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# Accretion column eclipses in the X-ray pulsars GX 1+4 and RX J0812.4-3114

## 1 Introduction

Binary X-ray pulsars are neutron stars which accrete stellar material from a companion star (e.g. White, Nagase & Parmar 1995). The accretion flow is typically mediated through an accretion disc and accretion columns delineated by the magnetic field of the neutron star ($`B10^{12}`$ G at the surface) which terminate at strongly-emitting regions near the magnetic poles (e.g. Ghosh & Lamb 1979a,b). The plasma flows along the columns from the inner edge of the accretion disc, where the magnetic field begins to dominate the accretion flow, to the magnetic poles (Fig. 1). The base of the columns are expected to cover an arc-shaped region on the neutron star surface as a consequence of the dipolar magnetic field and the limited set of magnetic field lines along which accretion is energetically favourable. To date, observational verification of this scenario has not been possible due to instrumental limitations and a lack of theoretical models describing the anisotropy of X-ray emission from the column. Optical spectroscopic and polarimetric measurements of accreting white dwarf stars in cataclysmic variables (e.g. Warner 1995) provide corroboration, but such techniques are not available for X-ray pulsars where the accretion columns radiate in X-rays rather than the optical and UV bands. In general there is little observational data available which allow detailed studies of the dynamics of accretion flows.

Sharp (phase width $`\mathrm{\Delta }\varphi 0.1`$) dips are usually observed in the pulse profiles of the X-ray pulsars A 0535+26, RX J0812.4$``$3114 and GX 1+4. These dips have previously been attributed to interactions of the accretion column and the emission region (Čemeljić & Bulik 1998; Reig & Roche 1999; Giles et al. 2000) although supporting arguments have been scarce. A 0535+26 is observed only in outburst, when the X-ray emission is modulated on a period of $`P_{\mathrm{spin}}103.5`$ s (e.g. Negueruela et al. 2000). RX J0812.4$``$3114, the X-ray counterpart to the B0-1 III-IV star LS 992 was identified from cross-correlation of ROSAT galactic plane survey data with SIMBAD OB star catalogues (Motch et al. 1997). Hourly flux variations, as well as X-ray pulsations at $`P31.9`$ s were discovered during a Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) observation of the source on 1998 February (Reig & Roche 1999). The X-ray behaviour of these Be/X-ray binaries is strongly dependent upon the orbital parameters, and the neutron star spin periods $`P_{\mathrm{spin}}`$ show a strong correlation with the orbital period $`P_{\mathrm{orb}}`$ (Corbet 1986). The $`81`$ d periodicity suggested by RXTE All-Sky Monitor (ASM) data obtained between 1998–1999 (Corbet & Peele 2000) is consistent with this correlation and probably represents the binary period. The distance was estimated at 9 kpc based on the companion spectral type and interstellar reddening, with a likely uncertainty of 50 per cent (Motch et al. 1997). The pulse profile from the source is strongly asymmetric, with a sharp dip forming the primary minimum. The energy spectrum measured by RXTE was fairly typical for X-ray pulsars, and could be adequately fit using a power law model with exponential cutoff (Reig & Roche 1999).

GX 1+4 is the most persistently bright of the three, and posesses the slowest period. Measurements by RXTE and the Burst and Transient Source Experiment (BATSE) aboard the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory (Zhang et al. 1995) between 1996–7 found $`P_{\mathrm{spin}}=123.5`$–125.5 s (Galloway & Greenhill 2001, in preparation). The companion to the X-ray source is the 17th magnitude M6 giant V2116 Ophiuchus (Davidsen, Malina & Bowyer 1977), the only known symbiotic binary with a neutron star as the energy source for the emission line nebula (Belczyński et al. 2000). Regular episodes of relatively rapid spin-up measured from BATSE monitoring of the source suggest an orbital period of $`304`$ d (Pereira, Braga & Jablonski 1999). The distance to the source is thought to be 3–15 kpc (Chakrabarty & Roche 1997). Several estimates of the magnetic field strength are in the range 2–3$`\times 10^{13}`$ G (Beurle et al. 1984; Dotani et al. 1989; Mony et al. 1991; Greenhill et al. 1993; Cui 1997). The dips in this extremely variable source are clearly visible in the X-ray lightcurve when the source is bright and the time resolution is sufficient, and are present in the folded pulse profiles even when the luminosity falls almost to the detection limit (Giles et al. 2000). When the source is bright the dips are broad and generally do not reach zero, while at lower luminosities they are narrower and emission at the dip phase is consistent with the background level. The phase-averaged X-ray spectra from the source are consistent with an approximately thermal spectrum (with temperature $`T_01.3`$ keV) modified by Compton scattering within hotter material ($`T_\mathrm{e}=6`$–10 keV) with characteristic optical depth $`\tau =2`$–6 (Galloway 2000b). The thermal spectrum is thought to arise from the region of the polar cap at the base of the accretion column, with Compton scattering occurring in the hotter plasma above.

## 2 Observations and analysis

We undertook a detailed study of the phenomenology of dips in GX 1+4, and to a lesser extent RX J0812.4$``$3114, using archival RXTE satellite observations. Data were obtained using the Proportional Counter Array (PCA; Jahoda et al. 1996), which is sensitive to X-ray photons in the energy band 2–60 keV. Six of the eight event analysers (EAs) aboard RXTE are available for processing of events measured by the PCA. Two EAs are dedicated to modes which are always present, ‘Standard-1’ and ‘Standard-2’. The Standard-1 mode features 0.25-$`\mu \mathrm{s}`$ time resolution but only one spectral channel, while Standard-2 offers 128 spectral channels between 0–100 keV (the sensitivity above 60 keV is negligible) accumulated every 16 s. GoodXenon mode data, which offers the maximum 256 channel spectral resolution on 0.9537-$`\mu \mathrm{s}`$ time resolution, was available for most of the observations. Analysis of RXTE data presented here was carried out using lheasoft 5.0, released 23 February 2000 by the RXTE Guest Observer Facility (GOF). Spectral response matrices were calculated for each observation in order to correct for gain changes over the observation period. A separate matrix was calculated for each of the three PCA layers using pcarmf, and then summed using addrmf; this was recommended by the PCA team as a workaround to a minor bug in pcarmf which occurs when calculating the response for all layers simultaneously (see http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/xte/xhp\_new.html#bug)

Observations of GX 1+4 were made in 35 separate intervals between 1996 February and 1997 May, with a total exposure time of 230 ks. For a detailed description of the observations and data processing see Galloway (2000b). The pulse period for each observation was determined through folding 1 s lightcurves (with times corrected to the solar-system barycentre) on a range of periods $`P_{\mathrm{trial}}`$ close to the expected value and calculating the resulting $`\chi ^2`$. The most probable period was found from fitting the peak in the $`\chi ^2`$ versus $`P_{\mathrm{trial}}`$ plot using a gaussian, with errors determined from equivalent analysis on 100 simulated lightcurves. During 1996–1997 GX 1+4 was found to be spinning down at a relatively steady rate, and the pulse period increased from 123.6 s to 125.6 s in the year following 1996 February. The periods measured by RXTE are consistent with those from BATSE (Chakrabarty et al. 1997) except when the source was very faint (e.g. 1996 September through November). At these times the the BATSE estimates appear unreliable, exhibiting (apparently) significant variations of $`\pm 0.5`$ s on timescales of $`10`$ d. The periods measured by $`P_{\mathrm{trial}}`$ folding of RXTE data on the other hand increase monotonically throughout this interval.

Two observations of RX J0812.4$``$3114 were made by RXTE on 1998 February 1 and 3 and one on 1999 March 25. The 1999 observation was scheduled at the expected time for an outburst, which have occurred regularly on an $`81`$ d period since 1998 (Corbet & Peele 2000). The measured period for RX J0812.4$``$3114 was $`P=31.885623(9)\pm 0.000007(5)`$ s, in excellent agreement with the value $`P=31.8856\pm 0.0001`$ s obtained by Corbet & Peele (2000) for the same observation. Previous spectral analyses for this source used a power-law model with an exponential cutoff (Reig & Roche 1999; Corbet & Peele 2000). Using the recently updated response matrices and faint background models, the cutoff power law model results in generally unacceptable fits, as do power law, power law and blackbody, and broken (two index) power law. Instead the best–fitting spectral model, as for the GX 1+4 observations, was the Comptonisation continuum component of Titarchuk (1994). This analytic approximation is implemented in xspec as ‘compTT’ and resulted in a maximum $`\chi _\nu ^2=1.5`$ for the 1999 March 25 observation. Spectral fit parameters over the three observations were $`T_0=1`$–1.2 keV, $`T_\mathrm{e}=5.2`$–6.4 keV and $`\tau =3.8`$–4.6. In contrast to GX 1+4, no gaussian model component (representing Fe line emission at 6.4–6.7 keV) is required for the spectral fits. The neutral column density $`n_\mathrm{H}`$ was typically consistent with zero to within the $`1\sigma `$ uncertainties. The luminosity in the 2–60 keV energy range reached a maximum during the 1999 March 25 observation of $`(2.57\pm 0.33)\times 10^{36}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (for a source distance of 9 kpc).

### 2.1 Pulse-phase spectroscopy

The GoodXenon mode data from the 1999 March 25 RXTE observation of RX J0812.4$``$3114 and selected observations of GX 1+4 were divided into 10 equal phase bins, and a spectrum obtained for each phase range. For GX 1+4 the observations on 1996 February 17 and June 8 were chosen for their similar fitted values of $`n_\mathrm{H}`$ to minimise any potential effects due to variation in this parameter. Additionally, they represent examples of the two apparently distinct groups of GX 1+4 spectra. When $`L_\mathrm{X}2\times 10^{37}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (2–60 keV, assuming a source distance of 10 kpc), $`\tau =4`$–6 and $`T_\mathrm{e}=6`$–9 keV typically, while at lower $`L_\mathrm{X}`$ $`\tau 3`$ and $`T_\mathrm{e}=7`$–14 keV (Galloway 2000b). The 1996 February 17 observation corresponds to the former case, with $`L_\mathrm{X}=(8.5\pm 3.3)\times 10^{37}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`\tau =5.6\pm 0.1`$ and $`T_\mathrm{e}=8.1\pm 0.1`$ keV, while on 1996 June 8 $`L_\mathrm{X}=(1.33\pm 0.54)\times 10^{37}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`\tau =2.5_{1.1}^{+0.5}`$ and $`T_\mathrm{e}=13.6_{2.6}^{+5.1}`$ keV ($`1\sigma `$ confidence limits). The measured pulse periods during the two observations were $`123.6368(1)\pm 0.0003(8)`$ and $`124.1677(0)\pm 0.0005(6)`$ s respectively. The ephemeris was chosen so that the primary minimum falls at phase 0.0, with the first bin centred there. Each of the 10 spectra were then fitted with a model identical to that used for the phase averaged spectra, with a Comptonisation component (‘compTT’) and a gaussian component (in the case of GX 1+4) both attenuated by neutral interstellar material.

The greatest spectral variation with phase is typically observed close to the primary minimum (Fig. 2). For the 1996 February 17 observation of GX 1+4, the source spectrum temperature $`T_0`$ is generally quite consistent with the phase-averaged value, except at phase $`\varphi =0.0`$ where it drops to $`0.75`$ keV. The scattering plasma temperature is also lower at $`\varphi =0.0`$ as well as the two adjacent bins, by at most $`20`$ per cent (a 7.5$`\sigma `$ deviation from the phase- averaged value). The optical depth $`\tau `$ exhibits a dramatic increase at the phase of primary minimum, from around 5.6 for the phase-averaged spectrum to more than 10 (4.7$`\sigma `$). The compTT normalisation (not shown) exhibits the greatest variation of all the parameters, and traces the pulse profile quite well. The 1$`\sigma `$ confidence limits on the parameters were generally small except at $`\varphi =0.0`$. The spectral variation was symmetric about the primary minimum, as was the pulse profile. The column density $`n_\mathrm{H}`$ was $`60`$% greater than the phase-averaged spectral value around $`\varphi =0.0`$ (Fig. 3), but at a significance level of less than 2$`\sigma `$. Variation in the Fe line component parameters was no greater than 1.5$`\sigma `$ with respect to the phase-averaged values over the entire phase range.

The phase variation of spectral fit parameters for the 1996 June 8 observation (not shown) was less significant due to the lower countrate and the wider confidence limits that result. Since the gaussian component parameters were shown to exhibit no significant variation with phase when the source was much brighter, for this analysis they were fixed to values found for the phase-averaged spectrum. Reliable limits on the plasma temperature $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ could only be determined for phases $`\varphi =0.0`$ and 0.1; in the other phase bins the value was instead frozen at the value obtained for the phase-averaged spectrum. The optical depth was greater compared to the phase-averaged level in the phase bins centred on $`\varphi =0.0`$ and 0.1. While the maximum enhancement is $`70`$% the significance is only $`1.5\sigma `$ at best.

Also suffering from a much lower phase-averaged countrate, spectral fitting for the data from RX J0812.4$``$3114 was substantially more difficult. With all parameters free to vary, the fit values of $`T_0`$ and $`n_\mathrm{H}`$ were poorly constrained, and reliable confidence limits could not be obtained. Following the approach of Galloway et al. (2000), we fixed (‘froze’) these two parameters at the values determined for the phase-averaged spectra, and re-fit the pulse phase spectra. The phase bins centred on $`\varphi =0.0`$ and 0.1 again show evidence for reduced $`T_\mathrm{e}`$ and enhanced $`\tau `$ (Fig. 4), although at a significance level of only marginally greater than $`1\sigma `$. While the increase in $`\tau `$ coincident with the primary minimum for the latter two observations is not significant, note that the dip is much narrower (particularly for RX J0812.4$``$3114) than in the 1996 February 17 observation of GX 1+4. Thus the phase bin centered on the primary minimum also covers the dip ingress and egress, and emission during those intervals will tend to dominate the spectrum due to the increased countrate. We suggest that a spectrum taken over the phases covering only the bottom of the dip may exhibit a much higher $`\tau `$, although RXTE does not provide sufficient sensitivity in the present observations to confirm this.

### 2.2 Dip profile measurements in GX 1+4

At moderate countrates the individual dips forming the primary minimum are usually well defined in the 1 s binned lightcurves from GX 1+4. With the exception of the observations with very low countrates (where individual dips could not be unambiguously located), we measured the dip phase variations by calculating the arrival time residuals $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_{\mathrm{d},i}`$ for the dip from each cycle $`i`$. The expected arrival time is calculated from the mean period for the observation and the ephemeris (used to locate the first observed dip). The actual arrival time is estimated from fitting a parabolic profile to the lightcurve in a 16 s window surrounding the predicted arrival time; the arrival time residual is the difference of the two. For the 1996 February 17 observation $`|\mathrm{\Delta }t_{\mathrm{d},i}|`$ is typically $`2`$ s and may be as much as 4 s (Fig. 5a). Visual inspection of the individual fits confirms that the arrival time errors are genuine and not simply an artefact of poor fits to the dip profiles (for example). The residuals do not appear to exhibit any periodic or quasiperiodic variation with cycle number (time). A search for periodic signals using the Lomb-Scargle periodgram (Press et al. 1996) over all residuals for each of the observations on which the analysis was performed did not result in any significant detections. The most significant peaks were found for low frequency signals in the longest observations, but these detections are most likely aliasing related to observation interruptions due to earth occultations once every 90 min satellite orbit. The standard deviation of the dip residuals $`\sigma (\mathrm{\Delta }t_{\mathrm{d},i})`$ was found to vary significantly with the mean flux. Above $`L_\mathrm{X}4\times 10^{37}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (2–60 keV, assuming a source distance of 10 kpc) $`\sigma (\mathrm{\Delta }t_{\mathrm{d},i})`$ varies between 1.4–1.9 s, whereas below that level is $`1.3`$ s and may be as low as 0.7 s.

The dip phase width $`w_\mathrm{d}`$ was measured from the mean pulse profiles at a countrate level midway between the minimum and the mean level in the phase range 0.8–0.9 and 0.1–0.2. While $`w_\mathrm{d}`$ varied significantly with $`L_\mathrm{X}`$ (Fig. 5b, open circles), the dip phase variation described above must account for some if not all of this dependency. Thus an equivalent measure was made using the width parameter from the parabolic fitting divided by the mean countrate over the fitting window, averaged over each observation. While this measurement could not be made over the entire flux range, the resulting dip width does indeed show less variation with $`L_\mathrm{X}`$ (Fig. 5b, filled circles) and in particular was substantially lower at the highest luminosity, where the dip arrival time residuals are greatest.

## 3 Discussion

RX J0812.4$``$3114 provides another example of an X-ray pulsar after GX 1+4 whose mean spectra are broadly consistent with Comptonisation continuum components. In contrast to GX 1+4, the properties of this source are probably typical of many others, since Be/X-ray binaries make up a significant proportion of all known X-ray pulsars. The phase-averaged spectral fit parameters fall within the ranges expected for neutron star accretors (Galloway 2000b). We suggest that Comptonisation continuum components are excellent candidates for fits to spectra from X-ray pulsars.

The sharp dip in the pulse profiles is clearly associated with an increase in the scattering optical depth $`\tau `$ both for GX 1+4 (at distinctly different fluxes and phase-averaged spectral conditions) and also for RX J0812.4$``$3114. It is true that the estimated significance is only convincing for the brightest observation of GX 1+4. We note however that the confidence interval limits for the pulse phase spectral fit parameters were determined by projecting the full $`p`$-dimensional confidence region (where $`p`$ is the number of free parameters in the model) onto the axis corresponding to each parameter. This provides a conservative estimate of the confidence intervals for individual parameters (Lampton, Margon & Bowyer 1976) and so the true significance of the spectral variation may be much greater.

Variation in $`\tau `$ with pulse phase is possible if the scattering region lacks rotational symmetry, e.g. is extended in one direction preferentially. In that case the maximum possible optical depth will be obtained when the line of sight to the observer coincides with the longest dimension of the scattering region. For the accretion column, the longest dimension is clearly along the column axis. Thus, we identify the sharp dips as ‘eclipses’ resulting from an approximate alignment of the accretion column with the line of sight, occuring once each rotation period ($`\varphi =0.0`$ in Fig. 1). Absorption dips in the orbital lightcurves of some polars, which are white dwarf stars also accreting through a magnetically confined column (e.g. RX J1802.1+1804; Greiner, Remillard & Motch 1998), have previously been associated with a similar effect. The spectral variation in the latter source during the eclipse suggests a warm absorber, in good agreement with the results described here.

Clearly such interactions require a fortuitous combination of the magnetic colatitude $`\beta `$ (the angle between the neutron star spin axis and the magnetic axis) and the inclination angle $`i`$ (between the spin axis and the line of sight). Since the base of the accretion column is offset from the magnetic pole, and the column meets the surface at an angle with respect to the local normal, $`i`$ must substantially greater than $`\beta `$ for eclipses to occur. The column orientation also depends upon the inner disc radius $`r_{\mathrm{A},\mathrm{disc}}`$ since this defines which field lines connect the boundary region to the neutron star. The small number of sources exhibiting such eclipses (3 of more than 70 known pulsars) appears to be consistent with the relative unlikelihood of such an agreement; no reliable estimates of $`i`$ and $`\beta `$ have been made for the three pulsars described which might rule out this possibility.

While numerical simulations based on unmagnetized Compton scattering in a simplified emission region support this interpretation (Galloway & Wu 2001) it is important to note that the strong magnetic field present in the accretion column will significantly affect the scattering cross section (Daugherty & Harding 1986). The cross section $`\sigma (\nu ,\theta )`$ will depend on both the photon energy $`\nu `$ and the angle between the propagation direction and the local magnetic field vector $`\theta `$. For GX 1+4, the estimated magnetic field strength implies an energy for the fundamental cyclotron resonance of $`h\nu _{\mathrm{cyc}}200`$ keV, much greater than the PCA energy band. Thus for a particular photon energy, $`\sigma _{\nu ,\theta }`$ will reach a minimum for photons propagating along the magnetic field lines ($`\theta =0`$). In the absence of anisotropies in the distribution of matter this would result in enhanced emission along the magnetic axis. This effect will clearly compete with the decrease in emission due to the additional optical depth experienced by photons propagating along the accretion column. However $`\sigma _{\nu ,\theta }`$ reaches a minimum value (which depends upon the magnetic field strength and the photon energy) for photons propagating exactly along the magnetic field lines. The increase in optical depth is instead limited only by the geometry and the curvature of the accretion column. Despite magnetic anisotropy effects it should still be possible to get a significant drop in emission due to accretion column eclipses.

The observation of accretion column eclipses in GX 1+4 provides a unique opportunity to study accretion dynamics under the influence of a strong magnetic field. The variability in the observed phase of individual dips suggests that the column is wandering stochastically in longitude by 2–6, depending upon the source luminosity. It is possible that the dip timing residuals are a consequence of variations in the $`P_{\mathrm{spin}}`$ itself, although we consider this unlikely. Accreting material typically posesses a large specific angular momentum with respect to the neutron star, and in combination with magnetic torques transmitted from the accretion disc via the magnetic field may induce systematic period evolution of more than 2 per cent per year. However the variations seen in the RXTE observations are typically of the same order in just one pulse period, and in addition there appears to be no cumulative drift in the pulse period on time–scales of tens of minutes or more as a consequence of the timing residuals. The accretion column is delineated by the ‘bundle’ of magnetic field lines which bound it, and it seems more likely that the position of the column is varying perhaps as a consequence of accretion along a varying set of field lines, resulting in a change in its apparent position.

The dip phase width $`w_\mathrm{d}`$ measured from both the mean pulse profiles and the average of the individual dip fits from each observation show a significant correlation with X-ray luminosity $`L_\mathrm{X}`$. This parameter is a measure of the width of the accretion column, which ultimately depends upon the azimuthal extent of the accretion stream at the inner accretion disc boundary (see Fig. 1). The detailed physics of this boundary region are poorly understood, and so we assume that the entrainment of disc material to the column takes place at a rate which is independent of the plasma density in the disc. The column will then be wider at higher $`\dot{M}`$ due to the increased velocity of disc plasma as the inner disc edge moves closer to the neutron star. The inner disc radius is determined by a balance of the magnetic stress and the ram pressure

$`r_{\mathrm{A},\mathrm{disc}}`$ $``$ $`0.5\times 2^{3/7}\mu ^{4/7}(GM_{})^{1/7}\dot{M}^{2/7}`$ (1)
$`=`$ $`2.4\times 10^8B_{12}^{4/7}\dot{M}_{16}^{2/7}\mathrm{cm}`$
where $`\mu `$ is the magnetic dipole moment, $`B_{12}`$ is the corresponding surface magnetic field strength in units of $`10^{12}`$ G, $`M_{}=1.5\mathrm{M}_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`R_{}=10`$ km the mass and radius of the neutron star and $`\dot{M}=\dot{M}_{16}\times 10^{16}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{s}^1`$ the accretion rate (Ghosh & Lamb 1979a,b). Assuming that the plasma in the boundary region is still flowing tangentially at approximately the Keplerian velocity $`v_\mathrm{K}=\sqrt{GM_{}/r}`$ corresponding to stable circular orbits, we have

$$w_\mathrm{d}\frac{v_\mathrm{K}}{r_{\mathrm{A},\mathrm{disc}}}L_\mathrm{X}^{3/7}.$$
(2)
The agreement between this relationship and the $`w_\mathrm{d}`$ measured from the individual dips is encouraging (Fig. 5b), although the error bars on several points are large indicating significant variation of dip width for individual observations.

We note that the dip width measured for RX J0812.4$``$3114 on 1999 Mar 25 was $`w_\mathrm{d}0.05`$, comparable to that measured in GX 1+4 at similar luminosity levels. If the conditions in the disc–magnetosphere boundary layer are similar in both pulsars, and relative bolometric corrections are negligible, this implies that the magnetic moments are similar and that the field strength for RX J0812.4$``$3114 is also around 2–3$`\times 10^{13}`$ G. That these two pulsars, both with atypically strong magnetic fields, also posess an unusual alignment permitting accretion column eclipses seems rather unlikely however.

Since the dips are associated with interactions with the accretion column, they are expected to always be present so long as substantial amounts of material are accreting (i.e. $`\dot{M}0`$). The RXTE observations of GX 1+4 span more than two orders of magnitude in $`L_\mathrm{X}`$, and dips were observed in the mean pulse profiles of every observation except one. During a short RXTE observation on 1997 May 17 , the dips were weak or absent in the lightcurve even though the phase-averaged countrate from the source was $`150\mathrm{count}\mathrm{s}^1`$, still well above the background which is typically $`100\mathrm{count}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The X-ray spectrum measured at this time was unusually hard, with Compton scattering optical depth $`\tau 19`$; the pulse-phase spectral variation was also substantially different from that measured at other times (Galloway 2000a). Both the disappearance of the dip and the spectral measurements indicate a distinctly different accretion regime than is normal for this source, in which the column is no longer present in the usual sense.

This work has revealed some important new phenomena likely to be common to other X-ray pulsars. Further observational and theoretical development appears promising, in particular where the unusual properties of sources like GX 1+4 and RX J0812.4$``$3114 may be exploited. The influence of the longitudinal variation in column position on the net torque transmitted to the neutron star may be non-negligible. This may affect the long-term period evolution in persistent pulsars, which is generally rather poorly understood (e.g. Bildsten et al. 1997). Measurements of the dip (and hence column) profile may provide more detailed information regarding the plasma uptake to the accretion column at the inner disc radius. Finally, the suggestion of disruption of the accretion column coupled with distinct spectral states at high and low luminosities (Galloway 2000b) provides evidence for significantly more complex flow dynamics than are predicted by current theory.

## Acknowledgments

This research has made use of data obtained from the BATSE pulsar group home page at http://www.batse.msfc.nasa.gov, and also the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center Online Service, provided by the NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center. The RXTE Guest Observer Facility provided timely and vital help and information throughout.


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# Untitled Document

RESOURCE LETTER ON GEOMETRICAL RESULTS

FOR EMBEDDINGS AND BRANES

Matej Pavšič111MATEJ.PAVSIC@IJS.SI

Department of Theoretical Physics

Jožef Stefan Institute

Jamova 39

SI–1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia

Victor Tapia222TAPIENS@CIENCIAS.CIENCIAS.UNAL.EDU.CO

Departamento de Física

Universidad Nacional

Bogotá, Colombia

Abstract

Due to the recent renewal in the interest for embedded surfaces we provide a list of commented references of interest.

Introduction

The idea that our space–time can be considered as a four–dimensional space embedded in a higher–dimensional flat space is an old and recursive one. Recently, due to a proposal by Randall and Sundrum this idea has again attracted much attention. Since several related ideas had already been studied and several results had been obtained in the past we have considered convenient to provide a full account of the existing results on the subject.

The choice of the references included in this letter is selective and has been dictated by some simple criteria. We have included only articles published on wide circulation journals and books, etc., except when they are of exceptional relevance or they has a historical character. We do not include electronic publications which have not passed a refereeing procedure. A simple search at SPIRES gives more than 1200 references containing the words brane, membrane, etc. Other criterion for inclusion in this letter is that the article made use of extrinsic Riemannian geometry.

A. The Geometry of Embeddings

The concept of an abstract Riemannian manifold arises in mathematics as the result of an evolution in mathematical attitudes. In the earlier period, geometers thought of more concretely of curved surfaces embedded in a flat Euclidean space (Gauss, 1827), i.e., they described the geometry of surfaces as embedded in a higher–dimensional space. The concept of an abstract Riemannian manifold, defined intrinsically, was first explicitly formulated by Riemann in his famous, althought little read, thesis, in 1850 (published only in 1868). In that work, what it is today known as Riemannian geometry was introduced. The geometrical properties of a manifold were characterised only by intrinsic properties, without any need of a reference to a higher dimensional embedding space.

Almost inmediately after this abstract view came into favour, a question naturally arose: the isometric embedding problem: The question of the existence of concrete realisations of abstract Riemannian manifolds as submanifolds of higher dimensional Euclidean spaces. Today we know that the answer is yes: any intrinsically defined Riemannian manifold can be isometrically embedded, locally and globally, in an Euclidean space of appropriate dimension and signature. The works cited in this section are mainly oriented to establish this equivalence.

The embedding problem was first considered by Schläfli (1873) just after the publication of Riemann work. He discussed the local form of the embedding problem and he conjectured that a Riemannian manifold with positive defined and analytic metric can be locally and isometrically embedded as a submanifold of a Euclidean space $`E_N`$ with $`N=n(n+1)/2`$.

In 1926 Janet described a method of proof based on a power series development, so it was limited to local results. Furthermore, he required the metric to be analytic. This proof however, as Janet himself noticed, was incomplete. He solved only the local problem for two–dimensional manifolds with analytic metric. In 1927 E. Cartan extended the Janet’s proof to $`n`$–dimensional manifolds treating it as an application of his theory of Pfaffian forms. The dimensionality requirement was $`N=n(n+1)/2`$, as conjectured by Schläfli.

In 1931 Burstin completed the Janet’s proof and also extended it to the case in which the embedding space is a given Riemannian manifold $`V_N`$ with positive defined and analytic metric. The Gauss–Codazzi–Ricci equations are conditions to be satisfied by the embedding, therefore, they can be considered as integrability conditions for the embedding. In 1956 Leichtweiss gave a new proof based more substantially than Burstin in the Gauss–Codazzi–Ricci equations of Riemannian geometry. His proof is more involved than that provided by Burstin. In 1961 Friedman extended the theorem to Riemannian manifolds with indefinite metrics, such as the space–time used in contemporary gravitational theories. For semi–positive definite metrics see (Lense, 1926).

The first global isometric embedding theorem of $`V_n`$ into $`E_N`$ were established by Nash (1956). The results depend crucially on the compactness of $`V_n`$. For $`V_n`$ compact he obtains $`N=n(3n+11)/2`$; for non–compact manifolds $`N=n(n+1)(3n+11)/2`$. The first global results for indefinite metrics were obtained by Clarke (1970) and Greene (1970). Recently, an improvement on Nash theorem was presented by Gunther (1989).

We may therefore conclude that any intrinsically defined Riemannian manifold has a local and a global, isometric embedding in some Euclidean space. Then one can consider the two approches, intrinsic and extrinsic, to Riemannian geometry as completely equivalent.

This result opened new perspectives in theoretical physics, mainly in the physics of the gravitational field. On the one hand it was considered as a mathematical tool to construct and classify solutions of General Relativity. On the other hand, it allows to introduce new variables, perhaps more amenable for a description of quantum mechanical phenomena.

It is clear that some manifolds can be embedded in a higher dimensional space with a dimension lesser tahn the requirement fixed by the embedding theorem. Therefore, it is convenient to introduce the concept of class of the embedding, which is the minimal number of extra dimensions necessary to satisfy the Gauss–Codazzi–Ricci equations.

B. Applications to General Relativity

At the beggining of the XX century General Relativity was developed (by Einstein) based on Riemannian geometry. Almost inmediately exact solutions were obtained based on the use of extrinsic geometry (Kasner, 1921). Several other results are contained in the references. A particularly important result is that Fridman–Robertson–Walker–Lemaǐtre spaces are of embbeding class one (Robertson, 1933).

C. Results Related to the Class of the Embedding

In this section we list several articles containing results specifically related to the class of the embedding of relevance for general relativity. Some articles containing results related to the class of the embedding but other more general results has already been listed in A or B. They are divided in: class 1; class 2; spherically symmetric fields (class 2); embedding of the Schwarzschild solution; and spherically symmetric fields of class 1.

D. Extrinsic Gravity

Since the pioneer work of Sakharov in 1966, several attempts have been done in order to incorporate the concept of bending of space–time in gravitational theories. One way of doing this is by considering space–time as embedded in a higher–dimensional space. In this case the concept of bending has an inmediate geometric visualisation. The first attempt in this direction seems to be due to Regge and Teitelboim (1976). The idea was later revived by Pavšıč in the eighties, and by Maia and Tapia in 1989.

E. Strings and Membranes

During the 80’s there was a good lot of work on string theories. Since the string is a (1–dimensional) geometrical object living in a higher–dimensional space the use of embedding should be an inmediate tool. However, even when the main developments in strings were in other directions there was also some work dealing with the geometrical, embedding, aspects of strings. Several proposals were done using embeddings and generalisations to other higher–dimensional (membranes) objects were studied.

F. Rigid Particles and Zitterbewegung

The Dirac equation gives rise to the phenomenon of zitterbewegung (Schrödinger, 1930). Soon after that, it was realized that this motion can be explained by a helical motion of the electron (Huang, 1952; Corben, 1961). Later on, it was discovered that a helical motion can be described by an acceleration dependent Lagrangian (Liebowitz, 1969; Riewe, 1971, 1972). The relativistic generalizations making use of embedding geometry are many and are listed in this section.

G. New Brane World

A different approach to considering our universe as embedded in a higher–dimensional flat space was developed mainly by Akama (1978, 1983). A similar approach was pursued by Pavšič (1994,1996,1997,1998), who, in addition, proposed a model in which massive matter on the brane is due to the intersections with other branes (Pavšič, 1986). Recently the idea that our universe is a 3-brane moving in a higher dimensional space has been revived, but this time as a consequence of developments in other areas, mainly in string theory, $`M`$–theory and the like, with the proposal due to Randam and Sundrum (1999). The analysis of the Randam and Sundrum model in geometrical terms is discussed in (Anchordoqui, 2000).

Acknowledgements

This work was partially done during a visit of the authors to The Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics, Trieste, Italy.

A. The Geometry of Embeddings

1. K. F. Gauss, Disquisitiones generales circa superficies curvas (1827). English translation: General Investigations of Curved Surfaces of 1827 and 1825 by C.J. Morehead and A.M. Hiltebeitel (New York: Raven Press, 1965). In Karl Friedrich Gauss Werke, IV (1827).
2. B. Riemann, Über die Hypothesen welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen (1854). This thesis was presented on June 10th, 1854, in Göttingen and it was first published in Abh. Königl. gesellsch. 13, 1 (1868). It was translated into English by W.K. Clifford and published in Nature 8, 14 (1873). Since the work by Riemann was published only in 1868, this is the date usually used in the references in order to avoid confusion over the order of appearance, and precedence, of ideas in geometry.
3. L. Schläfli, Nota alla Memoria del Signor Beltrami, “Sugli spazìi di curvatura costante”, Ann. di Mat. 2e série, 5, 170 (1871).
4. M. Janet, Sur la possibilité du plonger un espace riemannien donné dans un espace euclidien, Ann. Soc. Polon. Math. 5, 38 (1926).
5. J. E. Campbell, A Course of Differential Geometry (Clarendon, Oxford, 1926).
6. J. Lense, Über ametrische Mannifaltigkeiten und quadratische Differentialformen mit verchwindender Diskriminante, Jber. Deutsche Math. 35, 280 (1926).
7. L. P. Eisenhart, Riemannian Geometry (Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1926).
8. E. Cartan, Sur la possibilité de plonger un espace Riemannien donné dans un espace euclidien, Ann. Soc. Polon. Math. 6, 1 (1927).
9. C. Burstin, Ein Beitrag zum Problem der Einbettung der riemannschen Raume in Euklidischen Raumen, Rec. Math. Moscou (Math. Sbornik) 38, 74 (1931).
10. T. Y. Thomas, Riemannian spaces of class one and their characterisation, Acta Math. 67, 169 (1936).
11. J. A. Schouten and D. J. Struik, Einfürung in die neueren Methoden der Differentialgeometrie, Bd. 2 (Groninggen, 1938), S. 142.
12. T. Y. Thomas, Imbedding theorems in differential geometry, Bull. Am. Math. Soc. 45, 841 (1939).
13. N. A. Rosenson, On Riemannian spaces of class I. Parts I, II, III, Izvest. Akad. Nauk SSSR 4, 181 (1940); 5, 325 (1941); 7, 253 (1943); in Russian.
14. M. Matsumoto, Riemann spaces of class two and their algebraic characterisation. I, II, III, J. Math Soc. (Japan) 2, 67, 77, 87 (1950).
15. M. Matsumoto, On the special Riemann spaces of class two, Mem. Coll. Sci. Univ. Kyoto A math. 26, 149 (1951).
16. K. Leichtweiss, Das problem von Cauchy in der mehrdimensionalen Differentialgeometrie I, Math. Ann. 130, 442 (1956).
17. J. Nash, The imbedding problem for Riemannian manifolds, Ann. Math. 63, 20 (1956).
18. B. O’Neill, An algebraic criterion for inmersion, Pacific J. Math. 9, 1239 (1959).
19. A. Friedman, Local isometric embedding of Riemannian manifolds with indefinite metric, J. Math. Mech. 10, 625 (1961).
20. C. J. Clarke, On the isometric global embedding of pseudo–riemannian manifolds, Proc. Roy. Soc. London A 314, 417 (1970).
21. R. E. Greene, Isometric embedding of Riemannian and pseudo–Riemannian manifolds, Memoirs Am. Math. Soc. n. 97 (1970).
22. H. Rund, Invariant Theory of Variational Problems on Subspaces of a Riemannian Manifold (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1971).
23. W. B. Bonnor, Null hypersurfaces in Minkowski space–time, Tensor, N. S. 24, 329 (1972).
24. H. Goenner, On the interdependence of the Gauss–Codazzi–Ricci equations of local isometric embedding, Gen. Rel. Grav. 8, 139 (1977).
25. M. Gunther, Zum Einbettungssatz von J. Nash, Math. Nachr. 144, 165 (1989).
26. K. Kobayashi, Fundamental equations for submanifolds, Fortschr. Phys. 37, 599 (1989).

B. Applications in General Relativity

1. A. Einstein, Zur Allgemeinen Relativitatstheorie, Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, Sitzber., 778 (1915).
2. E. Kasner, The impossibility of Einstein fields inmersed in flat space of five dimensions, Am. J. Math. 43, 126 (1921).
3. E. Kasner, Finite representation of the solar gravitational field in flat space of six dimensions, Am. J. Math. 43, 130 (1921).
4. J. A. Schouten and D. J. Struik, On some properties of general manifolds relating to Einstein‘s theory of gravitation, Am. J. Math. 43, 213 (1921)..
5. E. Kasner, Geometrical theorems on Einstein’s cosmological equations, Am. J. Math. 43, 217 (1921).
6. H. P. Robertson, On the foundations of relativistic cosmology, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 15, 822 (1929).
7. H. P. Robertson, Relativistic cosmology, Rev. Mod. Phys. 5, 62 (1933).
8. A. Gião, The equations of Codazzi and the relations between electromagnetism and gravitation, Phys. Rev. 76, 764 (1949).
9. I. Robinson and Y. Ne’eman, Seminar on the Embedding Problem, Rev. Mod. Phys. 37, 201 (1965).

This seminar’s report contains the following individual papers:
10. A. Friedman, Isometric embedding of Riemannian manifolds into Euclidean spaces, Rev. Mod. Phys. 37, 201 (1965).
11. J. Rosen, Embedding of various relativistic Riemannian spaces in pseudo–Euclidean spaces, Rev. Mod. Phys. 37, 204 (1965).
12. R. Penrose, A remarkable property of plane waves in general relativity, Rev. Mod. Phys. 37, 215 (1965).
13. C. Fronsdal, Elementary particles in a curved space, Rev. Mod. Phys. 37, 221 (1965).
14. D. W. Joseph, Generalized covariance, Rev. Mod. Phys. 37, 225 (1965).
15. Y. Ne’eman, Embedded space–time and particle symmetries, Rev. Mod. Phys. 37, 227 (1965).
16. P. Szekeres, Embedding properties of general relativistic manifolds, Nuovo Cimento 43, 1062 (1966).
17. C. D. Collinson, Embedding of the plane-fronted waves and other space–times, J. Math. Phys. 9, 403 (1968).
18. P. Rastall, Inmersions of space–time, Canad. J. Phys. 47, 607 (1969).
19. I. Goldman and N. Rosen, A universe embedded in a five–dimensional flat space, Gen. Rel. Grav. 2, 367 (1971).
20. J. Krause, Embedding approach to a restricted covariance group in general relativity, Nuovo Cimento B 18, 302 (1973).
21. G. H. Goedecke, On global embedding, J. Math. Phys. 15, 789 (1974).
22. G. H. Goenner, Local isometric embedding of Riemannian manifolds with groups of motion, Gen. Rel. Grav. 6, 75 (1975).
23. M. D. Maia, Elementary systems in general relativity, J. Math. Phys. 16, 1689 (1975).
24. R. Kerner, Deformations of the embedded Einstein spaces, Gen. Rel. Grav. 9, 257 (1978).
25. M. D. Maia, Symmetry properties of embedded space–times, Braz. J. Phys. 8, 429 (1978).
26. S. Gallone, An extrinsic aspect of geometrodynamics, Nuovo Cimento B 49, 149 (1979).
27. H. Goenner, Local isometric embedding of Riemannian manifolds and Einstein’s theory of gravitation, in General Relativity and gravitation: one hundred years after the birth of Albert Einstein, ed. by A. Held (Plenum Press, New York, 1980).
28. D. Kramer, H. Stephani, E. Herlt and M. MacCallum, Exact Solutions of Einstein’s Field Equations (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1980), chapter 32.
29. M. Ferraris, Algebraic isometric embeddings of exact solutions of the Einstein equations, Atti Accad. Sci. Torino Cl. Sci. Fis. Mat. Natur. 114, 229 (1980/81).
30. M. D. Maia, Contacts of space–times, J. Math. Phys. 22, 538 (1981).
31. H. Stephani, Embedding, in Unified Field Theories of More than 4 Dimensions Including Exact Solutions, ed. by V. De Sabbata and E. Schmutzer (World Scientific, Singapore, 1983).
32. J. Ipser and P. Sikivie, Gravitationally repulsive domain walls, Phys. Rev. D 30, 712 (1984).
33. M. D. Maia, Combined symmetries in curved space–times, J. Math. Phys. 25, 2090 (1984).
34. M. D. Maia, The physics of the Gauss–Codazzi–Ricci equations, J. Comput. Appl. Math. 5, 283 (1986).
35. M. D. Maia, Geometric space–time perturbation. I. Multiparameter perturbations, J. Math. Phys. 28, 647 (1987).
36. M. D. Maia, Geometric space–time perturbation. II. Gauge invariance, J. Math. Phys. 28, 651 (1987).
37. I. Ozsváth and L. Sapiro, The Schücking problem, J. Math. Phys. 28, 2066 (1987).
38. I. Ozsváth, An embedding problem, J. Math. Phys. 29, 825 (1988).
39. M. D. Maia and W. L. Roque, Higher–order space–time contacts and equivalence, J. Math. Phys. 32, 2722 (1991).
40. I. Ozsváth, Embedding problem. II, J. Math. Phys. 33, 229 (1991).
41. G. Abolghasem, A. A. Coley and D. J. McManus, Induced matter theory and embeddings in Riemann flat space–times, J. Math. Phys. 37, 361 (1996).
42. J. E. Lidsey, C. Romero, R. Tavakol and S. Rippl, On applications of Campbell’s embedding theorem, Class. Quantum Grav. 14, 865 (1997).
43. J. E. Lidsey, R. Tavakol and C. Romero, Campbell’s embedding theorem, Mod. Phys. Lett. A 12, 2319 (1997).
44. S. Deser and O. Levin, Equivalence of Hawking and Unruh temperatures and entropies through flat space embeddings, Class. Quantum Grav. 15, L85 (1998).
45. J. E. Lidsey, Embedding of superstring backgrounds in Einstein gravity, Phys. Lett. B 417, 33 (1998).

C. Results Related to the Class of the Embedding

Embedding class 1:

1. K. P. Singh and S. N. Pandey, Riemannian fourfolds of class one and gravitation, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 26, 665 (1960).
2. H. Stephani, Über Lösungen der Einsteinschen Feldgleichungen die sich in einen fünfdimensionalen flachen Raum einbetten lassen, Commun. Math. Phys. 4, 137 (1967).
3. C. D. Collinson, Einstein–Maxwell fields of embedding class one, Commun. Math. Phys. 8, 1 (1968).
4. H. Stephani, Einige Lösungen der Einsteinschen Feldgleichungen mit idealer Flüssigkeit die sich in einen fünfdimensionalen Raum einbetten lassen, Commun. Math. Phys. 9, 53 (1968).
5. C. F. Jex, A criticism of Kasner’s proof that no solution of $`G_{\mu \nu }=0`$ can be embedded in a flat five–space, Nuovo Cimento B 55, 77 (1968).
6. S. N. Pandey and I. D. Kansal, Impossibility of class one electromagnetic fields, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 66, 153 (1969).
7. S. N. Pandey and Y. K. Gupta, Space–time of class one and perfect fluid distribution, Univ. Roorkee Res. J. 12, 9 (1970).
8. C. D. Collinson, A theorem on the local isometric embedding of empty space–times in a space of constant curvature, J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 4, 206 (1971).
9. R. N. Tiwari, Riemannian fourfolds of class one, Gen. Rel. Grav. 3, 211 (1971).
10. G. P. Pokhariyal, Perfect fluid distribution in class one space time, Gen. Rel. Grav. 3, 87 (1972).
11. A. Barnes, Space–times of embedding class one in general relativity, Gen. Rel. Grav. 5, 147 (1974).
12. Y. K. Gupta and S. N. Pandey, Electromagnetic fields of embedding class one, Indian J. Pure Appl. Math. 6, 1388 (1975).
13. J. Krause, The de Donder coordinate condition and minimal class–1 space–time, J. Math. Phys. 16, 1090 (1975).
14. H. Goenner, Intrinsically and energetically rigid space–times of class one, Tensor (N.S.) 30, 15 (1976).
15. J. Krause, Structure of the Einstein tensor for class–1 embedded space–time, Nuovo Cimento B 32, 381 (1976).
16. G. P. Pokhariyal, Perfect fluid distribution in class one space time. II, Prog. Math. (Allahabad) 10, 11 (1976).
17. S. N. Pandey and S. P. Sharma, Plane symmetric space–time of class 1, Gen. Rel. Grav. 8, 147 (1977).
18. R. Tikekar, A note on plane symmetric perfect fluid distributions of embedding class one, Indian J. Pure Appl. Math. 11, 1681 (1980).
19. K. P. Singh and O. N. Singh, A class one cosmological model of electrified viscous fluid, Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. India A 53, 135 (1983).
20. Y. K. Gupta and S. P. Sharma, Eisntein–Rosen cylindrically symmetric space–time subject to class-one conditions, Gen. Rel. Grav. 16, 349 (1984).
21. Y. K. Gupta and S. P. Sharma, Self–gravitating fluids of class one with nonvanishing Weyl tensor, J. Math. Phys. 25, 3510 (1984).
22. Y. K. Gupta and R. S. Gupta, Nonstatic analogues of Kohler–Chao solution of imbedding class one, Gen. Rel. Grav. 18, 641 (1986).
23. R. Fuentes V., J. L. Lopez B., G. Ovando Z. and T. Matos, Space–time of class one, Gen. Rel. Grav. 21, 777 (1989).
24. D. Ladino–Luna and J. L. López B., Space–time of class one, Rev. Mex. Fis. 35, 623 (1989); In Spanish.
25. D. Ladino–Luna, Spacetime of class one with perfect fluid, Rev. Mex. Fis. 36, 177 (1990).
26. D. Ladino–Luna, J. L. López B., J. Morales R. and G. Ovando Z., $`R_4`$ embedded in $`E_5`$, Rev. Mex. Fis. 36, 354 (1990); In Spanish.
27. Abdussattar and D. K. Singh, A plane symmetric Lichnerowicz universe of class one, Prog. Math. (Varanasi) 25, 121 (1991).
28. S. R. Roy and A. Prasad, An L.R.S. Bianchi type V model of local embedding class one, Prog. Math (Varanasi) 25, 79 (1994).
29. S. R. Roy and A. Prasad, Some L.R.S. Bianchi type V cosmological models of local embedding class one, Gen. Rel. Grav. 26, 939 (1994).
30. Y. K. Gupta and J. R. Sharma, Non–static non–conformally flat fluid plates of embedding class one, Gen. Rel. Grav. 28, 1447 (1996).

Embeddings of Class 2:
31. C. D. Collinson, Empty space–times of embedding class two, J. Math. Phys. 7, 608 (1966).
32. H. J. Efinger, Embedding of a relativistic charged particle, Commun. Math. Phys. 2, 55 (1966).
33. M. Sh. Yakupov, On Einstein spaces of embedding class two, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 180, 1096 (1968); in Russian.
34. M. S. Jakupov, An algebraic chracterization of Einstein spaces of class two, Gravitation and the Theory of Relativity 4–5, 78 (1968); In Russian.
35. M. Sh. Yakupov, Einstein spaces of class two, Grav. i Teor. Otnos., Univ Kazan 9, 109 (1973); In Russian.
36. Y. K. Gupta and P. Goel, Class II analogue of T. Y. Thomas’s theorem and different types of embeddings of static spherically symmetric space–times, Gen. Rel. Grav. 6, 499 (1975).
37. D. E. Hodgkinson, Empty space–times of embedding class two, Gen. Rel. Grav. 16, 569 (1984).
38. D. E. Hodgkinson, Type $`D`$ empty space–times of embedding class 2, Gen. Rel. Grav. 19, 253 (1987).
39. M. R. Meskhishvili, Einstein–Maxwell fields with cosmological term of embedding class one, Soobshch. Akad. Nauk Gruzzi 142, 297 (1991).
40. N. Van den bergh, Lorentz– and hyperrotation–invariant classification of symmetric tensors and the embedding class–2 problem, Class. Quantum Grav. 13, 2817 (1996).
41. N. Van den Bergh, Vacuum solutions of embedding class 2; Petrov types D and N, Class. Quantum Grav. 13, 2839 (1996).
42. N. Van den Bergh, A classification of embedding class 2 vacua, Helv. Phys. Acta 69, 325 (1996).

Spherically Symmetric Embeddings (Class 2):
43. J. Eiesland, The group of motions of an Einstein space, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 27, 213 (1925).
44. J. Plebañski, Spherically symmetric worlds as embedded in a flat space, Bull. Acad. Polon. Sci. Ser. Math. Astron. Phys. (10), 373 (1962).
45. M. Ikeda, S. Kitamura and M. Matsumoto, On the embedding of spherically symmetric space–times, J. Math. Kyoto Univ. 3, 71 (1963).
46. G. Sassi, Parametrical embedding of static spherically symmetric spacetimes, Gen. Rel. Grav. 23, 367 (1991).

Embedding of the Schwarzschild and related metrics:
47. C. Fronsdal, Completion and embedding of the Schwarzschild solution, Phys. Rev. 116, 778 (1959).
48. M. D. Kruskal, Maximal extension of Schwarzschild metric, Phys. Rev. 119, 1743 (1960).
49. T. Fujitani, M. Ikeda and M. Matsumoto, On the embedding of the Schwarzschild space–time. I, II, III, J. Math. Kyoto Univ. 1, 43 (1961); 1, 63 (1961); 2, 255 (1962).
50. J. Rosen, Embedding of the Schwarzschild and Reissner–Weyl solutions, Nuovo Cimento 38, 631 (1965).
51. M. Ferraris and M. Francaviglia, An algebraic embedding of Schwarzschild space–time, Atti Accad. Sci. Torino Cl. Sci. Fis. Mat. Natur. 111, 315 (1977).
52. M. Ferraris and M. Francaviglia, An algebraic isometric embedding of Kruskal space–time, Gen. Rel. Grav. 10, 283 (1979).
53. M. Ferraris and M. Francaviglia, Algebraic isometric embeddings of charged spherically symmetric space–times, Gen. Rel. Grav. 12, 791 (1980).
54. C. F. Chyba, Time–dependent embeddings for Schwarzschild–like solutions to the gravitational field equations, J. Math. Phys. 23, 1662 (1982).
55. M. P. Korkina and S. V. Buts, Embedding of the Schwarzschild–Friedmann model into a six–dimensional flat space, Russian Phys. J. 37, 59 (1994).
56. J. F. Plebanski, An embedding of a Schwarzschild black hole in terms of elementary functions, Acta Phys. Polon. B 26, 875 (1995).

Spherically symmetric embeddings of class 1:
57. K. R. Karmarkar, Gravitational metrics of spherical symmetry and class one, Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. A 27, 56 (1948).
58. M. Kohler and K. L. Chao, Zentralsymmetrische statische Schwerefelder mit Räumen der Klasse I, Z. Naturforsch. 20a, 1537 (1965).
59. S. Kitamura, The imbedding of spherically symmetric space times in a Riemannian 5-space of constant curvature. I, II, Tensor (N.S.) 16, 74 (1965); 17, 185 (1966).
60. H. Takeno, On the imbedding problem of spherically symmetric space–times, in Perspectives in geometry and relativity, ed. by B. Hoffmann (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, 1966).
61. S. N. Pandey and I. P. Kansal, Spherically symmetric space–time of class one and electromagnetism, Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 64, 757 (1968).
62. J. Krishna–Rao, On spherically symmetric perfect fluid distributions and class one property, Gen, Rel. Grav. 2, 385 (1971).
63. S. Kitamura, On spherically symmetric and plane symmetric perfect fluid solutions and their embedding of class one, Tensor N. S. 48, 169 (1989).
64. M. P. Dabrowski, Isometric embedding of the spherically symmetric Stephani universe: some explicit examples, J. Math. Phys. 34, 1447 (1993).

Embeddings of class 5. The Kerr metric:
65. R. R. Kuzeev, Inmersion class of a Kerr field, Gravitatsiya i Teoriya Otnositelnosti, 16, 93 (1980); in Russian.
66. R. R. Kuzeev, Imbedding of Kerr’s space–time, Gravitatsiya i Teoriya Otnositelnosti, 18, 75 (1981); in Russian.
67. N. A. Sharp, On embeddings of the Kerr geometry, Canad. J. Phys. 59, 688 (1981).
68. R. R. Kuzeev, Imbedding of the Kerr–Newman metric, Gravitatsiya i Teoriya Otnositelnosti, 21, 123 (1984); in Russian.
69. J. R. Arteaga, Involution and embedding of metrics, Lect. Mat. 16, 13 (1995); In Spanish.

D. Extrinsic Gravity

1. A. D. Sakharov, Vacuum quantum fluctuations in curved space and the theory of gravitation, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR 177, 70, (1967), in Russian; English translation: Sov. Phys. Dokl. 12, 1040 (1968). Reprinted in Gen. Rel. Grav. 32, 361 (2000).
2. T. Regge and C. Teitelboim, General relativity a la string: a progress report, in Proceedings of the First Marcel Grossmann Meeting, Trieste, Italy, 1975, ed. by R. Ruffini (North–Holland, Amsterdam, 1977).
3. S. Deser, F. A. E. Pirani and D. C. Robinson, New embedding model of general relativity, Phys. Rev. D 14, 3301 (1976).
4. S. Naka and C. Itoi, Induced gravity in higher–dimensional spacetime and the mass scale of the Kaluza–Klein theory, Prog. Theor. Phys. 70, 1414 (1983).
5. M. D. Maia and W. Mecklenburg, Aspects of high–dimensional theories in embedding spaces, J. Math. Phys. 25, 3047 (1984).
6. M. D. Maia, Geometry of Kaluza–Klein theory. I. Basic setting, Phys. Rev. D 31, 262 (1985).
7. M. D. Maia, Geometry of Kaluza–Klein theory. II. Field equations, Phys. Rev. D 31, 268 (1985).
8. M. Pavšič, On the quantisation of gravity by embedding spacetime in a higher dimensional space, Class. Quantum Grav. 2, 869 (1985).
9. M. Pavšič, Classical theory of a space–time sheet, Phys. Lett. A 107, 66 (1985).
10. M. D. Maia, On Kaluza–Klein relativity, Gen. Rel. Grav. 18, 695 (1986).
11. M. D. Maia, On the integrability conditions for extended objects, Class. Quantum Grav. 6, 173 (1989).
12. M. D. Maia and W. L. Roque, Classical membrane cosmology, Phys. Lett. A 139, 121 (1989).
13. V. Tapia, Gravitation a la string, Clas. Quantum Grav. 6, L49 (1989).
14. V. Tapia, On the role of extrinsic Riemannian geometry in gravitation, Rev. Mex. Fis. 36, S164 (1990).
15. V. A. Franke and V. Tapia, The ADM Lagrangian in extrinsic gravity, Nuovo Cimento B 107, 611 (1992).
16. M. Pavšič, On the embedding models of gravity and their prospects, in Proc. M. Grossmann Meeting 1991 (World Scientific, Singapore, 1993).
17. M. D. Maia and G. S. Silva, Geometrical constraints on the cosmological constant, Phys. Rev. D 50, 7233 (1994).
18. E. M. Monte and M. D. Maia, The twisting connection of space–time, J. Math. Phys. 37, 1972 (1996).
19. C. Romero, R. Tavakol and R. Zalatednikov, The embedding of general relativity in five dimensions, Gen. Rel. Grav. 28, 365 (1996).
20. E. M. Monte and M. D. Maia, Geometry of the Einstein and Yang–Mills equations, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 36, 2827 (1997).
21. S. S. Kokarev, GR and multidimensional elasticity theory, Grav. Cosmol. 4, 96 (1998)
22. S. S. Kokarev, Space–time as multidimensional elastic plate, Nuovo Cimento B 113, 1339 (1998)
23. S. S. Kokarev, Space–time as a strongly bent plate, Nuovo Cimento B 114, 903 (1999).

E. Strings and Membranes

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F. Rigid Particles and Zitterbewegung

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G. New Brane World

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