text:
# Untitled Document

1. Introduction

In a recent article with the same title as this one Max Tegmark estimated how long it would take for interactions with the environment to destroy macroscopic quantum coherence in the brain. He arrived at the result $`10^{23}`$ seconds. This tiny value appears, on the face of it, to rule out any significant role for macroscopic quantum effects in understanding the connection between brain processes and conscious thoughts. Indeed, Tegmark used his results to discredit Penrose’s theory of consciousness.

Tegtmark noted that I also had developed a detailed theory of the mind-brain connection, but he did not direct his remarks about decohence at my theory. That would have made no sense, for his results are constructive rather than destructive in the context my theory, which is based heavily on the presumption that enviromental decoherence has a large effect on brain processes. My theory is specifically designed so that the particular quantum effects that allow a person’s thoughts to influence his brain are not affected by environmental decoherence. This stringent requirement imposes non-trivial conditions on human behavior under controlled situations, and the empirical data gathered by psychologists during the past fifty years indicate that these detailed conditions are satisfied.

The foregoing remarks make it clear that the macroscopic quantum effects exploited in this quantum theory of the mind-brain system are not the macroscopic quantum effects used in quantum computation. Those latter effects are obliterated by environmental decoherence. Thus if brains really do operate in the way described by this theory then the technical ramifications could be far reaching: it would make available for development a type of macroscopic quantum effect that has been exploited by biological systems, but has not been been used in engineering. No new principle is involved here: the theory is simply a rational consequence of taking seriously the principles laid down by John von Neumann and Eugene Wigner, together with reasonable and standard ideas about what brains do.

This theory has been described in a number of documents designed to inform neuroscientists and psychologists, but has not been described in a physics journal, in a form directed at physicists. The purpose of this paper to fill that void, and to show in particular how macroscopic quantum effects can be effective in a system that is decomposed into a mixture of nearly classical states on a time scale of $`10^{23}`$ seconds. To establish that this theory is science, not mere speculative philosophy, I shall describe at the end some of the explanatory power of the theory.

My central task here is to explain how macroscopic quantum effects occurring in the presence of massive environmental decoherence can produce an action of mind on brain that can account for the detailed empirical facts. I assume that there is nothing special about a human brain except for its physical structure, and hence that other systems with similar functional structure should exhibit similar behaviour.

Many physicists are unfamiliar with the profound difference between the von Neumann/Wigner formulation of quantum theory and the more common Copenhagen formulation. So I will begin by describing the elements of the von Neumann/Wigner theory, before turning first to the central theoretical task, and then to confrontation with data.

2. The General Theory.

Bohr, Heisenberg, Dirac, Born, Pauli, and the other founders of quantum theory formulated their approach in a way that constituted a radical break with the classical physics that had preceeded it. They recognized, more explicitly than their immediate predecessors, that science was basically a human endeavour, and they defined the proper objective of science to be the construction of rules that would allow human beings to make useful prediction about connections between their observations. Thus human experiences were elevated to the status of the primary reality dealt with by the theory. Physicists were enjoined to desist from all efforts to understand the reality that lies behind their observations. Classical concepts were brought in through the fact that our description of how we set up our experiments, and what we learn from them, are—as a matter of fact—couched in the ordinary language of everyday life, refined by the concepts of classical physics.

This way of understanding quantum theory is called the Copenhagen interpretation, and it is very useful: it allows physicists to get on with the job of testing the rules and applying them, without getting embroiled in the puzzling features that arise when one tries to dig deeper.

Von Neumann, however, did dig deeper. He noted that the measuring devices, which had a rather strange dual status in the Copenhagen approach, since they were physical objects, yet were descibed in classical language, were made up of the same kind of atomic constituents as the atomic systems that they were probing, and that there was therefore a well defined way to include these devices into the system that was described by the mathematical formulas of quantum theory, provided one brought into this description the entire physical universe, including our bodies and brains. This mathematical description was thereby elevated from its former status of being merely the language for the formulation of a mysterious set of rules for making predictions about our conscious experiences, to the status of a new kind of description of the physical universe. However, this description, unlike its classical predecessor, was dynamically linked to our conscious experiences. This dynamical linkage between the aspects of nature that were described in this mathematical language and the aspects of nature that we describe as the contents of our streams of conscious thoughts allowed physicists to obtain from a single unified theory all the predictions of Copenhagen quantum theory and all the valid prediction of classical physical theory from a dynamical theory that describes also the interaction between our minds and our brains. The key dynamical interaction is a change, in conjunction with each conscious experience, in the mathematically described universe: this change, called a ‘reduction’ or a ‘collapse’, tends to eliminate all those potentialities of the previously existing state that are incompatible with the expectations that characterize that experience.

This “reduction of the wave packet” is the basis of Copenhagen quantum theory. But von Neumann/Wigner quantum theory shifts the effect of the reduction associated with a person’s experience away from some external system, such as the measured atomic system, or the external measuring device, onto that person’s brain. This placement is, from a scientific point of view, a far more reasonable positioning of the action of mind on matter, at least if one is trying to construct a theory of what is really happening. This placement creates the basis for a dynamical theory of how our conscious thoughts influence our brains. On the other hand, no commitment need be made as to the underlying connections between the realities that we describe as elements of our streams of conscious thoughts and the aspects of nature represented by the mathematical description of the physical world. For this theory is, in the final analysis, just a theory of the interplay between the aspects of nature that we describe in these two different ways, regardless of the true nature of the underlying realities.

To express these ideas in mathematical form let $`S(t)`$ represent the state of the universe at time t. Actually, the variable t labels a sequence Tomonaga-Schwinger spacelike surfaces $`\sigma (t)`$ such that the whole surface moves gradually forward as $`t`$ increases. I assume that for the study of brain dynamics quantum electro-dynamics will be adequate for the pertinent ranges of size and energies, and that future developments in elementary-particle physics will provide the necessary ultra-violet cut-off. I am imagining, for definiteness, that the surfaces $`\sigma (t)`$ will be the constant-time surfaces in the rest frame of the cosmic background radiation.

The state $`S(t)`$ is the operator form of the state: $`S(t)/TrS(t)`$ is the usual ‘density matrix’, where Tr stands for the trace operation.

The operator $`S`$ can be represented by a matrix $`S_{ij}`$. If the system represented by $`S_{ij}`$ is composed of n component parts, then the index i will consist of a sequence of n indices, and j will also be represented in this way. If $`b`$ is the set of indices labelling some critical part of some person’s brain, and $`b`$ represents the complementary set of indices—i.e., the set of indices for rest of the universe—, then the state of this brain part, is represented by $`S(t)_b=Tr_bS(t)`$, which is the partial trace of $`S(t)`$ over the complementary set of variables $`b`$. This operator $`S(t)_b`$ acts in the subspace of indices $`b`$ associated with this brain part.

The basic problem to be faced is that the interaction of the brain with its environment will keep $`S(t)_b`$ in the form of a mixture of almost classical states, and that this would seem, on the face of it, to preclude macroscopic quantum effects of the kind needed for a quantum-mediated influence of mind on brain.

To see why that is not true one must understand what the brain is doing.

The job of the brain is basically to take clues, coming via sensors, about the situation of the body in its environment, and construct an appropriate plan of action, and then to initiate and supervise the execution of this plan. I assume that the evolutionary process has honed the properties of the mind-brain so that it performs this task well.

How do quantum effects enter into the behaviour of $`S(t)_b`$?

There is, of course, the basic fact that quantum theory is needed to make the chemistry work right. But in order to get directly to the essential point let me grant that the chemical interactions could be mocked up by some essentially classical-type model, and that the whole brain can be treated classically except for one thing: the migration of calcium ions within nerve terminals from the exits of micro-channels to the sites where they trigger the release into the synaptic cleft the contents of vesicles of neurotransmitter.

The diameters of the micro-channels in cerebral nerve terminals are approximately one nm , This means that the indeterminacy in the velocity of the migrating calcium ion that arises from the Heisenberg uncertainty principle is smaller than its thermal velocity by a factor of about 300. The distance between microchannel exit and trigger site is about 50nm . Thus the uncertainty in the location of the calcium ion when it reaches the trigger site is of the order of size of the calcium ion itself. This means that the classical conception of the brain is inadequate in principle: quantum effects will generate a superposition of the classical state in which the neurotransmitter in the vesicle is released and the classical state in which this packet of neurotransmitter is not released. This superposition will quickly be reduced to a mixture. A similar bifurcation occurs at each active nerve terminal. Hence the state $`S(t)_b`$ will necessarily evolve into a mixture of a huge number of states. Actually, a continuum of possible states will contribute, because each vesicle could be released a little earlier or a little later, and this will produce a continuum of contributing possibilities.

This first step is already important, because it shows that the idea that classical physics could give a deterministic answer to how the brain evolves is in principle wrong: that possibility is strictly incompatible with quantum theory, even if one ignores quantum effects associated with chemistry. Quantum effects entail that the brain state $`S(t)_b`$ will quickly evolve onto a mixture of quasi-classical possibilities, all of which are actually present, insofar as no actual collapse has occurred. It is important in what follows that the interaction with the environment, although it reduces superpositions to mixtures does it not reduce the mixture of quasi classical possibilities to a single one of these possibilies: all states of the mixture will continue to exist in parallel, insofar as the evolution is controlled by the Schroedinger equation.

It is, of course, well known that if one computes the expectation value of any operator in a state $`S`$ that is a mixture of states $`S^{}`$ then the result is identical to what would be obtained if the state were really in just one of the states $`S^{}`$, but that one does not know which state $`S^{}`$ this is, but does know the probability of each of the states $`S^{}`$.

This fact might suggest that there could be no way to distinguish a quantum model of the brain from a classical statistical model. However, that conclusion is incorrect, within the von Neumann/Wigner framework.

Within this vN/W framework each alert person has a stream of conscious experiences, and each such experience is associated with a reduction of the state of his brain to a form that is compatible with the experience: the reduction eliminates from the state of the brain all patterns of activity that are incompatible with that experience.

This reduction is represented mathematically in the following way. Each experience $`E`$ is associated with a projection operator $`P(E)`$, and the occurrence of E at time t has the following effect: if the symbol $`t`$ signifies the action of taking the limit in which the argument of $`S(t^{})`$ tends to time $`t`$ from times earlier than $`t`$, and $`t+`$ is related in the same way to later times, then

$$S(t+)_b=P(E)S(t)_bP(E).$$
$`(1)`$
The projection operator P(E) acts in the subspace associated with the indices $`b`$, and satisfies the defining condition for projection operators $`P(E)^2=P(E)`$. It acts on the brain state $`S(t)_b`$ to eliminate all patterns of activity or structure that are incompatible with E.

For example, if the experience E is an updating of the person’s representation of the world, then P(E) will preserve in the mixture of quasi-classical states $`S^{}`$ represented by $`S(t)_b`$ just those that contain the patterns of brain activity that will tend to etch into memory the experienced updating. If the experience is of an intention to cause one’s body to move in a certain way then P(E) will eliminate from the mixture $`S(t)_b`$ those quasi-classical states $`S^{}`$ that do not have the patterns of brain activity that will tend to cause the body to move in this way. These rules are just the analogs in the vN/W framework of the Copenhagen rule that the reduction is to the state that is compatible with the experience. But in the vN/W framework it may be supposed that this linkage of each experience $`E`$ with a $`P(E)`$ that tends to produce the expected or intended future experiences is a consequence of the evolutionary development of the human system.

In any attempt to go beyond the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory the chief problem is the so-called “Basis Problem”: What determines which basis will be used to reduce the myriads of possibilities produced by the quantum uncertainties to the individual reality that is experienced? Environmental decoherence is helpful, but it is not sufficient, because the quasi-classical states are over-complete, and hence do not provide a unique basis of normalizable states, and the structure of conscious experience is tied to the formation of quasi-stable and accessible memories, as Zurek emphasizes in his excellent reviews .

Copenhagen quantum theory resolves the basis problem in a simple way: “The Observer”, who stands outside the Hilbert space structure, decides how he will set up the experiments, and this decision fixes the “basis”. This means that in the Copenhagen interpretation it is the ‘free choice’ on the part of the experimenter as to what he is interested in that fixes the basis.

The vN/W solution is essentially the same as the Copenhagen one: the basis is fixed by the experience of “the observer”. Something beyond the Schroedinger evolution is needed to fix the basis, and this is taken to be “experience”.

But then what fixes experience? How is E determined? And how does ‘free choice’ enter? The experience E cannot just pop out of nothing: it must be determined largely by the brain. Any adequate dynamical theory of the mind-brain must explain not only how mind effects brain, but also how brain affects mind.

The job of the mind and brain, acting together, is to determine the best course of action in the circumstances in which the mind-brain finds itself. The brain is busy grinding out, via the Schroedinger equation, the host of possibilities represented by the mixture $`S(t)_b`$. The ‘best’ option should be the one such that $`P(E)`$ has the greatest statistical weight. Let E(t) be the E that maximizes $`TrS(t)_bP(E)`$. This should be the best candidate for E at time t.

But the experiential events in the person’s stream of consciousness occur only at discrete times, not continuously. Thus the ‘free choice’ can be reduced to consent, at certain instants t, to put to Nature the question of whether experience E(t) will occur. If E(t) does occur then $`S(t+)`$ becomes $`P^{}(E(t))S(t)P^{}(E(t))`$, in accordance with (1). If Nature’s answer is No, and hence E(t) does not occur at time $`t`$, then $`S(t)`$ becomes $`(1P^{}(E(t)))S(t)(1P^{}(E(t)))`$, where the operator $`P^{}(E(t))`$ in these expressions is the trivial extension to the entire space of the operator $`P(E(t))`$ defined previously. The probability that the experience E(t) will occur is given by

$$TrS(t)P^{}(E(t))/TrS(t)=Tr_bS(t)_bP(E(t))/Tr_bS(t)_b.$$
$`(2)`$
in accordance with the the basic probabilty rule of quantum theory.

The point of all this is that Copenhagen quantum theory introduced our conscious experiences directly into physical theory, and von Neumann/Wigner quantum theory tied these experiences to projection operators that act on the person’s brain state in such a way as to bring the brain state into concordance with the experience. This converts quantum theory basically into a dynamical theory of the evolution of the universe that includes a theory of mind-brain interaction.

In this theory behaviour is largely controlled by the local mechanical brain process governed by the Schroeodinger equation. That process is ‘local’: the interactions are basically contact interactions. But there is one element that not governed by any known law of physics, namely the choices to consent or not consent at time t to putting to nature the question associated with the possible experience $`E(t)`$.

I do not intend to speculate at this point about how the evaluation that lies behind this choice is carried out. At the present early stage in the development of the science of the mind-brain system that question remains a project for future research. But the effect of a consent to ‘put the question to nature’, is to force Nature to return an answer, Yes or No, and the effect of the answer ‘Yes’, is to activate the process (2), which tends to produce to updating or action that characterizes the experience. This “reduction” of “collapse” process is macroscopic, in the sense that, according to the theory, the operator $`P(E(t))`$ acts instantaneously on some large part of the brain in accordance with process (1) descrbed above. I presume that the evaluation process has been honed by evolution so that it reflects the the likely consequences of activating process (1).

But in order for evolution to be able to hone this connection it is necessary that one’s choice to consent has a likely effect on behaviour.

In order to compute the likely effects on behaviour one must add the properly weighted contributions from the two possible answers that nature might give. This is exactly what the famous von Neumann process 1 achieves: it gives the state that represents the effect of putting to nature the question $`P=P(E(t))`$ if no account is taken of which of the two possible answers, ‘Yes’ or ‘No’, nature returns.

The von Neumann process 1 is:

$$S(t)_b=PS(t)_bP+(1P)S(t)_b(1P).$$
$`(3)`$
So the key demand on the theory is that behaviour be controllable at the statistical level by applications at various times t of the process (3) associated with one’s choice to give at time t the consent associated with the possible experience $`E(t)`$. And this control should tend to produce behaviour that conforms to the expectations and intentions imbedded in $`E(t)`$

Can one achieve this in a brain that is subject to massive effects of environmental decoherence? That is the question. The answer is Yes.

In order to consciously control one’s behaviour one must normally keep attention focussed on a task for some period of time. Think of the focus of attention required to lift a heavy rock, or the focus of attention needed to fix into memory the details of some visual scene. In these clear examples of the apparent control of brain process by conscious effort some particular thought, or aspect of thought, remains fixed and stable the mind-brain for an experienced period of time. Hence we are led to consider the effect of putting the same question repeatedly to Nature in rapid succession.

Suppose, for definiteness, that the subsystem $`b`$ is a set of degrees of freedom that is generating a contribution to the low frequency $`(<40Hz)`$ part of the coulomb part of the elecromagnetic field in the brain, and that the von Neuman process (3) repeats rapidly on this scale.

Let $`d`$ represent the time interval between successive actions of process (3). Then

$$S(t+d)_b=$$

$$P(\mathrm{exp}iHd)[PS(t)_bP+(1P)S(t)_b(1P)](\mathrm{exp}+iHd)P$$

$$+$$

$$(1P)$$

$$(\mathrm{exp}iHd)[PS(t)_bP+(1P)S(t)_b(1P)](\mathrm{exp}+iHd)$$

$$(1P).$$
$`(4)`$
Because $`Hd`$ is small in the subspace associated with $`b`$ one can approximate the exponentials by $`(1iHd)`$, and observe that the terms linear in $`d`$ drop out: the effect of a rapid repetition of process (3) is to damp out transitions between the two subspaces specified by $`P`$ and $`(1P)`$. This will be recognized as the familiar Quantum Zeno Effect .

What this means is that if a person can, by willful effort, acting through his power to consent, increase the rapidity of the events in his stream of consciousness then he could control the activity of his brain by keeping the activity of the b part of it confined to the subspace it is already in. The brain state would be prevented from “wandering” in the way that it would if there were no rapid quantum process (3). Thus willful effort would alter the behaviour of the quantum brain, at the statistical level, from what it would be if there were no macroscopic quantum effects.

Note that the Quantum Zeno Effect described above is not destroyed by the fact that $`S(t)_b`$ is a mixture: that makes no difference at all. The reason that the macroscopic quantum effect persists in the presence of decoherence is that it originates not in interference effects but rather the fact that it is the whole brain part associated with the set of variables b that enters into the dynamics, both at the level of specifying the ‘best’ possibility $`P(E(t))`$, and the associated action (3).

The key point is that the quantum theory of mind-brain described here gives each mind-brain the power, through force of will acting via consent, to keep its attention focussed on a task in a way that is impossible in the analogous classical statistical model. And this effect is achieved by increasing, through effort of will, the rate of events in the stream of consciousness.

I stress again that this theory, although it is more congenial to ontological interpretation than the Copenhagen account, is basically just a way of organizing empirical features of the study of mind-brain systems in a way that is suggested by, and strictly compatible with, the basic laws and principles of physics.

3. Explanatory Power

Does this theory explain anything?

This theory was already in place  when a colleague brought to my attention some passages from “Psychology: The Briefer Course”, written by William James . In the final section of the chapter on Attention James writes:

“I have spoken as if our attention were wholly determined by neural conditions. I believe that the array of things we can attend to is so determined. No object can catch our attention except by the neural machinery. But the amount of the attention which an object receives after it has caught our attention is another question. It often takes effort to keep mind upon it. We feel that we can make more or less of the effort as we choose. If this feeling be not deceptive, if our effort be a spiritual force, and an indeterminate one, then of course it contributes coequally with the cerebral conditions to the result. Though it introduce no new idea, it will deepen and prolong the stay in consciousness of innumerable ideas which else would fade more quickly away. The delay thus gained might not be more than a second in duration— but that second may be critical; for in the rising and falling considerations in the mind, where two associated systems of them are nearly in equilibrium it is often a matter of but a second more or less of attention at the outset, whether one system shall gain force to occupy the field and develop itself and exclude the other, or be excluded itself by the other. When developed it may make us act, and that act may seal our doom. When we come to the chapter on the Will we shall see that the whole drama of the voluntary life hinges on the attention, slightly more or slightly less, which rival motor ideas may receive. …”

In the chapter on Will, in the section entitled “Volitional effort is effort of attention” James writes:

“Thus we find that we reach the heart of our inquiry into volition when we ask by what process is it that the thought of any given action comes to prevail stably in the mind.

and later

The essential achievement of the will, in short, when it is most ‘voluntary,’ is to attend to a difficult object and hold it fast before the mind. … Effort of attention is thus the essential phenomenon of will.”

Still later, James says:

“Consent to the idea’s undivided presence, this is effort’s sole achievement.” …“Everywhere, then, the function of effort is the same: to keep affirming and adopting the thought which, if left to itself, would slip away.”

This description of the effect of mind on the course of mind-brain process is remarkably in line with what arose independently from a purely theoretical consideration of the quantum physics of this process. The basic features of the interplay between effort, attention, and control in the mind-brain system, as discerned by James, seem to come naturally out of the principles that von Neumann and Wigner promulgated in their effort to make physical sense of the mathematical rules that explain the connections between the phenomena from the realm of atomic physics. This opens up the interesting theoretical possibility of bringing the whole range of science from atomic physics to mind-brain dynamics together in a single rationally coherent theory of an evolving physical reality made essentially of objective knowledge or information rather than classically conceived matter.

A great deal has happened in psychology since the time of William James. A large amount empirical work pertaining to the issues at hand has been described in the book “The Psychology of Attention” by William Pashler . This empirical work is basically behavioural: subjects are assigned multiple tasks of various kinds and various loads, and their performances are measured. Pashler makes a powerful case for the conclusion that brain process is has two distinguishable subprocesses, one more analytical and perceptual and operating via parallel processing, the other more selective of action, and acting via a linear “bottleneck” process. The detailed features of these two processes appear to be well explained by the quantum model of the combined mind-brain system developed in this paper, with the parallel processing aspect being governed by the Schroedinger equation, and the selection bottleneck being govern by the collapse process.

I am not claiming that no classical model could explain these features. But the fact that the details seem to be forced in the quantum approach by the severe constraints imposed by the existence of strong environmental decoherence makes the quantum model more theoretically attractive than a classical model that puts these features, ad hoc, into a theoretical structure in which consciousness can make no difference.

This journal is not the appropriate place to describe the detailed ways in which the empirical findings described by Pashler support the theory described above. A discussion of this matter can be found elsewhere .

References

1. Max Tegmark, Phys. Rev. 61E, 4194 (2000)

2. John von Neumann, Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics
Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton NJ, 1955
(Translation of 1932 Original)

3. Eugene Wigner, “The Problem of Measurement” and “The Mind-Body Problem” in Symmetries and Reflections, Indiana Univ. Press, Bloomfield, 1967.

4. Henry P. Stapp “Attention, Intention, and Will in Quantum Physics”
in The Volitional Brain, Benjamin Libet, Anthony Freemann, and
Keith Sutherland, eds, Imprint Academic, 1999;
“Quantum Ontology and Mind-Matter Synthesis”
in “Quantum Future: Proceedings of the Xth Max Born Symposium”
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, New York, 1999.
See also http://www-physics.lbl.gov/~stapp/stappfiles.html

5. S. Tomonaga, Prog. Theor. Phys. 1, 27 (1946);
J. Schwinger, Phys. Rev. 82, 914 (1951).

6. E. Conley, The Ion Channel Factsbook, Acad. London, Vol IV, p.99.
B. Hille, Ionic Channels of Excitable Membranes,
Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA, p.359.

7. A. Fogelson and R. Zucker, Biophys. J., 48, 1003 (1985).

8. W. Zurek, Prog. Theor. Phys. 89, 281 (1993);
and Phil. Trans. R.Soc. Lond. A 356 1793 (1998).

9. W. Itano, D. Heinzen, J. Bollinger, and D. Wineland,
Phys. Rev. 41A, 2295 (1990).

10. Harold Pashler, The Psychology of Attention,
MIT Press, Cambridge MA (1998)

11. Henry P, Stapp, “From Quantum Nonlocality to Mind-Brain Process”, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Report LBNL-44712.
Submitted to Proc. Roy. Soc.
http://xxx.lanl.gov/abs/quant-ph/0009062
and http://www-physics.lbl.gov/~stapp/stappfiles.html


format: text

text:
# Dynamics of Mesoscopic Precipitate Lattices in Phase Separating Alloys under External Load

## Abstract

We investigate, via three-dimensional atomistic computer simulations, phase separation in an alloy under external load. A regular two-dimensional array of cylindrical precipitates, forming a mesoscopic precipitate lattice, evolves in the case of applied tensile stress by the movement of mesoscopic lattice defects. A striking similarity to ordinary crystals is found in the movement of ”meso-dislocations”, but new mechanisms are also observed. Point defects such as ”meso-vacancies” or ”meso-interstitials” are created or annihilated locally by merging and splitting of precipitates. When the system is subjected to compressive stress, we observe stacking faults in the mesoscopic one-dimensional array of plate-like precipitates.

The coarsening of precipitates in a phase separating alloy usually proceeds via an Ostwald ripening process where large particles grow at the expense of smaller ones . The driving force for this process is the tendency to reduce the total amount of interface between matrix and precipitates. The coarsening kinetics follows the laws of dynamical scaling, with a characteristic length $`R(t)`$ growing like $`t^{1/3}`$, as first described by the theory of Lifshitz, Slyozov and Wagner (LSW theory) when the density of precipitate particles is small . The situation changes radically when a difference in lattice spacing between matrix and precipitates (lattice misfit) gives rise to long-range elastic interactions. The precipitates then tend to be cuboidal or plate-like instead of spherical and start to align themselves into more or less regular arrays to minimize the elastic energy . Changes in the growth kinetics of precipitates, especially a slowing-down in the later stages, have also been reported . When a uniaxial external stress is applied, the cubic symmetry is broken and precipitates arrange themselves into arrays of cylinders parallel to or of plates perpendicular to the direction of external stress (rafting) .

During the coarsening process in an alloy with lattice misfit, the number of precipitates reduces, implying an increase in the spacing between them. Since this cannot occur continuously in a regular array of precipitates, Wang et al.  have proposed defects within the mesoscopic lattice of precipitates to allow the necessary rearrangement in a way very similar to dislocation climbs in ordinary crystals. Nothing is known, however, about the detailed mechanisms that allow the generation and the movement of such mesoscopic defects in order to enable the coarsening process. The dynamics of these defects rather than the atomic diffusion alone, as in the LSW theory, will have a decisive effect on the growth kinetics of the precipitates. Similar phenomena may be expected in the coarsening of the two-dimensional arrays of cylinders or the one-dimensional array of plates occurring as a consequence of rafting under uniaxial stress.

To clarify the mechanisms by which the precipitate lattices coarsen, it is necessary to investigate the details of the local arrangements of the precipitates and their movement, in the same way as it is necessary to study local atomic arrangements for the detailed investigation of dislocation movements at the atomic level. While the latter is possible with transmission electron microscopy, the first is much more difficult if not impossible with direct imaging or scattering techniques. In the present paper, we study this phenomenon by three-dimensional computer simulations using an atomistic lattice model that has proven effective in the simulation of phase separation with lattice misfit in two dimensions . One of the advantages of such computer simulations is that the process can be followed ”in-situ” by monitoring the evolution of individual precipitates. An investigation of phase separation under external load has the further advantage that the dimensionality of the precipitate lattices is lowered due to the external stress (two-dimensional for tensile, one-dimensional for compressive stress, respectively) making an analysis of the coarsening process easier. In the case of cylindrical precipitates parallel to the direction of tensile stress, it turns out that the ”meso-lattice” formed by the projected cylinder axes evolves by the movement of lattice defects. We want to emphasize the similarity of their appearance to atomistic lattice defects by naming them ”meso-dislocations”, ”meso-vacancies” and ”meso-interstitials”. Whereas meso-dislocations move in a way very similar to dislocations in an ordinary crystal, the dynamics of meso-vacancies and -interstitials is totally different from their analog in atomic lattices. There is no long-range diffusion of these defects, but they are created or annihilated locally by splitting or merging of cylindrical precipitates. In the case of an applied compressive stress, we show the existence of ”meso-stacking faults” in the linear array of plates perpendicular to the direction of stress.

We use a conceptually simple three-dimensional atomistic model for a binary alloy containing only parameters which are experimentally accessible. A face-centered cubic (fcc) lattice $``$ with $`N`$ lattice sites and periodic boundary conditions is occupied by two types of atoms, $`A`$ and $`B`$. A spin variable $`\gamma (𝐩)`$ is assigned at each $`𝐩ϵ`$, with $`\gamma (𝐩)=1`$ if there is an $`A`$ atom at site $`𝐩`$ and $`\gamma (𝐩)=1`$ if there is a $`B`$ atom at this site. A chemical interaction between nearest-neighbor atoms is assumed with like atoms attracting one another. To model the elastic interactions caused by the different sizes of $`A`$ and $`B`$ atoms, all nearest-neighbor pairs of atoms are considered to be connected by springs with a longitudinal and two different transverse spring constants. The Hamiltonian of this microelastic model can be written as a quadratic form of the spin variables $`\gamma (𝐩)`$ or, using their Fourier transforms $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }(𝐤)`$, as

$$=\frac{1}{2N}\underset{𝐤}{}𝚿(𝐤)\stackrel{~}{\gamma }(𝐤)^2,$$
(1)
when it is assumed that the spring constants are independent of composition and the relaxation time of the lattice distortions is much shorter than the diffusion time of the atoms. In the case of external applied stresses and only a weak dependence of the spring constants on the type of atoms they connect, the expression (1) remains approximately valid but the interaction potential $`𝚿(𝐤)`$ does not have same symmetry as the crystal lattice (for details on the model see ).

The atomic configurations on the lattice evolve by the Metropolis algorithm with Kawasaki exchange dynamics of nearest-neighbor atoms . To deal with the long-range interactions a special updating procedure was employed . The time unit is one Monte Carlo step (MCS), i.e. one attempted exchange per site. We carried out simulations on a lattice $``$ with 48 cubic cells in each direction, i.e. 442368 lattice sites. The size difference between A and B atoms was taken to be 1%. The spring constants in the model correspond to Born-von Karman parameters, which can be obtained directly from the measured phonon dispersion of the crystal . Choosing the parameters of copper, our model resembles elastically a typical metal with negative elastic anisotropy. The concentration of A atoms was taken $`\overline{c}=0.2`$. Starting from a homogeneous configuration, the time evolution of the system was monitored after a quench to a temperature within the two-phase region $`T/T_c0.4`$, where $`T_c`$ denotes the critical temperature for phase separation determined approximately by a series of MC runs. Finally, the sign of the misfit was chosen in such a way that cylindrical precipitates form under tensile stress and plates under compressive stress .

In Figure 1 the mean precipitate size $`R(t)`$ is plotted as a function of $`t^{1/3}`$. $`R(t)`$ is defined as $`R(t)\frac{2\overline{c}}{P_{AB}}`$, where $`P_{AB}`$ is the probability of a nearest-neighbor $`AB`$ atom-pair. This definition assumes that during coarsening $`R(t)`$ is inversely proportional to the interface between precipitate and matrix, which is estimated in our model by the probability $`P_{AB}`$. Besides the symbols representing the results for the cases of tensile, compressive and no external stress, the solid line depicts $`R(t)`$ for an $`fcc`$ Ising model with only nearest neighbor chemical interactions at the same temperature compared to $`T_c`$. After 600 MCS the growth of the precipitates slows down substantially from the usual power law $`R(t)t^{1/3}`$ in the case when elastic interactions are considered, although $`R(t)`$ is nearly insensitive to the sign of the external load. An influence on $`R(t)`$ due to the finite system size cannot be fully excluded. A study of a system with comparable system size (but with short range chemical interactions only) did not show any finite-size effects at the comparatively early times ($`t<6000`$ MCS) we consider here .

To understand the processes leading to this slowing down, we looked in detail at the time evolution of the precipitate microstructure. Figure 2 shows the configuration obtained after 3000 MCS when the system was subjected to tensile stress. To reduce the three-dimensional configuration to a two-dimensional plot, we averaged the concentration of $`A`$ atoms along lines normal to the plotting plane. Therefore the plot can be read in a way similar to an X-ray transmission micrograph. An analysis of the full three-dimensional data as well as the structure function confirmed that the more or less regularly arranged bright spots in Fig. 2 correspond to $`A`$-rich, cylindrical precipitates with their axis parallel to the stress direction. For a more detailed analysis of the kinetics, we have redrawn these ”micrographs” using contour lines to indicate the amount of $`A`$ atoms along a line perpendicular to the plot (Fig. 3). For a clearer representation of the data, they were smoothed by averaging the value of each pixel with all of its first neighbors. Peaks in the amount of $`A`$ atoms are visible in the contour plots and can be interpreted as points of a ”meso-lattice” of parallel cylindrical precipitates. These points were connected by lines revealing a distorted square lattice reflecting the symmetry of the elastically soft $`100`$-directions. Contour lines were plotted for steps of 0.1 in the averaged concentration of $`A`$ atoms starting at $`c=\overline{c}=0.2`$. The highest values around the ”meso-lattice points” correspond to $`c0.9`$. In some cases, however, the height is significantly smaller (e.g., the point just below the number 4 in Fig. 3a). These correspond to cylinders which do not extend over the full thickness of the specimen along the line of projection. Tilted or kinked cylinders may give elongated spots in the contour line plot (e.g., close to number 8 and 11 in Fig. 3c).

The number of cylindrical precipitates decreases from 72 at 600 MCS to 49 at 3000 MCS. The spacing of the mesoscopic lattice increases visibly during this period. A measure for this increase is the number of rows and columns as given by the square root of the number of precipitates. Starting with 8.48 (600 MCS), the number decreases continuously to 8.19 (1200 MCS), 7.35 (2000 MCS) and finally 7 (3000 MCS). Such a continuous change via non-integer numbers is, however, impossible in a perfect square lattice. Indeed, Fig. 3 shows defects responsible for this increase in the meso-lattice parameter via the following dynamical processes:

1) Dynamics of meso-interstitials: At 600 MCS we observe a number of precipitates which do not occupy regular lattice sites (marked by open circles in Fig. 3). We call these meso-interstitials. The contours show that meso-interstitials dissolve by a flow of $`A`$ atoms along elastically soft directions towards a nearest-neighbor precipitate on a regular lattice site. In some cases this also leads to a shift of the defect which finally merges with the precipitate of the meso-lattice site (arrow in Fig. 3a,b). Most of these meso-interstitials are not fully developed cylinders as indicated by their relatively low content in $`A`$ atoms as compared to regular lattice sites. During the period covered by Fig. 3, new meso-interstitials (Fig. 3c) are not formed by precipitate nucleation, but by rearrangement of the meso-lattice (see point 3 below).

2) Dynamics of meso-vacancies: Splitting of precipitate cylinders is also possible (arrow in Fig. 3d). In the case shown, a precipitate splits to fill a neighboring meso-vacancy (number 11 in Fig. 3c). Meso-vacancies are represented by squares in Fig. 3. They typically are formed by dissolution of precipitates on regular meso-lattice sites, which is one of the mechanisms to reduce the total number of lattice points (see vacancies 9 to 11 in Fig. 3c,d).

3) Dynamics of meso-dislocations: In addition to the already mentioned vacancies and interstitials, the meso-lattice also shows the analog of dislocations (denoted by the symbol $``$). They interact with point defects and also with each other to increase the spacing and regularity of the meso-lattice. Examples for such complex reactions are visible in Fig. 3. First, the column of points bounded by $`1`$ and $`4`$ is gradually disappearing from Fig. 3a to 3c by dissolution of precipitates leading to the annihilation of the meso-dislocations. The start of a similar process can be seen with the formation of vacancy 9 and the subsequent dissolution of the two lattice points immediately below (which has almost led to their disappearance in Fig. 3d). Another process starts with the dissolution of a single lattice point (denoted by $``$ in Fig. 3a). The resulting meso-vacancy splits into two dislocations (denoted $`7`$ and $`8`$ in Fig. 3b). $`7`$ is attracted by $`3`$ and they finally annihilate leaving behind two interstitials (Fig. 3c) which both dissolve. Only the remains of one of these two are still visible in Fig. 3d.

When the system is subjected to compressive stress, our simulations show a one-dimensional array of plate-like precipitates corresponding to regions of high concentration of A atoms perpendicular to the direction of applied stress. These plate like precipitates are separated by regions with hardly any A atoms at all. Fig. 4 shows on top the one-dimensional concentration profile of $`A`$ atoms along the stress direction. Near the middle of the system there are large defects almost washing out the periodic structure. But even where the plates seem well-defined, lattice defects can be observed. This is illustrated by the three pictures at the bottom which give the distribution of $`A`$ atoms within planes perpendicular to the direction of stress. Holes in the plate-like precipitates (plate 1 and plate 2 in Fig. 4) are aligned along the elastically soft cubic directions. The most striking feature, however, is the defect highlighted by the dashed rectangle in all three pictures. In this region, the plates have a large hole, while in the gap between the plates (gap in Fig. 4) an $`A`$-rich area can be seen. This highlighted region with inverted content of $`A`$-atoms therefore corresponds to a stacking fault of the meso-lattice. A schematic view of the defect (with the components plate 1 , gap and plate 2) is also shown in Fig. 4. Such stacking faults occur frequently and are extremely long-lived in the time-evolution of the alloy, particularly at low temperatures.

The occurrence of defects in mesoscopic precipitate lattices with totally different topology suggests that they are a common feature when coherent elastic strains are important in the phase transformation process. We expect that similar defects can be found in a system, which is not subjected to an additional external stress. The simplified topology due to the external stress helped to identify several types of defects, showing similarities and some striking differences with respect to defects in ordinary crystal lattices. In contrast to the usual Ostwald ripening process, coarsening is mediated by the movement of these mesoscopic defects, which allows a reduction of the number of precipitates without destroying the mesoscopic lattice structure.

###### Acknowledgements.

The work of H.G. and J.L.L. was supported by NSF Grant No. NSF-DMR-9813268.


text:
# A sample of 6C radio sources with virtually complete redshifts. II – optical spectroscopy

## 1 Introduction

Obtaining spectroscopic redshifts for complete samples of radio sources is a key requirement for a large number of investigations of the radio source population and its cosmic evolution. Such investigations are severely compromised if they are based on a sample selected at a single limiting flux density, for example the 3CRR sample (Laing, Riley & Longair 1983), because of the limited coverage they provide of the 151 MHz luminosity $`L_{151}`$ versus redshift $`z`$ plane (e.g. Fig. 1). Studies based only on the 3CRR sample cannot distinguish between correlations with redshift $`z`$ and correlations with $`L_{151}`$, and they cannot straightforwardly measure the relative numbers of radio sources at a given redshift as a function of $`L_{151}`$, or conversely the relative numbers at a given $`L_{151}`$ as a function of $`z`$.

To ameliorate this problem we have been seeking complete redshift information for low frequency (151 MHz) selected samples drawn from the 6C and 7C radio surveys (e.g. Rawlings et al. 1998). These samples greatly increase the coverage of the $`L_{151}`$-$`z`$ plane as illustrated in Fig. 1. In this paper we report on optical spectroscopy of a 6C-based sample first defined by Eales (1985a) and now, as described in this paper, slightly revised. This is the second of two papers aimed at presenting basic observational data on this revised ‘6CE’ sample. The first paper (Eales et al. 1997) presented near-IR images of many members of the sample.

A numbers of papers have made use of the 6CE dataset. Investigations of the inter-correlations between radio properties (e.g. luminosity, projected linear size, spectral index) and redshift can be found in Neeser et al. (1995), Best et al. (1999) and Blundell, Rawlings & Willott (1999). Investigations of the near-IR properties of the combined 6CE/3CRR dataset can be found in Eales et al. (1997) and Roche, Eales & Rawlings (1998). An investigation of the fraction of quasars in low frequency selected complete samples can be found in Willott et al. (2000b). Measurements of the radio luminosity function using the combined 3CRR/6CE/7CRS dataset are presented in Willott et al. (2000c).

Throughout this paper we adopt the following values for the cosmological parameters: $`H_{}=50\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}=1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$. B1950.0 coordinates are used and the convention for radio spectral index $`\alpha `$ is that $`S_\nu \nu ^\alpha `$, where $`S_\nu `$ is the flux density at frequency $`\nu `$.

## 2 The 6CE sample

### 2.1 Sample membership

Since the definition of the original 6C sample by Eales (1985a), the flux density scale of the 6C survey has been revised, and a number of programmes of follow-up at radio wavelengths (Naundorf et al. 1992; Law-Green et al. 1995a), and in the near-IR and optical (e.g. Eales et al. 1997; this paper), have allowed us to make a proper assessment of source confusion. As a result, the 151 MHz flux density $`S_{151}`$ limits of the sample have been slightly altered, and the sample membership has been refined. The final selection criteria of the 6CE sample are as follows:

* $`08^\mathrm{h}20^\mathrm{m}30^\mathrm{s}<`$ RA (B1950) $`<13^\mathrm{h}01^\mathrm{m}30^\mathrm{s}`$;
* $`34^{}<`$ Dec (B1950) $`<40^{}`$;
* 2.00 Jy $`S_{151}<`$ 3.93 Jy.

The sky area of the sample is $`0.102\mathrm{sr}`$. The region of sky was chosen initially by Eales (1985a) because of overlap with a sample of (408-MHz selected) B2 radio sources studied by Allington-Smith (1982) and it consisted of 67 sources. Eight of these sources are excluded from the (revised) 6CE sample: 6C0825+36, 6C0848+34, 6C0918+36, 6C0955+39 and 6C1106+38 because revised estimates of $`S_{151}`$ place the 6C catalogue entry below the flux-density limit (Hales, Baldwin & Warner 1988; Hales, Baldwin & Warner 1993); and 6C0951+37, 6C1028+35 and 6C1045+35C because the (integrated) $`S_{151}`$ 6C catalogue entry results from the confusion of two or more radio sources which, if considered individually, would fall below the flux-density limit (see Law-Green et al. 1995a). There are no new sources in the 6CE sample which therefore comprises 59 radio sources. A summary of key information on the 6CE sample is provided in Table 1; versions of this table in both ASCII and HTML formats are available from the worldwide-web at http://www-astro.physics.ox.ac.uk/$``$ sr/6ce.html.

One of the 59 6CE sources (6C1036+3616) is projected so close to a bright star that any effective optical/near-IR follow-up has so far proved impossible. Of the remaining 58 sources, five are ‘flat-spectrum’ in the sense that their low-frequency radio spectra have indices lower than 0.4 but it is not yet proven that any of these have been promoted into the sample on the basis of Doppler-boosted components.

### 2.2 Observations and spectroscopic redshifts

The optical spectra presented in this paper were mostly obtained during the course of two WHT observing runs in Jan. 1994 and Jan. 1995 using the ISIS spectrometer; some data taken with the FOS-II spectrograph in Jan. 1992 are also presented (see Cotter, Rawlings & Saunders 1996 for details of the observational-setup used in this run). A journal of all these observations is presented in Table 2. All ISIS observations used the R158R and R158B gratings with the beam split using the 5400-$`\mathrm{\AA }`$ dichroic; the blue-arm detector was the TEK1 chip on both runs, the red-arm detector was the EEV3 chip in 1994 and the TEK2 chip in 1995. These setups produced continuous spectral coverage from the blue atmospheric cut-off to $`8750\mathrm{\AA }`$ in 1994, and to $`8200\mathrm{\AA }`$ in 1995. The pixel scales for the TEK and EEV chips were $`0.358`$ and $`0.336`$ arcsec pixel<sup>-1</sup> respectively.

Observations and data analysis followed the standard methods described by Lacy & Rawlings (1994). We offset from nearby bright stars to either optical or radio positions, choosing the position angle (PA) of the slit either on the basis of encompassing companion optical objects or to coincide with the radio axis. All the targets were observed below an air mass of 1.2, and all bar two were observed below an air mass of 1.1. All the data presented here were taken in photometric conditions with the seeing close to 1 arcsec. In nearly all cases spectral features, emission lines and/or spectral breaks, were detected and the reduced 1D spectra are presented in Fig. 2. For cosmetic purposes, most of the spectra have been smoothed by replacing the value of each spectral bin by the average of the values in the bin and its two neighbours. All measurements from the spectra were made prior to this process, and the results of these measurements are tabulated in Table 3.

#### 2.2.1 Notes on the 6CE WHT targets

We obtain an unequivocal redshift from the spatially-extended emission lines seen in Fig. 2: the alignment of the slit with the radio axis meant that we missed the companion object to the south-west of the radio galaxy in the image of Eales et al. (1997).

Our WHT spectrum confirms the tentative redshift obtained by Rawlings, Eales & Warren (1990).

Our WHT spectroscopy of this giant radio galaxy has been reported previously by Law-Green et al. (1995b): the Ly$`\alpha `$ flux tabulated in Table 3 is significantly higher than the value given in Table 2 of Law-Green et al. because it is evaluated from the total-light spectrum. The Ly$`\alpha `$ emission extends from the continuum-emitting galaxy towards the shorter western radio lobe with a secondary peak approximately midway between the radio galaxy and a companion object visible in the near-IR image of Law-Green et al.

Our WHT spectrum does not yield an unequivocal redshift for this object although two plausible emission features in the spectrum are consistent with $`z=1.650`$: the redshift given in Table 1 of Eales & Rawlings (1996) is almost certainly incorrect. Continuum is detected from $`3800\mathrm{\AA }`$, and it remains roughly flat in $`F_\lambda `$ until $`6100\mathrm{\AA }`$, and then rises (roughly $`\lambda ^3`$) into the red: the lack of a detected Lyman-limit cut-off means the redshift is less than about $`3.2`$. We note broad similarities between this spectrum and those of the old, red radio galaxies studied by Dunlop (1999), and by identifying the continuum inflexion with a rest-frame wavelength $`2600\mathrm{\AA }`$, we obtain a redshift estimate $`z1.3`$.

Our WHT spectrum contains a single doubled-peaked line which, since it matches well with lines detected in the near-IR by Eales & Rawlings (1996), is securely identified with Ly$`\alpha `$. The cause of the double-peaked structure is most probably HI-absorption in the host galaxy.

Our WHT spectrum contains a single bright emission line, but recent deeper spectroscopy in the optical (P. Best & S. Rawlings, priv. comm.) has confirmed the redshift obtained if this feature is associated with \[OII\]3727. The location of the strong line (and weak continuum) emission along the slit confirms that the radio galaxy lies much closer to the eastern than the western radio hotspot in agreement with the near-IR position given by Eales et al. (1997).

The spectrum of this galaxy is rich in high-ionization emission lines which are neither spatially nor spectrally resolved.

We aligned the slit through two plausible optical IDs marked on the radio map presented by Law-Green et al. (1995a). Our WHT spectroscopy detects continuum emission from both these objects but separate line emission from about half-way between them; both candidates IDs are therefore likely to be spurious, with the true ID having a Dec (1950.0) of $`+363746`$. Since this ID is likely to lie along the radio axis it is possible that we have missed some fraction ($`\stackrel{<}{}50`$ per cent) of the line emission. In Table 1 we have placed a limit on the $`K`$band magnitude of the true ID equal to the magnitude of the northern optical object, since this was detected at $`3\sigma `$ in the near-IR image of Eales et al. (1997).

We targeted the optical position given by Lilly (1989) confirming the redshift he referenced to H. Spinrad (priv. comm.).

Our 1995 spectrum yields an unambiguous redshift for object ‘b’ of Eales & Rawlings (1996) \[the redshift given in their Table 1 is incorrect\] and its strong emission lines, together with its location near the radio midpoint, mean that this is almost certainly the correct radio galaxy ID. Object ‘a’, an $`R`$ band ID proposed by Eales (1985b), was observed in 1994 and has a tentative redshift of 0.449 from a weak but definite line at $`7255\mathrm{\AA }`$, assumed to be \[OIII\]5007, and a possible line at $`5413\mathrm{\AA }`$, assumed to be \[OII\]3727.

The Ly$`\alpha `$ emission line from this object is detected in the far blue, but two confirming emission lines are also evident in the 2D blue-arm spectrum.

The redshift of this object is based on five emission lines.

There is just one emission feature in the spectrum of this object which because of its wavelength and huge equivalent width we take to be Ly$`\alpha `$. The lack of any confirming features renders this redshift insecure.

There is only one definite emission line in the spectrum of this object so its redshift is not yet secure. In $`F_\lambda `$ the spectrum rises roughly $`\lambda ^4`$ from $`\lambda 5000\mathrm{\AA }`$ until $`\lambda 7200\mathrm{\AA }`$ then flattens off. Together with the near-IR photometry (Eales et al. 1997), this produces a spectral energy distribution that is reminiscent of the old red galaxies studied by Dunlop (1999); by identifying the continuum flattening with a rest-frame wavelength $`3250\mathrm{\AA }`$, we estimate a redshift $`1.2`$, which means that a plausible identification of the emission line is CII\]2326. At this redshift \[OII\]3727 would lie just beyond the wavelength span of the 1995 WHT spectroscopy and the relatively poor quality of the 1992 WHT (FOS-II) data means that the lack of any detected feature is not a strong argument against the veracity of the tentative redshift.

Our WHT spectrum contains a single bright emission line, but additional deeper optical spectroscopy (P. Best & S. Rawlings, priv. comm.) detects additional lines which confirm the redshift obtained if this feature is associated with \[OII\]3727.

Our WHT spectrum confirms the tentative redshift obtained by Rawlings et al. (1990), although their claimed CIII\]1909 feature is not seen in the new spectrum.

We observed this source in both 1994 and 1995 (with the same pointing position, but different slit PAs) but detected neither continuum nor lines: excepting the regions of the strongest night-sky emission lines, we can put a $`5\sigma `$ limit on any emission line at the $`1\times 10^{19}\mathrm{Wm}^2`$ level. Being only marginally detected at $`K`$band, this object is the faintest object in the 6CE sample.

The spectrum of this object is relatively poor because it was a short exposure taken near twilight. There is a tentative detection of a single emission line which, if taken as \[OII\]3727, is consistent with a plausible $`4000`$-$`\mathrm{\AA }`$ spectral break. The precise redshift of this object is therefore uncertain but both the spectral shape and magnitude are those expected for a giant elliptical galaxy at $`z0.5`$.

In 1994 we observed at a PA selected to include a companion object about 6 arcsec to the east (Lilly 1989) and in 1995 at the PA of the radio source. In all the red-arm spectra we see continuum from the ID amounting to $`R24`$, in reasonable agreement with the photometry of Lilly, but there are no emission lines in the coadded data to a $`5\sigma `$ limit of $`1\times 10^{19}\mathrm{Wm}^2`$ (excepting the regions of the strong night-sky emission lines). The continuum is roughly flat in $`F_\lambda `$, although at the signal-to-noise ratio of the detected continuum it is impossible to search for any spectral breaks. Note the following: (i) the redshift given for this source in Table 1 of Eales & Rawlings (1996) is almost certainly incorrect; and (ii) the near-IR photometry (Lilly 1989) may include some contribution from the companion object (from which we detected featureless continuum in 1994).

Since this is a large (51.5 arcsec) radio source, we began our blind exposure with a 5-arcsec wide slit, and on seeing no emission lines in the first red exposure, we widened the slit to 7 arcsec for the second red exposure, and more importantly (given the much higher ratio of read noise to sky noise in the blue) for the remainder of the blue exposure. We detected strong emission lines in the blue-arm spectrum from a location along the slit consistent with the position of the near-IR ID of Eales et al. (1997). The line parameters for Ly$`\alpha `$ are rather uncertain because a cosmic ray event effects two pixels near to its location. We also detected the object near the western hotspot in the Eales et al. image: if the single emission line detected from this object is \[OII\]3727, its redshift is $`z=0.864`$ making it foreground to the radio galaxy.

This object provides a salutary lesson on the dangers of assuming that a bright, highly-extended emission line in the blue is always Ly$`\alpha `$: the detection of three clear emission lines leaves no doubt that the brightest line, which is extended over 6 arcsec, is CIV not Ly$`\alpha `$. The HeII and CIII\] lines peak at the location of the continuum, and are also detected in a continuum-free blob $`2`$ arcsec (approximately) to the north; the line fluxes of these two components are roughly equal, although there is additional diffuse material, at least in CIV. In the red-arm spectrum there is also evidence for MgII emission from the blob (although none is clearly detected in the total-light spectrum of Fig. 2). There are hints in both the HeII and CIII\] emission that the blob is blue-shifted by $`750\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ with respect to the continuum-emitting object, which might also help explain the broad width of the CIV feature in the total-light spectrum. These observations might explain two unusual features of this object: (i) relatively unusually for the 6CE sample, the near-IR emission is well aligned with the radio axis (Eales et al. 1997), perhaps caused by two near-IR objects coinciding with the spatial peaks in the optical line emission; and (ii) the relatively large offset between the putative radio central component (Law-Green et al. 1995a) and the position of the optical ID — either the ‘radio core’ is actually a knot in the jet, coincident with the emission-line blob, or the active nucleus lies within the blob approximately 2-arcsec to the north of an optically-brighter galaxy.

The spectrum of this object shows only a single strong emission line which we associate with \[OII\]3727 since the spectrum has red continuum detected on both sides of the line, and the spectral energy distribution rises rapidly into the near-IR (Eales et al. 1997; see also Maxfield et al. 1995) where the ID is a bright as a typical 6CE galaxy at $`z1`$. We eliminated the possibility that the single bright line is Ly$`\alpha `$ by detecting the ID in a deep ($`3\times 600\mathrm{s}`$) $`B`$band image with the WHT Prime Focus Camera on 19 Apr. 1996 since this pass-band would lie below the Lyman limit if the line were Ly$`\alpha `$. The line emission is spatially resolved but not in an obviously asymmetric way with respect to the continuum. Our slit also encompassed the companion galaxy to the north-west in the image of Eales et al. from which we detect spatially-extended red continuum but no emission lines.

Three highly tentative emission features are detected which line up well with a redshift supported by a far-from-convincing $`4000`$-$`\mathrm{\AA }`$ break. The emission from this object is spatially unresolved in seeing of about 1 arcsec, but although the signal-to-noise ratio is too low to be certain, there are no hints that the putative CIII\] and MgII features are broad as would be the case if, as suggested by Benítiz et al. (1995), this object should be re-classified as a quasar. Note, further, that the 1.24-arcsec seeing, near-IR image of this galaxy is resolved (Roche et al. 1998). The radio properties of this source are highly unusual (Best et al. 1999), and one might speculate that the compact nature of the ID, and its relatively blue colour are further indications that this source is anomalous within the sample, one possibility being that it is a radio halo source in a rich cluster rather than a classical double.

Our WHT spectrum contains only a single definite emission line, but additional deeper optical spectroscopy (P. Best & S. Rawlings, priv. comm.) detects additional lines which confirm the redshift obtained if this feature is associated with \[OII\]3727. The emission line region extends from the galaxy over the entire southern radio lobe; no line emission is seen towards the northern lobe. The slit also encompassed a galaxy $`17`$ arcsec to the north-east of the radio galaxy, visible as a similar magnitude galaxy in the image of Eales et al. (1997): we detect an \[OII\] line in this galaxy at a similar redshift, so this galaxy is a companion to the radio galaxy in line with the suggestion of Lilly (1989) that this field is reminiscent of the core of a rich cluster.

The extension of the \[OII\]3727 emission is towards the south eastern radio lobe which shows very little radio polarization (Best et al. 1999). The extended emission shows a distinct blob $`3`$ arcsec in this direction which, following the near-IR/radio registration of Best et al., puts it slightly beyond a prominent knot in the radio emission. Although there is no clear MgII emission in the total-light spectrum (Fig. 2), there are hints of MgII emission in the 2D spectrum at the position of the blob, but no hints of high-ionization lines suggesting a lower effective ionization parameter for this emission.

#### 2.2.2 Notes on other 6CE sources

Inspection of the NVSS image (Condon et al. 1998) of this radio source shows that there is a confusion problem which means that the 151-MHz flux density $`S_{151}`$ of the main source is likely to lie uncomfortably close to the 6CE sample flux density limit. In the absence of evidence to the contrary we assume that the main source still lies above the $`S_{151}`$ lower limit. There are two faint near-IR objects close to the position of this radio source: Eales et al. (1997) favoured the brighter south-eastern object as the ID, but the subsequent detection of an inverted radio central component at the position of the fainter north-western object (Best et al. 1999) means that this is more likely to be the correct near-IR counterpart. The redshift was obtained by blind spectroscopy.

The redshift is based on a single emission line presumed to be \[OII\].

The nature and redshift of the ID of this source reported by Naundorf et al. (1992) is incorrect: spectroscopy shows that as originally suspected by Eales (1985b) the object is a quasar and lies at $`z=1.594`$, not at $`z0.7`$. The cause of the confusion is the optical/near-IR colour of the object which is similar to that of an elliptical galaxy at $`z0.7`$: the compact near-IR image of Eales et al. (1997) shows that the red colour is the result of light reddening of a quasar nucleus just like 3C318, the nature and redshift of which has recently similarly been revised (Willott, Rawlings & Jarvis 2000a).

The redshift reported for this source by Warner et al. (1983) is incorrect – we have estimated an observed equivalent width of $`50\mathrm{\AA }`$ for the \[OIII\]5007 line from the spectrum of Eracleous & Halpern (1994) which also shows clear broad H$`\beta `$.

No radio central component has been detected for this object, so, as discussed by Allington-Smith, Lilly & Longair (1985), identification of the radio source with their galaxy ‘B’ remains an unproven assumption.

### 2.3 Objects without secure spectroscopic redshifts

Inspection of Table 1 shows that, excluding the object obscured by a bright star, only two 6CE objects (6C1143+3703 and 6C1159+3651) lack any sort of spectroscopic redshifts. This remarkable (97 per cent) level of redshift completeness is unprecedented at these flux density levels (e.g. McCarthy et al. 1996), and provides compensation for the relatively modest sample size. One of these troublesome objects (6C1159+3651) is relatively bright in the near-IR, but faint in the optical, properties that are characteristic of a galaxy in the redshift range $`0.8z2`$ and we take $`z=1.4`$ here. The other object (6C1143+3703) is faint at $`K`$ so, rather arbitrarily given the scatter in the $`Kz`$ relation at faint magnitudes (e.g. Eales et al. 1997), we take $`z=2`$.

The 56 spectroscopic redshifts given in Table 1 are not yet all secure. In four cases (6C1045+3553, 6C1113+3458, 6C1123+3401, 6C1212+3805) this is because the redshift depends on the correct identification of a single emission line; in a further three cases (6C0919+3806, 6C1158+3433, 6C1217+3645) this is because there are no clear-cut spectral features in the observed spectrum, but typically several tentative features consistent with a single redshift. Longer spectroscopic exposures of all these seven objects would be useful. In one further case (6C1301+3812) there is some doubt about whether the measured redshift is for the host galaxy of the 6C radio source.

### 2.4 The redshift distribution

The redshift distribution of the 6CE sample is compared with that of the 3CRR sample in Fig. 3. Note the very different redshift distributions resulting from the nature and redshift dependence of the radio luminosity function and the observable comoving volume on our light cone (see Willott et al. 2000c). The median redshift of the 6CE sample is $`1.1`$ with a maximum redshift $`3.4`$, while the 3CRR sample has a median redshift $`0.55`$ and a maximum redshift $`2`$.

### 2.5 Emission line properties

At redshifts $`>1.75`$ the only 3CRR objects known are, in terms of their radio luminosity, amongst the most extreme objects on our light cone: the 16 $`z>1.75`$ 6CE objects are typically $`1`$ dex less radio luminous. Thirteen of these 16 objects lie in very restricted bands of luminosity and and redshift, $`1.75z2.45`$ and $`27.3\mathrm{log}_{10}(L_{151})<27.8`$, and we will take their optical properties to be characteristic of ‘high-redshift 6CE sources’. The two extreme luminosity (and redshift) 6CE sources have been studied in detail elsewhere (6C0902+3419 by, for example, Lilly 1988, Eales et al. 1993b and Carilli 1995; and 6C1232+3942 by Eales et al. 1993a), and the lowest luminosity $`z>1.75`$ object is distinct in its radio properties (its projected linear size is more than 1 dex lower than all other 6CE objects st $`z>1.75`$) and as discussed in Sec. 2.3, is one of the two 6CE sources without a spectroscopic redshift.

As well as spanning narrow ranges of $`L_{151}`$ and $`z`$, the thirteen high-redshift 6CE sources also have strikingly similar optical properties. Excepting 6C0824+3535, the objects are narrow-line radio galaxies rather than quasars, and for the radio galaxies the distribution in Ly$`\alpha `$ luminosities $`L_{\mathrm{Ly}\alpha }`$ is very narrow: from Table 1 we find $`\mathrm{log}_{10}L_{\mathrm{Ly}\alpha }=36.45\pm 0.36`$. The tight spread in $`\mathrm{log}_{10}L_{\mathrm{Ly}\alpha }`$ is presumably a manifestation of the well-known correlation between narrow-line and radio luminosities (e.g. Willott et al. 1999). Eleven of the twelve relevant 6CE radio galaxy spectra are presented in this paper (Sec. 2.2) and their apparent homogeneity encouraged us to create a composite spectrum which is hopefully representative of a high-$`z`$ 6CE radio source. This composite was constructed by: (i) changing the wavelength scale of each spectrum to place each object at redshift zero, ensuring each had the same binning in wavelength; (ii) scaling each de-redshifted spectrum to equalize the Ly$`\alpha `$ fluxes; and (iii) taking a bin-by-bin average with an iterative sigma-clipping rejection algorithm (with the clip set at $`\pm 1.5\sigma `$). The composite is shown in Fig. 4; the line fluxes relative to Ly$`\alpha `$ of CIV and HeII are 0.13 and 0.08 respectively, and there are marginally significant detections of the NV and CIII\] lines. The CIII\] line is clearly detected in at least four of the objects making up the composite, and its low signal-to-noise ratio in Fig. 4 is probably partially due to its location (at high redshift) within the spectral region of the dichroic cross-over for the WHT observations. The rest-frame equivalent widths of Ly$`\alpha `$, CIV and HeII are within a factor of two of $`450`$, $`70`$ and $`30\mathrm{\AA }`$ respectively. These results are in good quantitative agreement with the composite spectrum presented by McCarthy (1993) which, since it was calculated from an independent but similar dataset (3C galaxies plus radio galaxies with similar low frequency flux densities to the 6CE sample), shows that there does appear to be such a thing as a generic UV spectrum of radio-luminous high-redshift galaxies.

### 2.6 Quasar fraction

The low fraction of quasars in the 6CE sample was first noticed and discussed by Eales (1985b,c). There are only three quasars out of the 18 6CE objects in the $`27.3\mathrm{log}_{10}(L_{151})<27.8`$ luminosity bin whereas amongst the 41 similarly radio-luminous 3CRR sources, between 14 and 16 (depending on how one classifies 3C22 and 3C41; see Simpson, Rawlings & Lacy 1999) are quasars, i.e. a fraction $`0.4`$. Using a combined 3CRR/6CE/7CRS dataset, Willott et al. (2000b) have argued that this fraction is virtually independent of $`L_{151}`$ and $`z`$ above a critical value of $`\mathrm{log}_{10}(L_{151})26.5`$. Taking 0.4 as the probability that a given source is viewed as a quasar, the Binomial probability of finding three or fewer 6CE quasars out of 18 6CE objects is about 3 per cent.

One possible reason for this (marginally significant) deficit of quasars is that at the higher redshifts probed by the 6CE sample (see Fig. 1) quasar nuclei may be more easily hidden by dust: perhaps partly because optical spectra probe shorter rest-frame wavelengths, and perhaps partly because of an intrinsically larger fraction of reddened lines-of-sight at high redshift (e.g. Willott et al. 2000a). Just one of the luminous 6CE radio galaxies needs to be a reddened quasar for the binomial probability of the low quasar fraction in 6CE to rise to $`10`$ per cent. Note also that, at the highest radio luminosities and redshifts, one of the two 6CE galaxies is 6C0902+3419 which, as pointed out by Carilli (1995), has radio properties which are consistent with a jet orientation as close to the line-of-sight as a lower-redshift 3CRR quasar. We conclude that the low quasar fraction observed in the 6CE sample, although still plausibly an artefact of small number statistics, hints at one or more redshift-dependent effects that warrant further investigation in a larger sample of high-$`z`$ radio sources.

## Acknowledgements

We are extremely grateful to a large number of collaborators who have, over the years, devoted effort and observing time to the quest for complete redshift information for the 6CE sample, namely: Jeremy Allington-Smith, Philip Best, Mark Dickinson, Chris Haniff, Steve Maddox, Richard Saunders, Steve Serjeant, Hy Spinrad and Steve Warren. We thank Katherine Blundell, Duncan Law-Green, Patrick Leahy, Tony Lynas-Gray and Chris Willott for their practical help compiling data on the 6CE sample. We also thank an anonymous referee for comments which helped to improve the organization of this paper. The William Herschel Telescope (WHT) is operated on the island of La Palma by the Isaac Newton Group in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database, which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Caltech, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The improvement by four orders of magnitude in wide-angle astrometric measurements in the last 30 years, provided mainly by Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), have resulted in a better definition of the fundamental astronomical reference frame (Johnston & de Vegt 1999), the International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF), based on the radio positions of 212 compact extragalactic radio sources. Up to the present, the group delay VLBI observable has been regularly used for such a task. The use of the more precise phase delay observable should provide an immediate improvement in accuracy. A phase-connection process is needed (Shapiro et al. 1979) to overcome the inherent $`2\pi `$ ambiguity of the phases. When used with radio source pairs, the phase delay becomes the most accurate observable in astrometry. The phase-delay astrometric technique has been applied to different pairs of radio sources with separations from minutes to some degrees in the sky (among others, 3C 345/NRAO512, Shapiro et al. (1979), Bartel et al. (1986); 1038+528 A/B, Marcaide et al. (1983, 1995) and Rioja et al. (1997); 4C 39.25/0920+390, Guirado et al. (1995b); QSO 1928+738/BL 2007+777, Guirado et al. (1995a, 1998); 3C 395/3C 382, Lara et al. (1996)).

A significant technical problem in the astrometric data reduction is the modelling and removal of the ionospheric effect. Since the latter is a frequency-dependent effect, the removal was done in the past by observing at two frequencies. The Global Positioning System (GPS) allows now to obtain ionospheric data of unprecedented accuracy. Ros et al. (2000a) and Pérez-Torres et al. (2000) used GPS data to successfully remove the ionospheric effect. Such an approach can be applied to any VLBI astrometric observations, without the need for dual-frequency observations.

Many compact radio sources show variable structures on scales larger than the accuracy of their position estimates. If the source structure is ignored, the group-delay astrometric results may incorrectly be interpreted as a proper motion of the radio sources. Because the radio sources, with typical redshifts of 1.0, are very distant, proper motions should not be detectable. It is true that most of the emission is generally produced in the core (brightest feature) of the source, but for low frequencies, due to opacity effects, this core may not be close to the central engine of the source (mass center of the system, which sould be stationary). Until the efforts of Fey et al. (1996) and Fey & Charlot (1997, 2000) the effect of source structure had been ignored in the group-delay based reference system maintenance. These authors have initiated a programme to image the radio reference frame sources and define a source “structure index” to provide a quantitative estimate of the possible astrometric quality of them. In contrast, the phase-delay analysis from the early studies of Shapiro et al. (1979) takes into account the effect of the structure and to date, the phase-delay astrometry is the only rigorous way to register radio maps with precisions of 100 $`\mu `$as or better. As mentioned above, this is the technique that we use in our astrometric data analysis.

## 2 Phase-delay astrometry of S5 polar cap sample sources

Eckart et al. (1986,1987) selected 13 radio sources from the MPIfR-NRAO 5 GHz survey (abbreviated as S5, Kühr et al. 1981) with declinations over 70, flat spectral indices and flux densities over 1 Jy at $`\lambda 6`$ cm. These sources, given in Table 1 (IERS coordinates, optical magnitude and redshift) constitute the S5 polar cap sample. The sky distribution of the members of the sample, with their angular separations indicated, is given in Fig. 1.

Guirado et al. (1995a, 1998) studied astrometrically two sources of this sample at 2.3, 5, and 8.4 GHz, QSO 1928+738 and BL 2007+777. Ros et al. (1999) added a new source to this pair, BL 1803+784, studied the trio at 2.3 and 8.4 GHz, and determined the relative positions with $`130\mu `$as precisions at 8.4 GHz. The phase connection technique was thus extended to angular separations of 6.8. Later, Pérez-Torres et al. (2000) phase-connected data on the pair QSO 1150+812/BL 1803+784, separated by 14.9. The situation now allows us to design a strategy to extend the phase-delay astrometric technique to larger sets of radio sources. The S5 polar cap sample, given the high flux densities of the radio sources and their situation on the sky, is optimal for carrying out phase-delay astrometry simultaneously for the complete sample.

All sources have neighbours at angular distances such that the use of the phase-connection technique is possible throughout a 24 hr VLBA observing run. Using the phase-delay data from the 13 radio sources we should obtain their relative positions with accuracies better than 0.1 milliarcseconds (mas).

We have observed all the 13 members of the sample at 8.4 GHz at epochs 1997.93 and 1999.41, and at 15 GHz in 1997.57 and 2000.46 using a phase-reference scheme. In each of the 24-hour observations at each wavelength, each source was observed on average for 5 hours, enough to produce high-quality hybrid maps. In Fig. 2 we show the 8.4 GHz hybrid maps from those sources of the S5 polar cap sample that were studied astrometrically in the past —Guirado et al. (1995a, 1998, 2000), Ros et al. (1999), Pérez-Torres et al. (2000).

It is possible to observe some morphological changes just from the present mapping results at 8.4 GHz, as is the case for the sources QSO 0016+731 and QSO 1928+738 (Ros et al. 2000b). As an example, we present in Fig. 3 the changes in the inner jet features of QSO 0836+710 after convolving the clean-components of the map with a 0.6 mas circular beam to better compare the images. The evolution within 3 mas of the core (P.A. $`140^{}`$) is evident during the 1.5 years elapsed between the observations.

The astrometric data reduction of the S5 polar cap sample data is in progress. We can report very interesting preliminary astrometric results from the observations of epoch 1997.93. The joint phase-delay analysis for all the 13 radio sources did not present particular difficulties. The quality of our analysis is demonstrated by the low root-mean-square (30 ps) post-fit residuals shown in Fig. 4. The phase-connection process has also been eased by the availability of an interactive, pgplot-based software developed in our group, which permits us to efficiently correct for phase-delay ambiguities. The expected average precision (including all systematic errors) of the relative position determination of all radio sources in the sample is of $``$80 $`\mu `$as at 8.4 GHz. If extrapolated, these results indicate that our observations at 15 GHz should yield a precision of $``$50 $`\mu `$as.

Related to this work, Guirado et al. (2000) have shown the feasibility of precision differential phase-delay astrometry at 43 GHz ($`\lambda 7`$ mm) by studying the pair of S5 radio sources QSO 1928+738 and BL 2007+777, separated by $`5^{}`$. For their results, the root-mean-square of the postfit residual delays is $`2`$ ps, or equivalently $`30^{}`$ of phase at this frequency. There can be little doubt that the entire S5 sample can thus be studied at 43 GHz, following studies at 8.4 and 15 GHz, and the relative positions of all the sources determined with $`20\mu `$as precision. The VLBA has allocated time to observe the S5 polar cap sample also at 43 GHz in late 2000. Thus, the observations at 8.4 and 15 GHz will be complemented with those at mm-wavelength.

## 3 Conclusions

Following recent progress in the phase-delay astrometric technique (extension to larger distances, larger sets of radio sources, and higher frequencies) we have initiated a program to study the 13 radio sources of the S5 polar cap sample. We observed the sources twice at 8.4 GHz and twice at 15 GHz, and new observations are planned at these frequencies and at 43 GHz. The astrometric data reduction includes the modelling of the atmospheric, ionospheric and source-structure effects. Our first results show the feasibility of phase-connecting the 13 radio sources at 8.4 GHz, and obtain precisions in the relative separation determinations better than 0.1 mas. The absolute kinematics of the radio sources will thus be determined unambiguously. Furthermore, using the astrometric information available at 8.4, 15 and 43 GHz, it will be possible for the first time to make rigorous spectral-index maps, together with a multiwavelength study of the absolute kinematics of the S5 polar cap sources. This observing scheme could be extended in the future to further regions of the sky, on-route towards global phase-delay astrometry.

## References

$``$ Bartel et al. Nature, 319, 733 (1986)
$``$ Blandford & Königl ApJ, 232, 34 (1979)
$``$ Eckart et al. A&A, 168, 17 (1986)
$``$ Fey et al. ApJS, 105, 299 (1996)
$``$ Fey & Charlot ApJS, 111, 95 (1997)
$``$ Fey & Charlot ApJS, 128, 17 (2000)
$``$ Gómez et al. ApJ, 435, L19 (1995)
$``$ Guirado et al. A&A, 293, 613 (1995a)
$``$ Guirado et al. AJ, 110, 2586 (1995b)
$``$ Guirado et al. A&A, 336, 385 (1998)
$``$ Guirado et al. A&A, 353, L37 (2000)
$``$ Johnston & de Vegt ARAA, 37, 97 (1999)
$``$ Kühr et al. A&ASS, 45, 367 (1981)
$``$ Lara et al. A&A, 314, 672 (1996)
$``$ Marcaide et al. AJ, 88, 1183 (1983)
$``$ Marcaide et al. AJ, 108, 368 (1994)
$``$ Pérez-Torres et al. A&A, 360, 161 (2000)
$``$ Rioja et al. A&A, 325, 383 (1997)
$``$ Ros et al. A&A, 348, 381 (1999)
$``$ Ros et al. A&A, 356, 357 (2000a)
$``$ Ros et al. Proc. of 5th EVN VLBI Symp., Polatidis A., Conway J., Booth R., (eds.), Onsala Space Observatory, in press (2000b)
$``$ Shapiro et al. AJ, 84, 1459 (1979)