F`$&$`D`$ fit. We also observe that the singlet current does not get modified. Hence we have the simple relation $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }_N=\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ for all values of $`\omega ^2`$.

In figure 2 we display the flavor components of the axial charge of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ hyperon. Again, the various contributions to the axial charge of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ exhibit only a moderate dependence on $`\omega ^2`$. The non–strange component, $`\mathrm{\Delta }U_\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mathrm{\Delta }D_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ slightly increases in magnitude. The strange quark piece, $`\mathrm{\Delta }S_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ grows with symmetry breaking since we keep $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ fixed. Our results agree nicely with an $`SU(3)`$ analysis applied to the data  (see above). The observed independence on the symmetry breaking does not occur for all matrix elements of the axial current. An important counter–example is the strange quark component in the nucleon, $`\mathrm{\Delta }S_N`$. For $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }=0.2`$, say, it is significant at zero symmetry breaking, $`\mathrm{\Delta }S_N=0.131`$ while it decreases (in magnitude) to $`\mathrm{\Delta }S_N=0.085`$ at $`\omega ^2=6.0`$.

## 4 Spin Content of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ in a Realistic Model

We consider a realistic soliton model containing pseudoscalar and vector meson fields. It has been established for two flavors in ref  and been extended to three flavors in ref  where it has been shown to fairly describe the parameters of hyperon beta–decay (cf. table 4 in ref ). The model Lagrangian contains terms which involve the Levi–Cevita tensor $`ϵ_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }`$, to accommodate processes like $`\omega 3\pi `$ . These terms contribute to $`c_2`$ and $`c_3`$. A minimal set of symmetry breaking terms is included  to account for different masses and decay constants. These terms add symmetry breaking pieces to the axial charge operator,

$`\delta A_i^{(a)}=c_4D_{a8}D_{8i}+c_5{\displaystyle \underset{\alpha ,\beta =4}{\overset{7}{}}}d_{i\alpha \beta }D_{a\alpha }D_{8\beta }+c_6D_{ai}(D_{88}1),\delta A_i^{(0)}=2\sqrt{3}c_4D_{8i}.`$
The identical coefficient $`c_4`$ in the octet and singlet currents arises from the model calculation, it is not demanded by the consistency condition as $`\omega ^2\mathrm{}`$.

Unfortunately the model parameters cannot be completely determined in the meson sector . We use the remaining freedom to accommodate baryon properties in three different ways as shown in table 2. The set denoted by ‘b.f.’ refers to a best fit to the baryon spectrum. It predicts the axial charge somewhat on the low side, $`g_A=0.88`$. The set named ‘mag.mom.’ labels a set of parameters yielding magnetic moments close to the respective empirical data (with $`g_A=0.98`$) and finally the set labeled ‘$`g_A`$’ reproduces the axial charge of the nucleon and also reasonably accounts for hyperon beta–decay .

We observe that in particular the predictions for the axial properties of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ are quite insensitive to the model parameters. Their variation only influences the isovector part of the axial charge operator. The singlet matrix element of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ hyperon is smaller than that of the nucleon. The full model calculation predicts sizable polarizations of the up and down quarks in the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ which are slightly smaller in magnitude but nevertheless comparable to those obtained from the $`SU(3)`$ symmetric analyses.

## 5 Conclusions

In the collective coordinate approach to chiral solitons large deviations from flavor symmetric (octet) wave–functions are required to accommodate the observed pattern of the baryon mass–splitting. We have suggested a picture for the axial charges of the low–lying $`\frac{1}{2}^+`$ baryons which manages to reasonably reproduce the empirical data without introducing (significant) flavor symmetry breaking components in the corresponding operators. Rather, the sizable symmetry breaking resides almost completely in the baryon wave–functions. The empirical data for the parameters of hyperon beta–decay are as reasonably reproduced as in the Cabibbo scheme. We emphasize that the present picture is not a re–application of the Cabibbo scheme since in the present calculation the ‘octet’ baryon wave–functions have significant admixture of higher dimensional representations.

We may take the symmetry breaking parameter to be infinitely large. For consistency then the two flavor model for the nucleon must be retrieved. This consistency condition relates coefficients in the axial singlet current operator to the respective octet components. Disentangling the quark flavor components yields sizable up and down quark polarizations in the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. We also considered a realistic model, wherein the parameters entering the charge operators are actually predicted. This model calculation confirmed the results obtained in the parametrically treatment.

The author is grateful to the organizers of the conference for providing a fruitful and pleasant atmosphere. He also thanks R. L. Jaffe and J. Schechter for helpful conversations and useful references.

This work is supported in part by funds provided by the U.S. Department of Energy (D.O.E.) under cooperative research agreement #DF-FC02-94ER40818 and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) under contract We 1254/3-1.


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# Resonant Gaps in the Scattered Cometary Population of the Trans-Neptunian Region

## References

Levison, H.F. & Duncan, M.J. 1997, Icarus, 127,13

Malhotra, R., Duncan M., & Levison, H. 1999, astro-ph/9901155

Ozernoy, L.M., Gorkavyi, N.N., Taidakova, T., 2000, Planetary Space Sci. 48, 993


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# Bounds on the CP Asymmetry in 𝑏→𝑠𝛾 Decays

## Abstract

We have measured the CP asymmetry $`𝒜_{CP}(\mathrm{\Gamma }(bs\gamma )\mathrm{\Gamma }(\overline{b}\overline{s}\gamma ))/(\mathrm{\Gamma }(bs\gamma )+\mathrm{\Gamma }(\overline{b}\overline{s}\gamma ))`$ to be $`𝒜_{CP}=(0.079\pm 0.108\pm 0.022)(1.0\pm 0.030)`$, implying that, at 90% confidence level, $`𝒜_{CP}`$ lies between –0.27 and +0.10. These limits rule out some extreme non-Standard-Model predictions, but are consistent with most, as well as with the Standard Model.

preprint:   CLNS 00/1697 CLEO 00-21

T. E. Coan,1 V. Fadeyev,1 Y. Maravin,1 I. Narsky,1 R. Stroynowski,1 J. Ye,1 T. Wlodek,1 M. Artuso,2 R. Ayad,2 C. Boulahouache,2 K. Bukin,2 E. Dambasuren,2 S. Karamov,2 G. Majumder,2 G. C. Moneti,2 R. Mountain,2 S. Schuh,2 T. Skwarnicki,2 S. Stone,2 G. Viehhauser,2 J.C. Wang,2 A. Wolf,2 J. Wu,2 S. Kopp,3 A. H. Mahmood,4 S. E. Csorna,5 I. Danko,5 K. W. McLean,5 Z. Xu,5 R. Godang,6 G. Bonvicini,7 D. Cinabro,7 M. Dubrovin,7 S. McGee,7 G. J. Zhou,7 E. Lipeles,8 S. P. Pappas,8 M. Schmidtler,8 A. Shapiro,8 W. M. Sun,8 A. J. Weinstein,8 F. Würthwein,8,***Permanent address: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139. D. E. Jaffe,9 G. Masek,9 H. P. Paar,9 E. M. Potter,9 S. Prell,9 D. M. Asner,10 A. Eppich,10 T. S. Hill,10 R. J. Morrison,10 R. A. Briere,11 G. P. Chen,11 W. T. Ford,12 A. Gritsan,12 J. Roy,12 J. G. Smith,12 J. P. Alexander,13 R. Baker,13 C. Bebek,13 B. E. Berger,13 K. Berkelman,13 F. Blanc,13 V. Boisvert,13 D. G. Cassel,13 P. S. Drell,13 K. M. Ecklund,13 R. Ehrlich,13 A. D. Foland,13 P. Gaidarev,13 L. Gibbons,13 B. Gittelman,13 S. W. Gray,13 D. L. Hartill,13 B. K. Heltsley,13 P. I. Hopman,13 L. Hsu,13 C. D. Jones,13 J. Kandaswamy,13 D. L. Kreinick,13 M. Lohner,13 A. Magerkurth,13 T. O. Meyer,13 N. B. Mistry,13 E. Nordberg,13 J. R. Patterson,13 D. Peterson,13 D. Riley,13 A. Romano,13 J. G. Thayer,13 D. Urner,13 B. Valant-Spaight,13 A. Warburton,13 P. Avery,14 C. Prescott,14 A. I. Rubiera,14 H. Stoeck,14 J. Yelton,14 G. Brandenburg,15 A. Ershov,15 Y. S. Gao,15 D. Y.-J. Kim,15 R. Wilson,15 T. Bergfeld,16 B. I. Eisenstein,16 J. Ernst,16 G. E. Gladding,16 G. D. Gollin,16 R. M. Hans,16 E. Johnson,16 I. Karliner,16 M. A. Marsh,16 M. Palmer,16 C. Plager,16 C. Sedlack,16 M. Selen,16 J. J. Thaler,16 J. Williams,16 K. W. Edwards,17 R. Janicek,18 P. M. Patel,18 A. J. Sadoff,19 R. Ammar,20 A. Bean,20 D. Besson,20 X. Zhao,20 S. Anderson,21 V. V. Frolov,21 Y. Kubota,21 S. J. Lee,21 R. Mahapatra,21 J. J. O’Neill,21 R. Poling,21 T. Riehle,21 A. Smith,21 C. J. Stepaniak,21 J. Urheim,21 S. Ahmed,22 M. S. Alam,22 S. B. Athar,22 L. Jian,22 L. Ling,22 M. Saleem,22 S. Timm,22 F. Wappler,22 A. Anastassov,23 J. E. Duboscq,23 E. Eckhart,23 K. K. Gan,23 C. Gwon,23 T. Hart,23 K. Honscheid,23 D. Hufnagel,23 H. Kagan,23 R. Kass,23 T. K. Pedlar,23 H. Schwarthoff,23 J. B. Thayer,23 E. von Toerne,23 M. M. Zoeller,23 S. J. Richichi,24 H. Severini,24 P. Skubic,24 A. Undrus,24 S. Chen,25 J. Fast,25 J. W. Hinson,25 J. Lee,25 D. H. Miller,25 E. I. Shibata,25 I. P. J. Shipsey,25 V. Pavlunin,25 D. Cronin-Hennessy,26 A.L. Lyon,26 W. Park,26 E. H. Thorndike,26 C. P. Jessop,27 and V. Savinov27

1Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Texas 75275

2Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York 13244

3University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712

4University of Texas - Pan American, Edinburg, TX 78539

5Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235

6Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

7Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202

8California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125

9University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093

10University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106

11Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213

12University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0390

13Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853

14University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611

15Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138

16University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois 61801

17Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1S 5B6

and the Institute of Particle Physics, Canada

18McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada H3A 2T8

and the Institute of Particle Physics, Canada

19Ithaca College, Ithaca, New York 14850

20University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045

21University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455

22State University of New York at Albany, Albany, New York 12222

23Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210

24University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019

25Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

26University of Rochester, Rochester, New York 14627

27Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94309

Direct CP violation can lead to a difference between the rates for $`bs\gamma `$ and $`\overline{b}\overline{s}\gamma `$, giving rise to a non-zero value for the CP asymmetry

$$𝒜_{CP}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(bs\gamma )\mathrm{\Gamma }(\overline{b}\overline{s}\gamma )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(bs\gamma )+\mathrm{\Gamma }(\overline{b}\overline{s}\gamma )}.$$

Such an asymmetry occurs only if the decay is due to two or more amplitudes with differing strong phases and differing weak phases. The Standard Model (SM) predicts that this asymmetry is very small, less than 1%. Recent theoretical work suggests that non-SM physics may contribute significantly to a CP asymmetry, giving asymmetries perhaps as large as 10 – 40%. The advantage of an inclusive measurement, in contrast to an exclusive measurement, e.g. $`BK^{}(890)\gamma `$, is that the strong phase is calculable. In this Letter, we describe a measurement of a CP asymmetry in $`BX_s\gamma `$, a close approximation to $`𝒜_{CP}`$ as defined above, with a small admixture from $`bd\gamma `$. We rule out very large asymmetry values.

The data used in this analysis were taken with the CLEO detector at the Cornell Electron Storage Ring (CESR), a symmetric $`e^+e^{}`$ collider. They consist of 9.1 $`\mathrm{fb}^1`$ on the $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$(4S) resonance, and 4.4 $`\mathrm{fb}^1`$ at a center-of-mass energy $``$ 60 MeV below the resonance. The on-resonance sample contains 10 million $`B\overline{B}`$ events and 30 million continuum events, while the off-resonance sample contains 15 million continuum events.

The CLEO detector measures charged particles over 95% of $`4\pi `$ steradians with a system of cylindrical drift chambers. (For 2/3 of the data used here, the innermost tracking chamber was a 3-layer silicon vertex detector.) Its barrel and endcap CsI electromagnetic calorimeters cover 98% of 4$`\pi `$. The energy resolution for photons near 2.5 GeV in the central angular region, $`|\mathrm{cos}\theta _\gamma |<0.7`$, is 2%. Charged particles are identified by specific ionization measurements ($`dE/dX`$) in the outermost drift chamber, and by time-of-flight counters (ToF) placed just beyond the tracking volume. Muons are identified by their ability to penetrate the iron return yoke of the magnet.

The signature for $`bs\gamma `$ is a photon with energy sufficiently high that it is unlikely to come from other $`B`$ decay processes. We take our photon energy range as 2.2 – 2.7 GeV. With this requirement, there is little background from other $`B`$ decay processes. There is substantial background from continuum processes, and so continuum suppression is a key ingredient in this analysis, as it is in any $`bs\gamma `$ analysis. The other ingredient needed for an asymmetry measurement is flavor tagging. Not needed for an asymmetry measurement, unlike absolute rate measurements of $`bs\gamma `$, is a good knowledge of the efficiency, since it cancels when the ratio is taken.

We use two different methods of flavor tagging. In the first, we accept events with a high energy photon and a high momentum lepton. The lepton charge tags the flavor of the ‘other’ $`B`$, tagging the flavor of $`bs\gamma `$ correctly 89% of the time. $`B^0\overline{B}^0`$ mixing is the dominant reason for mistags. The second method of flavor tagging is ‘pseudoreconstruction’, described below and used in our previous $`bs\gamma `$ analysis. Here, we are directly tagging the flavor of the $`bs\gamma `$ decay, so mixing does not cause mistags. With aggressive use of particle identification, we have achieved a correct flavor identification rate of better than 90%.

We use Monte Carlo simulation (along with the measured value for $`B^0\overline{B}^0`$ mixing) to determine the performance of our flavor identification methods. For this, we describe the $`bs\gamma `$ process with a spectator model, and vary the spectator model parameters to determine systematic errors to flavor identification from the modelling of the $`bs\gamma `$ process.

Pseudoreconstruction was originally introduced as a continuum background suppression technique. Requiring a high momentum lepton also suppresses the continuum, particularly when use is made of the angle between lepton and photon. So, our flavor-tagging methods are also part of our continuum suppression.

We select hadronic events having normalized Fox-Wolfram second moment $`R_2`$ less than 0.45, and containing a photon with energy between 2.2 and 2.7 GeV, in the “good barrel” region of the calorimeter ($`|\mathrm{cos}\theta _\gamma |<0.7`$). The high energy photon must not form a $`\pi ^0`$ or $`\eta `$ with any other photon in the event.

Part of our continuum suppression comes from eight carefully chosen event shape variables: $`R_2`$, $`S_{}`$ (a measure of the momentum transverse to the photon direction), $`R_2^{}`$ (the value of $`R_2`$ in the primed frame, the rest frame of $`e^+e^{}`$ following an assumed initial state radiation of the high energy photon, with $`R_2`$ evaluated excluding the photon), $`\mathrm{cos}\theta ^{}`$ ($`\theta ^{}`$ the angle, in the primed frame, between the photon and the thrust axis of the rest of the event), and the energies in $`20^{}`$ and $`30^{}`$ cones, parallel and antiparallel to the high energy photon direction. While no individual variable has strong discrimination power, each posesses some. Consequently, we combine the eight variables into a single variable $`r`$ that tends towards +1 for $`bs\gamma `$ events and tends towards –1 for continuum background events, using a neural network. Distributions in the neural net variable $`r`$, for Monte Carlo samples of $`bs\gamma `$ signal and continuum background, and off resonance data, are shown in ref. .

While the background to $`bs\gamma `$ from other $`B`$ decay processes is small, it is not negligible. We investigated it with a $`B\overline{B}`$ Monte Carlo sample that included contributions from $`bu`$ and $`bsg`$ processes, as well as the dominant $`bc`$ decay. We found that the overwhelming source of background ($``$90%) is photons from $`\pi ^0`$ or $`\eta `$ decay. Consequently we tuned the Monte Carlo to match the data in $`\pi ^0`$ and $`\eta `$ yields.

For the lepton tagging method of flavor identification, we require a high momentum lepton ($`1.4<P<2.2`$ GeV/$`c`$), either a muon (identified by passing through at least 5 interaction lengths of material) or an electron (identified by $`E/P`$, track-cluster matching, $`dE/dX`$, and shower shape). The distribution in cosine of angle between lepton and high energy photon, $`\mathrm{cos}\theta _\mathrm{}\gamma `$, is isotropic for $`bs\gamma `$ signal events, and strongly back-to-back peaked for continuum background events. We make loose cuts on $`r`$ and $`\mathrm{cos}\theta _\mathrm{}\gamma `$, and then define weights $`w_i`$ in the 2D $`r\mathrm{cos}\theta _\mathrm{}\gamma `$ space, where $`w_i=s_i/[s_i+(1+a)b_i],`$ $`s_i`$ is the expected signal yield in the i-th bin, $`b_i`$ is the expected continuum background yield in that bin, and $`a`$ is the luminosity scale factor between on-resonance and off-resonance data samples ($`2.0`$). Weights so defined minimize the statistical error on the $`bs\gamma `$ yields. Expected yields are obtained from Monte Carlo simulation. Should the Monte Carlo simulation of signal or background be flawed, the weights will not be optimum, but they will not lead to incorrect results. We sum weights on and off resonance, and subtract the off-resonance sum, scaled by $`/E_{cm}^2`$, from the on-resonance sum (the On-Off subtraction). We also subtract the background from $`B`$ decay processes. We do this separately for events tagged with an $`\mathrm{}^{}`$ and events tagged with an $`\mathrm{}^+`$, and compute the raw asymmetry, obtaining $`𝒜_{lep}^{raw}=0.148\pm 0.141`$. Summed weights, and the number of events with non-zero weight, are given in Table I.

This raw asymmetry must be corrected for the mistag fraction $`\alpha `$, by dividing it by $`12\alpha `$. Mistags come mainly from $`B^0\overline{B}^0`$ mixing, a contribution to $`\alpha `$ of $`\chi _d`$/2, which we take from CLEO’s dilepton mixing measurement, $`\chi _d=0.157`$. (By using CLEO’s dilepton mixing measurement, we eliminate some systematic errors, in particular the uncertainty in the ratio of $`B^+B^{}`$ to $`B^0\overline{B}^0`$ events.) Other sources include secondary decays $`bcs\mathrm{}\nu `$, leptons from $`J/\psi `$ decays, and hadrons misidentified as leptons. These we determine, from Monte Carlo studies, to be 0.033. Adding this to the mixing contribution gives $`\alpha =0.112\pm 0.013`$. The corrected value of asymmetry is

$$𝒜_{leptontag}=+0.191\pm 0.181.$$

For events not containing high momentum leptons, we use the pseudoreconstruction method of flavor identification. We search those events for combinations of particles that reconstruct to a $`BX_s\gamma `$ decay. For $`X_s`$ we use a $`K_S^0\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ or a charged track consistent with a $`K^\pm `$; and 1 – 4 pions, of which at most one may be a $`\pi ^0`$. We calculate the candidate $`B`$ momentum $`P`$, energy $`E`$, and beam-constrained mass $`M\sqrt{E_{beam}^2P^2}`$. A reconstruction is deemed acceptable if it has $`\chi _B^2<20`$, where

$$\chi _B^2\left(\frac{EE_{beam}}{\sigma _E}\right)^2+\left(\frac{MM_B}{\sigma _M}\right)^2.$$

(Typically, $`\sigma _E46`$ MeV, $`\sigma _M3.5`$ MeV.) If an event contains more than one acceptable reconstruction, the “best” is selected on the basis of an overall $`\chi ^2`$ consisting of $`\chi _B^2`$ plus contributions from particle identification.

We discriminate between signal and background using $`\chi _B^2`$, $`r`$ (from the shape variables), and $`|\mathrm{cos}\theta _{tt}|`$, where $`\theta _{tt}`$ is the angle between the thrust axis of the candidate $`B`$ and the thrust axis of the rest of the event. These three variables are combined into a single variable $`r_c`$, that tends towards $`+1`$ for signal and $`1`$ for continuum background, using a neural net. As for the lepton tag analysis, we count weights, not events, with weights defined as earlier, now a function of $`r_c`$. Weights are summed for events tagged as $`b`$-flavored, $`\overline{b}`$-flavored, and ambiguous, separately on and off resonance, and an On-Off resonance subtraction is performed.

Note that with pseudoreconstruction the flavor can be correctly or incorrectly tagged (if it reconstructs to a charged $`B`$, or to a neutral $`B`$ decaying to $`K^\pm `$), or it can be tagged as ambiguous (if it reconstructs to a neutral $`B`$ decaying to $`K_S^0`$). A major source of incorrect tags is using a $`\pi ^\pm `$ for a $`K^\pm `$. To reduce this source of incorrect tags, we have been aggressive in our $`K^\pm `$ identification.

For runs for which the ToF measurement was available and reliable, 3/4 of the luminosity, we used both ToF and $`dE/dX`$ for $`K^\pm `$ and $`\pi ^\pm `$ identification; for the other 1/4 of the luminosity, we used only $`dE/dX`$. The cut when both ToF and $`dE/dX`$ were used was a $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$ cut, the difference between the $`\chi ^2`$ of the ToF plus $`dE/dX`$ fits assuming $`K^\pm `$ and assuming $`\pi ^\pm `$. Whether or not ToF was used, we used a 3$`\sigma `$ cut (or the 2D equivalent) for $`\pi ^\pm `$ identification. For $`K^\pm `$, if the $`K\pi `$ separation was very good ($`>6\sigma `$), or if it was hopeless ($`0\sigma `$), we used a 3$`\sigma `$ cut or the equivalent. In between, we cut more harshly, in a manner that depended on the computed $`K\pi `$ separation. We achieved a misidentification probability of 8.5% when ToF and $`dE/dX`$ were used, 12.2% when only $`dE/dX`$ was used.

Because the pseudoreconstruction analysis has three possible outcomes – $`b`$-flavored, $`\overline{b}`$-flavored, ambiguous – the formulation is more complex than the lepton tag case. Let $`\alpha `$ be the probability that a taggable event be incorrectly tagged, $`\beta `$ be the probability that a taggable event be declared ambiguous, and $`\gamma `$ be the probability that an event which is actually ambiguous be tagged as $`b`$ or $`\overline{b}`$. For the analysis using ToF and $`dE/dX`$, we use Monte Carlo to obtain $`\alpha =0.085\pm 0.006,\beta =0.016\pm 0.004,\gamma =0.40\pm 0.05`$, while for the analysis with $`dE/dX`$ only, we obtain $`\alpha =0.122\pm 0.007,\beta =0.013\pm 0.005,\gamma =0.49\pm 0.06`$.

Using $`\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma `$, we compute a raw asymmetry

$$𝒜_{pseudo}^{raw}=\frac{N(b)N(\overline{b})}{N(b)+N(\overline{b})(\gamma /(1\gamma ))N(ambig)},$$

and then correct by a factor $`(1\beta /(1\gamma ))/(12\alpha \beta )`$. This factor is more complicated than $`12\alpha `$, but is essentially equivalent to it. We combine the corrected asymmetries for runs with ToF and $`dE/dX`$ and runs with $`dE/dX`$ only, weighting each by the expected statistical accuracy. We find

$$𝒜_{pseudo}=0.178\pm 0.132.$$

Summed weights, and the number of events with non-zero weight, are given in Table II.

Pseudoreconstruction and lepton tag results are consistent with each other, and are statistically independent. We combine them, weighting each by the expected statistical accuracy, giving

$$𝒜_{comb}=0.072\pm 0.107.$$

The increased statistical power from using weights, as compared to counting all events with non-zero weights, was 1.6 for the lepton tag analysis and 4.0 for the pseudoreconstruction analysis.

False asymmetries in the lepton tag analysis would be caused by a difference in detection plus identification efficiency for electrons vs. positrons, or $`\mu ^{}`$ vs. $`\mu ^+`$. By measuring the rates for $`\mathrm{}^{}`$ and $`\mathrm{}^+`$ from On-Off subtracted data, we find such false asymmetries to be consistent with zero, and safely bounded by $`\pm 0.01`$, which we take as the additive systematic error for the lepton tag analysis.

False asymmetries in the pseudoreconstruction analysis would be caused by particle identification biases favoring $`K^\pm `$ over $`K^{}`$, or favoring $`\pi ^\pm `$ over $`\pi ^{}`$. By measuring the momentum spectra (On-Off subtracted) for candidate $`K^{}`$, $`K^+`$, $`\pi ^{}`$, and $`\pi ^+`$, noting the biases in particle identification that these spectra could accommodate, and translating that into a limit on false asymmetry, we established that an additive systematic error of $`\pm 0.01`$ adequately covers the uncertainty from particle identification.

False asymmetries in the pseudoreconstruction analysis would also be caused by particle detection biases, in particular from the different interaction cross sections for $`K^+`$ and $`K^{}`$. There is about 1 $`\mathrm{g}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$ of material between the interaction point and the back of the tracking volume. This, with the known $`K^+`$ and $`K^{}`$ cross sections, limits that source of false asymmetry to $`\pm 0.007`$.

If either $`B\pi ^0X`$ or $`B\eta X`$ had a nonzero CP asymmetry, then that would creep into the measured $`bs\gamma `$ asymmetry through the feeddowns $`\pi ^0\gamma `$ and $`\eta \gamma `$. In making the subtraction for $`B\overline{B}`$ background, we have so far assumed these asymmetries are zero (as expected theoretically), apportioning the background equally between $`b`$ and $`\overline{b}`$. In addition, we have measured the $`\pi ^0`$ and $`\eta `$ asymmetries, treating each as if it were the high energy photon, and following the same method as for measuring the $`bs\gamma `$ asymmetry. Combining the lepton tag and pseudoreconstruction analyses, we find a $`\pi ^0`$ asymmetry of +0.070 $`\pm `$ 0.056, an $`\eta `$ asymmetry of +0.156 $`\pm `$ 0.333, both consistent with zero. Allowing for the fact that the lepton tag and pseudoreconstruction asymmetries may be different, we find corrections to the lepton tag analysis of +0.034 $`\pm `$ 0.025, to the pseudoreconstruction analysis of –0.024 $`\pm `$ 0.017, and to the combined analysis of –0.007 $`\pm `$ 0.014.

Multiplicative systematic errors result from uncertainties in the mistag rate, uncertainties in the scale factor for the off-resonance subtraction (resulting from change in event shape with the 60 MeV $`E_{cm}`$ shift), and uncertainties in the subtraction for other $`B`$ decay processes. For the lepton tag analysis, we estimate $`\pm 3.4`$% from the mistag uncertainty, $`\pm 1.1`$% from the Off-resonance subtraction uncertainty, $`\pm 4.0`$% from the $`B\overline{B}`$ subtraction uncertainty, $`\pm 5.4`$% total. For the pseudoreconstruction analysis, we estimate $`\pm 1.6`$% from the mistag uncertainty, $`\pm 1.9`$% from the Off-resonance subtraction uncertainty, $`\pm 2.6`$% from the $`B\overline{B}`$ subtraction uncertainty, $`\pm 3.6`$% total. The combined multiplicative systematic error, lepton tag plus pseudoreconstruction, is $`\pm 3.0`$%.

We have verified that the analysis proceedure, when applied to Monte Carlo samples with actual $`CP`$ asymmetry, correctly finds the $`CP`$ asymmetry introduced, whether large, small, or zero.

The asymmetry we have measured is a weighted sum over a variety of $`bs\gamma `$ decays – charged $`B`$, neutral $`B`$; low mass $`X_s`$, high mass $`X_s`$; etc. In particular, those $`bs\gamma `$ decays that are inherently ambiguous under a pseudoreconstruction analysis, i.e., neutral $`B`$ decays to neutral kaons, have asymmetries measured only by the lepton tag analysis. If the different varieties of $`bs\gamma `$ decays have asymmetries that differ among themselves by no more than $`\pm 0.10`$, then the unevenness in our weightings will lead to an asymmetry that differs from the asymmetry with uniform weightings by no more than $`\pm 0.02`$. We have looked for dependence of $`𝒜_{CP}`$ on $`M_{X_s}`$ or $`E_\gamma `$, and within our limited statistics found none.

Also included in the asymmetry we have measured is a component from $`bd\gamma `$. Within the framework of the Standard Model, the rate for $`bd\gamma `$ decays is down by a factor of $`|V_{td}/V_{ts}|^21/20`$, but the asymmetry is up by the reciprocal of the same factor, i.e. 20, and of opposite sign. The ratios of efficiencies for $`bd\gamma :bs\gamma `$ are 1.1 for the lepton tag analysis and 0.56 for pseudoreconstruction; 0.65 combined. While the misidentification parameter $`\alpha `$ for the lepton tag analysis is essentially the same for $`bd\gamma `$ as it is for $`bs\gamma `$, for the pseudoreconstruction analysis, $`\alpha `$ for $`bd\gamma `$ is very poor, $`0.4`$, only slightly better than a random guess ($`\alpha =0.5`$). Thus, with the weightings that we have given to the lepton tag and pseudoreconstruction analyses, and assuming a ratio of branching fractions for $`bd\gamma `$ to $`bs\gamma `$ of 1/20, we have measured a weighted sum of CP asymmetries $`𝒜=0.965𝒜(bs\gamma )+0.02𝒜(bd\gamma ).`$

In conclusion, we have measured a CP asymmetry in $`bs\gamma `$ plus $`bd\gamma `$ decays. Our final result is

$$𝒜_{CP}=(0.079\pm 0.108\pm 0.022)(1.0\pm 0.030).$$

The first (and by far the largest) error is statistical; the second is additive systematic and includes an allowance of $`\pm 0.020`$ for the non-uniform weightings over the various $`bs\gamma `$ decay modes; the third is multiplicative systematic.

This measurement implies that, at 90% confidence level, $`𝒜_{CP}`$ lies between the limits

$$0.27<𝒜<+0.10.$$

These limits rule out some extreme non-Standard-Model predictions, but are consistent with most, as well as with the Standard Model. Note that the analysis reported here uses the same data sample as CLEO’s measurement of the CP asymmetry in the exclusive decay $`BK^{}(892)\gamma `$, and so is not statistically independent of it.

We gratefully acknowledge the effort of the CESR staff in providing us with excellent luminosity and running conditions. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, the Research Corporation, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Swiss National Science Foundation, the Texas Advanced Research Program, and the Alexander von Humboldt Stiftung.


text:
# ISO continuum observations of quasars at z=1-4 The observations reported here were made with ISO, an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA member states (especially the PI countries: France, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom) and with the participation of ISAS and NASA, and with the facilities at the Cerro Tololo Inter-american Observatory (CTIO), NOAO, which is operated by AURA, Inc., under contract with NSF, at the Kiso Observatory, which is operated by Institute of Astronomy, the University of Tokyo, and at the Okayama Astrophysical Observatory, the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan

## 1 Introduction

The $`IRAS`$ sky survey was the first observation in which many quasars in the far-infrared were detected, and Neugebauer et al.(neugebauer86 (1986)) presented $`IRAS`$ measurements of 179 quasars from 12 to 100 $`\mu m`$. Combining $`IRAS`$ observations with data taken in other wavelengths, Sanders et al. (sanders (1989)) have given SEDs from $``$ 0.3 nm to 6 cm of 109 quasars in the Palomar-Green (PG) survey (Green et al. green (1986)). Compiling $`Einstein`$, $`IUE`$, and $`IRAS`$ data with a supplement of ground-based observations, Elvis et al. (elvis (1994)) have presented SEDs for a sample of 47 normal quasars, and derived the SEDs for radio-quiet and radio-loud quasars. Recently, Andreani et al.(andreani (1999)) have presented SEDs for 120 optically selected quasars at low- and high-redshift, combining sub-mm and mm observations with optical, near-infrared, $`IRAS`$, and radio observations.

The gross shape of quasars SEDs is characterized by two major features; the big blue bump shortward of 0.3 $`\mu m`$ and the infrared bump between 2 and 200 $`\mu `$m (Sanders et al. sanders (1989); Elvis et al. elvis (1994)). It is generally considered that the blue bump is dominated by thermal emission from an accretion disk. The infrared bump is ubiquitous in both radio-quiet and radio-loud quasars. The infrared emission in radio-loud quasars has generally been taken to be dominated by non-thermal emission (e.g., Impey & Neugebauer impey (1988); Bloom et al. bloom (1994); Neugebauer & Matthews neugebauer99 (1999)).

The origin of the infrared emission in radio quiet quasars is generally attributed to thermal emission from heated dust. The rise from 1 $`\mu `$m minimum toward 3 $`\mu `$m, which is universally present in quasars, is naturally explained by the sublimation of dust grains at $``$ 1,500 K (e.g., Kobayashi et al. kobayashi (1993)). This is expected from the current unified models of active galactic nuclei, which have a dusty obscuring torus around a central source. Pier & Krolik (pier (1993)) computed the infrared properties predicted for the dust obscuring tori surrounding central sources by modeling free parameters of the inner radius of the torus to its thickness, the Thomson depths constraining the outer radius of the torus, and the flux of the nuclear radiation. The infrared emission in 1 - 10 $`\mu `$m of PG quasars is well explained by their models, while the emission in the far-infrared is much greater than that predicted. Several models were proposed to account for the far-infrared emission of quasars; these are (1)warm dust in a distorted disk extending from 0.1kpc to more than 1kpc, which is heated directly by radiation from central source (Sanders et al. sanders (1989)), (2)dust clouds in the narrow line region heated by the radiation from the central sources and star-forming regions (Rowan-Robinson rowan (1995)), and (3)dust in the obscuring tori extending to 200 - 3kpc (Andreani et al. andreani (1999)). However, it should be noted that temporal variations of 10 $`\mu `$m brightness of radio-quiet quasar PG 1535+547 found by Neugebauer & Matthews (neugebauer99 (1999)) casts doubt on the thermal origin of the infrared emission in radio-quiet quasars.

High-redshift quasars have been widely recognized to provide unique probes of high-redshift star formation and galaxy evolution. Metallic abundance in high-redshift quasars is solar or higher metallicities out to $`z>4`$. Comparing the UV-to-optical spectra of 186 quasars with $`0<z<3.8`$, Osmer et al. (osmer (1994)) concluded that there was no evidence for redshift-dependent spectral changes. Hamann & Ferland (hamann (1993)) analyzed N$`_\mathrm{V}`$/C$`_{\mathrm{IV}}`$ and N$`_\mathrm{V}`$/He$`_{\mathrm{II}}`$ broad emission ratios, and found that metallicities in the broad line gas at high redshift are 1 - 10 times solar. The ratio of UV Fe$`_{\mathrm{II}}`$/Mg$`_{\mathrm{II}}`$ of B 1422+231 at $`z=3.6`$ shows the the host galaxy was already in the late-evolutionary phase of the Fe enrichment by SNe Ia at z = 3.6 (Kawara et al. kawara96 (1996); Yoshii et al. yoshii (1998)). These all suggest that the central part of host galaxies formed rapidly at very high-redshift $`z10`$, and metallicity enrichment in the central part was already completed at $`z=45`$.

Dust emission from high-redshift quasars provide another probe to study star formation and evolution of host galaxies, especially in outer regions. Up to date, many quasars at z $`>`$ 3 have been detected in the region from 350 $`\mu m`$ to 1.3 mm (e.g., Andreani et al. andreani93 (1993); Chini & Krügel chini94 (1994); Dunlop et al. dunlop (1994); Isaak et al. isaak (1994); McMahon et al. mcmahon (1994); Ivison ivison (1995); Omont et al. 1996a ; Hughes et al. hughes (1997); Benford et al. benford (1999); Carilli et al. carilli00 (2000)). An extensive 240 GHz survey by Chini et al. (chini89 (1989)) revealed that the majority of $`z<1`$ quasars have dust masses about a few times 10$`{}_{}{}^{7}M_{}^{}`$, comparable to normal spiral galaxies, thus suggesting that dust is heated by radiation from the central sources. On the other hand, dust masses $``$ 10$`{}_{}{}^{8}M_{}^{}`$ have been found in six of 16 quasars at $`z>4`$ (Omont et al. 1996a ), and CO emission was found in three of these (Ohta et al. ohta (1996); Omont et al. 1996b ; Guilloteau et al. guilloteau97 (1997),guilloteau99 (1999); Carilli et al. carilli99 (1999)). This may imply that dust emission in these host galaxies may be dominated by radiation from star-forming regions at high-redshift.

To study the distribution of dust in high-redshift quasars, mid- and far-infrared observations are indispensable. The emission from sublimated dust could be observed in the mid-infrared, thus probing that the innermost part of the obscuring tori, and the distribution of dust from obscuring tori to disks (or outer star-forming regions) could be obtained from far-infrared observations. The $`IRAS`$ sky survey has only detected several quasars at z $`>`$ 3 with exceptionally high luminosity in the far-infrared (Neugebauer et al. neugebauer86 (1986); Bechtold et al. bechtold (1994); Irwin et al. irwin (1998)); F08279+5255 (APM 08279+5255) at z = 3.87, 2126-158 (PKS 2126-15) at z = 3.275, and 0320-388 at z = 3.12. In hoping to detect more quasars, several groups have carried out mid- and far-infrared photometry using the Infrared Space Observatory ($`ISO`$; Kessler et al. kessler (1996)). The first report of the $`ISO`$ European Central Quasar Programme which observed 70 quasars between 4.8 and 200 $`\mu m`$ including high-redshift quasars has been published by Haas et al. (haas (1998)), and the $`ISO/NASA`$ AGN Key Project has also observed 72 quasars and AGNs covering a range of redshift up to 4.7 (Wilkes et al. wilkes (1999)). As an $`ISO`$ open time program, we have executed mid- and far-infrared observations of eight quasars at $`1.4<z<3.7`$ using the raster mapping mode. This paper presents the results of the photometry of these quasars supplemented with optical and near-infrared data taken on the ground. In the course of this work, mid- and far-infrared sources have serendipitously been discovered. These sources will be described in the forthcoming paper (Oyabu & Kawara oyabu (2000)). Throughout this paper, $`H_0`$ = $`75kms^1Mpc^1`$ with $`q_0`$ = $`0`$ is assumed.

## 2 Observations and Results

Eight quasars have been observed with $`ISO`$ in revolution 169 - 781 (1996 March - 1998 January). Optical and near-infrared imaging observations have followed within 24 months (mostly within 17 months).

### 2.1 The Sample

Table 1 lists the sample of the eight quasars in the sequence of ISO revolutions for execution. The sample consists of luminous quasars with $`M_B<`$ -28 except PC 1548+4637 and PC 1640+4628; these two quasars which were observed at the beginning of this work, turned out to be too faint to be detected in the far-infrared, and thus the sample selection criterion was changed to include very luminous quasars in low far-infrared background of infrared cirrus emission. Fig. 1 presents the eight quasars (large filled diamonds) on the $`zM_B`$ plane together with those (small filled circles) in the sample by Elvis et al.(elvis (1994)) and those (faint gray points) complied by Véron-Cetty & Véron (veron (1998)). All the sample quasars are radio-quiet or optically selected except B 1422+231 which is a core-dominant flat-spectrum radio source.

### 2.2 Mid-infrared observations with ISOCAM

The mid-infrared observations were performed with ISOCAM (Cesarsky et al. cesarsky (1996)). Three broad band filters, namely, LW2 (reference wavelength 6.7$`\mu `$m), LW3(14.3$`\mu `$m), and LW10 (12.0$`\mu `$m) were used. All the quasars were observed in LW2 with additional measurements in LW3 or LW10. To detect faint sources against the intense background dominated by zodiacal light, the AOT (Astronomical Observation Template) CAM01 which is the microscan raster mapping mode was used to achieve accurate flat-fielding (e.g., Taniguchi et al. TA97 (1997); Altieri et al. AL99 (1999)). Table 2 lists the details of CAM01 parameters as well as the characteristics of the broad band filters.

The standard ISOCAM reduction software CIA 3.0111CIA is distributed by the ISO Data Centre and the ISOCAM Data Centre at Saclay, France. was used to produce ISOCAM images from ERD (Edited Raw Data). This process includes dark subtraction, deglitching, correction for the transient behavior of ISOCAM pixel signals, and flat fielding(Delaney delaney (1998)). The inversion transient correction model of Starck et al.(starck (1999)) was applied. The factor of the correction for the transient behavior is 0.58 - 0.77 in LW2, 0.79 - 1.0 in LW10, and 0.87 in LW10. Fig. 2 shows LW2 and LW3 maps for the two brightest quasars B 1422+231 and PG 1715+535. All the quasars were clearly detected at the expected positions. Aperture photometry was performed using IDL. Two apertures centered on the object were used; the small one has a diameter of $`2d_{airy}`$, two times the Airy diameter as given in Table 2 and the other has a diameter of $`4d_{airy}`$. The photometry was corrected for loss of flux in the PSF (Point Spread Function) wings by computing the PSF based on the model having a two mirror f/15 telescope with radii for the primary and secondary mirror of 30 and 10 cm, respectively(Müller muller (1999)). The factor of the PSF correction is 0.75 - 0.90 (i.e., loss of flux is 0.1 - 0.25), depending on the raster step and the pixel field of view.

The results after these corrections are given in Table 3 with statistical errors. The errors in the absolute photometric calibration are not included in Table 3; these errors are estimated to be 15%(Siebenmorgen et al. siebenmorgen (1999)).

### 2.3 Far-infrared observations with ISOPHOT

The far-infrared observations were made with ISOPHOT (Lemke et al. lemke (1996)). All the quasars were observed in the broad C\_160 (170$`\mu `$m) band with additional measurement in C\_90 (90$`\mu `$m). ISO far-infrared surveys (Kawara et al. kawara98 (1998); Puget et al. puget (1999)) clearly indicate that the sky seen in the far-infrared has a clumpy structure which is made up of IR cirrus and extragalactic sources. This structure rotates with time relative to the ISO coordinate system due to the field rotation, increasing the probability of fault detection if the chopping mode is used. We thus selected the PHT22 staring raster map mode to make small maps around the quasar. Table 2 presents the characteristics of the photometric filters and the details of observational parameters for raster mapping.

ISOPHOT images were produced by using the standard ISOPHOT reduction software PIA V7.3 and V8.1222PIA is a joint development by the ESA Astrophysics Division and the ISOPHOT consortium. (Gabriel et al. gabriel (1997)), starting at the edited raw data (ERD) created via the off-line processing version 7.0. The AOT/Batch processing mode of PIA is used with the default parameters to reduce ERD to the Astronomical Analysis Processing (AAP) level. This standard reduction includes linearization and deglitching of integration ramps on the ERD level, signal deglitching and drift recognition on the SRD (Signal per Ramp Data) level, reset interval normalization, signal deglitching, dark current subtraction, signal linearization, and vignetting correction333Vignetting correction is set to on in the default setting of PIA. However, the effect of the correction is none; just multiplying the data by 1.0, because the chopper throw is zero in the PHT22 raster mode. on the SCP(Signal per Chopper Plateau data) level. The responsivity calibration was made on the SPD (Standard Processed Data) level by using the second measurement of the internal Fine Calibration Source 1(FCS1) which is calibrated against celestial standards. The correction for the transient behavior of the detectors was applied to point sources (quasars) on this level. Images were produced on the AAP (Astronomical Analysis Processing) in the mapping mode with median brightness values.

The correction for drift in the responsivity is not important to our observations, and so this correction was not made. To check the importance of the drift, the MEDIAN filter technique was applied to the results from AAP (hereafter called AAP map). Applying this technique to large AAP maps in the Lockman hole, Kawara et al. (kawara98 (1998)) show that this is a powerful tool to correct for drift in the detector responsivity. However, unlike large AAP maps in the Lockman hole, the MEDIAN filter technique does not improve our AAP maps. This is attributed to the size of our AAP maps; the observing time of these small maps is shorter than the timescale of drift in the detector responsibility, and so impact by the drift is small. In fact, every detector pixel of the C100 and C200 detector arrays has been checked for signal, and neither spike noise nor drift in the responsibility was found. Maps with all the detector pixels always give better results than those obtained by masking some of the detector pixels. In addition, it was confirmed that there were no significant differences between two AAP maps produced by two different algorithms on the AAP level, namely, the full coverage and distance weighting algorithms. Fig. 2 shows AAP maps of C\_160 for the brightest quasars B 1422+231 and PG 1715+535.

Aperture photometry was then performed using IRAF444IRAF is distributed by NOAO. and Skyview555Skyview is distributed by IPAC. in the manner similar to ISOCAM. The original pixel sizes of AAP maps are equal to the raster steps. Because these are too large to center the aperture on the quasar with sufficient accuracy, AAP maps were rebinned in such a way that each original pixel is converted into $`10\times 10`$ sub-pixels. Two apertures centered on the object were used; the small one has a diameter of $`d_{airy}`$, the Airy diameter as given in Table 2, and the other has a diameter of $`2d_{airy}`$. The photometry was corrected for loss of flux in the PSF (Point Spread Function) wings by computing the same PSF model as used for ISOCAM. The factor of the PSF correction is 0.63 except for PC 1548+4632 and PC 1640+4628. These two quasars were centered between four pixels in such a way that quasars illuminate the four pixels equally. Consequently the loss of flux measured with the two apertures is large, and the factor of the PSF correction is 0.27 for C\_90 and 0.23 for C\_160.

The results after these corrections are given in Table 3 with statistical errors. The errors in the absolute photometric calibration are not included in Table 3; these errors are estimated to be 30% (Klaas et al. klaas00 (2000)). It is noted that PG 1630+377 was observed twice at $`170\mu m`$ to check variability.

### 2.4 Optical and near-infrared data from ground-based observations

Optical images were taken on the 0.9m telescopes at CTIO and the Schmidt 1.05m telescope at Kiso Observatory. Near-infrared imaging was made in the standard dithering mode on the 1.88m telescope at the Okayama Astrophysical Observatory, NAOJ. SExtractor (Bertin & Arnouts sextractor (1996)) was applied to the optical and near-infrared images to perform photometry. Flux calibration was made using the standards given by Landolt (landolt (1992)) in the optical and the UKIRT faint standards (Casali et al. ukirt (1992)) in the near-infrared. A typical photometric error is 0.05 mag.

Table 4 presents magnitudes of the quasars together with statistical errors. As shown in the table, all the ground-based observations were performed within 24 months (mostly 17 months) from the ISO observations so as to reduce the chance of having flux variations between ISO and ground-based observations. Table 4 also supplements optical magnitudes taken by Richards et al. (richards (1997)) and Schneider et al. (schneider (1994)). All the supplementary quasars but PG 1548+4637 were observed within 27 months before the ISO observations.

## 3 Discussion

All the quasars have been detected in the ISOCAM LW2 and LW3 or LW10 band. Combining optical and near-infrared observations, SEDs from the UV to mid-infrared have been obtained for eight quasars at z = 1.4 - 3.7. Fig. 3 shows the restframe SEDs ($`L_\nu `$666$`L_\nu `$ is defined by $`4\pi D_L^2\nu f_\nu `$ where $`D_L`$ denotes the luminosity distance to the object.). The down arrows indicate the 3 $`\sigma `$ upper limits obtained with the ISOPHOT observations. Note that 3 $`\sigma `$ upper limits in Fig. 3 correspond to three times uncertainties listed in Table 3. The mean spectral distributions (MEDs) of low redshift quasars by Elvis et al.(elvis (1994)) are also shown by fitting to the $`ISO`$ $`6.7\mu `$m flux density. Note that $`6.7\mu `$m in the observing frame is approximately $`1.25\mu `$m in the restframe. The dash lines indicate the 1 $`\sigma `$ deviation (strictly speaking 68 Kaplan-Meier percentile) envelopes. The rise from the 1 $`\mu `$m minimum toward 3 $`\mu `$m is evident at least in $`z=3.5`$ quasar PC 1548+4637. This rise is naturally explained by the sublimation of dust grains at $``$ 1,500 K (e.g., Kobayashi et al. kobayashi (1993)) as expected from the current unified models of active galactic nuclei. Hence, our data suggest that the obscuring torus model could be applied to high-redshift quasars.

The original objective of this work was to study whether there was any evidence for redshift-dependent changes in SEDs from the UV to far-infrared. As shown in Fig. 3, the data from the UV to mid-infrared do not deviate significantly from the MED of the low-redshift sample. However, this cannot be taken as evidence for no SED evolution in the UV to mid-infrared, because our sample is too small in number and too narrow in spectral coverage. Our far-infrared observations only provide 3 $`\sigma `$ upper limits, and are not very helpful to check SED evolution in the far-infrared.

The far-infrared detection with $`ISO`$ have been severely limited by the confusion due to galaxies and local peaks of the IR cirrus (Kawara et al. kawara98 (1998); Herbstmeier et al. herbstmeier (1998); Matsuhara et al. matsuhara (2000)). Simulating the 90 and 170 $`\mu `$m source counts in the Lockman Hole, Kawara et al. (2000a , 2000b ) concluded that the effect of confusion due to crowded sources (presumably extragalactic) was significant in the flux range below 200 mJy, and 50% of 140 mJy sources at 170 $`\mu `$m were left undetected due to confusion noise. The expected fluxes of our sample quasars ranges from 7 - 170 mJy at 170 $`\mu `$m. Such confusion is clearly seen in Fig. 2. There are a few sources scattering around the quasar, which hampers detection in the far-infrared. It should be noted that the brightest source in the PG 1630+377 field has 106 mJy and the one in PG 1715+535 has 190 mJy (Oyabu & Kawara oyabu (2000)).

It is clear that larger aperture telescopes like FIRST, which provide spatial resolution finer than ISO, are required for far-infrared studies of high-redshift quasars. In cases where similar aperture telescopes such as IRIS(ASTRO-F) and SIRTF are used, data sampling, namely a step size of raster mapping, should be carefully designed so that far-infrared images can be improved by deconvolution without violating the sampling theorem (Magain, Courbin, & Sohy magain (2000)).

###### Acknowledgements.

We wish to thank the staff of Vilspa, CTIO, OAO, and the Kiso observatory for their assistance and hospitality. We are grateful to T.Tsuji for his continuous support to this work. We thank the referee, P. Andreani, for valuable suggestions on how to improve this work.


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# A stellar fly-by simulation giving 𝛽 Pic’s disc asymmetries

## 1. Introduction

The starlight of $`\beta `$ Pic scatters off dust grains in its edge-on circumstellar disc (Smith & Terrile 1984). Imaging reveals that the disc exhibits asymmetrical structure with respect to an ideal disc on projected radial scales from $``$50 AU (Burrows et al. 1995; Mouillet et al. 1997) to $``$1000 AU (Smith & Terrile 1987). Sensitive $`R`$-band images (Larwood & Kalas 2000) show the northeast (NE) extension can be detected out to $`1835`$ AU, whereas the southwest (SW) extension is detectable out to just $`1450`$ AU, corresponding to a $``$25 per cent length asymmetry. More recently, the longer NE midplane extension has been discovered to carry several brightness enhancements from $``$500 to $`800`$ AU (Kalas et al. 2000), that have been attributed to a series of rings within the disc’s midplane. Similar features in the SW extension were not detected and so eccentric rings were hypothesised. Kalas et al. (2000) presented a dynamical model in which the stellar fly-by scenario (Kalas & Jewitt 1995) for generating the disc asymmetries was applied to the $`\beta `$ Pic system. Their finding was that the asymmetry types present in the $`\beta `$ Pic disc have analogues in the dynamical response of a particle disc to a perturbing stellar fly-by encounter. Furthermore, they demonstrated that these features could occur simultaneously with the formation of eccentric circumstellar rings.

As in the other works mentioned above we assume that the simulation particles’ distribution represents the distribution of an underlying disc of planetesimals, which are parent bodies whose infrequent and therefore dynamically inconsequential collisions supply the dust scattering surface that is observed in the real system. A more complete model should include consideration of grain removal and generation processes in determining the appearence of the perturbed disc. However, we defer treatment of those issues to future work, and focus here on the first-stage problem of the dynamics. This stage is important in deducing the mass and orbital parameters of the postulated stellar perturber, for which it is possible to perform star catalogue searches (Kalas, Deltorn & Larwood 2000), and we proceed to do this by examining the length asymmetry, and other measures of the disc response, as a function of stellar encounter parameters.

## 2. Results

Larwood & Kalas (2000) have described the origin of the transient circumstellar eccentric ring structures as being a general outcome of an encounter, due to the reflex motion of the primary star as the perturber passes through closest approach. The apparent ring system is actually an eccentric tightly-wound one-armed spiral pattern that gradually disappears owing to phase-mixing in the particles’ orbital motion. Here we summarise time-invariant results found for the encounter parameters favoured by Kalas et al. (2000). Namely, a stellar perturber of mass 0.5 M, moving in a prograde parabolic trajectory with inclination of pericentre of 30. Fig. 1 shows particle plots for some of the perturbed orbital elements in a disc of $`10^4`$ test particles that were set up in Keplerian circular coplanar orbits. The initial disc was set up between radii of 0.2 and 2, and the distance of pericentre was 2.6. Kalas et al. (2000) suggested a scaling such that the unit of distance corresponds to 270 AU.

The disc response is separable into two major components corresponding to the direct tidal interaction between disc particles and the perturber, and the indirect interaction that results from the reflex motion of $`\beta `$ Pic (Larwood & Kalas 2000). This is evident in Fig. 1 where we see, in the apocentre distance against longitude of pericentre plot, oppositely directed extensions that are asymmetric in length. The more diffuse extension is recognisable in the other panels of Fig. 1, indicating that these particles have high eccentricities and inclinations, and small pericentre distances. This extension is formed by the direct interaction. The other extension, formed by the indirect interaction, has much lower eccentricity and inclination, and large pericentre distances. Respectively, we identify these extensions with the SW and NE extensions in the $`\beta `$ Pic disc.

## 3. Conclusions

The dynamical response of the models suggests that the $`\beta `$ Pic disc might be separable into different components corresponding to groupings of perturbed particle orbits. For example, we find that outwards of $``$250 AU the SW extension may not have a distinct midplane owing to pumping of particle inclinations. The positions close to pericentre of the moderately eccentric NE midplane particles could account for the measurement of a SW midplane out to $``$650 AU, in superposition with the more diffuse vertically and radially extended component. When the optical image is vertically compressed (Larwood & Kalas 2000) we are able to measure the SW extension to much larger radii ($`1450`$ AU). In our model the corresponding (very eccentric and inclined) particle orbits also intersect the disc near to their pericentres (down to $``$50 AU) possibly accounting for the inferred inner warp of the disc, which is aligned with the outer flared envelope in the SW. In summary, there are three recognizable particle groupings that can be related to the morphology of the $`\beta `$ Pic disc. These are: the highly eccentric and inclined particles that reach apocentre in the SW, the moderately eccentric and low inclination orbiting particles that reach apocentre in the NE, and the relatively unperturbed particles inside $``$200 AU radius.

## References

Burrows, C. J., Krist, J. E., & Stapelfeldt, K. R. 1995, BAAS, 187, 32

Kalas, P., Deltorn, J. M., & Larwood, J. 2000, ApJ, in press

Kalas, P., & Jewitt, D. 1995, AJ, 110, 794

Kalas, P., Larwood, J., Smith, B. A., & Shultz, A. 2000, ApJ, 530, L133

Larwood, J. D., & Kalas, P. G. 2000, MNRAS, in press

Mouillet, D., Larwood, J. D., Papaloizou, J. C. B., & Lagrange, A. M. 1997, MNRAS, 292, 896

Smith, B. A., & Terrile, R. J. 1984, Science, 226, 1421

Smith, B. A., & Terrile, R. J. 1987, BAAS, 19, 829


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Some satellite dwarf galaxies in the Local Group (LG) have low or null gas content (Mateo 1998). However, nearly half of them are (dynamically) associated with large reservoirs of atomic gas, not always placed at the dwarf center (e.g., Carignan 1999). A correlation between the dwarf gas content and its distance to the center of the main galaxy (in the LG) exists (Blitz & Robishaw 2000). The gas reservoirs of the dwarfs and the High Velocity Clouds (HVCs) also seem to be related, as they both have similar properties (Blitz & Robishaw 2000; Braun & Burton 1999, 2000).

In this paper, we study the evolution of a dwarf irregulars (dIrrs) into dwarf spheroidal (dSph), when the ram-pressure removes the gas of the dIrrs as they orbit in a disc galaxy. This gas can be identify as a HVC. We also present a semi-analytical method to simulate the stripping process.

## 2 The ram-pressure stripping

The gas of a satellite moving through a gaseous environment (halo) feels a pressure $`P\rho _ev^2`$, ($`\rho _e`$ is the halo gas density and $`v`$ the satellite velocity) that can remove the gas from the satellite (Gunn & Gott 1972). For a satellite cross section $`S`$ and a satellite gas mass $`M_g`$, the ram-pressure stripping of the satellite gas is

$$\stackrel{}{a}_{rp}=\frac{C_D\rho _eSv\stackrel{}{v}}{2M_g}$$
(1)
where $`C_D0.21.0`$ is a drag parameter.

Taking into account this acceleration and the satellite gravity, the minimum gas density of the halo for the total satellite gas stripping is $`\rho _e>\alpha G\mathrm{\Sigma }_s\mathrm{\Sigma }_g/v^2`$, where the parameter $`\alpha 1`$ depends on the geometry of the satellite and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_s`$ ($`\mathrm{\Sigma }_g`$) is the satellite surface densities of the stars (gas) (Takeda et al 1984; Mori & Burkert 2000; Blitz & Robishaw 2000). To obtain a detailed description of the stripping, hydrodynamical simulations of the satellite+halo system are needed. Such simulations are time expensive because they demand a large particle number to describe all the interactions between the satellite and halo and, so far, only the case of a satellite with uniform velocity moving through an uniform halo has been considered (Abadi et al 1999; Mori & Burkert 2000; Quilis et al 2000).

## 3 Model of the ram-pressure stripping

In order to reduce the calculation time of the simulations, we have described analytically, using a continuous function, the effect of the environment on the (N-body) satellite. We have run simulations using a treesph code (see Barnes & Hut 1986 and Fux 1997a for details), modified to include the external forces. The gravitational force of the environment affects all the satellite particles and is obtained from the analytical expression of the total environmental density. The ram-pressure acceleration only acts on the gas particles $`i`$, as

$$\stackrel{}{a}_{rp,i}^{env}=\frac{C_D\rho _e\pi h_i^2v_i\stackrel{}{v}_i}{2m_iN_i^{1/3}}$$
(2)
obtained from eq. (1), where $`h_i`$ is the SPH softening length, $`N_i`$ the number of gas neighbours, $`m_i`$ the mass and $`\stackrel{}{v}_i`$ the velocity of the $`i`$ particle. In the satellite low density regions, $`h_i`$ increases and $`N_i`$ decreases, therefore the ram-pressure grows as expected. The contrary occurs in the satellite high density regions. Details of the model are given in Gómez-Flechoso (2000).

## 4 Simulations of the satellite accretion

We have run simulations of an analytical multicomponent (halo+bulge+disc) galaxy which accretes a dwarf satellite. The main galaxy represents a Milky Way like galaxy (see Fux 1997b for details). The gas of the primary galaxy is placed either in the disc or in the halo (densities are plotted in Fig. 1). Our satellites are N-body realizations of a King model (dimensionless central potential $`W_o=4`$ and core radius $`r_o=1`$ kpc), but we include 10% of its mass as gas in hydrostatic equilibrium. We have considered two satellites: (i) a Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) like model (model A), massive ($`M_{sat}=2\times 10^{10}`$ M) and dense, and (ii) a Sagittarius like model (model B), with low density and $`M_{sat}=2\times 10^8`$ M.

In order to give limits to the gas stripping, we have taken a very eccentric orbit perpendicular to the disc (apocenter $`R_a=70`$ kpc and pericenter $`R_p=8`$ kpc), as the stripping is higher in high density regions.

## 5 Results

We have study the tidal stripping by a disc galaxy and the ram-pressure stripping by either a disc or a halo of gas on a dwarf satellite model.

(a) Ram-pressure stripping by a disc: The dwarf gas stripping at the disc crossing depends on the dwarf density. Whereas the satellite model A suffers very little stripping, model B loses $`50\%`$ of the gas mass after the first disc crossing and the stripped gas mainly finishes bound to the disc, orbiting with the disc circular velocity. However, the tidal stripping of the stars is less significative (density profiles are plotted in Fig. 2a).

(b) Ram-pressure stripping by a halo: The ram-pressure stripping occurs at every point along the orbit, but mainly at the pericenter (where the halo density is higher). As in the previous case, the gas of the model A only suffers a slow evolution. On the contrary, the model B loses almost all the gas ($`70\%`$) soon after the first pericenter, that forms tails and condensations, whose central surface density and the velocity ($`10^{20}`$ atoms/cm2 and $`100300`$ km/s, respectively) are similar to those of the HVCs. The tidal stripping is not strong enough to disrupt the satellite, given rise to a dwarf galaxy without gas (density profiles are plotted in Fig. 2b).

## 6 Conclusions

The evolution of a gaseous dwarf galaxy depends on its density:

(a) High density satellites suffer slow evolution and marginal gas losses. That can explain the existence of satellites (as the LMC) with gaseous tails.

(b) Low density satellites lose their gas after a few pericenters, whereas a large percentage of the stellar (and dark) material remains bound to the dwarf, supporting the evolution from dIrrs into dSphs when they orbit in a disc galaxy. It can also explain the apparent correlation between the dwarf gas content and its distance to the primary.

The fate of the stripped gas depends on the distribution of the gas in the primary:

(a) If the gas of the primary is in the halo, the stripped gas of the dwarf forms condensations that can be identified as HVCs.

(b) If the gas is in the disc, the satellite gas is stripped as it crosses the disc and it finishes orbiting in it. It can feed the star formation in the disc.

In a general case, both process (stripping by a halo and by a disc) coexist, increasing the gas loss rate of the dwarf.


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# Social games in a social network

## Abstract

We study an evolutionary version of the Prisoner’s Dilemma game, played by agents placed in a small-world network. Agents are able to change their strategy, imitating that of the most successful neighbor. We observe that different topologies, ranging from regular lattices to random graphs, produce a variety of emergent behaviors. This is a contribution towards the study of social phenomena and transitions governed by the topology of the community.

The search for models that account for the complex behavior of biological, social and economic systems has been the motivation of much interdisciplinary work in the last decade . In particular, the emergence of altruistic or cooperative behavior is a favorite problem of game theoretical approaches . In this context, the Prisoner’s Dilemma game  has been widely studied in different versions, as a standard model for the confrontation between cooperative and selfish behaviors, the later manifested by a defecting attitude, aspiring to obtain the greatest benefit from the interaction with another individual. It is usually implemented in zero dimensional systems, where every player can interact with any other. It has also been studied on a regular lattice, where a player can interact with its nearest neighbors in an array . In a regular lattice the concept of a $`k`$-neighborhood is straightforward. It is composed of the $`k`$ nearest individuals to a given one. However, social situations are rarely well described by such extreme networks. The topology of social communities is much better described by what has been called small-world networks . In the version of small worlds that we use in this work, the “regular” $`k`$-neighborhood of an individual is modified by breaking a fraction of its $`k`$ original links. An equal amount of new links are created, adding to the neighborhood a set of individuals randomly selected from the whole system.

We have studied a simple model of an evolutionary version of the Prisoner’s Dilemma game played in small-world networks. The Prisoner’s Dilemma was chosen as a paradigm of a system capable to display both cooperative and competitive behaviors . The evolutionary dynamics is implemented by an imitation behavior. It is important to notice that, contrary to the iterated version of the game, our players do not remember past encounters. The emergence of cooperation is only due to the spatial organization of the players. This is the main rationale behind the study of the influence of the topological aspects of the community. We have explored different topologies, ranging from a regular lattice to random graphs, going through the small worlds. We have found surprising collective behaviors corresponding to the small-world systems, put on evidence by the enhancement of defection in situations where cooperation is the norm.

We set up a system of $`N`$ players arranged at the vertices of a network (as described below). Each player is a pure strategist, adopting either a cooperative or a defecting strategy. Each vertex is connected, on average, to other $`2K`$ vertices, that we call its neighbors. The edges connecting two vertices enable the interaction between players. A round of play consists in the confrontation of every player with all its neighbors. Each one of these produces a profit for the player, computed with the payoff matrix:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}& 𝐂& 𝐃\\ & & \\ 𝐂& r& s\\ & & \\ 𝐃& t& p\end{array}$$
(1)
Each element in the payoff matrix represents the payoff of a player performing the strategy at left, when confronting a player that performs the strategy above. A defector $`𝐃`$ obtains $`t`$ —the temptation to defect—when its opponent is a cooperator ($`𝐂`$), who gets $`s`$ —the sucker’s payoff. Each of two cooperators obtains a reward $`r`$, while each of two defectors is punished with $`p`$. The Prisoner’s Dilemma is played with $`t>r>p>s`$ and $`2r>t+s`$. In this work we use a simplified version of the game, assuming that $`s=p=0`$, $`r=1`$. All the interesting features of the game are preserved , and we are left with a single parameter to play with.

Let’s represent the players with two-component vectors $`x`$, taking the values $`(1,0)`$ for C-strategists and $`(0,1)`$ for D-strategists. The payoff matrix is:

$$𝐀=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ t& 0\end{array}\right).$$
(2)
As a result of the confrontation with its neighbors in a single round, at time $`\tau `$, each player collects a payoff

$$P_i(\tau )=\underset{j\mathrm{\Omega }_i}{}x_i𝐀x_j^T,$$
(3)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_i`$ is the set of neighbors of element $`i`$. $`P_i`$ is the profit earned by a player in a time step, and it is not accumulated from round to round.

After this, the players are allowed to inspect the profit collected by its neighbors in that round, adopting the strategy of the wealthiest among them for the next round of play. If there is a draw between more than one neighbor, one of them is chosen at random to be imitated. If the element under consideration is itself one of the winners of the round, it keeps its own strategy. That is, explicitly writing the time dependence of the strategies:

$`x_i(\tau +1)=\{\begin{array}{cc}x_i(\tau )\hfill & \text{if}P_i(\tau )\mathrm{max}(P\mathrm{\Omega }_i)\hfill \\ x_j(\tau )\hfill & \text{if}j\mathrm{\Omega }_i\text{and}P_j(\tau )=\mathrm{max}(P\mathrm{\Omega }_i).\hfill \end{array}`$

We have found that a small amount of noise is essential to prevent the system from falling in a frozen state. After a round of play, we chose one element at random and flip its strategy. This is enough to keep the system out of equilibrium and allow transitions between different states.

As a playground for our system, we have used a family of small-world networks that depend on a parameter $`ϵ`$ . We start from a regular, one-dimensional, periodic lattice of coordination number $`2K`$. We then run sequentially through each of the sites, rewiring $`K`$ of its links with probability $`ϵ`$. Running from 0 to 1, this parameter changes the wiring properties of the network, ranging from a completely ordered lattice at $`ϵ=0`$, to a random network at $`ϵ=1`$. Intermediate values of $`ϵ`$ produce a continuous spectrum of small-world networks. Double connections between sites, as well as the connection of a site with itself, are avoided in the construction of the network. Since we neither destroy nor create links, the resulting network has an average coordination number $`2K`$, equal to the initial one. This method, however, can produce disconnected graphs, that we have avoided in our analysis. Note that $`ϵ`$ is related to the fraction of modified regular links.

Two magnitudes characterize the topological properties of the small-world networks generated by the indicated procedure. One of them, $`L(ϵ)`$, measures the typical separation between any pair of elements in the network. The other, $`C(ϵ)`$, measures the clustering of an element’s neighborhood . Ordered lattices are highly clustered, and have large $`L`$. Random graphs have short characteristic length and small clusterization. In between, small worlds can be characterized by a high clusterization (like lattices) and short path lengths (like random networks).

The opposing tendencies of cooperation and defection perform differently for different payoff tables and different topologies, through the values of $`t`$ and $`ϵ`$. Disregarding $`ϵ`$, one may qualitatively expect that, for sufficiently high values of $`t`$ it would pay to defect while, for low values of $`t`$, it would be worth to cooperate. In either of these two extremes, the system would collapse to a state formed only by defectors (in the first case) or only by cooperators (in the second case). For intermediate values of $`t`$ the system would settle into a mixed state consisting in cooperators and defectors. Cooperators would thrive through the formation of clusters, that can resist the invasion by defectors. The dependency on the topology of the network appears on top of these three regimes. From the structure of the payoff matrix one may conjecture that the high values of $`t`$ referred to above will be around $`t=2`$ (where a defector earns twice as much as a pair of cooperators). Correspondingly, the low values of $`t`$ will be around $`t=1`$ (where a single cooperator earns more than a defector).

In the following we show the results of simulations performed in systems with 1000 elements. The initial strategies are assigned at random with equal probability. Then several hundred rounds are played to allow for an asymptotic regime to be achieved. All the results shown are averages over realizations where both the networks and the initial conditions are randomly chosen, excluding all disconnected graphs from our analysis.

The number of cooperators and defectors are fluctuating variables, with bell shaped distributions. In figure 1 we show the average fraction of defectors in systems with $`K=2`$, that is, systems with an average coordination number of four. Four curves are shown as a function of the parameter $`t`$. Each curve corresponds to a network characterized by the parameter $`ϵ`$ shown in the legend. All the curves show a growth in the fraction of defectors for growing values of $`t`$, as expected. We can see however, that the small world corresponding to $`ϵ=0.1`$ displays an enhanced number of defectors at values of $`t`$ around $`1.2`$. For systems with a fixed $`K`$ and a fixed $`t`$, this means that the existence of a small world topology with $`ϵ0.1`$ represents that nearly 40% of the population adopts the defecting strategy, against the 20% of more regular or more random networks. (Note that, in fig. 1, we have included values of $`t`$ lower than 1, where the game is not a proper Prisoner’s Dilemma, since the reward for cooperation is greater that the temptation to defect. We have done so because the state of the system at $`t=1`$, for all values of $`ϵ`$, still contains a small fraction of defectors. We wanted to stress that for low enough values of $`t`$ the state is complete cooperation.)

In figure 2 we show a plot of the same system, but with the fraction of defectors as a function of $`ϵ`$, to emphasize the changes in behavior as the structure of the network varies. The four curves correspond to different coordination numbers. The game corresponds to the value $`t=1.2`$ in the payoff matrix, so that the curve with $`K=2`$ is a slice of figure 1 cut at $`t=1.2`$. Note that only this curve has a clear high peak of defectors centered near $`ϵ=0.1`$. Systems with $`K=3`$ have a downward peak instead, in the region of small worlds, indicating a slight enhancement of the cooperative strategy. For $`K=4`$ we can see again a small peak of defectors. Systems with $`K=5`$ and greater (not shown) display a monotonous behavior in $`ϵ`$.

Some conjecture on the origin of these features may be appropriate here. We think that the competition between the stability of clusters of cooperators and their exploitation by neighbor defectors at the borders contributes to the features observed here. When $`K=2`$, the cooperators survive in small compact groups. As $`ϵ`$ grows, these groups can be formed by elements widely dispersed in the system, where they will have more defector neighbors to compete with. In this way, there will be less configurations to support them and, consequently, more defectors in the system. For $`ϵ`$ even greater, and more long range links, cooperators may start to reconnect and survive the competition with the defectors. When $`K>2`$, the cooperators can only survive in larger groups, because defecting neighbors at the border of a group can penetrate deeper. When $`ϵ`$ grows, cooperators belonging to faraway groups may become connected to form large clusters able to survive. The fact that $`K=3`$, at $`t=1.2`$ shows a slight *decrease* in the fraction of defectors at intermediate values of $`ϵ`$ remains, however, unexplained in this picture. At other values of $`t`$, we observed that the system with $`K=3`$ performs like that with $`K=2`$, namely with an enhancement of defector at intermediate values of $`ϵ`$.

Also, we have observed that, for every system, there is a fluctuating number of “unsatisfied” elements that change their strategy. There is a Gaussian distribution of these unsatisfied elements, whose mean increases with $`ϵ`$, as shown in figure 3. This behavior is observed for all values of $`K`$ and of $`t`$, namely that regular lattices contain a smaller number of unsatisfied elements than random networks, with small worlds in between.

Most of what is analytically known about small worlds refers to the distribution of shortest paths between pairs of elements (see for example ). It is known that regular lattices stand apart from even infinitesimally rewired small worlds, that behave like random networks. The existence of a phenomenon like the enhancement of defectors density at a finite value of $`ϵ`$, as shown in this work, points to the existence of an interesting phenomenology in small worlds. The broad spectrum of behaviors of a given system as a function of the topological features of the network is the main aspect that we want to emphasize. This suggests the possibility of modelling a certain system featuring well known interactions and analyzing the influence of the particular organization the community. Moreover, the possibility of a self organizing network with changing links opens the possibility of modelling more realistically social and economical situations . At this point we can state that the self organization of the network can lead to a nontrivial behavior of the whole system. Another interesting example of this statement would be a simple SIR model for the propagation of an epidemic. This is the subject of work under way .

The authors thank Damián H. Zanette for interesting discussions.


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# Structure of the Goldstone Bosons

## The Pion Structure Function

At present, the pion is believed to contain a valence quark and antiquark as well as a partonic sea. Several theoretical calculations are aimed at explaining the pion structure function in the valence region. These include Dyson-Schwingerhecht  and Nambu Jona-Lasinio modelsshigetani ; davidson . Lower order moments of the structure function were determined in lattice gauge calculationsbest . Typical agreement with the pion structure function is shown in Fig. 1. Here, a curve from the Dyson-Schwinger model is compared with the data from a pionic Drell-Yan experimentconway  in the valence region. The general features of the valence structure of the pion are qualitatively understood. However, there is no good understanding of the pion sea.

Recently, measurements of the pion structure functionadloff  at very low $`x`$, in the region of the pion sea have been performed. The results of this work show two interesting findings: (1) the sea in the pion has the same shape in $`x`$ as the sea in the proton, and (2) the pion sea has approximately one-third of the magnitude as the sea in the proton. This latter result is especially surprising since one expects that the pion sea to be two-thirds the value of the proton sea. These findings are even more surprising from the viewpoint of a chiral quark modelweise . This model predicts that the pion sea carries a larger momentum fraction than the proton sea. It appears that a comparison of the sea in the pion and the proton is a clue to understanding the nonperturbative structure of constituent quarks. Thus, it is essential to measure the pion structure function, especially the sea component, throughout the $`x`$ region from 0.02, the highest value of the HERA data, up to 0.3, the lower value of the Drell-Yan data. This will map out the sea region where models should have a high degree of validity. Also, since there appears to be a discrepancy between the data and the theoretical calculation at very high $`x`$, another measurement using a different technique at high $`x`$ would be important.

## Kaon Structure Function

The valence structure of the kaon is comprised of a light $`u`$ or $`d`$ quark/antiquark and a strange quark/antiquark. If our understanding of the meson structure is correct, then the large difference between the strange quark and $`u`$ or $`d`$ quark masses gives rise to a very interesting effect for the kaon structure function. In this case, the strange quark, because of its large mass, carries more of the kaon’s momentum than the $`u`$ quark, say. Then, the $`u_v`$ quark distribution in the kaon should be shifted lower in $`x`$ than that in the pion.

A Nambu Jona-Lasinio calculationshigetani ; davidson  exhibits this behavior as shown in Fig. 2. Here, the ratio of the valence u quark in the kaon to that in the pion is shown as the curve in the figure. Drell-Yan measurementsbadier  of the ratio of K- to $`\pi ^{}`$ shows a consistency with unity over most of the $`x`$ region, with a suggestion that the ratio is dropping at high $`x`$. However, the data are not of sufficient quality to verify our understanding of this process. Thus, it is essential to measure the structure function at high $`x`$ as well as in the sea region.

## Meson Structure in the Nuclear Medium

The role of pions, and particularly, pion excess in the nuclear medium have been long-standing issues in nuclear physics. The pion excess has not been observed in either Drell-Yan experiments drellyan  at FNAL or in A(e,e’$`\pi `$) reactionsjackson  at Jefferson Lab. The main question is whether the pion or kaon structure function in a nuclear medium is modified from the free structure function. Calculations within the framework of a Nambu Jona-Lasinio modelsuzuki  indicate that the medium modification for the pion structure function should be small. However, if one invokes Brown-Rho scalingbrown , then the effect is large. These calculations are shown in Fig. 3. Here the NJL calculation is the solid curve, while the dashed curve represents the Brown-Rho scaling.

## Measurement of the Meson Structure Functions

The scattering process illustrated in Fig. 4 was simulated using the RAPGAP Monte Carlo program jung . RAPGAP models processes in which there is a large rapidity gap between a fast outgoing nucleon and the remainder of the inelastic scattering fragments. These processes include DIS from an exchanged pionpirner ; holtmann ; kopeliovich  or pomeron.. A comparison of results from RAPGAP with HERA data show reasonable agreement for fast outgoing neutrons adloff .

For a 5 GeV electron beam on a 25 GeV proton beam, RAPGAP calculates 22 nb cross section for the $`eqe^{}q^{}`$ process. The expected accuracy of the experiments was calculated using events in which a “spectator” neutron was identified. In general, the neutron is scattered less than 50 mrad from the nominal proton beam axis. Events were cut on $`q^2>1\text{GeV}^2`$. The expected errors are shown in Fig. 5. A luminosity of $`10^{32}\text{cm}^2\text{s}^1`$ was assumed for a run lasting $`10^6\text{s}`$.

The $`K^+`$ structure function can be measured by considering deep inelastic scattering from the kaon cloud surrounding a proton. The basic Feynman diagram would be the same as in Fig. 4 with the pion replaced by a kaon and the neutron replaced by a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. The probability for scattering from the $`K^+`$ cloud surrounding the proton should be comparable to that for the $`\pi ^+`$ since the KN$`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ coupling constant is comparable to that of the $`\pi `$NN vertex. In fact, one would only expect about a factor of two reduction in the vertex function for the kaon compared to the pion.

The difficulty with this process is in the detection of the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. The $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ decays predominantly (64%) to a proton and a $`\pi ^{}`$. Thus, a special forward proton spectrometer as well as a forward pion spectrometer would be necessary. This should be feasible since the ZEUS and H1 experiments at HERA have already successfully employed forward proton spectrometers. When designing the ring magnets, one should take into account the possibility of detecting both positively and negatively charged forward going hadrons. Simulations for this part of the experiment would be necessary to optimize the detection efficiency.

A collider should also render these studies feasible for nuclei up to 4He. For the pion case, the idea would be to detect all of the forward going nucleons from the deep inelastic scattering from the pion. In the case of a deuterium target, for example, one would detect both forward going neutrons or forward going protons, depending on whether the DIS occurred from the $`\pi ^+`$ or the $`\pi ^{}`$, respectively.

## Summary

In summary, a measurement of the pion and kaon structure functions over a large $`x_{\pi /K}`$ region was shown to be feasible with an electron proton collider, where the electron energy is 5 GeV, the proton energy is 25 GeV, and the luminosity is 1032 cm-2s-1. A collider will also open up other very interesting possibilities such as a measurement of the meson structure function in the nuclear medium.

## Acknowledgments

We wish to thank C. Roberts, G. Levman, M. Derrick and T.-S. H. Lee for very useful discussions. In addition, we thank H. Jung and D. H. Potterveld for valuable assistance with RAPGAP. This work was supported by the U. S. Department of Energy, Nuclear Physics Division, under contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38.