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# Morphology and Evolution of the LMC Planetary Nebulae1footnote 11footnote 1Based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555.

## 1 Introduction

The nature of the physical connection between planetary nebulae (PNe) and their central stars has been studied for the better part of the last century, and a good deal of physical insight into the late stages of stellar evolution has emerged as a consequence. As images have improved, it has become surprisingly clear that mass loss is far from isotropic. These and other observations have challenged our understanding of the formation of PNe, and of the role of their central stars (CSs) in the subsequent evolution of the shells. This latter topic has received a great deal of attention in the past three decades, driven by the availability of new techniques in observing and in theoretical modelling. That the shapes of the ejected PN shells should somehow relate to the formation mechanism is perhaps easy to intuit, but the connection between nebular morphology and the Population type of the progenitor stars (Greig, 1972) is not so easy to understand. Subsequent work by many investigators (e.g., Peimbert, 1978; Peimbert & Torres-Peimbert, 1983; Kaler, 1983, to name but a few) began to connect nebular abundances to the results of stellar evolution processes in the central stars immediately prior to PN formation. It is primarily from these connections that the relationship between asymmetric PNe and higher CS (and progenitor star) mass can be inferred.

But what is it, exactly, that PN morphologies tell us about their formation history? How can we relate morphology to the physical properties of the nebulae, their environments, and especially their CSs? In principle, morphology should reflect one or more factors, which we might characterize as either “local” — relating to properties of the CS and the immediate vicinity at the time of formation — or “non-local” — relating to conditions that exist or develop after the PN is formed. Local properties would include the dynamics of the gas at the moment of ejection, departures from spherical symmetry of the gravitational or magnetic field immediately surrounding the CS, and by the amount of dust within the expelled gas. Non-local properties include the circumstellar environment, including mass ejected from the CS prior to the PN ejection and the density of the local ISM, and the radiation field and wind from the CS, both of which change rapidly as the star evolves to a white dwarf. Balick (1987) presented compelling evidence for a restricted sample of Galactic PNe that nebular morphologies can be greatly influenced by the energy (from wind and radiation) deposited in the nebula by the CS. What was lacking most was a sense of the relative importance of local vs. non-local factors on nebular morphology, and whether the influence of these factors varied with morphological type. While comprehensive catalogs of PNe have been available for some time (e.g. Acker, et al., 1982), no systematic morphological classification scheme on a large PN sample was published before the 1990s.

In the early part of the last decade Schwarz, Corradi, & Melnick (1992) published a catalog of nearly 300 southern Galactic PNe, and a few years later a similar effort was completed by Manchado, et al. (1996) for 243 northern PNe. More recently, Górny, et al. (1999) published a catalog of an additional 100 southern PNe. Combined with earlier, more limited image catalogs, these large databases are proving essential for defining and refining the morphological classes, and for deriving their statistical properties. A number of papers based on these catalogs lead to a new view of PN formation, and how it is related to the evolution of the progenitor stars (Stanghellini, Corradi, & Schwarz, 1993; Corradi & Schwarz, 1995). The interpretation that emerged was that PN morphology is an essential physical property, linked to details of the progenitor formation (i.e., the parent stellar population), the main sequence mass and evolution of the progenitor, and the dynamical evolution of the nebula once it was formed. In particular, it confirmed that progenitors of the most asymmetric PNe belong to a younger stellar population than those that form elliptical or round PNe, that they are on average more massive and produce more massive central stars, and that the nebulae are rich in nitrogen but are relatively carbon-poor compared with most PNe.

Many of the important physical properties that one can derive from observations of a PN and its central star, including the nebular dimensions, mass, dynamical age, and the stellar luminosity and mass, depend upon the correct determination of their distances. But the distances to Galactic PNe have been problematic for decades, as relatively few individual PN distances are accurately determined. Typically, statistical methods of distance determination have been used to derive these important properties, in spite of the difficulty of distinguishing nebulae that are optically thick from those that are optically thin to H ionizing radiation, where different statistical techniques are employed. But even if these statistical distances were accurate for a given PN sample, it is often hard to draw conclusions when the PN sample so derived is small—e.g., when dealing with rare morphologies such as point-symmetric PNe. Studies of Galactic PNe are also vulnerable to selection biases, such as extinction through the Galactic plane that can make certain PN populations more difficult to observe. For instance, bipolar PNe (and asymmetric PNe in general) are more concentrated in the Galactic disk, with a scale height of roughly half that of symmetric (round or elliptical) PNe (Manchado, et al., 2000). Thus asymmetric PNe are somewhat more affected by interstellar extinction, and are more likely to fall below detection thresholds. In principle, the sample of asymmetric PNe could be significantly under-represented, rendering statistical comparisons between symmetric and asymmetric PNe less valid.

The idea of investigating the morphologies of PNe in the Magellanic Clouds arises from these difficulties, but it requires HST imaging to determine their classifications with certainty. HST observations of LMC PNe began with an early program by Blades, et al. (1992), and was followed up by Dopita, et al. (1996) and Vassiliadis, et al. (1998). Unfortunately, all of these observations were acquired with the spherically aberrated HST before the first servicing mission in 1993, which limits their utility. Stanghellini, et al. (1999) summarized these observations and expanded the analysis of these data to study the LMC PN morphologies. Another, more recent set of LMC PN images were acquired by Dopita (HST Program 6407), but to date they have not been published.

Our Cycle 8 program (ID: 8271), a snapshot survey using STIS slit-less spectroscopy, both dramatically enlarges the existing pool of LMC PN images obtained with HST, and provides the most complete information on extra-galactic PN morphology achieved to date. This is because our observing technique yields the shape of the PNe in several prominent recombination and forbidden lines, in addition to the line fluxes, thus giving morphological and spectral information at once. With the fruits of our survey we can use morphology as an independent parameter to search for relationships between the physics of the nebulae and their progenitor stars, and we can do this better than in prior surveys. The survey is 58% complete, but the observing policy for SNAPSHOT observations with HST means that few of the remaining targets are likely to be observed. If more PNe are observed in the future, we will include and analyze them in subsequent papers.

While the major motivations for this LMC survey was the detection of PN morphology in a sample that was free of distance- and extinction-biases, this was not the only motivation. The different metallicity of the LMC and the Galaxy allows a comparative study of PN formation and evolution in environments where the initial (progenitor) chemistry differ. An planned extension of our program to the SMC will permit an exploration of these effects with an even larger metallicity baseline.

In this paper we describe our program, from planning to results, and we focus on the morphology of the nebulae and their peculiarities. In $`\mathrm{\S }`$2 we describe our dataset, including the target selection criteria, the observing techniques, and the calibration process used to obtain the images of the figures. In $`\mathrm{\S }`$3 we describe our morphological classification, the nebular dimensions, and comment on individual characteristics of the nebulae. Section 4 discusses the morphology in relation to the evolution of the nebulae, explores the variation of nebular expansion velocity with size and morphology, and concludes with comments on selection effects and other caveats. Section 5 presents the conclusions and looks forward to future projects.

## 2 The LMC PN Dataset

### 2.1 Target Selection

The main tactical thrust of our program is to determine the morphology of a large number of PNe in the monochromatic light of a number of important emission lines, and to determine the chemical abundances from ground-based spectroscopy. Since HST images are the most expensive and critical commodity, we needed to make maximum use of existing images in the Hubble Data Archive, in spite of the poor quality of some of the images (which were affected by spherical aberration), and the lack of images in the continuum and in low-ionization lines (Stanghellini, et al., 1999). We elected not to include these targets in our survey, but they may be worth re-observing in the future.

In view of the aim of our scientific project, to correlate morphology with the physical and chemical characteristics of the nebulae, their central stars, and their immediate environment, we required moderate resolution spectroscopy for all PNe in our survey. For this reason, and to help maximize the chance that our selected targets were genuine PNe, we selected where possible PNe with published spectra, either from ground-based or (ideally) from HST observations. We also ensured that our sample was widely spread over the face of the LMC in order to explore any relationships that might exist between properties of the nebulae and location within that galaxy. These constraints still left us with a large number of candidate targets, so that we were free to exclude PNe in exceptionally crowded fields of bright sources: such contamination is particularly problematic for slit-less spectroscopy. But in the end, the major constraints in our target selection were the restrictions that apply to “snapshot” program with HST, the most severe of which is that they are limited to one orbit per visit; in general, the available exposure time is constrained to $`40`$ min, minus instrument overheads. Within these limits, we tried to select a sample of 50 PNe, out of the few hundred PNe known in the LMC (Leisy, et al., 1997), which spanned as large a range as possible in the \[O III\] and H$`\alpha `$ line fluxes in order to cover as large a range as possible of nebular age and other properties.

### 2.2 Observations

The data presented here were obtained with HST using the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS). The design for this instrument was described by Woodgate, et al. (1998), and the initial on-orbit performance was summarized by Kimble, et al. (1998). All of our observations were made with the CCD detector, using a gain of 1 $`e^{}`$/ADU. Most of our exposures were split into two equal components to facilitate cosmic ray removal. We obtained slit-less spectra with the G430M and G750M gratings which yielded monochromatic images of the sample nebulae in several important emission lines. We also obtained direct, broad-band images with the clear (50CCD) aperture in order to measure central star magnitudes as faint as $`V24`$ with a short exposure, and to distinguish between the spatial and the velocity structure in extended and/or rapidly expanding nebulae. The observing log is presented in Table 1.

The STIS CCD plate scale of 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$051 pixel-1 yields a physical scale of $`0.025`$ pc pixel-1, which is comparable to ground-based images of Galactic PNe. Only one of the nebulae in our sample had been previously resolved from the ground, and few emission line fluxes beyond H$`\beta `$ 4861 Å and \[O III\] 4959, 5007 Å had been published. We therefore planned our exposures to achieve a signal-to-noise ratio of $`30`$ per pixel for a typical nebula of 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 in diameter and a roughly uniform surface brightness distribution, but we bracketed our exposure times where possible to avoid saturation (for angularly small nebulae) while still providing sufficient signal (for large nebulae) to make a good morphological classification. Finally, the limitations of HST “snapshot” programs (e.g., a maximum of one orbital period per target) meant that the G430M exposure for the faintest target, LMC-J 41, had to be omitted in favor of a strong detection in G750M.

The G750M spectra cover the wavelength range from 6295–6865 Å, which includes emission from H$`\alpha `$ 6563 Å and \[N II\] 6548, 6583 Å: these are the primary lines used for morphological classification. For those nebulae with relatively high surface brightness, the exposures also contain monochromatic images of \[S II\] 6717, 6731 Å, He I 6678 Å, and (for low-ionization nebulae) \[O I\] 6300, 6363 Å. Together, these lines reveal the low- to moderate-ionization morphological features, which are the most important for tracing the earliest phase of the morphological evolution of the nebulae. The mean dispersion for G750M is 0.56 Å pixel-1 (26 km s-1 pixel-1), so that no overlap of the monochromatic images occurred in the \[S II\] lines, nor between \[N II\] 6548 Å and H$`\alpha `$, for nebulae less than $``$1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$4 in diameter. Some of the nebulae are larger than this, and for these cases the continuum images were used to help distinguish the spatial features from velocity structure. (The overlapping lines for a few of the nebulae do not affect the measurements and classifications presented in this paper.) The G430M spectra cover the wavelength range from 4818–5104 Å, and include emission from H$`\beta `$ 4861 Å and \[O III\] 4959, 5007 Å. These lines provide the morphology at intermediate ionization, and can also be used to infer the ionization structure within the nebulae. The mean dispersion of 0.28 Å pixel-1 (17 km s-1 pixel-1) means that the internal velocity structure of some of the nebulae could have been resolved, though this did not impede our ability to assign a morphological classification.

### 2.3 Calibration

The images and slit-less spectrograms were calibrated with the standard STIS calibration pipeline, version 2.3, released 1999 October (see Hodge, et al., 1998b). Processing in all cases included basic two-dimensional reductions, as described in Hodge, et al. (1998a), including corrections for bias and dark current, flat-fielding, and the combination of the paired exposures to remove cosmic rays. Special care was taken with the correction for the dark current because the temporal variation, which is related to the constant exposure of the CCD to high energy charged particles, is quite significant on a timescale of days. The calibration reference files for the dark correction are available from the HST archive approximately monthly, although individual dark frames are obtained on a daily basis. We down-loaded a script from the ST ScI Web site which enabled us to combine the so-called “weekly” dark reference files with $`5`$ individual dark frames that were obtained within a few days of each observation. The script corrects new hot pixels that deviate by more than 5-sigma from the weekly dark by using the median of the daily dark frames at that location. The resulting images are significantly improved compared to those processed without the constructed dark frame. However, it is apparent that a number of hot pixels are not corrected, or are not adequately corrected, by this procedure, which compromises the photometric accuracy on small spatial scales. Fortunately, none of the measurements or assessments offered in this paper are affected in a significant way by the imperfect dark correction.

## 3 Dimensions and Morphology

The broad-band and \[O III\] 5007Å images for the target nebulae (apart from three: see § 3.1 below) are presented in Figures Morphology and Evolution of the LMC Planetary Nebulae111Based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555. through Morphology and Evolution of the LMC Planetary Nebulae111Based on observations with the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, obtained at the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., under NASA contract NAS 5-26555.; the broad-band data are rendered as grey-scale images, and the \[O III\] images are rendered as contour plots. The grey-scale mapping is either the log or the square-root of the image intensity, in order to bring out the often faint structural features. The plots show contours on a linear scale, with 10% intensity intervals, to illustrate the structural features that are most relevant for the morphological classification.

We classified the morphologies in our sample from the \[O III\] 5007 Å monochromatic images in the G430M spectra (although we were guided by the H$`\alpha `$ and \[N II\] 6548 Å images), using a classification scheme similar to Manchado, et al. (1996). This classification scheme was recently extended (Górny, Stasińska, & Tylenda, 1997; Stanghellini, et al., 1999) to recognize explicitly the bipolar core (BC) nebulae that show distinct hemispheres of emission in the nebular core. Usually, but not always, such nebulae were classified as “Rs” or (more often) “Es” in the Manchado, et al. (1996) scheme, meaning that such nebulae have round or elliptical outer contours, but have internal structure. Our designation of BC indicates the presence of a bi-nebulous structure with an intensity contrast of $`20`$%. When present, such structure is in our view the more important morphological feature, in that these nebulae are more closely connected to pure bipolar (B) PNe than either R or E (see § 4, below). Support for this view also comes from L. Stanghellini (2000, in preparation), who found that the BC PNe in the Galaxy have a disk scale height that is much more similar to that of B than to E or R nebulae. Our distinction between E and R was based on whether the major axis of the 10% intensity contour exceeded the minor axis by more than 10%.

Usually the morphological class we assigned on the basis of structures evident in the \[O III\] image would not have been different had we instead used another, lower-ionization line such as \[N II\] 6583 Å. But in four cases (15% of the resolved nebulae) the classification might have changed: we identify these cases in the notes on individual nebulae, below. Table 2 gives our classifications and the nebular dimensions. The nebular dimensions were measured with respect to the 10% intensity contour of the outermost structure, and are presented in column 5 of the table. We also measured the formal photometric radii, according to the method described by Stanghellini, et al. (1999). This measurement gives an objective measurement of nebular angular size which is insensitive to the S/N ratio of the image, and is useful for evolution studies. It corresponds to the size of a circular aperture that contains 85% of the flux in \[O III\] 5007 Å, and is given in column 4 of the table.

### 3.1 Individual Nebulae

We describe in this section the morphological details for each nebula listed in Table 2.

J 41: This nebula has two distinct shells with elliptical outer contours, and an inner core that is bipolar in the light of H$`\alpha `$. The classification was based solely on the H$`\alpha `$ image, since no other emission lines were available. The central star is easily detected.

SMP 4: This elliptical PN has a faint, elliptical outer shell: it could be classified as E/AH following the Stanghellini & Pasquali (1995) classification scheme for multiple shell PNe. The central star is easily visible in the continuum image.

SMP 9: This nebula has a barrel shape, but the outer contour is elliptical. In the emission line images there is a marginal detection of a central equatorial enhancement (i.e., a ring). No central star is detected.

SMP 10: This spiral-shaped object has a classic point-symmetric morphology that is strikingly like that of a spiral galaxy. Although this morphology is unusual for a PN (and it is the only such PN known in the LMC), there is a Galactic PN (“GPN”), K4–55 (Manchado, et al., 1996) that looks very similar. SMP 10 could also be an incomplete bipolar, seen face on (see NGC 6309 in the catalogs by Balick 1987 and Schwarz, Corradi, & Melnick 1992). In SMP 10 two limbs, or arms, project obliquely on opposite side of an elliptical, almost round main body: one east of north, and the other west of south. In the \[N II\] images they measure about 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$1 at maximum thickness and 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$3 in extent. The nebula is of moderate overall ionization, but the arms include a region of distinctly lower ionization: these features are readily apparent on the \[N II\] 6548,83 Å lines but are less distinct in the H$`\alpha `$ image, and even less so in the \[O III\] images. The presence of these features is reminiscent of the Galactic PN NGC 6543, though of course the spatial resolution is insufficient to determine whether a jet from the central star is present and related to the low ionization emission regions. The central star is easily visible in the continuum image.

SMP 13: This nebula has a round outer contour, with a bipolar, if somewhat patchy, inner core. There is little if any stratification in the ionization. The central star is easily detected.

SMP 16: This is a bipolar planetary nebula with thick ring and a classic “butterfly” shape. Knots of emission are apparent along the ring in the \[N II\] images, but are less distinct in the H$`\alpha `$ and \[O III\] images. The ionization varies throughout the nebula: it is relatively high in the ring and the “wings” of the butterfly shape, but drops considerably near the outer edges of the wings. The nebula resembles the GPN NGC 2346. The central star is not visible through the ring.

SMP 18: The uncertain classification of this PN is a result of the contrast between its elliptical (possibly with a multiple shell) appearance in the continuum image, and either a slight asymmetry or a small central cavity the H$`\alpha `$ and \[O III\] images. The central star may be marginally detected.

SMP 19: This PN has an elliptical outer contour, but a clearly bipolar core. The ring-like structure is most apparent in the \[N II\] images. The central star is marginally detected.

SMP 25: This small PN has an elliptical outer contour, and a Gaussian intensity profile. The central star is easily detected.

SMP 27: The core of this object has the same quadrupolar morphology in all detected lines, including the broad-band image. Two extended nebular features are evident, though faint, in H$`\alpha `$, \[O III\] 5007, and the broad-band image. The outermost is an arc approximately 6$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$25 to the NW, which is directed inward (to the CS), with a curvature that is somewhat larger than that of a circle centered on the CS. This arc is approximately 7$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 long and 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$5 wide, and has a surface brightness $`10`$ times fainter than the central nebula. The other feature is a blob centered approximately 4$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$8 to the north, with dimensions 2$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$7 x 1$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$0, with a similar surface brightness to the arc. The blob is roughly aligned with the major axis of symmetry of the inner nebula.

The central (bright) region of this object is very highly ionized: there is no detection of \[S II\], \[O I\], and only very weak \[N II\]. On the other hand, \[O III\] 5007, 4959 are very strong relative to H$`\beta `$, and He I 6678 is easily detected. A ratio of the \[O III\] 5007 to H$`\alpha `$ images shows a relatively uniform inner structure, though the ratio falls to roughly one-third of the core value in the outer structures. Though the ionization apparently declines with distance from the CS, the ratio could conceivably be affected by a higher electron temperature or, alternatively, a higher O++ abundance in the inner region; long-slit spectroscopy with STIS can resolve this question.

It is very tempting to associate the outer features with the central PN, especially since it is otherwise not obvious how this gas is ionized. The features are not quite circularly symmetric, though this is not unusual for GPNe. Also, the outer features are at the limit of detection on these images, and other features may lurk beneath the noise. The central star is bright, and easily detected in the continuum image and in the dispersed images. SMP 27 has a measured expansion velocity of 33 km s-1 (Dopita, et al., 1988). If this velocity were constant throughout the life (and spatial extent) of the nebula, the implied dynamical age is 3500 yr for the inner region, and $`45,400`$ yr for the outer arc. A plausible explanation for the presence of the outer ionized structure is that the ionization front from the inner nebula has encountered remnant gas from the AGB wind that preceded the formation of the inner nebula, and the subsequent evolution of the CS to high temperature. The near-alignment of the ionized blob and the symmetry axis of the inner nebula suggests a kinematic connection to an asymmetric ejection from the CS.

SMP 28: At the first sight, this PN can be considered bi-nebulous (Greig, 1972), in that its main shape comprises two distinct blobs. Closer inspection of the H$`\alpha `$ and \[N II\] images reveals three roughly co-aligned blobs, separated by 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$2. The central blob is the brightest, and corresponds to the position of the central star, which is apparent on the continuum image. Two faint, thin arms are evident in the light of \[N II\] that extend obliquely from opposite sides of the central blob, which may be similar to the arms seen in SMP 10.

SMP 30: This object is morphologically similar to NGC 6853 in the Galaxy. Although this PN is clearly asymmetric, it is difficult to say for certain whether the morphology is bipolar or quadrupolar. The ionization structure is relatively complex: the ionization in general declines from center to the periphery, but there are tight knots of \[N II\] bright material at the ends of an equatorial axis that are rather more diffuse in the light of \[O III\]. A very faint star is detected close to the center of symmetry, which is probably the central star.

SMP 31: This PN is barely resolved; the classification as “R” is therefore uncertain. No central star is apparent.

SMP 34: Although this PN appears round in the continuum image as well as the H$`\alpha `$ and \[O III\] images; there is a hint of bipolar structure in the light of \[N II\]. The central star is detected.

SMP 46: This PN is ring-like in appearance, with a bright knot on the southwestern edge. No central star is detected.

SMP 53: This elliptical, barrel shaped PN does not clearly show a bipolar core. Nonetheless, a ring of emission is very clear in the light of a \[N II\] (and to some extent in H$`\alpha `$), thus we classify it BC. No central star is detected.

SMP 58: This PN is barely resolved; the classification as “R” is therefore uncertain. The central star is probably detected. We do not show this object in the figures, since there are no significant morphological features or nearby field stars of comparable brightness.

SMP 59: This object has quadrupolar morphology in all detected lines, including the broadband image. It shows a lot of internal structure, with a very knotty major axis, and a fainter minor axis that is not orthogonal (in the plane of the sky) to the major axis. The ionization structure generally follows the spatial structure, except that the knots of emission are spatially more confined in the light of \[N II\]. The bright central star is easily detected in both the continuum and the dispersed images.

SMP 65: This PN would be a classic round PN were it not that the core of the H$`\alpha `$ \+ \[O III\] emission is slightly displaced $``$0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$1 north of the CS. This object also has a faint, outer halo. The ionization is spatially fairly uniform, and relatively high, with no \[N II\] or other low-ionization species present in the spectrum. No central star is detected.

SMP 71: This PN is elliptical in every contour of constant intensity, but the major axis of the ellipse in the inner (bright) region is orthogonal to that of the outermost contour. The central star is not detected.

SMP 78: This object shows a barrel-shaped morphology very similar to that of SMP 53, except that the bipolar core is more evident. There is little ionization stratification, and no central star is detected.

SMP 79: This PN has an elliptical outer contour, with a bipolar core. This is the physically smallest BC nebula in the sample, with a radius of 0.05 pc, and a dynamical age of $`1400`$yr, assuming a constant expansion velocity of 37 km s-1 (Dopita, et al., 1988). The central star is not detected.

SMP 80: This is a round PN in continuum light, and in the light of H$`\alpha `$ and in the \[O III\] lines. However, the \[N II\] lines reveal an inner ring or bipolar shell that is $``$0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$4 in diameter.

SMP 81: This PN is barely resolved; the classification as “R” is therefore uncertain. The central star is detected. We do not show this object in the figures, since there are no significant morphological features or nearby field stars of comparable brightness.

SMP 93: This object is perhaps the most visually striking of the PN images presented here; we refer to it as the “monkey head” nebula. The morphology in continuum light and in all the detected emission lines shows a set of at least three asymmetric, interconnected rings. The strong \[N II\] lines show faint emission “bubbles” beyond the outermost rings, along the long axis of symmetry. With a maximum extent of 6$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$4, or 1.57 pc, this object ranks with the very largest PNe known in the Galaxy. The morphology is closely analogous to the GPN M2–53. No central star is apparent.

SMP 94: This object is not resolved (and hence is not shown in the figures). The dispersed images show a double-peaked velocity structure, with a width of $``$200 km/s. The ionization is fairly high, but peculiar, with prominent H$`\alpha `$, rather weak \[O III\] lines, and broad He II 6830 Å emission as well. These features suggests that this object may not be a PN, but could be a symbiotic star, as suggested by Dopita, et al. (1988).

SMP 95: This PN has an elliptical outer contour, but a clearly bipolar core, with faint ansae extending from the ends of the major axis of symmetry. This object shows moderate ionization, with prominent \[O III\] lines, but relatively strong \[O I\], \[N II\], and \[S II\] lines as well. No central star is detected.

SMP 100: This is a most interesting PN, with rather complex morphological features and ionization structure. This object has an elliptical outer contour and a bipolar (or possibly quadrupolar) core denoted by bright lobes at either end of the minor axis, though the lobe to the NW is brighter by nearly half and much more spatially extended. The structure in the \[O III\] lines is similar to that in H$`\alpha `$, except that the brightness contrast in the lobes is much higher in \[O III\]. The low-ionization \[N II\] lines, on the other hand, are only detected in knots that define a ring, with the strongest knots lying just outside the ends of the \[O III\] emission lobes. The central star is somewhat faint, but is easily detected.

SMP 102: This object is a round PN, with many emission knots surrounding a central cavity; it may have a bipolar core. The ionization is relatively high, with no emission detected in the \[N II\] lines except in the bright knot lying to the SW of the moderately bright central star.

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 The Full Sample

With this dataset, together with the 31 resolved LMC PNe for which monochromatic images exist in the HST archive, we can for the first time compare the incidence of PNe among morphological types between the LMC and the Galaxy, and search for evidence of temporal evolution among morphological types. For this purpose we adopted the dimensions and morphological data from Stanghellini, et al. (1999). We also retrieved archival HST/WFPC2 images of 14 additional LMC PNe from the GO program 6407 (PI: M. Dopita). These images were obtained with narrow-band filters centered on \[O III\] 5007 Å and H$`\alpha `$ 6563 Å (though in the latter case there is some contamination from \[N II\] 6548 Å, which is of no consequence here). Our dimensional measurements and morphological classifications, which were performed exactly as for the STIS data presented above, are independent of the quality of the calibration. However, the derivation of the mean surface brightness (discussed below) does require a good calibration, so we re-calibrated the WFPC2 data using the standard pipeline, and performed cosmic-ray rejection when more than one frame was available. The dimensions and our morphological classifications for these objects are given in Table 3.

### 4.2 Morphology and Nebular Evolution

In Table 4 we compare the relative number of PNe in each morphological class from the combined LMC sample with that in the Galaxy, based on our classification of the PNe in the sample defined by Manchado, et al. (2000). We re-classified all of these nebulae because the BC class was not recognized as important in itself when these catalogs were published, and because we were interested to see whether our classifications agreed those of other experts in the field. Our BC nebulae corresponded to a subset of what had been classified as E or R in the earlier catalogs—and very often these nebulae were given a sub-class of “s” to denote some degree of apparent structure. Apart from this distinction the disagreements were rare. For the comparison between the LMC and the Galaxy, the B, BC, and Q, types were combined to form a single “asymmetric” class of nebulae. This comparison is important because bipolarity has been shown to be an indication of Population I ancestry for PNe in the Galaxy, and recently this relationship has been extended to the LMC by Stanghellini, et al. (2000). Though the number of classified nebulae in the LMC (59) is $`1/5`$ the number in the Galactic sample, the fractions of elliptical vs. asymmetric nebulae are quite different between the LMC and the Galaxy. Taken at face value, this result would imply that a much larger fraction of the PNe in the LMC were produced by a younger Population of stars than in the Galaxy. If so, the most direct interpretation would be that the star formation history of the LMC PNe progenitors is very different than that of the Galaxy (averaged over the volume defined by the Galactic PN sample). While there is evidence to support a burst of star formation occurring in the LMC within the last 4 Gyr (Grebel, 1998), it may well be that some, or perhaps most, of the discrepancy between PN morphological classes can be attributed to selection effects in either PN sample.

We next explore the question of temporal evolution of nebular morphology by examining it in the context of the change in nebular surface brightness with nebular size. All of the nebulae are resolved, though three are smaller than 0$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$30 (6 pixels) in diameter. We present the relationship in Figure 1, where the various morphological types are mapped to symbols according to the legend. For this purpose, we actually derive the mean surface brightness in the \[O III\] 5007Å line within the photometric radius, corrected for interstellar extinction according to the formula:

$$I_{corr}=I_{obs}\times 10^{c(1+f_\lambda )}$$

where $`c`$, the logarithmic extinction at H$`\beta `$, is taken from Meatheringham & Dopita (1991a, b) and $`f_\lambda `$, the extinction law from Howarth (1983) for the LMC, is approximately 0.02 at 5007Å. Since this sample is drawn entirely from the LMC, the radius is linearly proportional to the physical size of the nebula, which is also a rough indicator of nebular age (but see § 4.3 below). The dotted line in the figure corresponds to a decline in nebular surface brightness proportional to $`R^3`$, which is roughly consistent with the data. The actual change in surface brightness of an evolving PN must relate in a fairly complex way to the expansion of the nebula, the change in ionization, temperature and density of the gas, and the simultaneous and potentially very large changes in the temperature and luminosity of the central star as it evolves during the PN lifetime. That this relationship could be so simply characterized (albeit with large deviations) is interesting, and may help constrain evolutionary models.

The figure shows that ten of the eleven angularly smallest nebulae ($`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}13R_{Phot}0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}26`$) are round or elliptical. In this size regime most of the nebulae are well resolved (i.e., exceed in size a STIS CCD spatial resolution element of 2 pixels), and the detected signal per pixel is very high (usually $`>10^4`$ counts pixel-1, and $`>10^5`$ counts in total). However, three of the nebulae have radii of $`0`$$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$15; the morphological classification in these cases is less certain because faint structural details may not be resolved. The lack of asymmetric nebulae at small sizes could be interpreted as an evolutionary effect: that is, any initial asymmetry in the gas distribution and velocity field of R or E nebulae may not have had time to manifest itself in the morphology, while extreme B nebulae (the progeny of the most massive and luminous central stars) may evolve so quickly through this phase that they are unlikely to be detected. As we will show in the next subsection, the asymmetric nebulae in this sample have higher mean expansion velocities. But we cannot rule out the possibility that observational selection is largely responsible for the disproportionate fraction of R+E nebulae at small size, mostly because the catalogs from which we selected our sample contain PNe that are relatively bright in \[O III\] 4959, 5007Å, the presence of which is often used as a criterion for classification as a PN. Certainly the small number statistics in this size regime makes firm conclusions about evolutionary effects for small PNe difficult. In any case, the onset of asymmetric features is known to appear in very young Galactic PNe (e.g., M 2-9 and CRL 2688), and even SMP 74 in the LMC is probably younger than $`2000`$ yr. This suggests that the gross features of the nebular morphology are well connected to PN formation. What is more clear in our sample is the segregation of bipolar core PNe (between $`0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}30R_{Phot}0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}70`$), which have a round or elliptical outer contour, and pure bipolar nebulae ($`>0\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}70`$, or $`>0.18`$ pc). This suggests that the bi-polarity may become the dominant morphological feature during the lifetime of BC nebulae, perhaps through subsequent shaping by the radiation field and wind from the central star (Balick, 1987). This result, when combined with the identification of BC with B as the products of a younger stellar population (Stanghellini, et al., 2000), lends support to the identification of the BC class as a physically important morphological feature.

### 4.3 Nebular Expansion

We alluded above to the connection between the physical size of the PN and its age, i.e., the time elapsed since the visible PN shell was ejected from its progenitor. The “dynamical” age, the ratio of the physical size to the current expansion velocity, has been used for this purpose under the assumption that the expansion has been constant throughout the life of the nebula. The validity of this assumption has been questioned by many, and some (e.g. Dopita, et al., 1987; Dopita & Meatheringham, 1990; Dopita, et al., 1996; Vassiliadis, et al., 1998) have argued that the nebular shell experiences acceleration during the transition of the CS to high temperature at constant luminosity. We explore this point in Fig. 2, where we show the variation of nebular expansion velocity with physical radius for this LMC sample. The physical radius was derived from our data by scaling the photometric radius by 0.245 pc arcsec-1; the velocities, derived from the \[O III\] 5007 Å line, were taken from Dopita, et al. (1988) and corrected according to Stanghellini, et al. (1999) (i.e., those derived by measuring the width of single line profile were reduced by a factor of 1.82). The most striking feature of this plot is that, for nebulae smaller than $`0.1`$ pc, the expansion velocities deviate, and are generally less than, the mean of $`20`$ km s-1. The significant differences between this plot and that in Dopita & Meatheringham (1990, Fig. 4) are that the nebular radii are much more accurate, and that the morphological types are known. All of the PNe in this range are of type R or E, though the types of the three smallest nebulae are less certain (see § 4.2). A possible interpretation is that nebular shells experience an acceleration from the central star until they reach a critical size, by which time the acceleration becomes negligible either because of geometrical dilution of the shell or because the central star luminosity has substantially declined. Which effect applies would depend upon the relative rate of evolution of the shell vs. the central star: the less massive CSs have lower maximum luminosities, and therefore might be expected to provide less acceleration. At the other extreme, another possibility is that acceleration of the shells is nearly zero in these PNe (i.e., those larger than 0.03 pc), but that some nebulae (mostly of type R or E, evidently) expand very slowly. In this case, the nebulae would have to fade below the detection limit before they reach $`0`$$`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{.}}`$1 in size.

We believe it is difficult to draw firm conclusions about shell accelerations, and therefore about nebular dynamical ages, based upon the available velocity data. The spectra of the \[O III\] 5007 Å profiles were obtained at $`12`$ km s-1 resolution (Dopita, et al., 1988), so that in a number of cases the correction for the instrumental profile was comparable to or exceeded the measurement (see the dotted line in Fig. 2). Ignoring these points significantly weakens the case for acceleration in this size regime. More importantly, the spectrograms did not resolve the nebulae spatially, so that high velocity components, when detected, cannot be associated directly with common morphological details seen in these or other nebulae, such as shells, rings, FLIERS, or jets. That is, at least for some nebulae, it is not clear whether the expansion velocity measured from this one moderate-ionization line is representative of the nebular expansion as a whole. To illustrate the point, nebulae in which multiple velocity components were detected are connected in the Figure with symbols at the extrema of the velocity range. Detailed interpretation of complex velocity structures in PNe, such as that published by Guerrero, et al. (2000) for NGC 6891, is very important for establishing the kinematics of the expanding nebula. We believe it is important to obtain spatially resolved, high resolution spectroscopy of the LMC PNe to relate reliably the expansion velocities to nebular dynamical ages.

### 4.4 Caveats and Selection Effects

Although we believe the morphology of PNe in the LMC reveals an important clue about the Population of the progenitors, we must be mindful of selection effects that may affect our interpretation. As we described in § 2.1, our sample was drawn from surveys that are known to be incomplete, either in depth or in spatial coverage (Jacoby, 1980; Leisy, et al., 1997). Since few known LMC PNe are resolvable from the ground, the spectroscopic criteria for identification as PNe often includes bright \[O III\] emission, which selects against the youngest PNe (where the ionization has not yet reached the point where significant O+2 has been produced), and the very oldest PNe (where the ionization has declined because of the dimming and dilution of the CS radiation field). Few of these surveys probe very deeply, and in any case our program did not include more than a very few PNe that were moderately faint (in either or both of H$`\alpha `$ and \[O III\]). Figure 1 shows that, to first order, excluding the faintest PNe also excludes the dynamically oldest PNe. The Galactic sample may also suffer from selection bias. For instance, the asymmetric PNe may be under-represented in the Galactic sample since they are more closely confined to the disk, and hence suffer more attenuation (on average) from interstellar dust, which would select against their discovery.

Finally, the spatial coverage of the discovery surveys does not extend to the faintest regions of the LMC (Morgan, 1994), which excludes PNe that could be the progeny of a much older population of stars. Fig. 3 shows the spatial distribution of this sample of PNe, relative to the LMC bar, coded by morphological type. Most of these PNe lie within $``$2° of the bar, which is consistent with the optical continuum distribution of light from stars. We know of no particular segregation of population types (other than young stars in H II regions) in the LMC, though some studies suggest that tidal interactions with the Galaxy greatly perturb the orbits of moderate to old stars (e.g., Weinberg 2000). Certainly the spatial distribution of nebular morphologies in Fig. 3 shows no particular segregation within the LMC, other than that there are more PNe of all types in the bar. While this distribution is consistent with that for the older stellar Populations, it is probably fortuitous given the selection effects mentioned above.

## 5 Conclusion and Future Work

We have used the HST and STIS in slit-less mode in a campaign to obtain monochromatic images of a large sample of Magellanic Cloud PNe in several important emission lines. The set of LMC PNe presented here display a wide variety of morphological features, including examples of the rare Quadrupolar and Point-Symmetric classes. We argue that bipolar core PNe are a variant of, and sometimes an evolutionary precursor to, the pure bipolar class. Such a finding is consistent with published evidence that BC nebulae are closely related to type B PNe (and are not similar to E or R PNe) in chemical abundances, progenitor Population type, and (for Galactic PNe) disk scale height. It is important that future studies compare the relative ages of BC and B nebulae through other means, such as the evolutionary state of the central stars, to confirm our suggestion that some or most BC nebulae evolve to B. It is also very important to increase the sample size of observed B and BC nebulae in the Magellanic Clouds, and to obtain high resolution, spatially resolved spectrograms to interpret properly the kinematics of the expanding shell(s), and therefore the nebular dynamical ages.

The nebulae presented here roughly double the number of LMC PNe that have been imaged with HST, and in that combined dataset we find a larger fraction of asymmetric PNe in the LMC than in the Galaxy. This result either suggests a difference in the stellar Population types and/or star formation history between the LMC and the Galaxy, or it shows us the extent to which selection effects operate in studies of PN morphology. We also find evidence for evolution in nebular morphology, but the extent to which it is determined by PN formation processes vs. subsequent star + wind interactions is less clear: this question must be pursued by including younger PNe in the study. In any event, the smallest (and presumably the youngest) BC nebula in our sample is $`0.05`$ pc in radius, implying a rough dynamical age of $`1400`$ yr, which shows that the onset of asymmetrical features can occur very early in the PN lifetime. The implication is that, for at least some nebulae, the gross morphological features are more closely tied to PN formation, and that subsequent shaping of the expanding envelope by the radiation field and wind from the central star plays the lesser role of amplifying these features. This conclusion is consistent with data from young Galactic PNe, except that for LMC PNe the determination of the size of the ionized nebula and the dynamical age are far more secure.

We will present measurements and analysis of the nebular plasma diagnostics and chemical abundances in a future paper. We will also present continuum magnitudes for the detected central stars, which will allow us to determine their evolutionary state. These analyses form a key part of our intended research in this area, where we will be able to analyze the co-evolution of the PNe and their central stars without the debilitating uncertainties of the Galactic PN distance scale. It will also give us a much more accurate picture of the chemical yields of PNe in the LMC. We plan to extend this work to SMC PNe, where the lower metallicity environment should yield a difference in the morphological types, and perhaps also a difference in important aspects of the stellar and nebular evolution.

Support for this work was provided by NASA through grant number GO-08271.01-97A from Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Incorporated, under NASA contract NAS5–26555. We are grateful to an anonymous referee, whose comments helped us to improve this paper.

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# Classical and Quantum Equivalence Principle in Terms of the Path Group11footnote 1Published in Helvetica Physica Acta, 69, 301-304 (1996)

## 1 Introduction

The motion of a free classical point particle is described by a direct line in the Minkowski space-time. The evolution of a quantum point particle may be described by a path integral in the Minkowski space. According to the Einstein’s equivalence principle, a point classical particle in a curved space-time moves along a geodesic line. The motion of a quantum particle may be described by an integral over paths in the curved space-time, however the definition of such an integral is ambiguous. The first definition given by B.DeWitt  and some other definitions lead to the equations of motions differing by the coefficient in the term proportional to the scalar curvature $`R`$.

It will be pointed out in the present paper that the evolution of both classical and quantum particles in a curved space-time may be naturally described in terms of the Minkowski space-time. This description is based on the natural but non-holonomic mapping of curves in the curved space-time onto the curves in the Minkowski space-time. This results in the description of a classical particle moving in the curved space-time, by a direct line in the Minkowski space. The description of a quantum particle is given by the integral over paths in the Minkowski space, but with the corresponding operator in the integrand. This path-depending operator may be shown to be a representation of the path group.

## 2 Mapping of curves and the equivalence principle

It is well known that there is no natural point-to-point mapping of a curved space onto the Minkowski space. However a natural correspondence exists between the curves in the Minkowski space and the curves in the curved space provided the starting point of these curves and (local) reference frame in this point are fixed.

To describe this correspondence, let us identify the Minkowski space $``$ with a tangent space $`_x`$ to the curved (pseudo-Riemannian) space $`𝒳`$ in the starting point $`x`$ of the curves, and the reference frame of the Minkowski space with some orthonormal local frame $`n=\{n_\alpha _x:\alpha =0,1,2,3\}`$ in the specified point $`x`$.

1. Let $`[x]=\{x(\tau ^{})𝒳:0\tau ^{}\tau \}`$ be a curve in $`𝒳`$ starting in $`x`$ and $`n(\tau ^{})`$ a result of parallel transport of $`n`$ along the curve $`[x]`$. Then the curve $`[\xi ]=\{\xi (\tau ^{}):0\tau ^{}\tau \}`$ in $``$ (with $`\xi (0)`$ coinciding with the origin of $``$) may be defined unambiguously by the condition that its tangent vector $`\dot{\xi }(\tau ^{})`$, being expanded in respect to the reference frame of the Minkowski space, has the same coefficients as the tangent vector $`\dot{x}(\tau ^{})`$ expanded in respect to the local frame $`n(\tau ^{})`$.

As a result, the natural correspondence of curves in $``$ (starting in the origin) with the curves in $`𝒳`$ (starting in $`x`$) is established, provided the local frame $`n`$ in the point $`x`$ is given. Instead of the curve in $``$ with the fixed starting point, $`[\xi ]`$ may be understood as a class of curves differing by general translation, $`[\xi ][\xi ^{}]`$, if $`\xi ^{}(\tau ^{})=\xi (\tau ^{})+a`$.

Naturalness of the mapping defined in this way may be formulated as follows: If the observer located in the space-time point $`x`$ has to describe the path $`[x]`$ (in the curved space-time $`𝒳`$) as a line in his “flat map” (with the geometry of the Minkowski space $``$), he should choose the curve $`[\xi ]`$. Such a “flat modelling” is defined for an arbitrary curve $`[x]`$ in $`𝒳`$. Geodesic lines $`[x]`$ will be associated then with direct lines $`[\xi ]`$. This gives a simple formulation of the Einstein’s equivalence principle : local “flat models” for trajectories of a point particle are direct lines.

2. By the described procedure, a class of curves $`[\xi ]`$ in $``$ and an orthonormal local frame $`n𝒩`$ ($`𝒩`$ being a fiber bundle of all orthonormal local frames) determine one more local frame $`n[\xi ]𝒩`$ by the rule: if $`n=n(0)`$, then $`n[\xi ]=n(\tau )`$ in the notations introduced earlier. Therefore, each class of curves $`[\xi ]`$ determines a mapping of $`𝒩`$ onto itself.

This mapping may be described in a more formal way  with the help of the concept of the basis vector fields in the fiber bundle of local frames. To introduce this concept, it is convenient to consider the fiber bundle $``$ of all local frames over $`𝒳`$. The coordinates $`x^\mu `$ of the points in $`𝒳`$ and the components $`b_\alpha ^\mu `$ of the vectors of the local frame $`b`$ in this point may serve as coordinates of the manifold $``$. Then the basis vector fields $`B_\alpha `$ are following:

$$B_\alpha =b_\alpha ^\mu \frac{}{x^\mu }+b_\alpha ^\mu b_\beta ^\nu \mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu }^\lambda (x)\frac{}{b_\beta ^\lambda }.$$
(1)
The vector fields $`B_\alpha `$ are horizontal in the fiber bundle $``$ and their restrictions on the fiber bundle $`𝒩`$ of orthonormal local frames are horizontal in $`𝒩`$. We shall need these restrictions rather than the complete fields $`B_\alpha `$. For simplicity, we shall denote them by the same letters.

The horizontal vector fields allow one to define, as an ordered exponential of an integral, the following operator acting in the space of functions on $`𝒩`$:

$$V[\xi ]=Pe^{{\scriptscriptstyle B_\alpha 𝑑\xi ^\alpha }}=\underset{N\mathrm{}}{lim}e^{B_\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }\xi _N^\alpha }\mathrm{}e^{B_\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }\xi _1^\alpha }.$$
(2)
The set of operators $`V[\xi ]`$ forms a representation of the path group  (generalizing translations). In terms of these operators, the mapping $`nn[\xi ]`$ may be defined as follows:

$$(V[\xi ]\mathrm{\Psi })(n)=\mathrm{\Psi }(n[\xi ]).$$
(3)
## 3 Quantum equivalence principle

Evolution of a quantum particle is described by the propagator which may be expressed in the form of a path integral. The path integral in a curved space-time may be reduced to the path integral in the Minkowski space-time but with the operator $`V[\xi ]`$ in the integrand.

1. To do this, let us describe states of the particle by functions $`\mathrm{\Psi }(n)`$ on the fiber bundle of (orthonormal) local frames instead of usual functions $`\psi (x)`$ on the space-time . Both functions are connected in a very simple way for the scalar particle:

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(n)=\psi (x),x=\pi (n)$$

where the canonical projection $`\pi :𝒩𝒳`$ associates the point $`x`$ with the local frame $`n`$ in this point. This definition may be naturally generalized onto the case of a spinning particle:

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(n\lambda )=D(\lambda ^1)\mathrm{\Psi }(n),\psi (x)=\mathrm{\Psi }(\sigma (n)),x=\pi (n).$$

Here $`\sigma `$ is an arbitrary section of the fiber bundle $`𝒩`$, and $`D`$ a representation of the Lorentz group describing spin of the particle.

2.The evolution of a quantum particle may be described by a propagator $`U(x,x^{})`$, but we shall use the corresponding operator $`U`$ (for which the propagator is a kernel). In the Minkowski space-time this operator may be expressed in the form of a path integral

$$U=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau ϵ^{im^2\tau }U_\tau ,U_\tau =d[\xi ]ϵ^{(i/4)_0^\tau 𝑑\tau \dot{\xi }^\alpha \dot{\xi }_\alpha }V[\xi ]$$
(4)
where $`V[\xi ]`$ is an operator of displacement along the path $`[\xi ]`$:

$$(V[\xi ]\psi )(\xi )=\psi (\xi \mathrm{\Delta }\xi ),\mathrm{\Delta }\xi =\xi (\tau )\xi (0).$$

The propagator in a curved space-time may be defined  by the same formulas (4) but with the expression (2) for the operator $`V[\xi ]`$. The dynamics of the particle in a curved space-time is expressed then in terms of the integral over paths in the flat space-time (Minkowski space). This may be called quantum equivalence principle. The resulting definition of the curved-space path integral differs from the known DeWitt’s definition  in that it leads to the covariant equation of motion with no term proportional to the scalar curvature. An essentially equivalent though apparently different definition of the path integral in a curved space has been given in .

The operator $`V[\xi ]`$ which maps flat-space paths onto the curved-space paths may be shown to form a representation of the path group . With the help of this representation all the results may be generalized on the case of an arbitrary external field (gauge, gravitational or gauge plus gravitational fields).

* * *

This work was supported in part by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, grant 95-01-00111a.


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# SiO EMISSION IN THE MULTI-LOBE OUTFLOW ASSOCIATED WITH IRAS 16293-2422Based on observations made at the Nobeyama Radio Observatory (NRO). Nobeyama Radio Observatory is a branch of the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, an inter-university research institute operated by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture, Japan.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Thermal emission from the SiO molecule is observed in shocked regions associated with molecular outflows from young stellar objects, in which the SiO abundance is enhanced by several orders of magnitude (e.g. Bachiller, Martín-Pintado, & Fuente 1991; Mikami et al. 1992; Martín-Pintado, Bachiller, & Fuente 1992). Such an abundance enhancement of SiO is interpreted as the release of Si or SiO from dust grains by means of strong shocks (e.g. Mikami et al. 1992; Martín-Pintado et al. 1992). Since the SiO emission has been seldom detected in quiescent dark clouds because of its very low abundance (of the order of 10-12; Ziurys, Friberg, & Irvine 1989; Martín-Pintado et al. 1992), the SiO emission is generally believed to be a good tracer of shocked molecular gas.

Strong SiO emission observed in low-mass star forming regions is mainly associated with outflows driven by very cold far-infrared sources referred to as the “Class 0$`\mathrm{"}`$ sources (e.g., Bachiller & Gómez-González 1992; Bachiller 1996). On the basis of high-spatial resolution mappings of the SiO lines, it has been revealed that both spatial and velocity structures of the shocked gas are closely related to the history and an ejection mechanism of the outflows. The representative cases are the outflows driven by the Class 0 sources in the L1157 and L1448 dark clouds; the SiO maps present a picture that these outflows are driven by collimated and episodic jets ejected from the central star (Zhang et al. 1995; Gueth, Guilloteau, & Bachiller 1998; Dutrey, Guilloteau, & Bachiller 1997). Therefore, mapping of the SiO emission is expected to provide an opportunity to study the origin of the molecular outflows with complex morphology.

In this paper, we present the map of the SiO ($`v`$ = 0;$`J`$ = 2–1) emission in the quadrupolar outflow associated with IRAS 16293$``$2422 (hereafter referred to as I16293). I16293 is known to be a proto-binary system with a projected separation of 840 AU (Mundy et al. 1992; Walker, Carlstrom, & Bieging 1993) embedded in the nearby (160 pc) $`\rho `$ Ophiuchi molecular cloud. This outflow consists of two pairs of lobes; the brighter one extending along the east-west direction and the other one along the northeast-southwest direction (Walker et al. 1988; Mizuno et al. 1990). To explain the conspicuous quadrupolar morphology of this outflow system, Walker et al. (1993) proposed that the two pairs of lobes correspond to the two independent bipolar outflows driven by two independent sources. On the other hand, Mizuno et al. (1990) showed that the outflow is dynamically interacting with the dense ambient gas clump, and suggested that a single outflow lobe could be split into two lobes by the interaction. To examine which idea is plausible, and to probe the effect of the complex outflow on its surroundings, we investigate the spatial and kinematic structure of the shocked gas traced by the SiO emission.

## 2 OBSERVATIONS

Observations of the SiO ($`v`$=0; $`J`$=2–1; 86.8 GHz) line were carried out with the Nobeyama 45 m telescope in 1992 April, 1993 April, and 1994 April. We used the SIS receiver with a single-sideband (SSB) system temperature of $``$350 K. The half-power beam width and the main beam efficiency were 20′′ and 0.5, respectively. The backend was a bank of eight high-resolution acousto-optical spectrometers with a frequency resolution of 37 kHz and a band width of 40 MHz, which correspond to a velocity resolution of 0.13 km s-1 and a velocity coverage of 140 km s-1 at 86.8 GHz. In addition to the SiO line, we also observed the H13CO+ ($`J`$=1–0) line simultaneously with the same receiver. An area of 4.7 $`\times `$ 3.0 in Right Ascension and Declination was mapped with grid spacings of 14.1′′ and 20′′. The map center was taken to be the position of the southeastern millimeter continuum source, $`\alpha `$(1950) = 16h 29m 21.1s and $`\delta `$(1950) = $``$24 22 15.9′′. Offsets from this position are given as ($`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha `$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\delta `$) in units of arcsecond. All observations were made in the position switching mode. Linear baselines were subtracted from the spectra. A typical rms noise level was $``$0.16 K in $`T_\mathrm{R}^{}`$. The telescope pointing accuracy was checked by observing the nearby SiO maser source toward V446 Oph at 43 GHz and was better than 5′′.

## 3 RESULTS

### 3.1 Spatial Distribution and Kinematics of the Shocked Gas

Figure 1 shows a map of the SiO emission integrated over $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 2 to 20 km s-1 superposed on the CO $`J`$=1–0 outflow map presented by Mizuno et al. (1990). The SiO $`J`$=2–1 emission is detected in this velocity range. The SiO emission shows the U-shaped distribution open to the north with significant intensity enhancement in two clumps labeled E1 and E2 in Figure 1. The northeastern peak E2 (+90, +40) coincides with the peak of the northeastern red (hereafter referred to as NER) lobe in the CO map. On the other hand, the E1 peak (+50, 0) has no counterpart in the CO outflow map. The SiO emission is also detected at the position of I16293; however, its intensity is rather weak. At this position, detection of the higher transition lines of SiO $`J`$ = 3–2, 5–4, 6–5, and 8–7 were reported by Blake et al. (1994) and Ceccarelli et al. (2000). The SiO emission observed toward the western red (WR) lobe shows two local intensity maxima. The position of one peak labeled W1 coincides with the peak of the high-velocity CO emission in the WR lobe, while the other peak W2 is located at the northern boundary of the WR lobe. No significant SiO emission is detected with $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ smaller than 2 km s-1 in the whole mapped region. Since most of the SiO emission is redshifted with respect to the cloud systemic velocity of $``$ 4 km s-1, the dense ambient gas interacting with the outflow is likely to exist behind the outflow lobes.

Figure 2 shows a set of velocity channel maps of the SiO $`J`$ = 2–1 emission from $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 2 to 20 km s-1. It is shown that the E1 component is seen in the velocity range from $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 2 km s-1 to 10 km s-1, while the E2 component contains higher velocity gas with maximum velocity reaching $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 20 km s-1. Figures 2e–2i show that the peak position of the E2 component in the velocity range from $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 10 km s-1 to 20 km s-1 moves to the downstream as the velocity increases.

The SiO line profiles observed at six representative positions, which are the IRAS position, E1, upstream and downstream of E2, W1, and W2, are plotted in Figure 3. The SiO line at the IRAS position (Figure 3a) peaks at $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 4.4 km s-1 with its main-beam brightness temperature of 0.56 K. The peak velocity of the SiO line is nearly the same as that of the H13CO+ line. However, the line width of the SiO emission ($`\mathrm{\Delta }V_{\mathrm{FWHM}}`$ = 3.5 km s-1, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_{\mathrm{FWHM}}`$ is the full width of half maximum) is much broader than that of the H13CO+ emission ($`\mathrm{\Delta }V_{\mathrm{FWHM}}`$ = 1.1 km s-1), indicating that the SiO emission arises from the perturbed gas component, and not from the quiescent gas traced by the H13CO+ line. On the basis of analyses using $`J`$ = 5–4, 6–5, and 8–7 emission lines of SiO and its isotope, Blake et al. (1994) and Ceccarelli et al. (2000) have revealed that the SiO emission observed at the IRAS position arises from hot ($`T>`$60 K) and spatially compact ($``$3′′) region. A typical line profile observed in the E1 clump (Figure 3b) has a peak at the cloud systemic velocity of $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ 4 km s-1 with a gradual decrease in intensity toward the redshifted velocity and a rapid decline toward the blueshifted velocity. A line profile observed at the upstream of the E2 peak (+80, +40; Figure 3c) shows a double peak structure at $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 5 and 12 km s-1, while that at the downstream of the E2 peak (+90, +70; Figure 3d) has its intensity maximum at $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ 15 km s-1. At the position of W1 ($``$20, 0; Figure 3e), the SiO line is pedestal shape without significant peak. The SiO emission at W1 is seen from $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 2 km s-1 to 13 km s-1 with typical brightness temperatures of 0.2—0.4 K. On the other hand, the SiO line observed near the W2 peak ($``$20, 60; Figure 3f) has a peak at the ambient cloud velocity with rather narrow line width of $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_{\mathrm{FWHM}}`$2 km s-1.

### 3.2 Comparison between the SiO and H13CO+ distributions

In Figure 4, we compare the spatial distributions of the low-velocity ($`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 2 – 8 km s-1) and the high-velocity (VLSR = 8 – 20 km s-1) SiO emission with the quiescent dense gas traced by the H13CO+ emission ($`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 2 – 6 km s-1). The H13CO+ map shows that there are two dense gas condensations in the mapped area. One is associated with I16293 and its peak is at (+10, $``$10). Toward this condensation, the velocity dispersion of the H13CO+ emission $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_{\mathrm{FWHM}}`$ is as large as $``$1.4 km s-1, which is the maximum value in the observed area. Another one is located at $`80^{\prime \prime }`$ southeast of I16293. The H13CO+ line width in this condensation is $``$0.7–0.8 km s-1, which is comparable to the typical line width of this molecule in the mapped region. This southeastern condensation is also observed with the NH3 (1, 1) line by Mizuno et al. (1990). Hereafter we refer to this condensation as “16293E$`\mathrm{"}`$.

Figure 4 shows that the spatial distribution of the SiO emission is anticorrelated with that of the H13CO+ emission; especially, two prominent SiO clumps, E1 and E2, fall into the “valley$`\mathrm{"}`$ of the H13CO+ emission. Since the spatial extent of the E2 clump is similar to that of the NER lobe, the intensity drop of the H13CO+ toward the E2 clump suggests that the NER lobe is comprised of the ambient gas swept-up by the wind blown out from the protostar. It should be noted that the E1 clump that is dominated by the low-velocity emission is located between the two H13CO+ condensations. Such a location of the E1 clump suggests that the SiO emission in this clump arises from the region in which the outflow driven by I16293 is interacting with 16293E. At the position of the E1 peak, the H13CO+ line width has the second largest value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_{\mathrm{FWHM}}`$ = 1.1 km s-1. Such a line broadening supports the presence of dynamical interaction between the outflow and 16293E. The interaction between the outflow and 16293E is discussed in the next section.

## 4 DISCUSSION

### 4.1 Dynamical Interaction between the Outflow and the Dense Gas Clump

As mentioned in the previous section, the SiO emission in the E1 clump is likely to arise from the region where the outflow blown out from the protostar impinge on the dense ambient gas clump 16293E. Since the line profile observed in the E1 clump that shows a strong cut-off at the ambient velocity and a gradual redshifted wing (Figure 3b), it is suggested that the SiO emission in the E1 clump arises from the quiescent material accelerated by the shock. The dynamical interaction of the outflow with 16293E was also pointed out by Mizuno et al. (1990). They suggested that the blueshifted gas blown eastwards from its driving source is interacting with 16293E, and that such an interaction splits a single blueshifted lobe into the NER lobe and the eastern blue (EB) lobe, resulting in the quadrupolar morphology. However, the observed SiO emission is not blueshifted but redshifted; this clearly contradicts the above scenario.

The redshifted SiO emission in the E1 clump suggests a possibility that the redshifted gas in the NER lobe is blown out to the eastward from its driving source and changes its direction to the northeast by means of a dynamical interaction with 16293E. In this case, the velocity field of the dense gas in 16293E is expected to be disturbed by the momentum provided by the outflow. On the basis of the CO observations, Mizuno et al. (1990) estimated the momentum of the outflowing gas in the NER lobe to be 0.5 $`M_{}`$ km s-1. Since the mass of 16293E is estimated to be $``$1.6 $`M_{}`$ from the H13CO+ data by assuming the local thermodynamical equilibrium (LTE) condition with the excitation temperature $`T_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ = 15 K and optically-thin H13CO+ emission, the gas of 16293E is expected to show the velocity shift of $``$0.3 km s-1 toward the red from the rest of the cloud. However, there is no evidence of such a velocity shift in the H13CO+ data. Therefore, we consider that the change of outflow direction by means of a dynamical interaction is unlikely. In addition, the velocity field observed in the E2 clump is explained by the bow shock impinging on the ambient medium (see §4.2), suggesting that the outflowing gas in the NER lobe is blown out to the northeast direction from its origin and does not change its direction on its way to the E2 position.

Then, which outflow component is interacting with 16293E and is responsible for the strong SiO emission at the E1 position? A recent interferometric CO ($`J`$ = 1–0) map has shown that the east-west pair of lobes, which corresponds to the EB and WR lobe pair, has an axis close to the plane of the sky and consists of fan-shaped lobes, each of which contains both blueshifted and redshifted components (Hirano et al. in preparation). This implies that the EB lobe contains a considerable amount of redshifted gas in the far side of the lobe. Therefore, we consider that the redshifted gas in the EB lobe is interacting with 16293E and is producing the redshifted SiO emission observed at E1.

### 4.2 Simple Kinematic Model of the NER Lobe

As shown in Figure 1, the spatial distribution of the SiO clump E2 resembles that of the NER lobe in the single-dish CO maps. In particular, the map of the high-velocity SiO emission is quite similar to that of the high-velocity CO $`J`$ = 2–1 emission presented by Ceccarelli et al. (1998). Channel maps presented in Figure 2 reveal that the high-velocity SiO emission in the E2 clump increases its velocity downstream. Such a velocity increase downstream is also observed in the CO ($`J`$ = 2–1) emission in the NER lobe (Walker et al. 1988). These results indicate that the high-velocity SiO emission in the E2 clump has both spatially and kinematically similar characteristics to the CO outflow in the NER lobe, suggesting that this SiO emission comes from the NER lobe itself. Unlike the CO emission, the SiO emission in the E2 clump has another velocity component whose velocity is close to the cloud systemic velocity. The presence of two velocity components is explained if the low- and the high-velocity SiO emission components come from the near side and the far side of the NER lobe, respectively. Such two velocity components corresponding to the near sides and the far sides of the lobes were also seen in the position-velocity diagrams of the CO emission in the Mon R2 outflow (Meyers-Rice & Lada 1991). In the case of the NER lobe in the I16293 outflow, the low-velocity component has not been identified in the CO maps because it may be screened by overwhelming emission from the quiescent ambient gas.

In Figure 5, we show the position-velocity diagram of the SiO emission along the major axis of the NER lobe (P.A. = 60). The SiO emission in the NER lobe increases its velocity dispersion as an increasing distance from I16293, and the largest velocity dispersion is observed toward slightly downstream of the E2 peak. As pointed out by Bence, Richer, & Padman (1996), such a velocity feature is explained if the SiO emission arises from the bow shock generated by the high-velocity jet impinging onto the ambient medium. Recently, several authors have proposed the models that the molecular outflows are created through the propagation of the large bow shocks (e.g. Raga & Cabrit 1993; Masson & Chernin 1993). In the following, we use a simple kinematical model of the bow shock proposed by Hartigan, Raymond, & Hartmann (1987) and compare the velocity features derived from the model with those observed.

The geometry of the bow shock is schematically depicted in Figure 6. We assume that the bow shock has axial symmetry around the jet axis $`z`$ with a shape described by a function $`z(r)=Ar^2+Br^4`$, where $`r`$ is the distance from the jet axis, and $`A`$ and $`B`$ are numerical constants. In the frame of the exciting source, shock is propagating at a velocity of $`V_\mathrm{s}`$ into the ambient pre-shock medium moving at $`V_{\mathrm{amb}}`$. In the frame of the bow shock, material impacts the shock surface with velocity of $`V_\mathrm{s}V_{\mathrm{amb}}`$. Since the velocity component normal to the surface of the bow shock $`v_\mathrm{n}=(V_\mathrm{s}V_{\mathrm{amb}})\mathrm{cos}\xi `$ diminishes because of quick energy release via radiation, only the velocity component parallel to the surface $`v_\mathrm{p}=(V_\mathrm{s}V_{\mathrm{amb}})\mathrm{sin}\xi `$ is conserved. Therefore, the post shock velocity is $`v_2=(V_\mathrm{s}V_{\mathrm{amb}})\mathrm{sin}\xi `$, and its angle is $`\theta =(\pi /2)\xi `$. The radial velocity $`V_\mathrm{r}`$ in the frame of the exciting source is given by

$$V_\mathrm{r}=(V_\mathrm{s}V_{\mathrm{amb}})\mathrm{sin}\xi \mathrm{sin}(\xi \pm \varphi )V_s\mathrm{cos}\varphi ,$$
(1)
where $`\varphi `$ is the angle between the line of sight and the jet axis, and the + and $``$ signs refer to the top and bottom halves of the curve in Figure 6, respectively. As demonstrated by Hartigan et al. (1987), the total velocity dispersion $`\mathrm{\Delta }V`$ of the bow-shock feature and the median velocity $`V_{\mathrm{median}}`$ are given by $`\mathrm{\Delta }V=V_\mathrm{s}V_{\mathrm{amb}}`$ and $`V_{\mathrm{median}}=[(V_\mathrm{s}+V_{\mathrm{amb}})/2]\times \mathrm{cos}\varphi `$, respectively. In the case of the NER lobe, the total velocity dispersion is $`\mathrm{\Delta }V`$16 km s-1, and $`V_{\mathrm{median}}`$ measured in the frame of the exciting source ($`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$4 km s-1) is $``$8 km s-1. To estimate the inclination angle $`\varphi `$, we compare the radial velocity distribution calculated from equation (1) with the observed position-velocity diagram. If we assume that the bow shock has a shape described as $`z(r)=0.42r^2+0.136r^4`$, which is designated as modified Raga shape in Hartigan et al. (1987), the observed feature is reproduced with $`\varphi 135^{}`$ (i.e. the angle between the outflow axis and the plane of the sky i is $``$45), $`V_\mathrm{s}`$ = 19.3 km s-1, and $`V_{\mathrm{amb}}`$ = 3.3 km s-1 (solid curve in Figure 5). In the case of the bow shock with a parabolic shape, $`z=r^2`$, we obtained $`\varphi 120^{}`$ (i $``$30), $`V_\mathrm{s}`$ = 24.0 km s-1, and $`V_{\mathrm{amb}}`$ = 8.0 km s-1 (dash-dotted curve in Figure 5). Although the parameters depend on the assumed shape of the bow-shock surface, the observed velocity features can be explained if the axis of the flow is inclined by 30–45 from the plane of the sky and the shock velocity is $``$19–24 km s-1. The dynamical time scale of the E2 shock is estimated to be (5–7) $`\times `$ 103 yr. It should be noted that the presence of the low-velocity component which is close to the cloud systemic velocity is a natural consequence in the context of the bow-shock outflow models.

As shown in Figure 5, the velocity pattern observed in the NER lobe is reproduced by the simple bow-shock model, as in the case of the SiO emission observed toward the red lobe of the bipolar outflow in the L1448 dark cloud (Dutrey et al. 1997). This implies that the NER lobe is one of the bipolar outflow lobes and is not a splinter of the EB lobe.

The bow-shock model cannot explain the high-velocity emission of $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$18 km s-1 observed farther downstream of the E2 peak (R.A. offset $`>`$ 120′′). Since the E2 peak is not located toward the end but toward the middle of the NER lobe, the bow shock at the E2 peak is unlikely to be a terminal shock. Therefore, the NER lobe could have two-shock structure created by episodic ejection events as in the case of the blueshifted lobe of the L1157 outflow (e.g. Zhang et al. 1995; Gueth et al. 1998). To assess this possibility, higher-resolution observations with interferometer are required.

### 4.3 Three Types of SiO Emission Observed in the I16293 Outflow

As discussed in the previous two subsections, the properties of the E1 and E2 clumps are different from each other. The SiO emission in the E1 clump arises from the interface between the outflow and the dense ambient gas clump, and that in the E2 clump is likely to come from the outflow lobe itself.

The properties of the SiO emission observed at W2 appear to be similar to those of the emission from E1, because the position of W2 corresponds to the periphery of the WR lobe at which the outflowing gas faces the ambient medium. The line profile of the SiO emission observed at W2 implies that most of the shocked gas has the velocity close to the ambient velocity.

On the other hand, the SiO line profile observed at W1, where the high-velocity CO emission is strongest in the WR lobe, shows a broad pedestal shape with its width measured at 1$`\sigma `$ level is 12 km s-1. Unlike the NER lobe, the CO emission in the WR lobe shows no systematic displacement of emission peaks with increasing velocity, and has a peak at the position close to that of W1 at all velocities (Walker et al. 1988). The broad width of the SiO emission is likely to reflect the large velocity dispersion of the outflowing gas along the line of sight toward the W1 position. Unlike the E2 clump, the spatial extent of the SiO emitting region in the W1 is restricted to the small area of $``$20′′ in size, which is much smaller than the size of the WR lobe observed in the CO. Such a broad SiO emission with low intensity is also observed in the central region of the outflows in S140 and IC1396N (Hirano et al. in preparation).

To summarize, in the I16293 outflow, the SiO emission lines having three different properties are observed. The first one is the enhanced SiO emission at the interface between the outflowing gas and the dense ambient gas clumps (E1 and W2), which shows the line profile peaks at the velocity close to the cloud systemic velocity. The second one is the SiO emission showing similar spatial extent and kinematic structure as the CO outflow, and considered to arise from the outflow lobe itself (E2). The third one is the broad SiO emission with low intensity observed toward the central region of the outflow lobe (W1).

### 4.4 SiO Abundances

To estimate the SiO abundance in the shocked gas, we assumed optically thin emission, and calculated the column densities of the SiO molecules by assuming the LTE condition. The permanent dipole moment of the SiO molecule is employed to be 3.1 Debye. In the following, we assumed the excitation temperature $`T_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ to be 15 K, which is almost the same as the rotational temperature estimated from the NH3 (1, 1) and (2, 2) transitions (Mizuno et al. 1990). It is possible that the excitation temperature of the SiO in the shocked gas is higher than that assumed here, because recent observations of high-excitation ammonia have revealed that the shocked gas in several outflows is heated to more than 100 K (e.g. Bachiller, Martín-Pintado, & Fuente 1993; Umemoto et al. 1999). If we adopt 100 K as an excitation temperature, the column density of the SiO becomes a factor of three higher than that calculated for $`T_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ = 15 K.

By using the total integrated intensities (from $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 2 to 20 km s-1), the SiO column densities, $`N`$(SiO), at the E1 and E2 positions are derived to be 4.3$`\times `$1013 cm-2 and 8.4$`\times `$1013 cm-2, respectively, whereas it is estimated to be $`2.0\times 10^{13}`$ cm-2 at both the W1 and W2 positions. At the IRAS position, we obtain $`N`$(SiO) to be $`1.0\times 10^{13}`$ cm-2. When we adopt an H2 column density averaged over the core of 0.2 pc in radius, 3.6$`\times `$1022 cm-2, derived from the C18O observations of Mizuno et al. (1990), the SiO abundance $`X`$(SiO) is estimated to be 1.2$`\times `$10-9 toward the E1 peak, 5.2$`\times `$10-10 toward W1 and W2, and 2.8$`\times `$10-10 at the IRAS position. It should be noted that the abundance values estimated here are the beam-averaged values. If the SiO emission observed at the IRAS position comes from the small area of $`<`$3′′ size, the $`X`$(SiO) becomes a factor of $``$50 higher than that estimated here, which is consistent with the SiO abundance value derived by Ceccarelli et al. (2000) from their LVG analysis.

To estimate the SiO abundance in the outflowing gas in the NER lobe, we compare the column density of the high-velocity SiO (from 8 to 20 km s-1 ) with that of H2 derived from the CO data observed by Mizuno et al. (1990). At the E2 peak, the $`N`$(SiO) and $`N`$(H2) of the high-velocity gas are estimated to be 7.3$`\times `$1013 cm-2 and 8.8$`\times `$1020 cm-2, respectively. We thus obtain $`X`$(SiO) in the high-velocity gas to be 8.3$`\times `$10-8 at the E2 peak. This indicates that the SiO abundance in the NER lobe is comparable to that observed in the blueshifted lobe of the L1157 outflow (Mikami et al. 1992) and is enhanced by a factor of $``$104 as compared to the upper limits in the dark clouds (Ziurys et al. 1989). If we assume that all the Si atoms (Si/H2 $``$7$`\times `$10-5) is depleted on grains in the unperturbed component, at least $``$0.1 % of Si in the interacting region should be released in the gas phase in order to explain the SiO abundance in the NER lobe.

## 5 Summary

We have mapped the thermal emission line of SiO ($`J`$ = 2–1) associated with the quadrupolar molecular outflow driven by I16293. Our main results are the following:

1. The SiO emission is significantly enhanced in the northeastern red lobe (E2) and at the position $``$50′′ east of the IRAS source (E1). The SiO emission is also detected at the IRAS position and toward the western red lobe (W1 and W2), however, the line intensities observed at these positions are less than half of those observed at E1 and E2.

2. Most of the SiO emission is redshifted with respect to the cloud systemic velocity of $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 4 km s-1. This suggests that the dense ambient gas interacting with the outflow exists behind the outflow lobes.

3. The E1 clump is dominated by the low-velocity emission ($`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 2 – 10 km s-1) and is located between the dense gas condensation associated with I16293 and the other one 16293E, which is located at $``$80′′ southeast of I16293. The location of the E1 clump and the SiO line profile observed there suggest that the SiO emission in the E1 clump arises from the region where the outflow blown out from I16293 is dynamically interacting with 16293E.

4. In the E2 clump, high velocity SiO emission with maximum velocity reaching $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 20 km s-1 is observed. The spatial and velocity structure of the SiO emission in the E2 clump are similar to those of the NER lobe observed in the CO emission, suggesting that the SiO emission in the E2 clump comes from the NER lobe itself. The velocity pattern of the SiO in the NER lobe is reproduced with a simple spatio-kinematic model of bow shock with a shock velocity of 19–24 km s-1 inclined by 40–45 from the plane of the sky. This model gives a dynamical timescale of $``$5000–7000 yr for the NER lobe, being consistent with the significant increase of the SiO abundance by a factor of $``$104 relative to the values in dark clouds.

5. Although the SiO emission at E1 presents evidence for a dynamical interaction between a part of the EB lobe and 16293E, such an interaction is unlikely to be responsible for producing the quadrupolar morphology. Since the velocity structure of the NER lobe, which is reproduced by the bow-shock model, is similar to that of the lobe in the bipolar outflow, the NER lobe is likely to be one of the lobes of the bipolar outflow rather than a splinter of the EB lobe. Therefore, we consider that contribution of two independent bipolar outflows is the plausible explanation for the origin of the quadrupolar structure of the I16293 outflow.

6. In the I16293 outflow, the SiO emission lines with three different properties are observed. They are 1) the enhanced SiO emission at the interface between the outflow and dense ambient gas (E1 and W2), 2) the SiO emission arises from the outflow lobe itself (E2), and 3) the broad SiO emission with low intensity observed toward the central region of the outflow lobe (W1).

We would like to thank the staff of NRO for the operation of our observations and their support in data reduction. N.H. acknowledges support from a Grant-in-Aid from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture (No. 09640315).


text:
# Constraints on Ω_𝐵, Ω_𝑚 and ℎ from MAXIMA and BOOMERANG

## 1 Cosmological parameters and CMBR data

Most generic models of inflationary scenario give two unique predictions: $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Total}}=1`$ and $`n_s1`$ (see e.g. Steinhardt 1995). The first of these predications is confirmed by BOOMERANG and MAXIMA. The analysis of COBE-DMR data is consistent with $`n_s=1`$ (Bennett et al  1996, Bunn & White 1996). Therefore it is reasonable to believe that the current data is in good agreement with these predictions. We fix the value of these two parameters based on these considerations and use $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Total}}=1`$ and $`n_s1`$ throughout. (It should be pointed out that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Total}}=1`$ is a stricter requirement of inflation than $`n_s=1`$; one gets $`n_s=1`$ only for exponential inflation; see e.g. Steinhardt 1995.) Also note that we are not concerned with the origin of the values $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Total}}=1`$ and $`n_s=1`$. For example, these could arise merely from the requirement of scale invariance for the background universe (giving $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Total}}=1`$) and the perturbations (giving $`n_s=1`$) without invoking inflation — as was originally done by Harrison and Zeldovich, years before inflation was invented (Harrison 1970, Zeldovich 1972). But, of course, inflationary models made these parameter values fairly well accepted. Other parameters like $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`h`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_B`$ cannot be fixed by theoretical considerations alone. In our analysis we assume a non-zero $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ because recent high-z SN1a observations suggest a non-zero cosmological constant (Perlmutter et al. 1999, Riess et al. 1998). We do not consider CMBR anisotropies from tensor perturbations as most models of inflation give negligible contribution from tensor perturbations for $`n_s=1`$ (Steinhardt 1995). Re-ionization of universe can also alter primary CMBR anisotropies significantly. Present observations suggest that the universe is ionized up to $`z5`$. For the CMBR anisotropies to be significantly altered by re-ionization, the minimum re-ionization redshift should lie between $`10`$ and $`20`$ (see e.g. Bond 1996). Therefore, keeping the constraints from present observations in mind, we neglect the effect of re-ionization on the measured CMBR anisotropies.

We fix the value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m+\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Total}}=1`$, and compute the confidence levels on the best-fit values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_B`$ and $`h`$, and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ from MAXIMA and BOOMERANG observations. The range of parameters in which the minimum of $`\chi ^2`$ is searched is: $`0.01\mathrm{\Omega }_B0.15`$, $`0.4h1.1`$ and $`0.1\mathrm{\Omega }_m0.95`$.

The $`\chi ^2`$ for the model comparison with observations is given by:

$$\chi ^2=\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left(\frac{𝒞_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{obs}}𝒞_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{th}}}{\mathrm{\Delta }𝒞_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{obs}}}\right)$$
(1)
Here $`N=22`$ (10 points from MAXIMA and 12 points from BOOMERANG), $`𝒞_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ are the measured band-powers and $`𝒞_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{th}}`$ are the theoretical band-powers, $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝒞_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ are the errors on measured band-powers. We do not take into account the calibration uncertainties in our analysis. The theoretical band-powers are calculated using the CMBR Boltzmann code CMBFAST (Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1996), which gives COBE-normalized (normalized according to the fitting formula of Bunn & White (1996)) angular power spectra. Eq. (1) assumes that different band-powers are uncorrelated. This assumption is valid only if the anisotropies are measured over the entire sky (see e.g. Peebles 1993, Padmanabhan 1993). We assume lack of correlation in this work also because the covariance matrix of band-powers has not been made public yet.

Eq. (1) implicitly assumes that the likelihood function is Gaussian in band-powers near its maximum. While this assumption is true in principle, in practice there can be significant deviation from Gaussianity near the maximum. Bond, Jaffe, and Knox (2000) advocate using another variable instead of band-powers for doing the maximum likelihood analysis. We do not use it here. However, while quoting errors we do not use the Fisher matrix approach which can give meaningful results only for the Gaussian case. Instead we directly give the confidence levels on $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2`$.

## 2 Results

Our results are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The $`\chi ^2`$ for 22 data points from BOOMERANG and MAXIMA with three fitted parameters (i.e. 19 degrees of freedom) is 22.4, which is an excellent fit (Goodness-of-fit probability, $`Q=0.26`$). The best fit values and $`1\sigma `$ errors are: $`\mathrm{\Omega }_B=0.075_{0.015}^{+0.003}`$, $`h=0.62_{0.02}^{+0.08}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.86_{0.21}^{+0.04}`$. The best fit model along with BOOMERANG and MAXIMA data points is shown in Figure 3.

The range of allowed $`h`$ is in fair agreement with the measurement of $`h`$ from local observations (for a recent summary of these results, see Primack 2000). Recent SN1a suggest that that the universe is flat with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }+\mathrm{\Omega }_m=1`$ with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m=0.28_{0.080.04}^{+0.09+0.05}`$ (1$`\sigma `$) . This is within $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^2=2`$ of the value inferred by our analysis.

In Figure 1 we show the confidence levels in the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_B\text{}h`$ plane. The region bounded by the contours correspond to $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^22.3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\chi ^26.17`$, which, for Gaussian errors, corresponds to 68 % (1$`\sigma `$) and 95.4 % (2$`\sigma `$) for two-parameter fits. We also show the 95% region allowed by primordial nucleosynthesis observations (for a recent review see Tytler et al 2000). As seen in the figure, the region allowed by CMBR observations is at variance with the predictions of primordial nucleosynthesis at at least 95% level. This result is in agreement with other analyses on the same data set (Tegmark & Zaldarriaga 2000, Jaffe et al 2000).

The region corresponding to one and two $`\sigma `$ in the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m\text{}h`$ plane is shown in Figure 2. Our results show that the current CMBR observations favour a universe with age $`11\mathrm{G}\mathrm{y}\mathrm{r}`$ and are incompatible with a universe of age $`12\mathrm{Gyr}`$ at $`95\%`$ level. Though this is on the lower side of the expected age of the universe from estimated ages of globular clusters, etc., this is not in disagreement with those observations (for a recent status report see Primack 2000). Another important constraint on the values of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`h`$ comes from the shape of the power spectrum of galaxy clustering (see e.g. Bond 1996). These observations, within the context of a flat model with cosmological constant, give $`\mathrm{\Omega }_mh0.25\pm 0.05`$. We plot this region in the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m\text{}h`$ plane in Figure 2. If we require that $`h0.75`$, as most recent measurements of $`h`$ suggest (Primack 2000), then CMBR observations exclude the region required to satisfy the galaxy clustering observations by more than $`95\%`$ confidence level.

In conclusion, recent BOOMERANG and MAXIMA observations, within the context of simplest inflationary models ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Total}}=1`$ and $`n_s1`$), imply: (1) too large a of value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_Bh^2`$ to be compatible with primordial nucleosynthesis observations, (2) an age of universe $`t_012\mathrm{Gyr}`$, and (3) too large a value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_mh`$ to be in agreement with the shape of the power spectrum of galaxy clustering. In view of this, it is safe to conclude that the models with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{Total}}=1`$ and $`n_s=1`$ are ruled out by these observations.