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# Untitled Document

EFI-01-25 hep-th/0010154

Density of States and Tachyons in Open and Closed String Theory

Vasilis Niarchos vniarcho@theory.uchicago.edu

Enrico Fermi Inst. and Dept. of Physics

University of Chicago

5640 S. Ellis Ave., Chicago, IL 60637, USA

In this note we reexamine the possibility of constructing stable non-supersymmetric theories that exhibit an exponential density of states. For weakly coupled closed strings there is a general theorem, according to which stable theories with an exponential density of states must exhibit an almost exact cancellation of spacetime bosons and fermions (not necessarily level by level). We extend this result to open strings by showing that if the above cancellation between bosons and fermions does not occur, the open strings do not decouple from a closed string tachyon even in the NCOS scaling limit. We conclude with a brief comment on the proposed generalization of the AdS/CFT correspondence to non-supersymmetric theories.

10/2000

1. INTRODUCTION

In field theory one can pose the following question. Is it possible to find stable, non-supersymmetric, weakly interacting theories with an exponential density of states? This is an interesting question for a number of reasons. For example, QCD appears to be an example of this type of theories. In the limit of a large number of colors it contains an infinite number of weakly interacting mesons \[1,,2\]. These states are expected to lie on Regge trajectories and their density to be exponential. A different reason is the more general question of supersymmetry breaking in string theory and in particular the problem of the cosmological constant.

String theories generically possess a Hagedorn spectrum of states and therefore offer a suitable arena to discuss the above questions. The situation for closed string theories has been analyzed in \[3,,4\] (see also \[5,,6\] for a related discussion) and has been found that in the context of a generic weakly coupled closed string theory the existence of tachyon instabilities and the density of states are related. More precisely, whenever a string theory is tachyon free, the number of bosons almost cancels the number of fermions. Following \[3,,4\] we refer to this almost exact cancellation by using the term asymptotic supersymmetry. A special case of this phenomenon occurs for supersymmetric theories, because supersymmetry guarantees the exact matching of the number of bosons and fermions in the physical spectrum. In general, however, spacetime supersymmetry is not necessary for a stable theory with an exponential density of states and this matching may or may not be strictly exact. The necessary property is asymptotic supersymmetry. We review the relevant arguments in section 2.

Along these lines, it is natural to ask whether a similar situation appears in open string theories as well. Naively, this does not seem to be the case, because there are known examples of string theories with open string spectra that include an exponential density of states without the above boson-fermion cancellation and without an open string tachyon. As we are going to see, however, an open string spectrum with an exponential density of states and no asymptotic supersymmetry cannot be IR stable in the weak coupling regime, because it cannot be decoupled from a closed string tachyon even in the NCOS (noncommutative open string) scaling limit. Hence, asymptotic supersymmetry is needed in open string theories as a condition for stability of the bulk and not as a condition for stability of the branes.

As an example of this general phenomenon, we discuss D-branes in the type 0 theories and comment on the proposed AdS/CFT correspondence in this class of theories.

2. CLOSED STRING THEORY We mentioned above that in weakly coupled closed string theory, there is a general theorem relating the existence of tachyon instabilities with the density of states. Following \[3,,4\] let us briefly review this result. Consider a generic closed string vacuum. The torus partition function takes the general form

$$Z_T(\tau )=\mathrm{Tr}__\mathrm{c}q^{L_0\frac{c}{24}}\overline{q}^{\overline{L}_0\frac{c}{24}}$$

where $`q=e^{2\pi i\tau }`$ and $`\tau =\tau _1+i\tau _2`$ is the worldsheet modulus. In terms of this partition function the one-loop free energy $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ equals

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=_{}\frac{d^2\tau }{\tau _2^2}Z(\tau )$$

where $`Z(\tau )\tau _2Z_T(\tau )`$ and $``$ is the fundamental domain of the moduli space of the torus. In field theory the corresponding amplitude has a UV divergence and needs to be regularized, but in closed string theory this divergence is cut off automatically by restricting the integral to the fundamental domain. Thus, the only possible divergence of $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is an IR one (coming from $`\tau _2\mathrm{}`$) and is associated with the presence of tachyons in the physical spectrum of the theory.

Now define the following function

$$G(\tau _2)_{\frac{1}{2}}^{\frac{1}{2}}𝑑\tau _1Z(\tau )$$

The integration over $`\tau _1`$ correctly implements the level matching condition $`L_0=\overline{L}_0`$ for the left and right movers. In terms of the Coleman-Weinberg formula, which gives $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ as

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{Tr}(1)^F\mathrm{log}(p^2+m^2)=_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{ds}{s}\underset{n}{}(1)^{F_n}d^Dpe^{s(p^2+m_n^2)}$$

the $`G`$ function reads

$$G(\tau _2)=\tau _2\underset{n}{}(1)^{F_n}d^Dpe^{2\pi \tau _2(p^2+m_n^2)}$$

From this formula we see in particular that spacetime fermions contribute with a minus sign and therefore it is natural to write $`G`$ as

$$G=G_BG_F$$

In the $`\tau _20`$ limit both $`G_B`$ and $`G_F`$ take the general form

$$G_{B,F}\tau _2^xe^{y/\tau _2}$$

and can be thought of as regularized versions of the number of states of the system. In particular, $`G`$ can be thought of as a measure of the difference between the number of bosonic and fermionic degrees of freedom in the physical spectrum of the theory.

The theorem of references \[3,,4\] postulates that under very mild assumptions the following relation holds

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=_{}\frac{d^2\tau }{\tau _2^2}Z(\tau )=\frac{\pi }{3}\underset{\tau _20}{lim}G(\tau _2)$$

In any infrared stable theory the l.h.s. of this equation is finite. It follows then that

$$\underset{\tau _20}{lim}G(\tau _2)=\underset{\tau _20}{lim}(G_B(\tau _2)G_F(\tau _2))=\mathrm{const}$$

Hence, in any tachyon-free theory bosons and fermions in the physical spectrum almost cancel. This cancellation takes place in the asymptotic high energy limit $`\tau _20`$ and may not be exact or level by level, but the total difference of states up to some high energy level must asymptotically approach the low residual density of states counted by $`G`$. In fact, as explained in \[3,,4\], the $`G`$ function converging to a constant in the $`\tau _20`$ limit corresponds to a 2-dimensional field theoretic density of states. This phenomenon of asymptotic cancellation between the number of bosons and fermions up to a 2-dimensional density of states is what we refer to as asymptotic supersymmetry. The conclusion is that any stable weakly coupled closed string theory, if not supersymmetric, has to be at least asymptotically supersymmetric.

From this point of view closed string tachyon condensation proceeds in the following way. Suppose we start with an unstable weakly coupled closed string theory. Then, the spectrum of this theory does not have asymptotic supersymmetry and includes for example an exponential density of purely bosonic degrees of freedom. After tachyon condensation there are two possibilities. Either the new theory is strongly coupled, in which case we cannot say anything from the point of view of our analysis, or the new theory is still weakly coupled. In that case, the new vacuum must be asymptotically supersymmetric. That means that either an exponential density of fermions has dynamically appeared to match asymptotically the density of bosons, or more drastically spacetime collapses down to two dimensions by some violent mechanism (probably of the sort encountered in \[7\]). This qualitative picture also seems to be in agreement with the picture one has about closed string tachyon condensation from the point of view of the worldsheet. From that point of view the closed string tachyon corresponds to a relevant perturbation on the worldsheet and under the renormalization group the worldsheet theory flows from the UV to the IR. Because of the c-theorem, the c-function will have a smaller value in the IR and this suggests either that fermionic degrees of freedom have appeared in the new stable vacuum, or that the spacetime dimension has been drastically reduced.

3. OPEN STRING THEORY For closed string theory modular invariance was critical to the proof of the above theorem. For open strings analogous results can be obtained by using worldsheet duality. Open string theory generally possesses different sectors, but for the moment let us restrict our discussion to the case of an $`ab`$ sector, corresponding to boundary conditions $`|a,|b`$. For this sector we consider the annulus partition sum

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{ab}=_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dt}{t}\mathrm{Tr}_{_{ab}}q^{L_0\frac{c}{24}}=_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dt}{t}A_{ab}(t)$$

where $`q`$ is now redefined to be $`q=e^{2\pi t}`$ and $`A_{ab}(t)\mathrm{Tr}_{_{ab}}`$$`q^{L_0\frac{c}{24}}`$. Again, the Coleman-Weinberg formula (1) gives

$$A_{ab}(t)=\underset{nab}{}(1)^Fd^Dpe^{2\pi t(p^2+m_n^2)}$$

where by $`_{nab}`$ we signify a sum over the open string states of the $`ab`$ sector. In parallel to the closed string case, the $`t0`$ limit of $`A_{ab}=A_{B,ab}A_{F,ab}`$ counts the asymptotic difference between the number of bosonic and fermionic degrees of freedom within the $`ab`$ sector and in general both $`A_{B,ab}`$ and $`A_{F,ab}`$ take (in this limit) the form (1)

$$A_{B,F}(t)t^xe^{y/t}$$

As we know \[8,,9\], we may use worldsheet duality to rewrite $`A_{ab}`$ in terms of the transverse closed string channel variable $`\stackrel{~}{q}=e^{\frac{\pi }{t}}`$

$$A_{ab}(t)=2tb|\stackrel{~}{q}^{\frac{1}{2}(L_0+\overline{L}_0\frac{c}{12})}|a$$

and reinterpret the above UV divergences (from the $`t0`$ limit) as IR effects associated to the propagation of closed string modes. An exponential divergence signals the existence of a closed string tachyon with a nonzero coupling to the open strings. This tachyon has a negative mass squared $`\frac{2y}{\alpha ^{}}`$ in direct relation to the power of the exponential divergence in (1). Similarly, the next dominant term (or the first dominant term if there are no tachyons in the bulk) is a negative power that corresponds to the propagation of massless closed string modes. This power

$$A_{ab}(t)t^x$$

can be determined in the following way. For momentum $`k^\mu `$ flowing between the cylinder boundaries, the annulus amplitude (1) also includes a factor $`e^{\alpha ^{}k^2s/2}`$ in the large $`s=1/t`$ limit. Of course, without any external open string insertions this momentum is zero, but we can insert it as a regulator into the annulus partition sum

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{ab}_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dt}{t}t^xe^{\frac{\omega }{t}}$$

and afterwards take the limit $`\omega =\frac{1}{2}\alpha ^{}k^20^+`$. After a change of variables this amplitude becomes

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{ab}_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{ds}{s}s^xe^{\omega s}=\omega ^x_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑zz^{x1}e^z=(\frac{1}{2}\alpha ^{}k^2)^x\mathrm{\Gamma }(x)$$

From the field theory point of view this result should be proportional to the momentum pole $`\frac{1}{k^2}|_{k^\mu =0}`$. Clearly, this can only happen when $`x=1`$, in which case, as we take the limit $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^2t0`$, $`A_{ab}(\mathrm{\Lambda })\mathrm{\Lambda }^2`$ and therefore corresponds to a 2-dimensional field theoretic density of states.

In summary, we conclude that in any given open string sector a net exponential density of states yields a nonzero coupling of the open strings to a closed string tachyon. On the other hand, the absence of this coupling to a closed string tachyon implies a cancellation between the bosonic and fermionic degrees of freedom up to a 2-dimensional density of states. This result is analogous to the one that has been obtained in the closed string case, but there are also some major differences. In the closed string case the stability of the theory was synonymous to asymptotic supersymmetry, but in the open string case instabilities can be due to either an open or a closed string tachyon. It is the absence of a coupling to a closed string tachyon that is equivalent with asymptotic supersymmetry. Open string tachyons, instead, signal the existence of lower energy configurations for the D-branes in question. This observation seems to be implying something deep about the importance of asymptotic supersymmetry in weakly coupled string theories. Its presence, even for those degrees of freedom that live on the branes, appears to be intimately connected to the nature of spacetime. This phenomenon has also been observed in matrix theory, where asymptotic supersymmetry seems to be a crucial requirement for locality and cluster decomposition \[10\].

The same arguments can be applied beyond the spectrum of a particular open string sector $`ab`$. To implement our conclusions for a collection of open sectors we would have to consider the annulus partition sum

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_A=\underset{ab}{}\mathrm{\Omega }_{ab}=\frac{dt}{t}A(t)$$

where $`A(t)_{ab}A_{ab}(t)`$ and the summation is performed over all the sectors we are considering. Apart from this minor modification the preceding discussion goes through unchanged.

The noncommutative open string case It has been argued in a recent series of papers \[11,,12\], that there are consistent open string theories without a coupling to the closed sector. If a full decoupling of this sort were always possible, tachyon free open string theories with an exponential density of states and no asymptotic supersymmetry would be examples of the stable theories discussed in the introduction. But these are precisely the kind of string theories we excluded by the above considerations. The resolution to this problem is rather straightforward. A careful examination of the decoupling argument in the NCOS shows that the closed string tachyon and a 2-dimensional portion of the massless closed string spectrum do not in general decouple from the open sector.

The idea behind the NCOS construction is to start with an ordinary string theory of open plus closed strings and take a particular scaling limit by turning on a near critical electric field. The resulting open string theory has the same spectrum and the same annulus partition sum as before but it is described by a new effective string length given by the fixed value $`\alpha _{\mathrm{eff}}^{}=\frac{\theta }{2\pi }`$, $`\theta `$ being the noncommutativity parameter, a new open string coupling $`G_o`$ and a fixed open string metric $`G_{MN}`$, which can be set to $`\eta _{MN}`$. At the same time, the closed string coupling $`g_s`$ is scaled to infinity, whereas the closed string metric is given by the form $`g_c=\left(\begin{array}{cc}g& 0\\ 0& g\end{array}\right)1_{(D2)\times (D2)}`$ and $`g`$ is also sent to infinity. For simplicity, we have assumed that the branes have only one common direction and that the near critical electric field is turned on in this direction, which we set as the direction 1. In this context, consider the process of an open string turning into a closed string. The open string dispersion relation reads

$$(p^0)^2=(p^1)^2+m_o^2$$

and the closed string dispersion relation

$$\frac{1}{g}(p^0)^2=\frac{1}{g}(p^1)^2+(\stackrel{}{p})^2+m_c^2$$

For $`g\mathrm{}`$ we get

$$0=(\stackrel{}{p})^2+m_c^2$$

If $`m_c^2>0`$, the above relation cannot be satisfied and the respective closed string modes decouple, as in the original argument. This is not the case, however, for $`m_c^20`$. In particular, the tachyon has $`m_c^2<0`$ and therefore does not decouple by the above kinematic argument. Hence, even in the NCOS scaling limit, an open string theory with an exponential density of states and no asymptotic supersymmetry cannot avoid coupling to a closed string tachyon and therefore must be IR unstable. Furthermore, for $`m_c^2=0`$, the massless modes too do not completely decouple. Kinematically, the modes that remain coupled to the open sector are confined in the direction of the electric field and become effectively 2-dimensional degrees of freedom. Of course, gravity decouples completely, since in our limit $`\alpha ^{}0`$ and gravity always decouples at low energy.

An example As a further illustration, we would like to present an example. For our purposes, a convenient setup is provided by the type $`0`$ theories. The D-brane spectrum of these theories has been analyzed and has been found to consist of two types of mutually consistent branes plus their anti-branes. 1 Open string descendants of the 0B type were constructed by orientifold projection in . Following \[14,,15\] the first type, which will be called electric, is given by the boundary state

$$|Dp;+,+=|Dp,+_{NSNS}+|Dp,+_{RR}$$

whereas the second type, which will be called magnetic, is given by

$$|Dp;,=|Dp,_{NSNS}+|Dp,_{RR}$$

The +,$``$ signs in this notation refer to the choice of different spin structures one can use to define the gluing conditions satisfied by these boundary states. A detailed construction can be found in \[14\].

The open string spectrum of these branes is the following. Strings stretching between branes of the same type belong to the $`NS^+`$ sector, whereas strings stretching between branes of different type belong to the $`R^+`$ sector. For this theory a generic configuration of parallel D-branes exhibits a tachyon-free open string spectrum with an exponential density of states and no asymptotic supersymmetry. As one might expect, these branes also have a nontrivial coupling to a closed string tachyon (see references \[16,,17\]) and this coupling will also persist in the NCOS scaling limit by virtue of the above discussion.

In addition, it has been noted in \[16,,17,,18\] that the above coupling to a bulk tachyon vanishes for a dyonic pair consisting of an electric plus a magnetic brane. From our point of view, this is clearly expected. On a dyonic pair of branes the open string spectrum is asymptotically supersymmetric and the closed string tachyon decouples. In fact, it is worth noticing that in this case the number of bosons exactly matches the number of fermions level by level, despite the absence of spacetime supersymmetry . In \[16,,17\] it was argued that for weak t’Hooft coupling such a D-brane system exhibits a closed string tachyon stabilization and that AdS/CFT correspondence in this non-supersymmetric setting makes sense. In that argument, however, tachyon condensation is a tree-level effect at weak coupling and the bulk spectrum continues to have no asymptotic supersymmetry. Thus, it is not clear how such a mechanism could be reconciled with the analysis of section 2. This difficulty with the tachyon is even greater for a stack of $`N`$ branes of the same type. The closed string tachyon in the bulk cannot be stabilized in the weak coupling regime because it must remain coupled to the $`U(N)`$ gauge theory on the branes. Therefore, in such a generalization of the AdS/CFT correspondence to non-supersymmetric theories one cannot neglect the closed string tachyon on the “CFT” side.

4. CONCLUSIONS

In this note we posed the following question. Is it possible to find stable, non-supersymmetric, weakly interacting theories with an exponential density of states? Probing this question in the context of perturbative string theory, we commented on the correlation between tachyon instabilities and exponential densities of states without asymptotic supersymmetry. We saw that, as in the case of closed string theories, the density of states of an open string spectrum dictates the coupling of the open strings to closed string tachyons. It was stressed that this coupling is not an accidental fact that can be removed by decoupling the closed sector. Even in the NCOS scaling limit this coupling remained as needed by the above discussion on the density of the open string states.

A natural question to ask is the following. What is the meaning of these conclusions for large $`N`$ QCD? Clearly, there are three possibilities. One possibility is that large $`N`$ QCD presents an example of a stable, weakly coupled theory with an exponential density of states. In that case, however, the discussion of this note shows that it cannot be described by a weakly coupled string theory of the usual kind and one must find a different kind of string theory to describe it. Another alternative is that large $`N`$ QCD does not present an example of the above type of theories, i.e. either it does not have an exponential density of states or it is not weakly coupled.

Finally, in recent years some evidence appeared for a deep connection between asymptotic supersymmetry and the emergence of large spacetimes with approximately local physics in string theory (see e.g.  or for a recent discussion  ). The analysis in this note is compatible with these ideas. Indeed, consider a vacuum of string theory which contains D-branes. If the spectrum of states that live on the D-branes is not asymptotically supersymmetric, the vacuum must suffer from a closed string tachyon instability, and spacetime (even very far from the brane) will collapse in the sense that was described at the end of section 2. This seemingly counter-intuitive relation between large breaking of supersymmetry on a brane, and instability of the bulk of spacetime might be a further sign of the above connection.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank D. Kutasov for many useful discussions and especially for his encouragement and support. Also, I would like to thank N. Prezas for several remarks on the second version of this paper. This work was supported by DOE grant DE-FG02-90ER40560.

References

relax S. Coleman, “Aspects of Symmetry, Selected Erice Lectures of Sidney Coleman,” Cambridge University Press, 1985 relax E. Witten, “Baryons in the 1/N Expansion,” Nucl. Phys. B160, (1979) relax D. Kutasov, N. Seiberg “Number of Degrees of Freedom, Density of States and Tachyons in String Theory and CFT,” Nucl. Phys. B358, 600 (1991) relax D. Kutasov “Some properties of (Non) Critical Strings,” hep-th/9110041 relax K. R. Dienes,“Modular Invariance, Finitenes and Misaligned Supersymmetry: New Constraints on the Numbers of Physical String States,” Nucl. Phys. B429, (1994) 533, hep-th/9402006 relax K. R. Dienes, M. Moshe, R. C. Myers, “String Theory, Misaligned Supersymmetry and the Supertrace Constraints,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 74 (1995) 4767, hep-th/9503055 relax E. Witten, “Instability of the Kaluza-Klein Vacuum,” Nucl. Phys. B195, (1982) 481 relax J. Polchinski, “String Theory, Vol. 1,” Cambridge University Press relax M. B. Green, J. H. Schwarz, E. Witten, “Superstring Theory, Vol. 2,” Cambridge Monographs On Mathematical Physics relax T. Banks, “Matrix Theory,” Nucl. Phys. Proc. Supp. 67 (1998) 180-224, hep-th/9710231 relax N. Seiberg, L. Susskind, N. Toumbas, “Strings in Background Electric Field, Space/Time Noncommutativity and A New Noncritical String Theory,” hep-th/0005040 relax R. Gopakumar, S. Minwalla, A. Strominger, “S-Duality and Noncommutative Gauge Theory,” hep-th/0005048 relax M. Bianchi, A. Sagnotti, “On the Systematics of Open String Theories,” Phys. Lett. B247 (1990) 517; A. Sagnotti, “Some Properties of Open-String Theories,” hep-th/9509080; “Surprises in Open-String Perturbation Theory,” Nucl. Phys. Proc. Supp. B56 (1997) 332, hep-th/9702093 relax M. R. Gaberdiel, “Lectures on Non-BPS Dirichlet Branes,” hep-th/0005029 relax O. Bergman, M. R. Gaberdiel, “A non-supersymmetric open string theory and S-duality,” Nucl. Phys. B499, 183 (1997), hep-th/9701137 relax I. R. Klebanov, A. A. Tseytlin, “D-Branes and Dual Gauge Theories in Type 0 Strings,” hep-th/9811035 relax I. R. Klebanov, “Tachyon Stabilization in the AdS/CFT Correspondence,” hep-th/9906220 relax A. A. Tseytlin, K. Zarembo, “Effective potential in non-supersymmetric SU(N)$`\times `$SU(N) gauge theory and interactions of type 0 D3-Branes,” hep-th/9902095 relax I. R. Klebanov, A. A. Tseytlin, “A Nonsupersymmetric Large N CFT from Type 0 String Theory,” JHEP 9903 (1999) 015, hep-th/9901101 relax T. Banks, “Cosmological Breaking of Supersymmetry or Little Lambda Goes Back to the Future II,” hep-th/0007146


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# Energy of a Conformal Scalar Dyon Black Hole

## I Introduction

The localization of energy is a long-standing problem in the theory of general relativity. Also, it is claimed that the energy cannot be localized. We do not share this opinion.

It is possible to evaluate the energy and momentum distribution by using various energy-momentum complexes. There exist an opinion that the energy-momentum complexes are not useful to get meaningful energy distribution in a given geometry. Virbhadra and his collaborators re-opened the problem of the energy-momentum localization by using the energy-momentum complexes. The results obtained for some space-times lead to the conclusion that different energy-momentum complexes give the same energy distribution for a given space-time -. Recently, Virbhadra  used some of these results and investigated the Seifert conjecture. The author calculated the energy distribution of a dilaton dyonic black hole  and the energy of the Bianchi type I solution . Also, we obtained the energy distribution in a static spherically symmetric nonsingular black hole space-time .

The purpose of this paper is to compute the energy distribution of a conformal scalar dyon black hole by using the Tolman and Møller prescriptions. We use the geometrized units $`(G=1,c=1)`$ and follow the convention that the Latin indices run from $`0`$ to $`3`$.

## II Energy in the Tolman prescription

Virbhadra  gave an exact solution of Einstein–Maxwell conformal scalar field equations which is a black hole solution and is characterized by the scalar charge, electric charge and magnetic charge. This solution is given by the line element

$$\begin{array}{c}ds^2=\left(1\frac{Q_{CSD}}{r}\right)^2dt^2\left(1\frac{Q_{CSD}}{r}\right)^2dr^2\\ r^2(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2)\end{array}$$
(1)
and the conformal scalar field is given by

$$\psi =\sqrt{\frac{3}{4\pi }}\left(\frac{q_s}{rQ_{CSD}}\right)$$
(2)
with $`q_s`$ the scalar charge, and where

$$Q_{CSD}=\sqrt{q_s^2+q_e^2+q_m^2}$$
(3)
In (2.3) $`q_e`$ and $`q_m`$ are the electric charge and, respectively, the magnetic charge.

The only non-zero components of the electromagnetic field tensor are

$$F_{rt}=\frac{q_e}{r^2},F_{\theta \phi }=q_m\mathrm{sin}\theta .$$
(4)
The solution given by (2.1) has an event horizon at $`r=Q_{CSD}`$. Also, this solution is the magnetic generalization of Bekenstein’s solution .

Tolman’s energy-momentum complex  is given by

$$\gamma _i^k=\frac{1}{8\pi }U_{i,l}^{kl},$$
(5)
where $`\gamma _0^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ and $`\gamma _\alpha ^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}0}}`$ are the energy and momentum components. We have

$$U_i^{kl}=\sqrt{g}\left(g^{pk}V_{ip}^l+\frac{1}{2}g_i^kg^{pm}V_{pm}^l\right)$$
(6)
with

$$V_{jk}^i=\mathrm{\Gamma }_{jk}^i+\frac{1}{2}g_j^i\mathrm{\Gamma }_{mk}^m+\frac{1}{2}g_k^i\mathrm{\Gamma }_{mj}^m.$$
(7)
Also, the energy-momentum complex $`\gamma _i^k`$ satisfies the local conservation laws

$$\frac{\gamma _i^k}{x^k}=0.$$
(8)
The energy and momentum in Tolman’s prescription are given by

$$P_i=\gamma _i^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}0}}𝑑x^1𝑑x^2𝑑x^3.$$
(9)
Using the Gauss theorem we obtain

$$P_i=\frac{1}{8\pi }U_i^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}0}\alpha }n_\alpha 𝑑S,$$
(10)
where $`n_\alpha =(\frac{x}{r},\frac{y}{r},\frac{z}{r})`$ are the components of a normal vector over an infinitesimal surface element $`dS=r^2\mathrm{sin}\theta d\theta d\phi `$.

We get the expression of the energy in the Tolman prescription in the case of a general spherically symmetric space-time that is described by the line element

$$ds^2=B(r)dt^2A(r)dr^2D(r)r^2(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2).$$
(11)
The energy is given by

$$E(r)=\frac{r}{2}\frac{\sqrt{A(r)B(r)}\left(A(r)D(r)\right)}{A(r)}.$$
(12)
After some calculations, by using (2.12) we obtain for the CSD black hole

$$E(r)=Q_{CSD}\left(1\frac{Q_{CSD}}{2r}\right).$$
(13)
The total gravitational energy of a CSD black hole which is obtained for $`r\mathrm{}`$ in (13) is equal to its CSD charge.

## III Energy in the MØller prescription

Møller’s energy-momentum complex  is given by

$$\mathrm{\Theta }_i^k=\frac{1}{8\pi }\frac{\chi _i^{kl}}{x^l},$$
(14)
where

$$\chi _i^{kl}=\sqrt{g}\left(\frac{g_{in}}{x^m}\frac{g_{im}}{x^n}\right)g^{km}g^{ln}.$$
(15)
The energy in the Møller prescription is given by

$$E=\mathrm{\Theta }_0^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}0}}𝑑x^1𝑑x^2𝑑x^3=\frac{1}{8\pi }\frac{\chi _0^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}0}l}}{x^l}dx^1dx^2dx^3.$$
(16)
The Møller energy-momentum complex is not necessary to carry out the calculation in the quasi-Cartesian coordinates, so we can calculate in the spherical coordinates.

For the line-element given by (2.1) the $`\chi _0^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}01}}`$ component is

$$\chi _0^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}01}}=\frac{2(rQ_{CSD})Q_{CSD}\mathrm{sin}\theta }{r}$$
(17)
Now, substituting (3.4) in (3.3) and applying the Gauss theorem we obtain the energy of the CSD black hole

$$E(r)=Q_{CSD}\left(1\frac{Q_{CSD}}{r}\right).$$
(18)
In the Møller prescription the second term in the expression of the energy is twice the value obtained by using the Tolman energy-momentum complex.

It is important to note that the total gravitational energy of the CSD black hole has the same expression as in the Tolman prescription and is given by the CSD charge.

## IV Discussion

The main purpose of the present paper is to show that it is possible to “solve” the problem of the localization of energy in relativity by using the energy-momentum complexes.

Bondi  sustained that a nonlocalizable form of energy is not admissible in relativity so its location can in principle be found. Some interesting results which have been found recently show that the several energy-momentum complexes can give the same and acceptable result for a given space-time. Also, in his recent paper Virbhadra  emphasized that though the energy-momentum complexes are non-tensors under general coordinate transformations, the local conservation laws with them hold in all coordinate systems. Chang, Nester and Chen  showed that the energy-momentum complexes are actually quasilocal and legitimate expressions for the energy-momentum.

We have calculated the energy of a CSD black hole by using the Tolman and Møller energy-momentum complexes. In the Tolman prescription the energy associated with the CSD black hole is found to be the same as it was earlier evaluated by Virbhadra in the Weinberg prescription. The Møller energy-momentum complex gives for the second term in the expression of the energy twice the value obtained by using the Tolman energy-momentum complex. The total gravitational energy of the CSD black hole obtained when $`r\mathrm{}`$ is the same in the both Tolman and Møller prescriptions and is equal to the CSD charge.

Also, we obtain the expression of the energy distribution in the case of a general static spherically symmetric space-time by using the Tolman prescription.

## V Acknowledgments

I am grateful to K. S. Virbhadra for his helpful advice.

REFERENCES


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# Rigidity of Orientationally Ordered Domains of Short Chain Molecules

## Abstract

By molecular dynamics simulation, discovered is a strange rigid-like nature for a hexagonally packed domain of short chain molecules. In spite of the non-bonded short-range interaction potential (Lennard-Jones potential) among chain molecules, the packed domain gives rise to a resultant global moment of inertia. Accordingly, as two domains encounter obliquely, they rotate so as to be parallel to each other keeping their overall structures as if they were rigid bodies.

Recent molecular dynamics (MD) simulations by Fujiwara and Sato have demonstrated that randomly agitating short chain molecules immersed in a hot heat bath are packed into an orientationally-ordered hexagonal structure by sudden cooling to a low temperature. In this evolution process, “domains” of orientationally ordered chain molecules first grow randomly and locally at different places and then, as neighboring domain boundaries encounter, they coalesce rapidly with each other and develop into one large hexagonal structure in a stepwise fashion.

Very recently, an experimental study on the structure formation of s-polypropylenes by Heck et al.  has also disclosed that crystal blocks are first emerging in planner assemblies and then merge to each other to form a lamella structure.

These simulation and experiment results are interesting enough to challenge us to reveal how locally formed domains or blocks coalesce. The previous Fujiwara-Sato (FS) simulation indicates that the coalescence of two domains take place almost instantaneously during the relaxation process from a random configuration to an orientationally-ordered hexagonal structure.

In the model of the FS simulation, the temperature of the heat bath in which chain molecules were immersed was fixed to a finite value (400 K), so that each chain molecule suffered from thermal fluctuation. This fluctuation makes it difficult to investigate motion of the chain molecules under the Lennard-Jones (LJ) potential interaction. We, therefore, keep the temperature of the system $`T=0`$ K to remove the effect of thermal fluctuation and place two hexagonally packed domains in contact side by side with a certain tilt angle. With this initial condition we perform MD simulations and examine the dynamical evolution of the two domains. We adopt the united atom approximation. The united atoms interact via the bonded potentials (bond-stretching, bond-bending, and torsional potentials) and the non-bonded potential (LJ potential). The atomic force field used here is the DREIDING potential. The numerical integration of the equations of motion is performed using the velocity Verlet algorithm . The integration time step is 1.0 fs. The cutoff distance for LJ potential is 10.5 Å. The units of length and energy are $`\sigma =0.36239`$ nm and $`ϵ=0.1984`$ kcal/mol, respectively. A chain molecule consists of 20 united atoms; the mass of the united atoms is $`m=14`$ g/mol.

The MD simulation is carried out by the following procedure. We allocate chain molecules in all-trans states and pack such 61 chains hexagonally. The distance between the nearest chains is 0.75 nm; this value was chosen from the previous work. We prepare a pair of hexagonal domains, each consisting of 61 chain molecules, and put side by side in such a way that the two domains are in contact at one side of a hexagonal cylinder. Then, in order to find a minimum energy configuration, we run MD simulation for some period with the heat bath temperature of $`T=5`$ K, until the physical quantities, such as LJ potential energy and bonded-potential energy, show saturation. Finally, we reduce the temperature of the system gradually from $`T=5`$ K to 0 K and run simulation at $`T=0`$ K to obtain a minimum energy state. The Nosé-Hoover method is used in the above simulation to keep the temperature of the system constant.

With this preparation of initial setup of the simulation environment, we stand on the starting line of our main simulation run. We rotate one domain by $`\pi /6`$ against the other domain and start simulation. We note here that the Nosé-Hoover method is not used but only equations of motion are solved in this simulation run.

The overall evolution of the two domains are shown in Fig. 1, where the top and bottom panels are respectively the top and side views. From Fig. 1 it is seen that two domains start moving and their orientations become almost parallel at 10.8 ps, as if they were rigid bodies. From this fact, we expect that the LJ potential must have produced an overall torque to make the domains parallel to each other.

The observation that two domains behave as if they were rigid bodies is a striking fact. This is because the interaction forces connecting different chains are the short-range forces of the non-bonded LJ potential under which only the nearest chains interact predominantly. However, it appears that all chains in the same domain react collectively and each domain behaves as if it were a rigid body.

To reveal this striking and remarkable behavior, namely, rigidity of packing, we investigate the time evolutions of the orientations of chain molecules and domains. For this purpose, we define each direction vector of chain molecule in the right domain as $`𝒖_i^\mathrm{R}(t)(i=1,\mathrm{},61),`$ which is a unit vector of the principal axis with the smallest moment of inertia of the $`i`$th chain at time $`t`$. The direction vector of the right domain, $`𝑼^\mathrm{R}(t)`$ is also defined by the average of all chain-molecules’ direction-vectors belonging to the right domain, as follows:

$$𝑼^\mathrm{R}(t)\frac{_{i=1}^{61}𝒖_i^\mathrm{R}(t)}{|_{i=1}^{61}𝒖_i^\mathrm{R}(t)|}.$$
(1)
For the left domain, we define the directions of each chain and the left domain by changing the suffix “R” to “L”, which denotes the left domain, in the above definitions.

We pick up three chain molecules in the right domain, which are indicated by 1, 2 and 3 in Fig. 2. Calculating each angle $`\theta `$ between each chain’s direction vector and the basis vector $`\text{ }𝒆\text{ }(𝑼_\mathrm{L}(0))`$, the time dependence of the angle is plotted in Fig. 3. Blue and red solid curves denote the time evolutions of the left and right domain angles, respectively. It is found that the domain relaxation time is of the order of 10 ps. Figure 3 shows that there appears some time delay $`\delta t`$ between the angle of the chain on the contact surface and that of the chain on the edge; the value of $`\delta t`$ is estimated to be 4 ps from this figure. This fact gives us an evidence that the domain motion is not “rigid” in a strict sense but something like an “elastic” body. From our observations we come up with the following scenario: At first, a torque appears on the contact surface between the tilted domains and then it is transferred to the chain molecules one by one. It takes about 4 ps for information to reach from the contact surface to the edge of the domain. After this initial information exchange of about 4 ps, the phase delay through the domain is mixed up and all chain molecules oscillate in phase. On observing this chain molecules’ motion in the long time scale of the domain’s motion, we find that the time delay of chain molecules is negligible. Therefore, the motion of domain may be regarded as a “quasi”-rigid body.

The binding interaction forces come from the LJ potential and the three bonded potentials (bond-stretching, bond-bending, and torsional potentials). Since the potential function of each force is known, we can evaluate the oscillation period in each potential well around the minimum energy state. The period is given in Table. I. From this table we can say that the binding forces due to the bonded potentials are harder than that of the LJ potential. This indicates that it would be hard to excite each bonded atom in a chain molecule and to destroy the bonded chain structure. In other words, we may well regard each chain as a rigid chain. From this consideration, we can pay attention only to the rigidity of the LJ potentials acting upon the neighboring chains.

In order to examine the rigidity of the LJ potentials in hexagonally packed domains, we, first of all, pick up one unit hexagonal cell that consists of 7 chains, one chain being surrounded by hexagonally distributed 6 chains (the 7 rigid-chain model) as shown in Fig. 4. We can derive the LJ potential $`\varphi `$ as a function of the tilt angle of the central chain $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$; the central chain consists of the 20 united atoms, the position of which are denoted by $`𝒓_\mathrm{s}(s=1,\mathrm{},20),`$ and the center of mass of the central chain is defined by $`𝒓_\mathrm{c}.`$ The LJ potential $`\varphi (\mathrm{\Omega })`$ is plotted in Fig. 5 when the tilt is made in the $`XZ`$ plane and in the $`YZ`$ plane. The valley of the potential $`\varphi `$ is deeper and steeper than the LJ potential of one united atom. Therefore, when the central chain is deviated from the balanced position, a restoring force, which puts the molecule back to the balance point, is intensified compared with the case of randomly distributed chains.

To estimate quantitatively the hardness of the packed lattice, we calculate a restoring oscillation period $`\tau `$ of oscillation in the potential valley, $`\varphi (\mathrm{\Omega }).`$ To do so, we need physical values of the packed lattice. In the vicinity of the minimum energy point, we may well approximate the LJ potential by the parabolic function as follows:

$$\varphi (\mathrm{\Omega }_i)\varphi (0)\frac{1}{2}k_i\mathrm{\Omega }_i^2,(i=XZ,YZ).$$
(2)
The values of $`k`$’s are given in Table II. The restoring period of the motion of a chain around the minimum energy state in the parabolic potential $`\varphi `$ is given by

$$\tau _i=2\pi \sqrt{\frac{I}{k_i}},(i=XZ,YZ),$$
(3)
where $`I`$ is the moment of inertia of the central chain molecule of the hexagonal configuration around the center of mass $`𝒓_\mathrm{c}`$, i.e., $`I=_{s=1}^{20}m\left(𝒓_s𝒓_\mathrm{c}\right)^279.1m\sigma ^2.`$ By plugging the $`k`$’s values given in Table II and the obtained $`I`$ value into Eq. (3), the restoring period $`\tau `$ of the central chain is calculated to be about 0.36 ps as given in Table II. This value is of the same order as the torsional bonded potential. This fact indicates that the non-bonded LJ potential among chain molecules is strengthened by hexagonal packing to the same order as the torsional bonded potential. Consequently, the non-bonded LJ potential acts to bind strongly neighboring chains as if it were the bonded potential.

By using the obtained $`\tau `$, for the unit hexagonal cell, we shall next go on to estimate the resultant relaxation time of the whole domain. Since the restoring information must pass over $`9`$ unit neighboring hexagonal cells until the information reaches the edge of the domain from the contact surface, the time delay is estimated to $`9\times \tau 3.2`$ ps. This obtained value is of the same order as the simulation result, of 4 ps. The difference between the values must be caused by the omission of the bonded potentials in the 7 rigid-chain model.

In conclusion, it is demonstrated that hexagonally packed chain molecules at low temperatures behave as if they were quasi-rigid bodies, despite the fact that the packing is done preliminarily by the weak, non-bonded short-range LJ potential.

This work was carried out by the Advanced Computing System for Complexity Simulation (NEC SX-4/64M2) at National Institute for Fusion Science.


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# Introduction.

## Introduction.

We have embarked on a project of multi-epoch observations of the quadruple images of the two gravitationally lensed objects B1422+231 and MG J0414+0534 to compare possible structural changes in the lensed images and measure possible shifts in the relative positions of the sub-images. Here we present our images from the first epoch observations on 23 November 1997.

## Imaging of B1422+231.

B1422+231 is a quadruple gravitational lens object discovered by Patnaik et al. (1992). The maximum image separation between the four components is 1.3 arcsec. The background radio source is associated with a 15.5 mag QSO at redshift $`z`$=3.62 (Patnaik et al. 1992). The lensing object is an elliptical galaxy at $`z`$=0.338 (Tonry 1998). The lensing system has been modelled with an elliptical potential and a shear (see Mao & Schneider 1998 and references therein). The optical images from the Hubble Space Telescope (Impey et al. 1996) show the lens object close to the faintest sub-image. We show in Fig. 1 our VLBI images of B1422+231. The bright components, A, B, and C are stretched along the direction joining them, in accordance with (general) lens modeling. The much weaker image D shows some elongation towards the lensing galaxy. Our images are in good agreement with those obtained at 8.4 GHz from Patnaik et al. (1999). The images are consistent with a background compact radio source without a prominent, extended jet-like structure.

## Imaging and modeling of MG J0414+0534.

MG J0414+0534 is a quadruple gravitational lens system discovered by Hewitt et al. (1992), with maximum separations between components of 2.12 arcsec. The background object is a 21.2 mag QSO with $`z`$=2.64 (Lawrence et al. 1995). The lensing potential is due to an elliptical galaxy at redshift $`z`$=0.96 (Tonry & Kochanek 1999) and its likely neighbor, a galaxy $``$1.51 arcsec away (P.A. of $`14^{}`$). Hubble Space Telescope observations revealed an optical blue arc joining the three brightest components (Falco et al. 1997).

We present global VLBI images of this system in Fig. 2. The individual images exhibit radio structures extending up to 100 mas. The images are labeled, from the brightest to the weakest as A1, A2, B, and C. From lens modeling, the structure of B is the most similar to that of the background radio source, a double compact structure with a double jet. A1 shows the most complex structure, with the core-like region and both jets quite distorted. A2 is similar to B, but rotated and mirrored. For C we only detect emission at the northern side of the jet. The morphology of our images is very similar to that presented in Trotter et al. (2000) at 5 GHz.

We reproduce successfully the relative positions and peak of brightness ratios of the radio cores with a lens model consisting of a singular isothermal ellipsoid (for the elliptical galaxy visible at the optical, and placed at the center between the four radio images) with an external shear, and a secondary potential given by a singular isothermal sphere (associated with a small object close to the west of component B). The model predicts that B is the leading image, and C lags all the other images. The delays from B are of 15.7$`\pm `$1.3, 16.0$`\pm `$1.4, and $`66\pm 5`$ days for A1, A2, and C, respectively. In our model, the spherical isothermal ellipse potential (constrained by the images) is aligned with the optical images of the lens galaxy. We plan to refine and study further our lens model by adding the constraints provided by the lensed jets, using new software that avoids the problem of matching components along these jets, in the different lensed images.

We observed these radio sources again on 8 June 1999, and new observations are scheduled for late 2000. Once these new epochs are analyzed it might be possible to measure changes in the brightness peak positions of both radio sources and/or morphological evolution in the core-like and jet-like regions of MG J0414+0534.

## Acknowledgements

This work has been partially supported by the Spanish DGICYT Grants No. PB96-0782 and PB97-1164 and by European Comission’s TMR-LSF programme, contract No. ERBFMGECT950012.


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# Type Ia supernovae: differences due to progenitors within delayed detonation explosions

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The increasing quality and quantity of Type Ia observations, indicate that they are not such an homogeneous class of events as it was previously thought. Moreover, several interesting correlations between observed properties are obtained (see Leibundgut this volume). These correlations could give hints about the underlying explosion mechanisms and progenitors. To understand the event and the reasons of the differences is a pre-requisite to use SNIa for cosmology (at least, for us). The observations of SNIa at high redshifts have lead to the conclusion that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating . Together with the Cosmic Microwave Background observations, the mass density parameter and the cosmological constant have been estimated, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$0.3 and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\lambda `$0.7.

There are some observational evidences that indicate a relation of SNIa with the morphological type of the host galaxy . In ellipticals, as compare with spirals, less events are found, they are more homogeneous (in maximum brightness and decline rate of the light curve) and in general, they are dimmer. This could mean a correlation with the progenitor population and consequently evolution in time.

Different evolutionary paths could lead to an explosive degenerate WD and several explosion mechanisms could blow up this WD (see Woosley this volume). Probably each of them contribute up to some degree to the SNIa population. In this work we have decided to fix both, the scenario and explosion mechanism and just change the initial mass and composition of the WD progenitor.

We have chosen the delayed detonation (1D) explosion of a Chandrasekhar mass WD because this scenario accounts for most of the observational constraints. The key parameter is the transition density, $`\rho _{tr}`$, the density at which the deflagration turns into a detonation. Varying $`\rho _{tr}`$ the optical and IR light curves and spectra evolution of normal and subluminous SNIa are reproduced. Subluminous SNIa are found to be redder, as observed. Moreover, the brightness-decline relation (LCs of brighter events decline slower) used in all the cosmological applications, is obtained . Other correlations, like the CaII H+K $`\&`$ Si minimum velocities and mean Ni velocity with brightness are as well reproduced.

## 2 MODELS

We have studied the evolution of intermediate mass stars, with masses in the range, 1.5 $``$ M/ M $``$ 8, and initial composition, Z=0, 10-5, 0.001 (Y=0.23) and Z=0.02 (Y=0.285). The evolution is followed from the pre-main sequence to the thermal pulse AGB phase, including several pulses. The mass and chemical structure of the obtained degenerate CO core depends on the initial mass and composition. It is assumed that the future CO white dwarf has the mass and chemical structure of this CO core. Accretion of H on the WD is performed at high rates up to the central C ignition at $`\rho _c`$=2.0 109 g/cm3. At that time, the mass of the CO WD is close to 1.37 M. Note that the final amount of C and O in the accreted matter is nearly equal (C/O$``$1).

For the set with Z=0.001, delayed detonation explosions, detailed post-processing and light curves are computed. The description of the velocity of the deflagration front is based on 3D simulations . Explosions with several transition densities are performed, $`\rho _{tr}`$: 1.5, 1.8, 2.0, 2.3, 2.5 and 2.7 107 g/cm3.

### 2.1 Numerical methods

The 1D hydrostatic evolutionary code FRANEC is used for the stellar evolution . An extended nuclear network is employed for both, the H burning (269 reactions) and the He burning (147 reactions). A time dependent mixing is adopted and the physical and chemical evolutions are coupled.

The explosions and light curves are computed with a 1D radiation-hydrodynamic code including nuclear networks . The hydrodynamics equations are solved explicitly by the piecewise parabolic method , the frequency averaged radiation transport equations are solved implicitly via moment equations and expansion opacities and a detailed equation of state are included. The nuclear burning (post-processing) includes 218 to 606 isotopes . The same code is used for the subsequent expansion and bolometric and monochromatic light curves calculations. In this phase nuclear burning is neglected and gamma ray transport is taken into account using a Monte Carlo scheme. The scattering, photon redistribution and thermalization terms used in the light curve opacity calculation are calibrated with NLTE calculations .

## 3 RESULTS

We do not expect variations beyond a few tenths of a magnitude by changing the initial mass and composition of the progenitor. Previous studies were based on parameterized C/O ratios  or a progenitor with $`7M_{}`$  indicating a change of $`0.3^m`$ for a 40 % change in the C/O or $`0.1^m`$ for a change in the metallicity from 0.02 to 0.001, respectively. In our calculations, the maximum difference obtained in C/O is $``$ 22$`\%`$. Note that the amount of accreted matter (bigger for the smaller cores) acts as a uniform factor. This means that in the case of pure mergers (two cores) the final difference would be slightly bigger.

C/O is more sensitive to the initial mass than to the initial composition. For Z=0.001, we have followed the explosion and we have computed the LCs. Varying the initial mass from 3 to 5 M, changes C/O from 0.78 to 0.73 M, Ni mass from 0.51 to 0.48 M (6$`\%`$ !) and kinetic energy from 1.18 to 1.17 1051 erg (for $`\rho _{tr}`$= 2.0 107 g/cm3). In Figure 1, we show the B and V light curves for the 3M and 5M models.

In summary, MMAX is found to change from 0 to 0.03 mag when the initial mass and composition of the WD progenitor vary. The application of the brightness-decline relation results in $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_{MAX}`$ 0.1 mag.

Greater differences in the LCs are likely produce by the burning conditions, as $`\rho _{tr}`$ . For example, for the 3M, Z=0.001 models, a change in $`\rho _{tr}`$ from 1.5 to 2.7 107 g/cm3 leads to a change in the Ni mass from 0.17 to 0.72 M. We like to stress that we treat progenitors and burning conditions completely uncoupled and this is probably not the case. In 3D calculations the composition gradients would influence the velocity of the front. Other effects like mixing and rising blobs could be relevant. On the other hand, different scenarios, rotation and crystallization could strongly modified pre-explosive conditions.

Other important constraints obtained from the observations are the velocity range in which the different elements are found and the isotopic abundances as compare with the solar abundances. For the same transition density, differences in the global kinetic energy as function of mass and composition of the progenitor are small and the velocity range for the different elements does not vary in more than few hundreds km/s. 68Zn, 48V and 4He change by more than a factor of 5 when initial mass is changed. While a change greater than a factor 2 is found for 14N, 17O, 18O, 19F, 20Ne, 21Ne, 23Na, 25Mg, 26Mg, 42Ca, 43Ca, 46Ti, 60Ni, 61Ni, 64Zn, 66Zn, 67Zn, 63Cu and 65Cu.

As a final remark, we like to stress that the final CO core mass and C/O ratio depend on the treatment of turbulent convection and on the $`{}_{}{}^{12}C(\alpha ,\gamma )^{16}O`$ reaction rate  (see Imbriani et al., this volume). Changing this reaction rate from the high to the low rate given by , remarkable differences in C/O and consequently in Ni mass and kinetic energy are obtained. For the 3 M, Z=0.001 C/O changes from 0.74 to 1.53; Ni mass from 0.50 to 0.63 M and the kinetic energy from 1.15 to 1.37 1051 erg ($`\rho _{tr}`$=2.0 107 g/cm3).