text:
# Vacuum gaps in pulsars and PSR J2144-3933

## 1 Introduction

Radio pulsars are believed to turn off when they can no longer produce electron-positron pairs in strong and curved magnetic fields within a so called inner accelerator region just above the polar cap. The limiting rotational period $`P`$ at which this occurs depends on the magnitude and configuration of the surface magnetic field $`B_s`$. Unfortunately, only the dipolar component $`B_d`$ of this field can be deduced from the observed spin-down rate. The line on the $`B_dP`$ plane or $`\dot{P}P`$ plane corresponding to this critical period is called a death line. No radio pulsar should be observed to the right or above of this line i.e. with a period longer than the critical one. Recently, Young, Manchester & Johnston (1999) reported on the existence of PSR J2144$``$3933 with a period of 8.5 second which is by far the longest known. This pulsar, which is located far beyond all conventional death lines, seem to challenge existing emission models. As Young, Manchester & Johnston (1999) concluded themselves, under the usual assumptions, this slowly rotating pulsar should not be emitting a radio beam.

In this paper we attempt to examine this problem assuming that PSR J2144$``$3933 generates radio emission just the same way as other pulsars. Assuming that pulsar’s inner accelerator is the Vacuum Gap (VG henceforth) driven by Curvature Radiation (CR henceforth) for pair production in strong magnetic fields, we find that its radio detection is consistent with a strong and complicated surface magnetic field in pulsars. When such fields with a magnitude much greater than the measurable dipole component and radius of curvature much smaller than the neutron star radius $`R=10^6`$ cm is assumed, then one can easily find general death lines which include PSR J2144$``$3933 on their left side (see Fig. 1). This is consistent with Arons & Scharlemann (1979), who noted that if pair creation is essential for coherent radio emission, then pulsars with very long periods ($`5`$ seconds) require more complex surface field than a pure dipole (see also Arons 2000), where similar conclusions were drawn in a more complete treatment, including the Inverse Compton Scattering (ICS henceforth) as a source of pairs and frame-dragging effect modifying the electric field near the polar cap surface). We demonstrate in this paper that formation of vacuum gap above pulsar polar cap is possible, provided that the surface magnetic field is extremely non-dipolar (sunspot-like).

Young, Manchester & Johnston (1999) in their discovery paper already noticed that extremely curved and strong surface field would solve the problem of death line in PSR J2144$``$3933. They were however reluctant to accept that such extreme configuration with $`B_sB_d`$ and $`R`$ can exist. Zhang, Harding & Muslimov (2000) argued that if the pulsar’s inner accelerator is the so-called Space Charge Limited Flow (SCLF henceforth) with the ICS as the dominating mechanism of pair production then a pure dipolar magnetic field configuration is sufficient to produce death lines which can explain the presence of this pulsar. We however, for reasons explained below, will assume that the surface magnetic field configuration required by the curvature radiation induced vacuum gap (VG-CR) and/or inverse compton scattering vacuum gap (VG-ICS) is just what Nature creates in pulsars, which perhaps is not the simplest explanation, but nevertheless a possibility, which we intend to explore in this paper.

The only strong condition to define pulsar deathlines is the condition for pair production, regardless of the detailed mechanisms to produce these pairs. Pulsar deathlines are therefore model dependent. In history, both the VG model and the SCLF model have been developed and the corresponding death lines of both models were investigated by Ruderman & Sutherland (1975; RS75 henceforth) and Arons & Scharlemann (1979). The original versions of both models assume CR to be the dominating mechanism for pair production and neglect the influence of the general relativistic frame-dragging effect and other sources of pairs. Both models were later improved to include the frame-dragging effect (Muslimov & Tsygan, 1992) and the ICS (Zhang et al., 1997a, b) as an alternative mechanism for pair production. Zhang, Harding & Muslimov (2000) fully investigated death lines of all different kinds of the models. In § 2 we argue that both the observational data and theory of coherent radio emission seem to favour the VG models of inner pulsar accelerator. We find that the group of pulsars with drifting subpulses can be naturally explained by the VG-CR model, but to explain all the normal pulsars one has to also invoke the VG-ICS model.

## 2 The inner accelerator and observed pulsar radio emission

As mentioned above, two types of the polar cap acceleration models (VG and SCLF respectively) are usually considered. In the VG models, the free outflow of charges from the polar cap is impeded and the high acceleration potential drop is related to formation of an empty gap above the polar cap (Sturrock 1971; RS75; Cheng & Ruderman 1977, 1980). In the SCLF models the charged particles flow freely from the polar cap surface and accelerate within a height scale of about one stellar radius $`R=10^6`$ cm due to the potential drop resulting from the curvature of magnetic field lines and/or inertia of outstreaming particles (Arons & Scharlemann, 1979; Arons, 1981). Although this potential drop is too weak to explain the entire population of existing radio pulsars, Muslimov & Tsygan (1992) have shown that the relativistic effect of inertial frame dragging generates an additional potential drop within about one stellar radius, which is almost two orders of magnitude larger than the inertial potential drop. In both VG and SCLF models, either the CR or the ICS photons should be considered as the sources of pairs.

It is well known that the VG models suffer from the so-called “binding energy problem” (e.g. Hillebrandt & Müller, 1976; Kössl et al., 1988). It was demonstrated that the binding energy of 56Fe ions is much too small to prevent thermionic emission from the surface, and thus formation of vacuum gap above pulsar polar cap was questionable. Thus, the binding energy problem is an important difficulty of the VG models and in this sense the SCLF models are more natural, unless some further assumptions are adopted and justified. Xu et al. (1999; for review see Xu et al. 2000a) proposed that pulsars showing drifting subpulses, thus requiring some kind of VG inner accelerator, are bare polar cap strange stars (BPCSS henceforth) rather than neutron stars. This attractive but exotic conjecture and is based on the argument that the work function for both electrons and positrons in BPCSS is practically infinite. In this paper we argue that the binding energy crisis can be solved alternatively and more naturally by assuming extremely strong and curved surface magnetic field above the NS polar cap. Therefore, we conclude that invoking the BPCSS conjecture is not necessary.

An important feature that distinguishes VG models from SCLF models is that the former produce sparks, as originally delineated by RS75. Each spark generates a plasma cloud and interaction of adjacent clouds may have something to do with the generation of coherent radio emission (see below). Due to $`𝐄\times 𝐁`$ drift within the gap, the subpulse associated sparks are expected to rotate slowly around the magnetic pole, at a rate which can be tested observationaly in pulsars showing drifting subpulses in their single pulse emission. Recently, Deshpande & Rankin (1999) analysed drifting subpulses in PSR B0943$`+`$10 with a newly developed technique called “cartographic transform”, based on the sophisticated fluctuation spectra analysis. They obtained a clear map of the polar cap with 20 sparks rotating around the pole at the rate consistent with the RS75 model, with each spark completing one full rotation in 37 pulsar periods. It is this consistency which tells us that the RS75-type VG model is realized in nature, at least in pulsars showing periodicies in their fluctuation spectra that can be associated with rotating sparks. It is important to emphasize that it is not just a handful a pulsars with clearly drifting subpulses. Rankin (1986) demonstrated, that such periodicities in the range 2-15 pulsar periods are common among the so called conal profile components, while core components either do not show any evidence of periodicities or they are much weaker (in the range 15-50 pulsar periods). In Fig. 1 we marked by crossed circles 41 pulsars showing periodic subpulse modulations, following Rankin (1986, Tables 2 and 3).

Gil & Sendyk (2000) reanalysed the case of PSR B0943$`+`$10 and three other pulsars with a clear subpulse drift (see Table 1 in this paper), within their modified RS75 model. They confirmed consistency of the observed periodicities with their modified RS75 VG model. The fundamental drift periodicity can be expressed by $`P_3Pa^2/N`$, where $`a=r_p/h`$ (the complexity parameter) is the ratio of the canonical polar cap radius to the gap heigh, $`P`$ is the pulsar period and $`N`$ is the number of sparks circulating around the pole. For PSR B0943+10 $`a6`$, $`N=20`$ and therefore $`P_31.8P`$, as observed (e.g. Deshpande & Rankin, 1999). For small values of $`a`$, $`P_3<2P`$ and the subpulse drift is hard to be detected. For medium values of $`a`$, the $`P_3`$ values are in the range $`(215)P`$, and for very large $`a10`$ (core single pulsars - see Gil & Sendyk 2000), the $`P_3`$ periods largely exceed $`15P`$.

The fundamental problem of pulsar studies is that there is no consensus at all about the radio emission mechanism except that pair production is an essential condition and that the radiation mechanism must be coherent. Yet another widely accepted constraint is that the emission region is located close to the neutron star, at altitudes about few percent of the light cylinder radius $`R_{LC}=cP/2\pi `$ (Cordes, 1992; Kijak & Gil, 1997). However, in the millisecond pulsars it can reach even $`30\%`$ of $`R_{LC}`$ (Kijak & Gil, 1998).

After more then 30 years of intensive research, only few succesful, self-consistent models of generation of coherent pulsar radio emission can be found in the literature. Historically, the first one (called the Georgian model) was proposed by Kazbegi et al. (1987); Kazbegi, Machabeli & Melikidze (1992). In this model, based on the SCLF inner acceleration scenario, the radio emission is generated by a maser relativistic plasma radiation. This model requires relatively low magnetic field, thus high emission altitudes (larger than 30% of $`R_{LC}`$), and therefore its possible applicability is restricted to millisecond pulsars.

Qiao and collaborators (1998; for review see Xu et al., 2000b) proposed a coherent ICS model of pulsar radio emission. This model is based on the sparking VG scenario (Xu et al., 2000b). The low frequency electromagnetic wave associated with development and decay of a spark are scattered on bunches of outstreaming particles. The coherent ICS model seems to have some observational difficulties. As Xu et al. (2000b) argued, it can reproduce the core pulsar beam and two conal (inner and outer) beams. However, present day observational data suggest that pulsar beams may consist of up to three or even four nested cones (Mitra & Deshpande, 1999; Gil & Sendyk, 2000), which cannot be explained within the ICS model, at least by its simplest published version (including a double-peaked pair distribution function will probably result in more cones; Zhang 2000, privat information). The more serious problem is the observed pulsar polarization. The coherent ICS model predicts that the individual emission corresponding to the core beam should be circularly polarized, while the conal beams should demonstrate no significant circular polarization (Xu et al., 2000b). However, available polarimetric observations of single pulses show that subpulses in conal pulsars are clearly circularly polarized, with sense reversals near the subpulse peak, consistent with the model of coherent curvature radiation (Gil, 1992; Gangadhara, 1999). This property, if confirmed in larger sample of pulsars, might be a big challenge for the coherent ICS model of pulsar radio emission. The same applies to the maser relativistic plasma radiation (Georgian model).

Recently, a new idea has been developed, according to which the observed pulsar radio emission is a coherent curvature radiation emitted by charged solitons associated with sparks operating in the inner VG accelerator (Asseo & Melikidze, 1998; Gil & Sendyk, 2000; Melikidze, Gil & Pataraya, 2000). The model is entirely self-consistent and determines pulsar characteristics by two basic observables, $`P`$ and $`\dot{P}`$. The present version of the soliton model explores the VG-CR model, although the VG-ICS alternative is not excluded.

Pulsars with drifting subpulses, which require existence of sparks, are distributed more or less uniformly over the bulk of typical pulsars on the $`P\dot{P}`$ diagram (Fig. 1). On the other hand, radio emission of typical pulsars originates at low altitudes, which favours radiation models based on the sparking scenario. It is thus clear from the above discussion that the VG-CR and/or VG-ICS models seem to be preferred in typical pulsars, both from the observational and theoretical point of view. We therefore concentrate in this paper on this class of inner accelerator models and we plan to give a full treatment, including the SCLF along with the frame dragging effect (which perhaps can be applied to millisecond pulsars) in a separate paper.

## 3 Vacuum gap formation in superstrong magnetic field

We will argue in this paper that the actual surface magnetic field is extremaly strong and curved with $`B_sB_d`$ and $`R`$, where $`B_d=6.410^{19}(P\dot{P})^{1/2}`$ G is the global surface dipole component (e.g. Zhang & Harding, 2000b), $``$ is the radius of curvature of surface field lines and $`R=10^6`$ cm is the NS radius. Thus, for a convenience of further considerations we present in this section new results concerning gap formation and death lines in superstrong magnetic fields $`B_s>0.1B_q`$, where $`B_q=m^2c^3/e\mathrm{}=4.4\times 10^{13}`$ G is the critical magnetic field strenght at which the electron gyrofrequency $`\mathrm{}\omega _c=\mathrm{}eB/mc`$ is equal to its rest mass. Above this strengh the photon splitting phenomenon may inhibit pair formation process (Baring & Harding, 1998). More exactly, the photon splitting becomes effective above the critical field strenght $`B_c(5.7\times 10^{13}G)P^{2/5}`$ (e.g. Zhang & Harding, 2000b).

In the superstrong magnetic field $`B>0.1B_q510^{12}`$ G, the high energy photons with frequency $`\omega `$ will produce electron positron pairs at or near the kinematic threshold (e.g Daugherty & Harding, 1983)

$$\mathrm{}\omega =2mc^2/\mathrm{sin}\theta ,$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{sin}\theta =l_{ph}/`$, $`l_{ph}`$ is the photon mean free path for pair formation and $`=_610^6`$ cm the radius of curvature of magnetic field lines within the gap. The typical photon energy is

$$\mathrm{}\omega =(3/2)\mathrm{}\gamma ^3c/$$
(2)
in case of curvature radiation (e.g. RS75), and

$$\mathrm{}\omega =2\gamma \mathrm{}eB/mc$$
(3)
in the case of the resonant inverse compton scattering (e.g. Zhang et al., 1997b). Here $`\gamma `$ in the typical Lorentz factor, $`\mathrm{}`$ is the Planck constant, $`m`$ is the electron mass, $`e`$ is the electron charge and $`c`$ is the speed of light. It is worth to emphasize that the near threshold gap parameters have not been studied before.

Curvature radiation induced near threshold vacuum gaps

Let us consider the CR photons as sources of pairs first. The gap height $`h`$ is determined by the condition $`h=l_{ph}`$. The Lorentz factors $`\gamma `$ can be calculated from the potential drop across the gap

$$\mathrm{\Delta }V=(2\pi /cP)B_sh^2$$
(4)
as

$$\gamma =\frac{e\mathrm{\Delta }V}{mc^2}.$$
(5)
If we express the surface magnetic field as $`B_s=bB_d=2b(P\dot{P}_{15})^{1/2}`$ then equations (1), (2),(4) and (5) give the gap height in the form

$$h=310^3_6^{2/7}b^{3/7}P^{1/7}\dot{P}_{15}^{1/7}\mathrm{cm},$$
(6)
where $`0.1B_q<b<B_q/B_d`$ and $`_6\stackrel{<}{}1`$ ($`B_q=4.410^{13}`$ G). This can be compared with the asymptotic case (Erber, 1966) valid for $`B0.1B_q`$

$$h_{RS}=3.510^3_6^{2/7}b^{4/7}P^{1/7}\dot{P}_{15}^{2/7}\mathrm{cm},$$
(7)
where $`b\stackrel{>}{}1`$ and $`_61`$ (RS75).

To obtain the critical lines for the VG formation, we use the condition $`T_s/T_i1`$, where the ion critical thermonic temperature above which 56Fe ions will not be bound

$$T_i=10^7(B_s/10^{14}\mathrm{G})^{0.73}610^5b^{0.73}(P\dot{P}_{15})^{0.36}\mathrm{K}$$
(8)
(Abrahams & Shapiro, 1991; Usov & Melrose, 1995; Zhang & Harding, 2000b) and the actual surface temperature

$$T_s=(\kappa )^{1/4}\left(\frac{e\mathrm{\Delta }V\dot{N}}{\sigma \pi r_p^2}\right)^{1/4},$$
(9)
where $`\dot{N}=\pi r_p^2B_s/(eP)`$ is the particle flux through the polar cap with radius $`r_p=1.410^4b^{0.5}P^{0.5}`$ cm, $`\mathrm{\Delta }V`$ is expressed by equation (4) and reduction parameters $`\kappa \stackrel{<}{}1`$ are described in §4. The family of critical lines for VG-CR formation in the superstrong and extremely curved surface magnetic field has therefore a form

$$\dot{P}_{15}=2.710^3(\kappa )^{1.15}_6^{0.64}b^2P^{2.3}.$$
(10)
with actual lines depending on values of parameters $`b`$ and $`_6`$ (as well as $`\kappa `$ and $``$). The curvature radiation induced vacuum gap can form in pulsars lying above these lines. The parameter space for the VG-CR inner accelerator is approximately determined by the two extremal lines corresponding to $`(\kappa )^{1.15}_6^{0.64}0.1`$ and $`bB_q/B_d`$ for the lower line, and $`(\kappa )^{1.15}_6^{0.64}1`$ and $`b0.1B_q/B_d`$ for the upper line.

The pulsar death line can be defined (e.g. R75) by the condition that the actual potential drop accross the gap accelerator $`\mathrm{\Delta }V=(2\pi /cP)Bh^2`$ (eq. ) required to produce enough pairs per primary to screen out the gap electric field is larger than the maximum potential drop $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_{max}=(2\pi /cP)bh_{max}^2`$ available from the pulsar, in which case no secondary pairs will be produced. Since $`h_{max}=r_p/\sqrt{2}`$ (RS75), where $`r_p=1.4b^{0.5}10^4P^{0.5}`$ cm is the polar cap radius, then using equation (6) for the gap height $`h=h_{max}`$ we obtain family of death line equations for the VG-CR in the form

$$\dot{P}_{15}=2.410^4_6^2b^{0.5}P^{4.5}.$$
(11)
All pulsars driven by the VG-CR inner accelerator should lie to the left of these lines on the $`P\dot{P}`$ diagram, if the surface magnetic field is stronger than about $`510^{12}`$ G. The extremal line is determined by maximum value of $`bB_q/B_d`$ and minimum value of $`_60.1`$.

Inverse Compton Scattering induced near threshold vacuum gaps

In this case we have to consider the mean free path $`l_e`$ of electron/positron moving with Lorentz factor $`\gamma `$ to emit one photon with energy expressed by equation (3), since $`l_e0.00276\gamma ^2B_{12}^1T_6^1l_{ph}`$ (Zhang, Harding & Muslimov, 2000) while $`l_el_{ph}`$ in the CR case. Here $`B_{12}=2b(P\dot{P}_{15})^{1/2}`$ and $`T_6`$ is the surface temperature in units of million K. Thus, assuming that $`l_{ph}l_e`$ we obtain from equations (1) and (3) the typical Lorentz factors $`\gamma =2.210^7h^1_6b^1(P\dot{P}_{15})^{0.5}`$. The surface temperature obtained from equation (9) is $`T_6=T/10^6\mathrm{K}=0.06b^{0.5}h^{0.5}\dot{P}_{15}^{0.25}P^{0.25}`$ and the electron mean free path $`l_e10^{13}_6^2b^{3.5}h^{2.5}P^{1.25}\dot{P}_{15}^{1.75}`$. Now setting $`h=l_{ph}=l_e`$ (Zhang, Harding & Muslimov, 2000) we can find the ICS induced near threshold ($`B>510^{12}`$ G) gap height

$$h=510^3_6^{0.57}b^1P^{0.36}\dot{P}_{15}^{0.5}\mathrm{cm},$$
(12)
where $`b1`$ and $`_61`$. This $`h`$ can be compared with the asymptotic case ($`B<510^{12}`$ G) given by Zhang, Harding & Muslimov (2000)

$$h=8.810^3_6^{0.57}b^{1.57}P^{0.64}\dot{P}_{15}^{0.79}\mathrm{cm},$$
(13)
where $`b\stackrel{>}{}1`$ and $`1`$.

Now, getting back to the surface temperature expressed in terms of $`h`$ we obtain

$$T_s=410^6(\kappa )^{0.25}_6^{0.28}P^{0.43}\mathrm{K}.$$
(14)
The gap condition $`T_s/T_i=7_6^{0.28}b^{0.73}P^{0.79}\dot{P}_{15}^{0.36}1`$ gives the family of critical lines

$$\dot{P}_{15}=210^2(\kappa )^{0.7}_6^{0.8}b^2P^{2.2},$$
(15)
with actual lines depending on values of parameters $`b`$ and $`_6`$ (as well as on $`\kappa `$ and $``$). The ICS induced vacuum gap in strong magnetic field $`B>510^{12}`$ G can form in pulsars lying above these lines, as long as $`B<B_q510^{13}`$ G.

To obtain a death-line for the near threshold VG-ICS we need to equate the gap height expressed by equation (12) to $`r_p/\sqrt{2}`$, which leads to family of lines

$$\dot{P}_{15}=0.25_6^{1.14}b^1P^{0.28}.$$
(16)
All pulsars driven by strong field ($`B>510^{12}`$ G) VG-ICS inner accelerator should lie above these lines on the $`P\dot{P}`$ diagram.

## 4 Binding energy problem and vacuum gaps in pulsars

As discussed above, recent analysis of drifting subpulses in pulsars (Deshpande & Rankin, 1999; Vivekanand & Joshi, 1999; Gil & Sendyk, 2000) strongly suggests that sparks rotating around the magnetic pole in vacuum gap do exist, at least in some pulsars. Such a scenario was first proposed by RS75, but then it was criticised due to the so called “binding energy problem”. However, the binding energy calculations were made under the assumption of a global dipolar magnetic field above the polar cap. Here we discuss an influence of strong multipolar components dominating the surface field on the formation of vacuum gap above the neutron star polar caps.

Let us begin with standard approach based on the classical work of RS75. Within the vacuum gap, the high potential drop discharges via a number of isolated sparks. This number is roughly equal to $`a^2`$, where $`a=r_p/h`$ is the so called “complexity parameter”, $`r_p=10^4P^{1/2}`$ cm is the canonical polar cap radius and $`h`$ is the polar gap height, which is also the spark characteristic dimension (Gil & Sendyk, 2000). The effective surface area beneath $`a^2`$ sparks in strong surface magnetic field $`B_s=bB_d`$ is $`A_{eff}a^2\pi (h/2)^2=\pi 10^8/(4bP)=A_{GJ}/(4b)`$, where $`A_{GJ}`$ is the canonical area of the Goldreich-Julian (1969) polar cap with dipolar field. The maximum back-flow current of electrons (positrons) heating the polar cap beneath sparks is $`I_{max}=e\dot{N}_{max}/(4b)`$, where $`\dot{N}_{max}`$ is the maximum available flux density corresponding to final stage of development of the spark’s plasma (eq.  in RS75). At this stage the potential drop beneath the spark is $`\mathrm{\Delta }V=V_{RS}`$, where $`V_{RS}`$ is the vacuum gap potential drop (see RS75 - their eq. ) and $`<1`$ is the reduction factor describing the voltage discharge at final stages of the spark developing process. The parameter $`=1`$ only in the empty gap but when sparking avalanche develops, its value should drop significantly below unity (vacuum value). In fact, when a spark ignites, its first shower deposits very few charges at the gap boundaries, and the voltage across the gap is almost the maximum vacuum value. But few microseconds later the shower flux density reaches maximum value and the gap voltage beneath the spark is reduced significantly, to values inhibiting further effective pair production (Gil & Sendyk, 2000). At this stage heating is much more effective than at the very beginning of the spark discharge. Moreover, this effective heating stage is not reached at the same time in all adjacent sparks. We will therefore introduce below the “heating efficiency” factor $`\kappa <1`$. The energy deposited by cascading charges onto the polar cap surface will diffuse into deeper layers of the crust, and diffuse out in a later time (e.g. Eichler & Cheng, 1989). Some heat may not be transfered back to be reemitted from the surface. We will make all calculations for $`\kappa 1`$ and disscus a possibility that both these parameters are slightly lower than unity.

The thermal X-ray flux from the polar cap populated with $`a^2`$ sparks is $`L_x=\kappa \mathrm{\Delta }VI_{max}=\kappa \dot{E}_x/(4b)`$, where $`\dot{E}_x=10^{30}b^{6/7}B_{12}^{6/7}_6^{4/7}P^{15/7}`$ erg/s is the upper bound for the energy flux carried by relativistic positrons into the magnetosphere above the gap (see RS75 - their eq. ). Since $`L_x=A_{eff}\sigma T_s^4`$, where $`\sigma =5.7\times 10^5\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{K}^4`$ erg/s, we obtain an estimate of the actual surface temperature $`T_s3(\kappa )^{0.25}10^6b^{0.21}_6^{0.14}\dot{P}_{15}^{0.43}P^{0.14}`$ K. The iron critical temperature $`T_i`$ above which the 56Fe ions will not be bound is described by equation (8). Using the ratio of the surface $`T_s`$ and ion $`T_i`$ temperatures

$$\frac{T_s}{T_i}5(\kappa )^{0.25}b^{0.52}_6^{0.14}P^{0.22}\dot{P}_{15}^{0.79},$$
(17)
we can write a condition for the formation of vacuum gap $`T_s/T_i\stackrel{<}{}1`$ in the form

$$\dot{P}_{15}>7.7(\kappa )^{0.32}b^{0.66}_6^{0.18}P^{0.28}.$$
(18)
If we now use $`\kappa =1`$, $`_6=1`$ and relatively high $`b=5`$, then the critical line above which the VG-CR can form is $`\dot{P}_{15}>2P^{0.28}`$. As one can see, this line marked in Fig. 1 as the line (1) leaves almost half of the known pulsars below it.

In an attempt to explain pulsars below the line (1), let us now consider superstrong surface magnetic field $`B_sB_d`$. In such a strong field, the pairs are created near the kinematic threshold $`(\mathrm{}\omega /2mc^2)(h/)1`$ (Daugherty & Harding, 1983). A general description of pair creation processes in such a strong surface magnetic field for both CR and ICS induced gaps is presented in the § 3. The near threshold critical lines for the VG-CR formation are described by equation (10). To include possibly large number of pulsars lying below the low $`B_s`$ assymptotic line (1), we will assume $`b=100`$ (which requires $`B_d\stackrel{<}{}510^{11}`$ G so that $`B_s`$ does not exceed $`B_q`$) and $`_6^{0.64}(k)^{1.15}=0.15`$. This gives an extremal critical line $`\dot{P}_{15}=0.04P^{2.3}`$, which is presented as the line (2) in Fig. 1.

Most pulsars with drifting subpulses (crossed circles in Fig. 1) can be then explained by the critical lines (1) and/or (2), corresponding to the curvature radiation dominated vacuum gaps. Table 1 presents four pulsars modelled carefuly by Gil & Sendyk (2000) within their modified RS75 drift model. If we assume $`_6=0.3`$ and $`b=10`$ in equation (17), then $`T_s/T_i1`$, so the VG-CR can form in these pulsars, although relatively strong surface magnetic field $`B_s10B_d`$ is required. Such strong magnetic field is consistent with the recently discovered longest period pulsar PSR J2144$``$3933, which we discuss in the next section. In the summary session we discuss observational constraints for the strenght of the surface magnetic multipole components and argue that strong multipole fields with $`b100`$ and $`_60.1`$ are well conceivable.

As one can see from Fig. 1, even in the extremal case (2), quite a large number of normal pulsars lie below the critical line, meaning that the VG-CR cannot form in these objects. It is important to notice that two well known drifting subpulse pulsars, PSRs B0820$`+`$02 and B1944$`+`$17 (Rankin, 1986, Table 2) also lie below the extremal line (2), thus some kind of VG inner accelerator should operate in this region. We can see three possible solutions to this problem: (i) the estimation of ion critical temperature (eq.) is inadequate, at least for older pulsars, (ii) some radio pulsars, especially the older ones, are BPCSS instead of neutron stars, as originally proposed by Xu, Qiao & Zhang (1999); Xu, Zhang & Qiao (2000a), and (iii) these pulsars are driven by the VG-ICS inner accelerator. Let us briefly discuss these three possibilities. The possibility (i) is least promising. In fact, even if the ion critical temperature $`T_i`$ is underestimated by a factor of 10, one can move the critical line (2) down only by a factor of 18, which still leaves quite a number of normal pulsars below it. The possibility (ii) would improve the situation radicaly, as the binding energy in bare polar caps of strange stars is almost infinite for both electrons and positrons (Xu, Qiao & Zhang, 1999; Xu, Zhang & Qiao, 2000a). However, the existence of BPCSS is rather speculative and certainly not widely accepted. The possibility (iii) seems to be a viable option. In fact, in the ultra-high magnetic field the pairs are produced near the kinematic threshold $`(\mathrm{}\omega /2mc^2)h/1`$ (Daugherty & Harding, 1983). The near threshold critical lines for the VG-ICS formation are described by the equation (15) in the § 3. We can use $`b=100`$ and $`_6^{0.8}(k)^{0.7}=0.1`$ to obtain the extremal critical line $`\dot{P}_{15}=0.003P^{2.2}`$, which is presented as the line (3) in Fig. 1. Since the dipolar magnetic field in the considered region of $`P\dot{P}`$ diagram is low ($`B_d10^{11}`$ G), it is conceivable to increase the value of $`b`$ to about few hundreds (and still not to exceed $`B_q4.410^{13}`$ G). Thus, it is obvious that all normal pulsar can be explained by VG-ICS and/or VG-CR inner accelerator, without invoking the BPCSS conjecture (Xu, Qiao & Zhang, 1999; Xu, Zhang & Qiao, 2000a).

As one can see from Fig. 1, the near treshold ICS gap (line 3) makes an important difference from the near threshold CR gap (line 2), which follows from the fact that in the ICS case the electrons mean free path $`l_eh`$ is important, while in the VG case $`l_eh`$ is negligible (Zhang, Harding & Muslimov, 2000). Moreover, in the assymptotic case the gap height $`hl_e`$ is quite long (see eq. ) and the polar cap heating is considerable. However, since $`l_eB_s^1`$, higher surface magnetic field $`B_s`$ leads to much lower gap heights in the near threshold case (see eq. ) and correspondingly lower surface temperatures $`T_s`$.

Our working hypothesis is therefore that the observed normal radio pulsars are driven by VG inner accelerator. This means that $`T_s/T_i<1`$ for pulsars located above the critical lines (1), (2) or (3). We further speculate, that shorter or longer episodes of $`T_s/T_i<1`$ (when the VG gap cannot form) could be attributed to the well known and common phenomenon of pulse nulling. As Rankin (1986) demonstrated, nulling occurs simultaneously in both core and conal components of complex profiles, meaning that this phenomenon is associated with neither core nor conal emission. However, the core single pulsar apparently do not null. This striking property seems to have natural explanation within the framework of our model. In fact, the core single pulsars occupy regions of the $`P\dot{P}`$ diagram well above the critical lines for which $`T_s=T_i`$. Taking $`P0.3`$ s and $`\dot{P}_{15}30`$ as the average values in the group of core single pulsars (see Fig. 6 in Gil & Sendyk, 2000) we obtain from equation (17) that $`T_s/T_i=0.4`$ even for $`k=b=_6=1`$, so the VG-CR gap can always form in these objects. We intend to explore the above mentioned idea in a separate paper.

## 5 Pulsar death lines and PSR J2144$``$3933

In this section we examine an influence of strong surface magnetic fields required by the ion binding energy problem on the location of death lines on the $`P\dot{P}`$ diagram. We are specially interested in PSR J2144$``$3933 with the extremal period $`P=8.5`$ s, which lies well beyond all conventional death lines. An approximate condition for pair creation in strong magnetic field $`B`$ was given by Erber (1966). In the limit of high photon energies $`\mathrm{}\omega \stackrel{>}{}2mc^2`$, the conversion rate depends sensitively on the parameter $`\chi =(\mathrm{}\omega /2mc^2)(h/)(B/B_q)\stackrel{>}{}1/15`$. Chen & Ruderman (1993) considered the problem of death lines in nondipolar configurations of the surface magnetic field at the pulsar polar cap, using the asymptotic approximation described by the above condition $`\chi \stackrel{>}{}1/15`$. We first apply their results to the new 8.5 second period pulsar. With very curved lines and strong field the gap height is $`h(B_d/B_s)^{1/2}R\left(2\pi R/cP\right)^{1/2}`$. When this reduction of the gap height is taken into account, then the corresponding death line equation takes the form

$$\mathrm{log}B_d=1.9\mathrm{log}P\mathrm{log}B_s+0.6\mathrm{log}+21,$$

where we introduced the radius of curvature explicitely. Setting $`P=8.5`$ s and $`B_d=4\times 10^{12}`$ G, we find that $`B_s\stackrel{>}{}10^{13}`$ G and $`10^6`$ cm.

The above asymptotic considerations suggest that the surface magnetic field in PSR J2144$``$3933 should be very strong and extremaly curved (see also Young, Manchester & Johnston, 1999). However, the asymptotic condition for magnetic pair creation is not valid for magnetic fields $`B_s\stackrel{>}{}0.1B_c5\times 10^{12}`$ G, which is much lower than surface fields inferred just above, by means of this approximation. Thus we have to use the near threshold condition $`\mathrm{}\omega \mathrm{sin}\theta \stackrel{>}{}2mc^2`$, discussed generally in the § 3. A general near threshold CR death line is expressed by equation (11). For PSR J2144$``$3933 $`P=8.5`$ s and $`\dot{P}_{15}=0.475`$ and thus we obtain a condition $`_6^2b^{0.5}=0.13`$. Treating this as a general condition we obtain a death line $`\dot{P}_{15}=310^5P^{4.5}`$, which is presented as the line (4) in Fig. 1. Since in PSR J2114$``$3933 $`B_d=410^{12}`$ G (and $`B_s=bB_d<B_q=7.610^{13}`$ G), then $`2\stackrel{<}{}b\stackrel{<}{}20`$, which gives $`0.3\stackrel{>}{}_6\stackrel{>}{}0.17`$, respectively.

It is also interesting to compare the near threshold ICS induced death line with the CR induced death line represented by the line (4) in Fig. 1. Using the equation (16) and putting $`b=100`$ and $`_6=0.1`$ into it, one obtains death line $`\dot{P}_{15}=0.0002P^{0.28}`$ which is presented as the line (5) in Fig. 1. Obviously, this critical death line can explain all normal (non-millisecond) pulsars. However, the case of PSR J2114$``$3933 can be interpreted with much less ad hoc field configuration, for example $`b2`$ and $`1`$.

## 6 Conclusions

In this paper we have examined an influence of extremely strong and curved surface magnetic field on the long standing binding energy problem (for review see Xu, Qiao & Zhang, 1999). We have demonstrated within CR and/or ICS driven pair production model that formation of a vacuum gap above the pulsar polar cap is in principle possible, provided that $`B_sB_d`$ and $`R`$. We have also addresed in this paper a very interesting and currently topical problem of why so many radio pulsars are beyond the conventional death lines, where theoretically they should not be converting high energy photons into electron-positron pairs. PSR J2144$``$3933 is the pulsar of our special interest with $`P=8.5`$ s and $`\dot{P}=4.75\times 10^{16}`$ (thus $`B_d=4\times 10^{12}`$ G), which is located extremely far beyond conventional death lines (circle in Fig. 1). Assuming strong multipolar surface magnetic field suggested by the binding energy problem, we can explain this extremal object without invoking any different radiation mechanism than that for ordinary pulsars. A value of $`B_s\stackrel{>}{}10^{13}`$ G and $`\stackrel{<}{}10^5`$ cm seems to fit the constraint imposed by the 8.5 s period well. Young, Manchester & Johnston (1999) have noticed that extremely twisted field could marginally explain the pulsar location in the $`B_dP`$ diagram, but they consider such fields unlikely. However, they did not consider a sunspot like configuration that we use in this paper.

There is a growing evidence that quite a large number of conal-type pulsars (Rankin, 1986) with drifting subpulses (grazing cuts of the line-of-sight) or periodic intensity modulation (central cuts of the line-of-sight) have the RS75-type polar gap accelerators with curvature radiation dominated magnetic pair production (Ruderman & Sutherland, 1975; Deshpande & Rankin, 1999; Vivekanand & Joshi, 1999; Gil & Sendyk, 2000; Xu, Qiao & Zhang, 1999). We argue in this paper that in such cases the surface magnetic field penetrating the polar gap should be dominated by a strong multipolar (presumably sunspot-like magnetic field with $`B_dB\stackrel{<}{}B_q`$ and $`R`$) components, reconnecting with a global dipole field well before the radio emission region. Zhang, Harding & Muslimov (2000) concluded in their recent paper that it is not necessary to postulate ad hoc multipolar field configuration to explain PSR J2144$``$3933. In fact, they demonstrated that the ICS induced SCLF accelerator produces death lines that include PSR J2144$``$3993. However, we would like to strongly emphasize that the SCLF model is unable to explain the subpulse drift phenomenon, which seems to be a common phenomenon, at least among the conal-type profile pulsars (Rankin, 1986; Gil & Sendyk, 2000), although there is no direct evidence for conal type emission in PSR J2144$``$3933.

As can be seen from Fig. 1, the VG formation is in principle possible for all normal pulsars (excluding binary and millisecond ones), provided that the surface magnetic field is extremaly strong and curved. Pulsars above the line (1) can form the VG-CR inner accelerator even with relatively low surface field $`B_s\stackrel{<}{}5B_d`$. However, pulsars below this line require much higher fields $`B_sB_d`$ to form the VG-CR ($`b100`$ at line (2) but it has to decrease towards the line (1), as the actual field should not exceed the critical field $`B_c510^{13}`$ G). Below the line (2) one cannot form the VG-CR accelerator unless $`B_s100B_d`$. However, it is possible to form a VG-ICS inner accelerator with $`b100`$ and $`_60.1`$ on the line (3). Since the dipolar field $`B_d10^{11}`$ G around this line, one can use $`b`$ even larger than 100, and therefore all normal pulsars lie above critical lines for the VG formation. The general conslusion is that the VG formation, either CR or ICS induced, require strong and curved surface magnetic field with radius of curvature $`10^5`$ cm and the field strenght $`B_sB_d`$, where $`B_c`$ is the photon splitting level. This implies, that radio pulsars (at least non-milisecond ones) are neutron stars with surface magnetic field strenght 10-100 times the surface dipolar component derived from $`P`$ and $`\dot{P}`$ values. Such NS can form VG-CR or VG-ICS inner accelerators, which discharges via a number of localised sparks. Both VG-CR and VG-ICS produce sparks, importance of which for the mechanism of coherent pulsar radio emission was recently emphasised by Xu, Zhang & Qiao (2000a).

The sparking discharge within a VG inner accelerator is also a natural explanation of the subpulse drift/periodic modulation. The group of pulsars with clearly drifting subpulses seem to favour the VG-CR model, although the VG-ICS model is not excluded. Few well know drifters lying below the line (2) in Fig. 1 seem to require the ICS contribution or even domination of the gap discharge. It is important to emphasize that pulsars with signatures of periodic subpulse modulations seem to be distributed all over the bulk of the $`P\dot{P}`$ plane (Rankin, 1986). Therefore, it seems unlikely that pulsars with drifting subpulses represent the VG accelerator while others are driven by the SCLF accelerator. We suggest that normal radio pulsars are those neutron stars which can develope the VG inner accelerator above their polar caps. This interpretation is consistent with the current status of theory of the coherent pulsar radio emission, which also seem to favour the sparking VG model, at least in normal pulsars (Gil & Sendyk, 2000; Melikidze, Gil & Pataraya, 2000; Qiao et al., 2000). The millisecond pulsars are probably driven by the SCLF inner accelerator. This problem will be examined in the forthcoming paper.

We would like to note that a sunspot-like configuration conjectured in this paper for VG formation and supported by the case of PSR J2144$``$3933 is also suggested by the spin-down index of PSR B0540$``$69 (CR93, Ruderman, Zhu & Chen, 1997). Also Cheng & Zhang (1999), analyzing the X-ray emissions from regions near the polar cap of the rotation powered pulsars, argued that $`B_s10^{13}`$ G and $`10^5`$ cm, which agrees well with our independent estimates. As already mentioned, Gil & Sendyk (2000) attempting to explain morphological differences in pulse shapes and variations in polarization properties of different profile types as well as the subpulse drift rates, concluded that the surface magnetic field at the polar cap should be dominated by sunspot-like structures. It seems that there is a growing evidence of such small scale anomalies in surface magnetic field of radio pulsars (see also Page & Sarmiento, 1996; Ruderman, 1991), and our paper gives independent arguments supporting this idea.

Polarization studies in radio pulsars seems to suggest that significant part of the radio emission arises from regions in the magnetosphere where the magnetic field is largely dipolar. Also studies concerning the morphology of pulse profiles is consistent with dipolar magnetic field structure in the radio emission altitudes which is thought to be arising close to the stellar surface given by the relation $`r50RP^{0.3}`$ (Kijak & Gil, 1997, 1998). Thus, if there are strong and complicated surface magnetic fields $`B_s100B_d`$ on the stellar surface it is important to access whether complicated fields would decay fast enough with altitude such that in the emission region the magnetic field structure is almost purely dipolar as constrained by observations. On the other hand, the radius of curvature of surface field lines should be about $`10^{56}`$ cm, which means that the structure of the gap magnetic field is determined by multipoles higher than the quadrupole. Here we consider the model of the magnetic field to be sunspot like near the surface of the neutron star while the global dipolar magnetic field is that of a star centered dipole. Such small scale magnetic fields on the surface of the neutron star has also been considered by several authors to explain the radio emission properties from pulsars (e.g. Krolik, 1991; Vivekanand & Radhakrishnan, 1980). In the ‘crustal-model’ of the neutron star where the magnetic field is generated in neutron star due to the currents in the crust, it is predicted that these models are only capable of producing small scale magnetic fields (Urpin, Levshakov & Yakovlev, 1986). These small scale fields can be modelled as small current loops giving rise to dipolar fields which are oriented in different directions all over the stellar surface and superposed on the global dipole field. Following this one can express the magnetic field $`B(r)`$ at a distance $`r`$ from the stellar center as the multipolar expansion $`B(r)B_d(R/r)^3+\mathrm{\Sigma }_{l3}B_l(R/r)^{l+1}`$, where $`l=2,3,4\mathrm{}`$ correspond to dipole, quadrupole, octupole etc. and $`B_l`$ is the magnetic field strength of a given pole at the neutron star’s surface. The number of reversals of the magnetic field across the stellar surface depends on the order of the multipole in question. For example a pure dipolar field will have 2 reversals while a pure quadrupole will have 4 reversals and in general for a multipole of order $`l`$ there will be $`2^{l1}`$ reversals. Here we consider the multipolar field which has sun-spot like magnetic loops with typical radius of curvature $`0.1R10^5`$ cm. This type of structure corresponds to multipoles of order $`l>4`$. The actual multipole order of a crust origin field clump can be estimated as $`l\mathrm{\Delta }r/R`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }r0.1R`$ is a characteristic crust thickness. For typical pulsars with $`P1`$ second the radio emission arises at altitudes $`r50R`$, and the ratio $`B_d/B_{l>4}>1`$ in the emission region even if $`B_l/B_d100`$ at the surface. This means that radio emission arises from dipolar field lines even if there are strong, small scale multipolar anomalies on the surface of the polar cap. The field surface strenght of a local multipole is $`B_s(R/\mathrm{\Delta }R)^mB_d`$, where $`m=1`$ or 2 depending on relative orientation of adjacent magnetic moments (e.g. Arons, 1981). This gives an estimate $`B_s/B_d10÷100`$, as inferred in this paper using the binding energy arguments.

We have shown in this paper that VG formation in typical pulsars requires the crust-origin surface multipolar field to be much stronger (10-100 times) than the dipolar surface component of the star centered global field. In order to apply to the millisecond pulsars, we would have to invoke magnification factors $`10^410^5`$. This would mean that the millisecond pulsars have surface magnetic fields of the same order as the typical (normal) pulsars. Cheng, Gil & Zhang (1998) came to similar conclusion analysing the non-thermal X-ray emission from outer gaps of rotation powered pulsars. Whether such strong surface magnetic field can exist in millisecond pulsars is not known. We would like to mention here one constraint found in the literature. Arons (1993) has shown that the location of the spin-up line in the $`P\dot{P}`$ diagram constraints the large scale anomlies of the magnetic field at the surface to no more than about 40% of the surface strenght of dipolar field. This constraint does not concern the crust-origin small scale anomalies invoked in this paper, which will not affect the dipolar structure of the magnetic field in the radio emission region. However, if such extremely strong fields are excluded in the millisecond pulsars, then their inner accelerator must be of SCLF type, which implies the maser kind of radio emission mechanism (Kazbegi et al., 1987; Kazbegi, Machabeli & Melikidze, 1992).

It is worth to emphasize that all our conclusions presented in this paper concern vacuum gaps in neutron stars. Therefore, we claim that it may not be necessary to invoke the BPCSS conjecture proposed by Xu, Qiao & Zhang (1999), according to which pulsars, at least those with drifting subpulses, are strange stars with bare polar caps (for review see Xu et al. 2000a). However, we have to admit that we cannot exclude the BPCSS hypothesis.

A complicated magnetic field with radius of curvature much smaller than the star radius has to be confined to the neutron star crust. Mitra, Konar & Bhattacharya (1999) examined the evolution of multipole components generated by currents in the outer crust. They found that mostly low order multipoles contribute to the required small radii of curvature, and that the structure of the surface magnetic field is not expected to change significantly during the radio pulsar lifetime. The important question is if the crust can support surface magnetic fields with a magnitude approaching $`10^{14}`$ G. Equating the magnetic pressure of a strong multipolar field to the crustal stress one concludes that the maximum field which the neutron star can sustain is approximately about $`10^{14}10^{15}`$ G (Thomson & Duncan, 1995). Thus, our inferred magnitudes $`B_s>10^{13}`$ G are in the regime where cracking of the neutron star crust will still not occur.

We would like to point out a small weakness of our paper, namely an apparent lack of pulsars in a valley between the marginal line (4) in Fig. 1 (including the extremal pulsar PSR J2144$``$3933) and the right-hand boundary of the bulk of $`P\dot{P}`$ distribution. The lack of pulsars at the long period regime near the 8.5 second pulsar is understandable, since detectibility of long period pulsars is much smaller than that of shorter ones, as pointed out by Young, Manchester & Johnston (1999). The lack of shorter period pulsars within this valley has been explained by Zhang, Harding & Muslimov (2000), who invoked a death line below which pair production is not supported by the SCLF-ICS mechanism (line IV in their Fig. 1). Within our VG scenario, this might just mean that strong multipole fields are possible but not common in old pulsars. Another possible explanation concerns a luminosity issue. Let us notice that PSR J2144$``$3933 is a very old (281 Myr), extremaly weak (4 mJy) and close to the Earth (0.19 kpc) pulsar. It would not probably be detected if it was located just a bit further away. So perhaps the radio luminosity of pulsars drops below a detection threshold of a typical survey before their inner accelerators stop completely producing a pair plasma.

Finally, we would like to emphasize once again that vacuum gaps which we have shown to exist in pulsars, produce sparking discharges. These isolated sparks seem to be naturally involved with drifting subpulses observed in typical pulsars (e.g. Rankin, 1986; Deshpande & Rankin, 1999; Gil & Sendyk, 2000). On the other hand, spark-associated models of the coherent pulsar radio emission (Qiao et al., 2000; Melikidze, Gil & Pataraya, 2000) critically depend on existence of non-stationary vacuum gaps, and therefore our paper supports these ideas on fundamental grounds.

This paper is supported in part by the Grant 2 P03D 008 19 of the Polish State Committee for Scientific Research. We are indebted to the referee B. Zhang for insightful comments and constructive criticism which greatly helped to improve the final version of the paper. We are also thankful to K.S. Cheng, J. Kijak, D. Khechinashvili, G. Machabeli, G. Melikidze, B. Stappers and B. Rudak for helpful comments and discussions. We also thank the Max-Planck-Institut für Radioastronomie and the Astronomical Institute “Anton Pannekoek” University of Amsterdam for kind hospitality, where part of this work was done. DM thanks J. Kepler Astronomical Center for support and hospitality during his visit to the institute, where this work was started. We thank E. Gil for technical assistance.


format: text

text:
# QCD topology using scale controlled cooling: Densities and cooling invariant observables

ABSTRACT: We aim at reducing the uncertainties inherent in the analysis of the topological structure by using scale controlled smoothing and observables independent on the “microscopic” description of the instanton ensemble.

Investigating the role of instantons in the QCD vacuum by lattice simulations is a challenging problem. Instantons are involved in the $`U_\mathrm{A}(1)`$ symmetry breaking (cf the Witten - Veneziano formula which relates quenched topological susceptibility and $`\eta ^{}`$ mass) and in chiral symmetry breaking (via zero modes of the Dirac operator), and they lead to dynamical effects at intermediate distances. Global properties like susceptibility and charge distributions afford direct tests, while the features of the local structure (ensemble, size and distance distributions) are ingredients for dynamical models . To recall, an $`𝐑^4`$ (anti-)instanton (A)I of size $`\rho `$ located at $`x=0`$ has charge (q) and action (s) densities:

$`q(x)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi ^2}}F^{}F={\displaystyle \frac{6Q}{\pi ^2\rho ^4}}\left[1+{\displaystyle \underset{\mu =1}{\overset{4}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{x_\mu }{\rho }}\right)^2\right]^4`$ (1)
$`Q={\displaystyle d^4xq(x)},S={\displaystyle d^4xs(x)}=|Q|S_0`$
$`s(x)=S_0|q(x)|,S_0=8\pi ^2,Q=\pm \mathrm{integer}.`$
“Superpositions” of $`N`$ I’s or A’s lead to higher minima of the action: $`S=NS_0`$. However pairs I-A are not minima and, e. g., under unrestricted cooling they decay, the sooner the smaller their action $`S^{\mathrm{IA}}=2S_0S_{\mathrm{int}}^{\mathrm{IA}}<2S_0`$ is, where $`S_{\mathrm{int}}^{\mathrm{IA}}`$ depends in particular on the “overlap” $`\omega =(\rho _\mathrm{I}+\rho _\mathrm{A})/d_{\mathrm{IA}}`$, $`d_{\mathrm{IA}}`$ being the I - A distance.

In analyzing the topology by lattice methods we need to deal with the roughness of the Monte Carlo configurations at short scales and to identify the physically relevant topological structure. UV lattice artifacts (dislocations) and close I-A pairs, indistinguishable from short range density fluctuations, have small action and can be easily produced. To smooth out in a controlled way high frequency fluctuations in Monte Carlo configurations the method of Restricted Improved Cooling (RIC) has been developed in  as a gauge invariant low pass filter. RIC introduces a parameter directly related to a physical scale above which fluctuations will be preserved. Since it uses an “improved” action RIC has as fixed point non-trivial classical configurations. But since it preserves all structures above the chosen scale it also retains, e. g., I-A pairs with overlap smaller than a threshold depending on the smoothing scale.

The identification of the uncovered topological structure poses special problems. Usually a “microscopic” description in terms of I’s and A’s is attempted. This, however, becomes increasingly ill defined at small scales, particularly if close pairs abound. Therefore it is interesting to avoid the necessity of such a description and obtain the phenomenological parameters appearing in the instanton models from observables which can be directly measured on the lattice.

We here suggest to study properties of instantons in lattice simulations using observables objectively defined in continuum QCD. Rather than investigating instantons microscopically by inspecting lattice field configurations, we shall consider “macroscopic” observables which in a pure instanton vacuum can directly be related to properties of the instanton ensemble. One such class of quantities are ratios of VEV’s of chirally odd operators, which are purely non-perturbative quantities, and (at least in a dilute instanton vacuum) are independent on the instanton density and can directly be related to moments of the instanton size distribution. Assuming the latter to be a well defined property of the topological structure, we expect these ratios to remain approximately constant under cooling, at least after achieving a certain, minimal degree of smoothing. Using RIC we can rephrase this question in terms of the physical scale of the relevant topological fluctuations.

Scale Controlled Smoothing. Cooling  is an iterative, local minimization of the action, which proceeds sweep-wise and can be defined to converge onto (non-trivial) classical configurations. It acts as a diffusion process with the length scale of smoothing growing like the square root of the number of iterations .

Restricted Improved Cooling (RIC)  is a scale controlled smoothing procedure involving two ingredients:

a) - Improved minimization action with practically scale invariant instanton solutions, and

b) - Restriction of cooling to allow a certain amount of (Euclidean) “energy” above the minimum, homogeneously distributed over the lattice.

Our improved action ,  is correct to order $`𝒪(a^6)`$ and is completely flat for instanton sizes larger than $`\rho _02.3a`$, below which it drops \- see Fig. 1. It then follows from a) that:

\- Below the “dislocation threshold” $`\rho _0`$ short range topological structure is eliminated. Note that $`\rho _00`$ in continuum.

\- Above $`\rho _0`$, instantons are stable to cooling.

\- The correspondingly improved charge density leads to a charge approaching an integer already after a few cooling sweeps and stable thereafter.

The restriction b) is introduced as the following modification of the local updating rule for a link:

$$UV\underset{¯}{\mathrm{iff}}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{Tr}(WW^{}(UW^{})^2)\delta ^2$$
(2)
where $`W`$ is the staple connected to $`U`$ and $`V`$ the group projection of $`W`$ (for SU(2) $`V=W/W`$). It naturally leads to gradual saturation and eventual stop of cooling after a number of sweeps depending on $`\delta `$. RIC thus acts as a frequency filter for the field fluctuations. Since $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the square of the lattice equations of motion it has a continuum limit and therefore the cooling parameter $`\delta `$ can be related to a physical scale.

For this we calculate the string tension $`\sigma `$ from correlations of spatial Polyakov loops at separation $`t`$ in time, measured on configurations RI-cooled with $`\delta `$. We determine $`r_c(\delta )`$ as the the minimal distance $`t`$ at which the string tension is recovered, taking the first cooling curve as reference. See Fig. 2; for details and for SU(2) results see . The data presented here concern SU(3) and have been obtained on a $`12^4`$, pbc lattice at $`\beta =5.85`$ ($`a=0.135`$fm), using 900 configurations separated by 600 sweeps (after 50000 thermalization sweeps). The line in Fig. 3 corresponds to $`r_c(\delta )2.3\delta ^{1/3}`$.

The restriction b) does not affect significantly the behavior of single instantons under RIC but does affect the behavior of I-A pairs. There is a well defined relation between $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and the I-A “interaction” $`S_{\mathrm{int}}^{\mathrm{IA}}=16\pi ^2S^{IA}`$ . As a result RIC with given $`\delta `$ preserves pairs depending on their interaction, hence on their overlap. Generally, physics on scales larger than $`r_c`$ is expected to remain unaffected by RIC. How RIC affects small and large scales is also illustrated by the values of the Plaquette and Polyakov loop ($`|P|`$) in Table 1. The distribution of the latter after cooling stays compatible with confinement (see Fig. 4). An extended topology analysis for SU(2) using RIC has been provided in , here we add some further results for SU(3).

The topological charge distribution is Gaussian and is stable under cooling - see Fig. 5. In Table 1 we give the topological susceptibility of SU(3) for various $`\delta `$ (the phenomenological expectation is $`\chi ^{1/4}180`$MeV). On Fig. 6 we plot the SU(3) density correlations $`q(x)q(0)`$ at various values of $`\delta `$. Due to the improved charge density even non-cooled data can be obtained, they show however strong UV renormalization effects. Notice that $`q(x)q(0)<0`$ for disjoint supports . With progressing smoothing this effect disappears indicating gradual loss of support properties.

From the RIC analysis of SU(2)  it appeared that one can speak of a typical size, but that a “microscopic” description of the instanton ensemble is problematic since topological excitations cannot be separated at small scales from short range fluctuations. We observed at small $`r_c`$ a strongly growing I(A) density, with more and more peaks of alternating charge and increasingly large overlap showing up at distances in the $`r_c`$ range. This may also affect the size determination and explain the diferences in the detail of the size distribution found in the literature . To avoid the uncertainties introduced by this situation in the determination of the instanton size we look for an independent determination of the typical size using “macroscopic” observables.

“Macroscopic” observables for topology. The relevance of instantons to chiral symmetry breaking is due to the fact that a single $`I`$ ($`A`$) induces a localized (i.e., normalizable) zero mode of the Dirac operator of definite chirality:

$$i\widehat{}(A_{I(A)})\mathrm{\Phi }_\pm (x)=0,\gamma _5\mathrm{\Phi }_\pm (x)=\pm \mathrm{\Phi }_\pm (x).$$
(3)
Instanton models usually proceed from a simple picture of the Yang–Mills vacuum as a dilute “medium” of $`I`$’s and $`A^{}s`$:

$$\overline{\rho }^4\mathrm{\Omega }1,\mathrm{or}\overline{\rho }/\overline{R}1$$
(4)
where $`\overline{\rho }`$ is the average size, $`\overline{R}`$ the average distance and $`\mathrm{\Omega }=N/V`$ the density of the instantons. The ratio $`\overline{\rho }/\overline{R}`$ can be used as a small parameter to classify non-perturbative effects generated by the medium of instantons , . In this picture chiral symmetry breaking can be understood as a collective effect involving all instantons in the ensemble ,  (this can be seen as a consequence of the cumulative effect of the chirally odd ’t Hooft vertices of individual instantons, resulting in the appearance of a dynamical quark mass). The chiral order parameter is then :

$$\overline{\psi }\psi \overline{\rho }^3\left(\overline{\rho }^4\mathrm{\Omega }\right)^{1/2}\overline{\rho }^3(\overline{\rho }/\overline{R})^2$$
(5)
Generally, the VEV’s of any chirally odd operator can serve as order parameter for chiral symmetry breaking. Since they are purely non-perturbative quantities which acquire a non-zero value only because of the spontaneous breaking of chiral symmetry they provide good probes of the instanton effects. So, for instance, in an instanton medium we have:

$$\overline{\psi }[F]\mathrm{\Gamma }\psi \overline{\rho }^d\left(\overline{\rho }^4\mathrm{\Omega }\right)^{1/2}\overline{\rho }^d\left(\overline{\rho }/\overline{R}\right)^2$$
(6)
where $`[F]`$ is a function of the gauge fields, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=1,\gamma _5,\sigma _{\mu \nu }`$ a chirally odd Dirac matrix and $`d`$ is the mass dimension of the operator. Note that while these VEV’s depend differently on the instanton size, they all show the same dependence on the instanton density as the usual quark condensate. Therefore in ratios of such VEV’s the dependence on the instanton density cancels:

$$X\overline{\psi }[F]\mathrm{\Gamma }\psi /\overline{\psi }\psi \overline{\rho }^{d+3}$$
(7)
For example one finds in the large–$`N_c`$ limit, where all instantons are of size $`\rho =\overline{\rho }`$, :

$$\overline{\psi }F_{\mu \nu }\sigma _{\mu \nu }\psi /\overline{\psi }\psi =4\overline{\rho }^2$$
(8)
In the instanton vacuum such ratios can thus directly be related to properties of the instanton size distribution, with no reference to the density. (A non-zero density is needed only for numerator and denominator to be non-zero individually.) Therefore we expect quantities of the type (7) to be approximately “invariant” under cooling.

We plan to measure the cooling behavior of ratios of the type (7) using RIC. Since we can control the smoothing scale we can test the dependence of our derivation on the assumption of diluteness by observing the saturation of the ratios, and then obtain an estimation of the typical instanton size independently on a microscopic description of the ensemble. (A lattice simulation for (8) has been performed with limited statistics in .)

Acknowledgments: IOS thankfully acknowledges DFG support for attending the conference. The simulations are performed on the VPP computer of the University of Karlsruhe.


text:
# The frequency, temperature, and magnetic field dependence of ferromagnetic resonance and anti-resonance in La0.8Sr0.2MnO3

## I Introduction

The recent discovery of large negative magnetoresistance in the manganite perovskites La1-xAxMnO3 (where A is a divalent cation, typically Ca, Sr, or Ba) has led to numerous studies of both the physics and potential technological applications of these materials. A great deal of work has been done on the dc transport  and optical properties of these so-called colossal magnetoresistive (CMR) oxides. But by comparison the microwave properties have not been extensively investigated, and the work that has been done has generally been limited to a few frequencies by the resonant techniques employed.  In addition, these measurements generally do not produce quantitative values of the surface resistance or the surface reactance.

Because of the relatively high resistivities of the CMR compounds, the enhanced sensitivity of resonant microwave techniques is not necessary. In this paper we present the results of our broadband, non-resonant microwave surface impedance measurements, in which we have quantitatively determined the complex surface impedance, $`Z_S(\omega ,T,H)=R_S(\omega ,T,H)+iX_S(\omega ,T,H)`$, of La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 single crystals over three decades in frequency, and as a function of both temperature and applied external magnetic field. We previously reported measurements of the surface impedance of this material in zero applied field, and showed that it is possible to extract the temperature dependence of the spontaneous magnetization from these data. Here we focus on the surface impedance in an applied magnetic field, and show that the spectra can be well described by the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert expression for the dynamic susceptibility of a ferromagnetic system. We present quantitative analysis of the field and temperature dependence of the ferromagnetic resonance and anti-resonance features observed in the spectra, and demonstrate that it is possible to extract the local magnetization and internal fields from these data.

La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 (LSMO) has a ferromagnetic phase transition with a Curie temperature $`T_C`$ of approximately 305.5 K. It is well established that the low temperature phase is a ferromagnetic metal (the resistivity drops dramatically below $`T_C`$), while above $`T_C`$ the system is paramagnetic, and the resistivity exhibits a negative slope with respect to temperature. The resistivity has a maximum around $`T_p=318`$ K, significantly above $`T_C`$, which is typical in these manganite materials.

## II Experimental setup

In order to measure the temperature and frequency dependence of the complex surface impedance we have terminated a coaxial transmission line with the sample and measured its complex reflection coefficient. We have reported the details of this experimental geometry elsewhere, and will therefore give only a brief overview of the technique here. In particular, our original implementation of the method was for the study of superconducting thin films, so we will discuss its use here on bulk single crystals.

This experiment is built around an HP8510C Vector Network Analyzer (NWA), which is continuously tunable over three decades from 45 MHz to 50 GHz. The phase-locked signal from the NWA is sent along a coaxial transmission line with a modified 1.85mm coaxial connector on the other end. This modified connector has a flat face and a spring-loaded center conductor, allowing a sample to be pressed against it, thereby terminating the transmission line. The amplitude and phase of the reflected signal are measured as the source is swept throughout the entire frequency range, and the complex reflection coefficient, $`\widehat{S}_{11}(\omega )`$, is determined as the ratio of the reflected to incident voltages. After standard NWA calibration procedures to remove the errors due to the systematic response of the NWA and the transmission line, the complex surface impedance of the terminating material can be calculated from the reflection coefficient as follows:

$$\widehat{Z}_S(\omega )=R_S(\omega )+iX_S(\omega )=Z_0\frac{1+\widehat{S}_{11}(\omega )}{1\widehat{S}_{11}(\omega )},$$
(1)
where $`Z_0=377\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the impedance of free space. As discussed, due to the phase-sensitive detection capabilities of the NWA, it is possible to extract both the surface resistance, $`R_S`$, and the surface reactance, $`X_S`$, and the well-defined terminated transmission line geometry allows for quantitative evaluation of these material parameters. In addition, while this non-resonant technique does not provide the sensitivity of microwave resonator measurements, the broadband nature allows for the study of the response across three orders of magnitude in frequency, and therefore opens a unique window to dynamical processes within the material.

By passing the coaxial line through a vacuum seal into a continuous flow cryostat, in which the sample is attached to the cold finger, we have measured the reflection coefficient as the temperature of the sample is varied. Because the temperatures of interest in this study were all above 200 K, we operated the cryostat with a flow of liquid nitrogen rather than the traditional helium, and were able to achieve temperature stability on the order of a few millikelvin at all temperatures between 200 and 325 K. This allowed us to study the temperature dependence of the surface impedance, to complement the frequency dependent data.

As mentioned above, a standard calibration procedure is employed to remove systematic errors. In general there are three sources of error for which we must correct. One of these is due to the attenuation and phase delay of the coaxial transmission line between the NWA and the sample, and is therefore temperature dependent. Part of this line is within the cryogenic environment, and thus expands or contracts as the temperature is varied. Such changes in length cause changes in the phase delay and, to a lesser extent, the attenuation of the line. To correct for this, a further calibration procedure is performed. The temperature dependence of the reflection coefficient of a flat piece of bulk copper is measured as an additional calibration standard. It is measured in the same way (at the same temperatures and frequencies) as the sample. We then assume that this copper block acts as if it were a perfect short at all temperatures and therefore has a known reflection coefficient $`\widehat{S}_{11}^{\mathrm{Cu}}=1+0i`$. Thus, corrected error coefficients are determined for all frequencies and temperatures of interest and the reflection coefficient of the sample can be deduced from the measured reflection coefficient.

In addition, by using two strong permanent magnets, one placed on either side of the sample, and varying the separation between them we have been able to produce a uniform static magnetic field at the sample position which can be continuously varied from 0 to 1.9 kOe. The faces of the magnets are much larger than the size of the sample and therefore the field is expected to be relatively homogeneous throughout the sample. With this setup, we were able to study the field dependence of the surface impedance. For all of the data shown in this paper, the field was taken to its maximum value of 1.9 kOe, sufficient to saturate the magnetization, and then the data were collected as the field was lowered to zero.

## III Ferromagnetic resonance and anti-resonance

In the presence of an applied external magnetic field of the appropriate magnitude, which will be discussed below, the microwave properties of ferromagnetic materials are characterized by two distinct features which result from the dispersion of the complex magnetic permeability $`\mu (\omega )`$: ferromagnetic resonance (FMR) and ferromagnetic anti-resonance (FMAR). At the FMR frequency, $`\omega _r`$, the surface resistance, $`R_S(\omega _r)`$ shows a maximum due to a maximum in the imaginary part of the magnetic permeability, $`\mu _2(\omega )`$. At the same frequency, the real part of the permeability, $`\mu _1(\omega )`$, has a zero-crossing with negative slope. In order to satisfy the condition $`\mu _1(\omega \mathrm{})=1`$, it is necessary that there be another zero-crossing, with positive slope, at a frequency $`\omega _{ar}>\omega _r`$. At this point, as will be shown below, the surface resistance shows a local minimum, commonly known as the ferromagnetic anti-resonance. This reduction in the surface resistance is due to an increase in the penetration of the fields into the material. It can also be shown that, in general, both $`\omega _r`$ and $`\omega _{ar}`$ depend not only on the externally applied field but also on the local internal magnetization of the material. Therefore, our measurements of the microwave surface impedance have yielded information about the magnetization of LSMO.

### A Dynamic Susceptibility

In order to understand the origins of the ferromagnetic resonance and anti-resonance in more detail, and to be able to analyze the broadband measurements presented here, it is necessary to examine the full functional form of the dynamic susceptibility $`\chi (\omega )`$. The starting point for the calculation of the dynamic susceptibility of a ferromagnetic material is the Landau-Lifshitz equation of motion for the magnetization vector M in the presence of a magnetic field H:

$$\frac{d𝐌}{dt}=\gamma (𝐌\times 𝐇)\frac{\alpha \gamma }{M}(𝐌\times (𝐌\times 𝐇)),$$
(2)
where $`\gamma `$ is the gyromagnetic ratio for an electron and $`\alpha `$ is a dimensionless damping parameter. The first term describes the precession of the magnetization around the applied field, and the second term describes the damping of this precessional motion. In this form, the damping term is perpendicular to M and therefore changes only the angle and not the amplitude of the magnetization vector. This expression can be simplified further by taking the cross product of M with both sides. After some algebraic manipulation this gives

$$\frac{d𝐌}{dt}=\gamma ^{}(𝐌\times 𝐇)\frac{\alpha }{M}\left[𝐌\times \frac{d𝐌}{dt}\right],$$
(3)
where $`\gamma ^{}=\gamma (1+\alpha ^2)`$. In the limit of small damping ($`\alpha ^21`$), $`\gamma ^{}\gamma `$. This is known as the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation of motion, and $`\alpha `$ is commonly referred to as the Gilbert damping parameter.

In order to calculate the dynamic susceptibility from this equation of motion, it is necessary to choose a form for the magnetic field and thus the magnetization. In the experiment we apply a uniform static magnetic field $`H_0`$, but the field which is important is the total interal magnetic field $`H_i`$, which will in general differ from $`H_0`$, as we will discuss below. So for now we just presume that there is a total static internal field $`H_i`$ oriented along the $`\widehat{z}`$ direction, and a microwave field $`𝐡_{\mathrm{rf},\mathrm{i}}`$, which may also differ from the applied microwave field:

$$𝐇(t)=\widehat{z}H_i+𝐡_{\mathrm{rf},\mathrm{i}}e^{i\omega t}.$$
(4)
In an isotropic system, the magnetization is presumed to follow the applied field, so we assume that the static magnetization is aligned with the static field $`H_i`$ and that there is a component of the magnetization with the same time dependence as the microwave field:

$$𝐌(t)=\widehat{z}M_0+𝐦_{\mathrm{rf}}e^{i\omega t}.$$
(5)
By inserting Eqs. (4) and (5) into Eq. (3) we can easily calculate the susceptibility tensor $`\overline{\overline{\chi }}`$ from the relation

$$𝐦_{\mathrm{rf}}=\overline{\overline{\chi }}𝐡_{\mathrm{rf},\mathrm{i}}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\widehat{\chi }_{xx}& \widehat{\chi }_{xy}& 0\\ \widehat{\chi }_{yx}& \widehat{\chi }_{yy}& 0\\ 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right)𝐡_{\mathrm{rf},\mathrm{i}},$$
(6)
where we have assumed, as above, that the static field is in the $`\widehat{z}`$ direction, and that $`𝐡_{\mathrm{rf},\mathrm{i}}𝐇_𝐢`$ and $`𝐦_{\mathrm{rf}}𝐌`$. It is clear here that there will be no components of $`𝐦_{\mathrm{rf}}`$ along $`\widehat{z}`$, and that any $`\widehat{z}`$ component of $`𝐡_{\mathrm{rf},\mathrm{i}}`$ will not contribute to $`𝐦_{\mathrm{rf}}`$. This is important for the geometry we have employed, and will be discussed further below.

Before calculating the components of the susceptibility tensor, however, it is necessary to account for the fact that in general the internal fields will differ from the applied external fields due to demagnetization effects. The applied external fields will lead to a net magnetization, which in turn will produce dipoles on the surface of the sample, and these dipoles give rise to a field within the sample which opposes the applied field. The magnitude of such a demagnetization field ($`H_d`$) depends on the geometry of the sample and on the net magnetization. In addition, we will see later that it is necessary to allow for the existence of small static local fields ($`𝐇_{loc}`$) within the material. Such fields might arise, for example, from anisotropy and domain structure. It is reasonable to assume that $`H_d`$ will be aligned antiparallel to the applied field, but the orientation of $`𝐇_{loc}`$ is likely to vary with position within the sample. However, we will also presume that it is only the component of $`𝐇_{loc}`$ aligned parallel to $`M_0`$ (i.e. along $`\widehat{z}`$) which will contribute to the precession of the magnetization. Thus we can write the total field within the material as follows:

$$𝐇_i=\widehat{z}(H_0N_zM_0+H_{loc}).$$
(7)
Similarly, the microwave magnetization produces a high frequency demagnetization field, so

$$𝐡_{\mathrm{rf},i}=𝐡_{\mathrm{rf}}\widehat{x}N_x^{}m_x\widehat{y}N_y^{}m_y,$$
(8)
where $`𝐡_{\mathrm{rf}}`$ is the externally applied field, and we have omitted the term $`\widehat{z}N_z^{}m_z`$ because there will be no components of $`𝐦_{\mathrm{rf}}`$ along $`\widehat{z}`$. $`N_i`$ are the geometry-dependent demagnetization factors along the three principle axes and we have chosen to denote dynamic factors in Eq. (8) with primes because they can, in general, differ from the static factors. We will return to the precise determination of these values shortly.

Using these expressions we can write an expression for $`\widehat{\chi }_{xx}`$, one of the nonzero diagonal components of the susceptibility tensor, as follows:

$$\widehat{\chi }_{xx}(\omega )=\frac{\omega _M[(\omega _0+i\mathrm{\Gamma })+N_y^{}\omega _M]}{\omega _r^2(1+\alpha ^2)\omega ^2+i\mathrm{\Gamma }[2\omega _0+(N_x^{}+N_y^{})\omega _M]}$$
(9)
where we have introduced the linewidth $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\alpha \omega `$. Similar expressions can be obtained for $`\widehat{\chi }_{yy}`$, and for the off-diagonal terms $`\widehat{\chi }_{xy}`$ and $`\widehat{\chi }_{yx}`$, but these will not be of importance here. In order to emphasize the dimensionless nature of the susceptibility and the fact that we have measured its frequency dependence, all of the fields have been expressed as frequencies, with the following definitions:

$`\omega _M`$ $`=`$ $`\gamma ^{}\mu _0M_0`$ (10)
$`\omega _0`$ $`=`$ $`\gamma ^{}\mu _0(H_0N_zM_0+H_{loc})`$ (11)
$`\omega _r`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{(\omega _0+N_x^{}\omega _M)(\omega _0+N_y^{}\omega _M)}.`$ (12)
It is clear from Eq. (9) that for small damping ($`\alpha ^21`$), the quantity $`\omega _r`$ is the ferromagnetic resonance frequency. As written, these expressions are in SI units, with $`H_0`$ and $`M_0`$ in amperes-per-meter, all frequencies expressed in gigahertz, and the gyromagnetic ratio for the electron given by $`\gamma /2\pi =28`$ GHz/T.

In order to determine the form of the susceptibility it is only necessary to know the values of the demagnetization factors $`N_i`$ for the geometry of interest. For an arbitrarily-shaped sample, this is a difficult task, but for certain simple geometrical shapes, the demagnetization factors are well known. The samples of La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 which we have investigated are disks, with diameters $`d`$ and thicknesses $`t`$ such that generally $`t0.2d`$. The static field $`H_0`$ was applied in the plane of the disk, thereby defining the $`z`$-axis. We take the $`x`$-axis to also be in the plane, and the $`y`$-axis to be normal to the surface. We can simplify the problem somewhat by taking into account the fact that the dynamic demagnetization factors ($`N_x^{}`$ and $`N_y^{}`$) may be independent of the static one ($`N_z`$). In other words, the microwave fields penetrate only a short distance, the skin depth $`\delta `$, into the sample. For all measured frequencies, this penetration is much less than the diameter of the sample, and therefore from the point of view of $`h_{\mathrm{rf}}`$, and therefore $`m_{\mathrm{rf}}`$, the sample looks like a thin plate, allowing us to set $`N_x^{}=0`$ and $`N_y^{}=1`$. On the other hand, the static magnetic field penetrates throughout the sample, and therefore we cannot use this argument to determine $`N_z`$. However, in Sec. IV we will show that we are able to extract a value of $`N_z`$ directly from the microwave measurements.

As discussed above, the dynamic permeability, $`\widehat{\mu }=\mu _0(1+\widehat{\chi })`$, has two distinct features: a resonance (FMR) at which $`\mu _2`$ is a maximum, and a zero-crossing of $`\mu _1`$ at higher frequency (FMAR). The frequencies of these two features are determined by the magnitudes of the total internal field $`H_i`$ and the local magnetization $`M_0`$, and by the demagnetization factors. With the applied field parallel to the plane of the sample, as in the measurements presented here, the FMR and FMAR frequencies are given by

$`\omega _r`$ $`=`$ $`\gamma ^{}\mu _0\sqrt{H_i(H_i+M_0)}`$ (13)
$`\omega _{ar}`$ $`=`$ $`\gamma ^{}\mu _0(H_i+M_0)`$ (14)
where once again we have taken $`N_x^{}=0`$ and $`N_y^{}=1`$. It is clear from Eqs. (13) and (14) that if we measure $`\omega _r`$ and $`\omega _{ar}`$ then we can uniquely determine both $`M_0`$ and $`H_i`$. It is worth noting that unlike in a typical magnetization measurement, this magnetization $`M_0`$ is not the net magnetization of the sample but instead is the average magnitude of the local magnetization. Thus we see that by measuring the dynamic susceptibility it is possible to extract information about the local magnetization of the material. Such analysis will be discussed further in Sec. IV.

### B Surface Impedance

In fact, as outlined above, the microwave reflection measurement which we have employed directly yields the surface impedance instead of the susceptibility, however the two are related through the permeability, $`\widehat{\mu }(\omega )=\mu _1(\omega )i\mu _2(\omega )=\mu _0[1+\widehat{\chi }(\omega )]`$, as follows:

$$\widehat{Z}_S(\omega )=R_S(\omega )+iX_S(\omega )=\sqrt{i\omega \widehat{\mu }(\omega )\rho _{dc}},$$
(15)
where $`\rho _{dc}`$ is the $`dc`$ resistivity of the material. We have assumed that at microwave frequencies La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 is in the Hagen-Rubens limit (i.e. $`\rho _2(\omega )\rho _1(\omega )\rho _{dc}`$), allowing us to insert a real frequency-independent value for $`\rho `$. Then we can substitute the expression for the susceptibility from Eq. (9) into Eq. (15) in order to model the complete frequency dependence of $`R_S`$ and $`X_S`$ and, in particular, the behavior in the vicinity of $`\omega _r`$ and $`\omega _{ar}`$. At the ferromagnetic resonance, $`R_S`$ is maximum and $`X_S`$ has an inflection point with negative slope, whereas at the anti-resonance, $`R_S`$ has a local minimum, while $`X_S`$ has another inflection point with positive slope.

In Sec. IV we will show that with a few small modifications to account for specifics of the measurement, Eq. (15) gives an excellent description of the measured data. From such fits it is therefore possible to extract values of the local magnetization $`M_0`$ as a function of both temperature and applied magnetic field.

## IV Experimental Results and Analysis

Employing the configuration presented in Sec. II we have measured both the surface resistance and surface reactance of La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 as functions of frequency, temperature, and applied magnetic field. We have measured the frequency dependence from 45 MHz to 45 GHz but, as we will see, for the temperatures, magnetizations, and fields of interest in this paper the resonant features occur below 20 GHz, and we will therefore limit the discussion to that part of the frequency range. We have measured the temperature dependence of the response in the range 250–325 K, through the ferromagnetic transition at 305.5 K, and for fields of 0–1.9 kOe.

The single crystals of La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 used in this study were grown by the floating-zone technique and the stoichiometry and structural integrity have been checked by x-ray diffraction and energy dispersive x-ray analysis. From a 4 mm diameter rod, we cut disk-shaped samples with thicknesses from 0.5–1 mm, and polished the surfaces to 1 $`\mu `$m flatness. Resistivity, ac susceptibility, and dc magnetization measurements have been reported earlier on samples cut from the same boule.

### A Surface Impedance

Figure 1 is a representative example of the data obtained, showing a surface and contour plot of $`R_S(\omega ,H_0)`$ at $`T=301.5`$ K, a few degrees below $`T_C=305.5`$ K. As mentioned above, the field $`H_0`$ was applied in the plane of the disk-shaped sample. The sharp peak is the FMR absorption, which grows in intensity and moves to higher frequency as the field is increased. This is as we would expect from Eq. (13). At somewhat higher frequencies, the FMAR minimum is evident, and it also is seen to rise in frequency with increasing field, as predicted by Eq. (14).

Fixed-field cuts through the $`R_S(\omega ,H_0)`$ data shown in Fig. 1 are displayed in Fig. 2(a); the corresponding $`X_S(\omega )`$ spectra are seen in Fig. 2(b). It is clear from the latter that the signature of the ferromagnetic resonance is a steep drop of $`X_S(\omega )`$, with maximum slope at the resonance frequency. At the anti-resonance there is a less pronounced but clearly visible rise of $`X_S`$. Both of these features are predicted by the model presented in Sec. III. From the measured resonance and anti-resonance frequencies, $`\omega _r/2\pi =6.9`$ GHz and $`\omega _{ar}/2\pi =11.3`$ GHz, at an applied field of $`\mu _0H_0=0.19`$ T, we have uniquely determined the value of $`M_0`$ from Eqs. (13) and (14) as follows:

$$\mu _0M_0=\frac{1}{\gamma \omega _{ar}}(\omega _{ar}^2\omega _r^2)$$
(16)
where we have assumed that $`\alpha ^21`$ and therefore $`\gamma ^{}\gamma `$. In addition, as will be shown later, at this large applied field value $`H_{loc}H_0N_zM_0`$, and therefore we can also solve Eqs. (13) and (14) for the static demagnetization factor:

$$N_z=\frac{\mu _0H_0\gamma \omega _{ar}\omega _r^2}{\omega _{ar}^2\omega _r^2},$$
(17)
With these values fixed, $`\alpha `$ and $`\rho _{\mathrm{dc}}`$ are varied to fit the $`Z_S(\omega ,H)`$ data. The thick solid lines on Fig. 2 are fits to the $`\mu _0H_0=0.19`$ T data with this model and the following parameters: $`\mu _0M_0=0.25`$ T, $`\alpha =0.03`$, $`N_x^{}=0`$, $`N_y^{}=1`$, $`N_z=0.15`$, and $`\rho _{\mathrm{dc}}=60`$ m$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$-cm. The model has only been modified to account for our particular experimental geometry, in which $`h_{\mathrm{rf}}`$ is not linearly polarized, and for a small offset in $`R_S`$ and slope in $`X_S`$ which arise due to a contact impedance. Similar fits can be made to the data at other temperatures and applied field values, and the model of Sec. III clearly provides an excellent description of the experimental data. The value of the damping parameter $`\alpha =0.03`$ corresponds to a linewidth $`\mathrm{\Gamma }/2\pi =\alpha \omega /2\pi `$ of 0.2 GHz at the FMR frequency. This translates into a 70 Oe linewidth in field space, which agrees well with the value reported earlier for this material.

The enhancement of $`R_S`$ at the FMR frequency is easily understood as an enhanced absorption due to a matching of the microwave frequency to the natural precession frequency of the electronic spins within the material. The reason for the reduction of $`R_S`$ at the FMAR frequency, below the value which it would have for a non-magnetic material with the same resistivity, is less obvious. However, if we presume that the microwave field is a plane wave with the spatial and temporal dependence of the electric field given by $`Ee^{i\omega tky}`$, then it is possible to insert this into Maxwell’s equations and solve for the wavevector $`k`$. This leads, in general, to a complex wavevector given by

$$\widehat{k}=\sqrt{i\omega \widehat{\mu }(\omega )\sigma }=\frac{\widehat{Z_S}}{\rho },$$
(18)
where we have employed Eq. (15) for the second equality. As usual, the characteristic length over which the fields decay into the material, the skin depth, is given by $`\delta =(Re\{\widehat{k}\})^1`$. In a non-magnetic metal this would just be the usual $`\delta =\sqrt{2/\mu _0\omega \sigma }`$, but in our case it is modified by the frequency dependence of the permeability $`\widehat{\mu }`$. Figure 3 shows the frequency dependence of this skin depth at 301.5 K and in an applied field of 0.19 T, as extracted from the data (open squares) and the model used above to fit the surface impedance data (solid line). The dashed line shows the skin depth for a non-magnetic metal with the same resistivity. What is clear in the figure is that the skin depth has a local maximum at the FMAR frequency, and is in fact enhanced over the non-magnetic value. Thus at this frequency the microwave fields penetrate farther into the sample, and the currents are flowing in this thicker layer, thereby reducing the surface resistance. However, it is worth noting that the thickness of this sample was approximately 800 $`\mu `$m, and therefore it is clear that the skin depth remains smaller than the sample thickness even at the FMAR frequency.

### B Field-dependence of $`\omega _r`$ and $`\omega _{ar}`$

From the data shown in Fig. 1 and similar data at other temperatures, we can extract the field and temperature dependence of the ferromagnetic resonance and the ferromagnetic anti-resonance frequencies. Figure 4 shows the magnetic field dependence of the ferromagnetic resonance and anti-resonance frequencies at three representative temperatures, including 301.5 K as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. As expected, both frequencies increase with increasing applied field and with decreasing temperature. As is clear from Eq. (16), the local magnetization $`M_0`$ can be directly extracted from these resonance and anti-resonance frequencies. The results of such analysis at the same three temperatures are shown in Fig. 5. As expected, once again, the magnetization is seen to grow with decreasing temperature, and also to increase slightly with applied field.

As we have mentioned above, at the higher applied fields it is possible to use Eq. (17) to determine the demagnetization factor $`N_z`$. However, we have found that it is not appropriate to apply this high-field analysis at low fields where the FMR and FMAR frequencies become independent of field (see Fig. 4). It is clear that the existence of the local fields $`H_{loc}`$ cannot be neglected as the applied field approaches zero. In fact, it is precisely these fields that allowed us to observe the FMAR, and to extract the spontaneous magnetization, even in the absence of an applied field. In order to fully describe the data shown in Fig. 4, it is necessary to account for this field $`H_{loc}`$. We can solve Eqs. (13) and (14) for the total internal field

$$\mu _0H_i=\frac{\omega _r^2}{\gamma \omega _{ar}}.$$
(19)
These data, again for the same three representative temperatures, are shown as a function of the applied field in Fig. 6.

What we see in Fig. 6 is that at 276.6 K for example, $`H_i`$ is small and roughly constant for $`H_0<0.06`$ T, and then rises roughly linearly at higher fields. This can be understood in the following way. At low applied fields, there is reorientation of the magnetic domains within the sample which give rise to a demagnetization field $`H_d`$ which exactly cancels $`H_0`$. Thus in this regime $`H_i=H_{loc}=0.017`$ T (because of the random orientation of $`H_{loc}`$ this is an average local field throughout the sample). However, at $`\mu _0H_00.06`$ T, the magnetic domains are all aligned, the demagnetization field saturates at $`H_d=N_zM_0`$, and as the external field is increased it penetrates the sample. Therefore we presume that the demagnetization field for the data at 276.6 K has the following form:

$`\mu _0H_d=\mu _0H_0\mathrm{for}\mu _0H_0`$ $``$ $`0.06\mathrm{T}`$ (20)
$`\mu _0H_d=N_z\mu _0M_0\mathrm{for}\mu _0H_0`$ $`>`$ $`0.06\mathrm{T}.`$ (21)
As we have argued earlier in deriving Eq. (17), at large field values $`H_{loc}`$ can be ignored. This is due in part to the fact that $`H_{loc}H_0`$, but also to the fact that $`H_{loc}`$ is randomly oriented within the sample. Therefore for fields $`H_0H_{loc}`$ we would expect that $`H_{loc}`$ would simply broaden the FMR and FMAR lines and not shift them. If we calculate the total internal field $`H_i`$ using the known applied field, the demagnetization field given by Eq. (21), and an $`H_{loc}`$ which has a constant magnitude of 0.17 T but is averaged over all orientations, then we arrive at the solid line on Fig. 6. It is clear that this provides an excellent description of the dependence of the total internal field on the applied external field.

Finally, using this empirical form for $`H_i`$, and the magnetization data shown in Fig. 5, it is possible to model the complete field dependence of the ferromagnetic resonance and anti-resonance frequencies with Eqs. (13) and (14). This is shown, again only at 276.6 K, by the solid lines on Fig. 4, and it is clear that it provides an excellent description of the data throughout the entire range of applied fields. The same analysis can be carried out at other temperatures in order to obtain a full description of all of the data.

## V Conclusions

By measuring the broadband frequency dependence of the surface impedance of La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 we have shown that the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert expression for the dynamic susceptibility provides an excellent description of the complete microwave spectra, including the ferromagnetic resonance and anti-resonance features. In addition, we have performed a quantitative analysis of the field dependence of these features, and have shown that they can be modeled extremely well with rather simple expressions for the field dependence of the magnetization, the demagnetization field, and the local internal fields. To our knowledge, this is the most extensive study of the frequency, field, and temperature dependence of the microwave properties of a ferromagnet.

In addition, we would like to stress that in contrast to conventional magnetization measurements, the technique presented here is sensitive to the average local magnetization of the material. At each point in the sample, the local magnetization is interacting with the local static and dynamic magnetic fields to produce the dramatic FMR and FMAR features, which are then averaged over the entire sample. As we have reported earlier, this fact allowed us to measure the spontaneous magnetization of this material in the absence of any applied magnetic field. Conventional magnetization measurements require the application of an applied field in order to produce a net magnetization in the sample. Finally, the broadband nature of the surface impedance measurements presented here have allowed us to determine this local magnetization of La0.8Sr0.2MnO3 over wide magnetic field and temperature ranges.

###### Acknowledgements.

We would like to thank Y. Mukovskii and colleagues at the Moscow State Steel and Alloys Institute for growing the samples used in this study. We also thank S. Bhagat and S. Lofland for providing the samples to us, and for many useful and interesting discussions about these materials. This work was supported by NSF Grant No. DMR-9624021, the University of Maryland NSF-MRSEC Grant No. DMR-0080008, and the Maryland Center for Superconductivity Research.