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# Statistical Constraints on State Preparation for a Quantum Computer

## 1 Introduction

There is a duality between the classical and the quantum: In the classical world objects are distinct, while in the quantum world they are indistinguishable. We, the users of quantum computing, belong to the classical world. This creates a conundrum for starting a computation on a quantum computer. How do we load information on the quantum register if the information-carrying particles in the cells of the register are indistinguishable?

Quantum computing algorithms as visualized now  proceed with the register of $`n`$ cells in a pure state. Each cell is seen to store a qubit $`\alpha e^{i\theta _1}|0+\beta e^{i\theta _2}|1,`$ where $`\alpha ,\beta `$ are real numbers and $`\alpha ^2+\beta ^2=1`$. Normally, the state of the register, $`|\varphi `$, is taken to be the all-zero state of $`n`$-qubits: $`|0|0\mathrm{}|0,`$ or the amplitude vector $`(1,0,0\mathrm{}0)`$, which, by a process of rotation transformations on each qubit, is transformed into the state with amplitudes $`(\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}},\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}},\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}\mathrm{}\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}),`$ where $`N=2^n`$. In the most general case, the state function can be written out as:

$$|\varphi =\underset{x=00\mathrm{}0}{\overset{11\mathrm{}1}{}}c_x|x$$
(1)
where the $`c_x`$ are complex numbers ($`|c_x|^2=1`$) and the index $`x`$ ranges over all $`2^n`$ values of an $`n`$-bit string. Quantum computing is the application of appropriate unitary transformations on an initial state function that describes the problem to be computed.

Implementation issues related to decoherence and sensitivity to errors, after the computation has started, have been considered in the literature . In particular, several groups  have used trapped ion and NMR techniques to run simple quantum algorithms. But they have not demonstrated the initialization of an arbitrary pure state in the register. It has been shown , that the initial state loaded in these examples was a mixture, and so these early efforts do not fully implement eqn. (1). The NMR experiments are thus to be properly seen as simulations of quantum computations rather than true quantum computations.

There exist several interesting problems with the model of eqn. (1) regarding manipulations of the contents of a quantum register. The assumption inherent in the algorithms that the phase uncertainty related to the $`c_x`$s in each of these superposition states is identical and it can be lumped together and ignored has been questioned . It has also been shown that it is impossible to delete an unknown quantum state. In particular, if there are several copies of an unknown photon, it is not possible to delete the information content of one or more of these photons by a physical process . Likewise, it is not always possible to go from one state to another using local transformations . These problems arise due to the nature of superpositions in a quantum state.

The problem related to the difficulty of the transformation of one quantum state to another may be posed in other forms as well. Here we consider the question of starting from a suitable initial state on the register to reach the amplitude vector $`(\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}},\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}},\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}\mathrm{}\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}),`$ a superposition of all the components. We show that statistical constraints make it impossible to do so under ordinary circumstances. However, we do not argue that it is impossible, in principle, to prepare such a state.

## 2 Preparing the superposition state

Consider a quantum register with $`n`$ cells, each containing a qubit. If the qubits are independent quantum systems, and they are brought together, we will have a mixture. We can see this clearly by imagining that the individual qubits are physically remote from each other.

The challenge is to obtain a superposition state that is coherent so that it can be considered a single quantum system. Qubits, generated separately and assembled together, do not create the appropriate superposition, because this assembly ignores the constraints of quantum statistics. The process of bringing the qubits together alters the conditions related to the preparation of the qubits. So how do the distinguishable particles which are the starting qubits make a transition to the superposition state of the collection?

Before, answering this question, one must note that the use of classical notions in considering the contents of the register can lead to erroneous conclusions. For a quantum system, it is essential to speak not in terms of a priori properties, but in terms of state preparation and observation. Quantum mechanics is not a theory about reality; it is a prescription for making the best possible predictions about the future, if we have certain information about the past .

A pure state is one which yields a specific outcome in a given test designed to elicit the maximum number of outcomes associated with the system . Examples are Stern-Gerlach experiment for spin or the use of a calcite crystal for photon polarization. One may represent the all-zero state by $`(1,0,0\mathrm{}0),`$ if it is taken that each of the qubits has been prepared identically and there is no dynamical evolution. This is equivalent to considering that qubits emerging out of the state preparation apparatus are frozen in their state and installed at the appropriate locations in the quantum register.

If the particles are generated at a certain point and tested to yield a specific outcome and, if they pass the test, transported to the right locations on the register, there is no way to guarantee that each of the particles would not have suffered dynamic evolution prior to installation. If instead, $`n`$ tests are performed simultaneously on the particles so as to cut down on the delay, it may happen that some of these tests do not yield the specified outcome and so the failed tests will have to be repeated resulting in delay.

It appears more reasonable to assume that the qubits are already available at the cell-sites of the quantum register. These qubits then will be individually steered to a specific pure state. This assumption is actually made in the description of the process to obtain the superposition state required at the start of the quantum algorithm.

## 3 Collection of qubits

But, having done this, it is necessary to examine the collection of the $`n`$ qubits from a statistical perspective. As a quantum system, the register cannot be viewed as consisting of unique particles, which is what is implicit in the individual rotation of the qubits to obtain the superposition state of $`2^n`$ components. We must remember that not every pure state is realizable.

Only classical particles in a $`n`$-cell register, each with two states, can be distinguished in terms of $`2^n`$ total components. Quantum particles are indistinguishable and this restricts the number of possible distinct states. There will be the usual symmetry restrictions associated with the state function of the register depending on the particles being bosons or fermions.

We wish to stress the issue of indistinguishability of particles in a superposition state. For example, a $`n`$-cell register with polarized photons in each cell can have only $`n+1`$ distinguishable states. If only one of the photons out of $`n`$ is polarized vertically, then this particular photon is not to be localized to a specific cell of the register. Although the measurement apparatus will localize the vertically polarized photon at one of the $`n`$-locations, this vertical polarization will be shared by all the $`n`$-cells and so its appearance at a specific location must be viewed in a probabilistic sense as a part of the state reduction process.

To see this further, consider a register of 3-cells where one of the three qubits is in the state $`|1`$ and the other two are in the state $`|0`$. Since the particles are indistinguishable, it is incorrect to write the state of the register as $`|100`$, where it is assumed that the first cell has a $`|1`$ qubit and the other two have $`|0`$ qubits. Just like an electron cannot be localized in a box before it has been observed, a specific quantum property cannot be localized to a particle that belongs to a collection. The correct state description for this case is:

$$|\varphi =\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}|100+\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}|010+\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}|001$$
(2)
where the relative phases have been ignored.

A quantum register will still yield $`n`$-bits of information. But the indistinguishability of the particles throws a veil over the quantum reality which limits our capacity to structure the states on the register and to speak of a specific characteristic of the particles in the set.

It is indeed true that the atoms at different locations, carrying qubits, are physically distinct. But such distinct qubits are normally in a separable, mixed state. In a mixed state, the quantum properties are indeed localized, but such a state cannot be used to start the computation on a quantum computer.

## 4 Conclusions

The representation of the state of the register in terms of $`2^n`$ components, which is the starting point of most quantum computing algorithms, is contingent on steering an initial state, which appears to be unrealizable. If the starting state cannot be realized, then such quantum computing models can only be taken to be mathematical constructs, not in accord with physical reality.

If the cells of the register are independent quantum systems, then the uniqueness of the contents can be maintained. But in this case, the cells must be coupled for any useful computation to be possible. The couplings and the resultant entanglements form complications in the model beyond the scope of the standard quantum computing paradigm. This scenario departs from the usual one and the physical constraints necessary to be satisfied for this system to process superpositions of qubits need to be examined.

The reduction in the number of distinguishable states from $`2^n`$ components of the $`n`$ qubits to the $`n+1`$ distinguishable states of the coherent quantum system means that there is a corresponding reduction in entropy from $`n`$ to $`log_2(n+1)`$. This means that energy equal to

$$[nlog_2(n+1)]kTln2$$
(3)
must be removed from the system  for a computation to proceed. But, as explained earlier, this computation cannot be based on a priori assignment of states to the individual qubits.

This analysis indicates that quantum statistical constraints need to be considered in the formulation of quantum algorithms and in their implementation. These constraints add to the difficulty of initialization of the state on the quantum register before the start of the computation.

We do not claim that these constraints will apply to all quantum computational schemes. This makes it important to look for such computational schemes where this is not a problem. Likewise, one needs to look for effective ways of preparing certain states of $`n`$-qubits.

### References

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L.K. Grover, Physical Review Letters 79, 325 (1997).
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S. Bose et al, Phil.Trans.Roy.Soc.Lond. A356, 1823 (1998).
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D.G. Cory et al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Science USA 94, 1634 (1997),
J.A. Jones et al, Nature 403, 869 (2000),
L.M.K. Vandersypen et al, Phys. Rev. Lett. 85, 5452 (2000).
5. S.L. Braunstein et al, Phys. Rev. Lett. 83, 1054 (1999).
6. S. Kak, Foundations of Physics 29, 267 (1999),
S. Kak, Information Sciences 128, 149 (2000).
7. A.K. Pati and S.L. Braunstein, Nature 400, 164 (2000).
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9. A. Peres, Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 1995.
10. S. Kak, Foundations of Physics 26, 1375 (1996).


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

One of the major directions and experimental challenges in neutrino physics  is to extend the measurement capabilities to the sub-MeV range for the detection of the p-p and 7Be solar neutrinos and other topics. The merits of scintillating crystal detector in low-energy low-background experiment were recently discussed . An experiment with a CsI(Tl) detector placed near a reactor core to study neutrino interactions at low energy is being constructed . In the first data-taking phase, the detector is based on 200 kg of CsI(Tl) scintillating crystals333Manufacturer: Unique Crystals, Beijing read out by 200 photo-multipliers (PMTs)444Hamamatsu CR110-10 made of special low-activity glass. The set-up is shown schematically in Figure 1. The eventual goal will be to operate with 500 kg of CsI(Tl) crystals.

The tasks and requirements of the readout systems are to achieve a low detection threshold, large dynamic range and good energy resolution provided by the CsI(Tl) and PMTs, to provide relative timing among individual channels as well as delayed correlated events for background diagnostics, and to record the pulse shape faithfully for pulse shape discrimination between $`\gamma `$/e and $`\alpha `$-particles . The sum of the two PMT signals for each crystal module gives the energy while their difference provides the longitudinal position information. The intrinsic rise and decay times for the emissions from CsI(Tl) are typically at the range of 100 ns and $`2\mu \mathrm{s}`$, respectively. A typical signal, as recorded by a 100 MHz digital oscilloscope, is shown in Figure 2a.

This article describes the requirements, design, construction and performance of the the electronics, data acquisition (DAQ), and software control systems of this experiment.

## 2 Electronics System

The schematic diagram of the electronics system is depicted in Figure 3. Every channel of the “raw” ‘(CsI(Tl)+PMT) signal is amplified and shaped by the amplifier/shaper (AS), and subsequently digitized by the flash analog-to-digital convertor (FADC). The trigger system selects relevant events to be read out, while the logic control system provides a coherent timing and synchronization for the different electronics modules. The stability and linearity of the system is monitored (and corrected for, if necessary) by the calibration unit. For optimal adaptations to our applications, as well as for cost-effectiveness reasons, almost the entire electronics system is designed, constructed and tested by the Collaboration.

Two industry standards are adopted: NIM-convention for the AS and the various coincidence and veto logic modules, while the VME-protocols for the electronics-data acquisition interface. The trigger modules, logic control unit and calibration pulser are “double height” VME-6U modules, while the FADCs are “triple height” VME-9U modules. All are single-width modules.

The PMT signals pass through discriminators embedded in the AS module, and the NIM-level output are transferred to the trigger system. Simultaneously, the pre-trigger pedestals and the amplified AS pulses are continuously digitized and recorded on the circular buffers of the FADCs running at a 20 MHz (50 ns) rate. A typical FADC output signal of an event originated from the CsI(Tl) crystal is depicted in Figure 2b. The shaping effects can be seen when compared to the raw CsI(Tl)+PMT pulse in Figure 2a. The integrated area of the signal from two PMTs added together gives the energy of the event.

Once a signal due to a valid trigger is issued, the logic control system will generate a pre-defined “digitization gate” which determines the FADC digitalization time duration for the PMT signals. At the end of the gate, the FADC recording stops, and an “Interrupt” request is issued to the DAQ software hosted on a Linux-based PC via the VME-bus and a commercial VME-PCI bus bridge controller. The entire FADC system issues a single DAQ interrupt request (instead of each per module). The DAQ software response accordingly, and the data from the FADC circular buffers are read out and saved at computer disks for further processing. A detailed description of the online/offline DAQ system is given in Section 3.

The calibration pulser generates and distributes simulation signals to monitor the functionalities and performances of all channels, helps trouble-shooting for locating noisy or dead channels and provides them with correction factors for subsequent analysis.

The components of the electronics system are discussed in the following sub-sections.

### 2.1 Amplifier and Shaper

The schematic diagram of the amplifier/shaper (AS) module is shown in Figure 4. The AS receives the PMT signals via LEMO cables and provides them with amplification, filtering, and pulse shaping. In addition, two discriminators per channels are integrated in the same module. A total of 16 channels are grouped into one module for the AS and the FADC.

The discriminator threshold levels for the PMT signals are provided by a separate manually-set threshold voltage adjustor and distributor module. The high one (“HiThr”) is for trigger purposes while the low one (“LoThr”) allows recording of all signals minimally above electronics noise. The settings are constantly monitored by a commercial VME Charge-to-Digital Convertor (QDC) board555 LeCroy ADC 1182. The discriminator signals, “HDTO” and “LDTO” for those passing HiThr and LoThr, respectively, are sent to the trigger for processing by the trigger system.

As shown in Figure 2a, the raw signals originate as a summation of a collection of single photo-electrons (pe) statistically distributed over a time duration according to the standard light curve of the CsI(Tl). Therefore, they are several $`\mu `$s in length whose profile are rough with O(10 ns) spikes due to single pe. In comparison, thermal noise from PMT appear as the single pe spike with this O(10 ns) width.

The first stage666Based on Harris IC HA-2525 of the AS provides shaping at a time constant of 27 ns. It functions as a charge-sensitive amplifier for short \[O(10 ns and less)\] signals while remains as a current-sensitive amplifier for long ($`>1\mu `$s) signals. As a result, the single pe spikes are smoothened relative to the digitization time-bin of 50 ns, such that their amplitude are reduced to below the LoThr level. Consequently, the trigger threshold can be reduced, and that the 20 MHz FADC clock rate are adequate and appropriate. The subsequent stage777Based on Analog Devices IC AD817 is a slow device providing effective shaping of about 250 ns and 1.6 $`\mu `$s in rise and fall times, respectively. The overall gain is 3.2 V/mA.

Each AS module is also equipped with a 16-bit shift register, which can give a hit pattern of the 16 channels on the module. The hit-pattern can be used to generate trigger decisions and to reduce the reading time of the FADC module. However, in a low count-rate experiment like ours, the DAQ dead time is not a of critical concern, and therefore, this functionality of fast hit-pattern measurement is not implemented for the first operational version of the electronics system.

### 2.2 Flash ADC

The main tasks of the FADC are to digitize the pulse from the main amplifier/shaper, and to issue an Interrupt request to the DAQ system. The schematic diagram of the FADC is displayed in Figure 5. There are 16 channels per module, matching the differential output signals from the AS delivered to the FADC with flat twisted cables. The resolution is 8-bit and the gain is adjusted such that the full dynamic range corresponds to an input of 2 V.

After an event is read out and the DAQ system is ready to receive the next event, a “Reset” signal is issued to the electronics hardware. The input signal (which are the AS output) are continuously digitized888Based on Analog Devices IC AD775, and the data are put into a circular buffer memory999Elite MT IC UM61256FK. of size 4096 bytes (4K in depth and each bin having 8 bit resolution). The digitization frequency is driven by an externally programmable clock. The hardware limiting rate is 30 MHz, while typically a 20 MHz clock is used.

Digitization is terminated when the external clock stops at the end of a valid event: that is, typically 25 $`\mu `$s after a trigger is issued at “t=0”. Any subsequent events up to a pre-selected time (typically 2 ms) are also recorded. The circular buffer points at the last byte it writes. The valid data on the circular buffer is then read out in the time-reversed sense, starting with the last byte until some pre-trigger time bins (typically 5 $`\mu `$s before t=0) which are for extracting the pedestal information.

To enhance the reading speed, the 16 channels on one module are divided into four groups, and each group takes a 32-bit word for data transfer since the circular buffer for each channel uses 8-bit per recording. Based on special features to be described in details in Section 2.4, only those FADC modules with at least one hit above LoThr within the event duration will be read out.

### 2.3 Calibration Pulser

The calibration pulser provides the information of dynamical range, linearity, and stability for all channels. It helps trouble-shooting to locate problematic channels, and provides a set of online or offline correction parameters.

As illustrated by the schematic diagram in Figure 6, the pulser module consists of two components: calibration signal generator and distributor. The former generates a simulated signal, which is then fanned out via the latter to provide the input of the AS modules for all channels. A non-linearity of better than $`0.3\%`$ has been achieved for all channels.

During steady-state data taking, the calibration will be performed several times in a day to the electronics system via fully automatic software.

### 2.4 Logic Control Unit

The schematic diagram of the logic control unit is depicted in Figure 7. Its main function is to coordinate and synchronize the interactive actions of the various components of the electronics and DAQ systems. The designed timing schematic is shown in Figure 8.

After receiving a valid trigger signal which defines the “START” timing, control signals are distributed by the logic control unit to the various components. The hardware pre-selectable digitization gate, typically of 25 $`\mu `$s width, is initiated. At the end of the gate, a “STOP” signal is generated which disables the clocking circuit and the FADC digitization will stop.

For detailed diagnostics of the background events, it is desirable to record the possible occurrence of delayed correlated events, such as the 214Bi-214Po decay sequence

$${}_{}{}^{214}\mathrm{Bi}{}_{}{}^{214}\mathrm{Po}+\overline{\nu _\mathrm{e}}+\mathrm{e}^{}+\gamma ^{}\mathrm{s}(\mathrm{Q}=3.28\mathrm{MeV};\mathrm{T}_{\frac{1}{2}}=19.8\mathrm{min}),$$

$${}_{}{}^{214}\mathrm{Po}{}_{}{}^{210}\mathrm{Pb}+\alpha (\mathrm{Q}=7.69\mathrm{MeV};\mathrm{T}_{\frac{1}{2}}=164\mu \mathrm{s}).$$

Full digitization of the entire period far exceeds the available memory space in the circular buffer. To realize this requirement, a special “cascade-sequence” function is implemented After the completion of the triggered event, the entire system remains at the read-enable state capable of recording the pulse shape as well as timing of any delayed activities above LoThr for the duration of the “STROB” gate, typically set at 2 ms. Delayed events will initiate another cycle of digitization gate during which FADC digitization resumes, starting from the last location of the previous events. Relative arrival times of these delayed events are measured by additional Time-to-Digital-Convertor (TDCs) with 1 $`\mu `$s resolution. In this way, complete information up to 7 delayed events can be recorded (for a 20 MHz clock rate at the memory depth of 4K). In addition, the computer clock time is read out for every event, providing complementary timing information between events. The measured timing uncertainty is close to the limiting accuracy from the computer clock resolution of 10 ms. Therefore, the detailed and complete timing sequence of all the events can be reconstructed offline, providing powerful diagnostic tools for background understanding and suppression.

A manual switch provides selection of data taking modes either with the cascade-sequence functionalities or in the single-event mode for calibration purposes.

An Interrupt (“INTE”) signal is issued to the DAQ system at the completion of the STROB gate. The DAQ system starts transferring the data from the FADC memory and other locations to the hard disk storage space in the computer. When data acquisition is successfully completed, a “RESET” signal is distributed to the entire system to turn it back to the read-enable state for the next event.

The INTE signal instructs the DAQ system to read out a valid event. For DAQ efficiency and data suppression reasons, only those FADC modules with valid data are read out. This is achieved when an “EVENT” signal is issued from an AS module via its respective FADC module to the DAQ system. This signifies at least one channel having a data record above LoThr, and data will be read out from all 16 channels in this module. Software zero suppression is performed online and instantaneously to those channels without any signals above LoThr.

### 2.5 Trigger System

The trigger system is responsible for selecting events to be recorded. The schematic diagram is displayed in Figure 9. A logic FAN-IN of the signals from all the cosmic veto scintillators, after a coincidence requirement within individual panels, generates the “$`\mathrm{V}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$” pulse. The veto action is extended over a hardware select-able “veto period”, typically of 100 $`\mu `$s, to get rid of background due to delayed cosmic-ray neutron-induced activities. The signal-definition line “$`\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$” is a logic FAN-in from selected signals from the CsI(Tl) target.

Four software select-able trigger modes are implemented to serve various data taking purposes: $`\mathrm{T1}=\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$, $`\mathrm{T2}=\mathrm{V}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$, $`\mathrm{T3}=\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{IN}}+\mathrm{V}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$, and $`\mathrm{T4}=\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{IN}}+\overline{\mathrm{V}}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$. The “physics trigger” is provided by T4, while T3 is used for dedicated data taking for cosmic rays, while T1 and T2 are for diagnostics and debugging purposes. In steady-state data taking, the “trigger menu” consists mainly of T4 with a small sample T3 and calibration pulser events taken once every several hours for monitoring and calibration purposes.

The definition of $`\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$ depends on the selection requirements based on the hit-pattern input from the various CsI(Tl)+PMT channels. For low count rate applications such as neutrino physics experiments, the trigger conditions can be kept loose and minimal, and can be fine-tuned to be optimized for specific physics focus.

The “minimal bias” trigger is a simple coincidence between both PMTs corresponding to the same crystal module, whose pulse height are above the HiThr discriminator level. This is realized by having the “left” PMTs connected to one AS module, and the “right” ones to another. A coincidence from the HDTO lines of these modules, followed by a logic FAN-IN circuitry provides the $`\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$ line. Detailed selection of signal events from the background (for instance, events with a single hit versus those with multiple hits) can be carried out with subsequent offline analysis.

The trigger system is equipped with other diagnostic tools, like hit-pattern units for the cosmic-rays veto panels, scalers for recording various count rates (like the trigger and veto rates), as well as TDCs for measuring various timing (like the time between cascade sequence, as well as that between the $`\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$ and $`\mathrm{V}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$ lines). The time between the most recent veto pulse and a valid trigger is recorded for diagnostic purposes.

## 3 Software System

The tasks of the software system are to perform data acquisition of the electronics discussed in Section 2, to operate a slow control system for the high voltage supplies and other ambient parameters, as well as to provide event display and monitoring graphic output. These functions are constructed in different programming languages and with different software tools, and work together in one single PC which runs on the Linux operation system. For security reasons, remote access and control to the reactor site can only be done with a telephone line dial-up solution.

The schematic framework of the software system, as well as the data flow, are depicted in Figure 10. The FADC data are recorded on hard disks. Only minimal bias selection criteria are applied online. Event display for data-taking quality checks are provided for the on-site data taking.

At steady-state data-taking, the experiment is expected to be attended manually once per week. Filled-up hard disks will be replaced by new ones and brought back to the home-base laboratory where the data are copied into CDs and Exabyte tapes as permanent storage media. Meanwhile HBOOK N-tuples are prepared for the storage of refined data which passes some technical event filter criteria and contains useful reconstructed quantities, such as energy depositions and longitudinal positions, from the pulse shape information. The refinement process of raw data to N-tuples can be iterated as many times as needed based on better understanding on experimental running conditions and detector calibrations. The calibrated N-tuples are then distributed to collaborating laboratories for further physics analysis.

Details of the various components are described below.

### 3.1 Data Acquisition

The schematic architecture of the data acquisition (DAQ) software system is shown in Figure 11. The system provides control to the experimental running parameters, accesses valid data from the VME electronics modules, and saves them on to hard disks.

The host computer is a PC running with the Pentium III-500 processor using RedHat Linux as the Operation System. The PC masters the VME slave modules on both the 6U and 9U VME crates via a commercial Adaptor system101010SBS Bit-3 Adaptor which provides communication between the VME-bus and the PCI-bus.

The DAQ software can be divided into two components in kernel and user space. The program written at the Linux kernel space provides low-level access to the VME-PCI Adaptor, and serves as a device driver which uses the kernel functions and provides the entry-point where user-space programs can communicate with the hardware.

The Tk/TcL-based graphics user interface package is equipped with various operational dialogues, including Start/Pause/Stop buttons and pull down menus for other functionalities for electronic module tests and regular DAQ operation. Various input fields are provided, where running conditions and parameters can be configured, file names and directory paths can be specified, and operational comments can be recorded. A function for pre-scheduling different trigger modes is also available which enables automatic selection of trigger conditions within the same data taking period. All control buttons in the dialogues are responded by their respective call-back functions at the kernel level of Linux.

### 3.2 Slow Control

The slow control system serves to record and monitor the high voltage (HV) power supplies for the CsI(Tl) and veto scintillator PMTs, as well as other ambient and operation parameters.

The high voltage system is based on a dedicated main-frame crate111111LeCroy 1458 operating on special HV modules121212LeCroy 1461. Each HV supply is distributed to two PMTs at the detector level. There are 12 HV supplies in each module and 16 modules can be inserted into one crate, so that a crate can handle 384 channels altogether.

The crate is internally equipped with a micro processor, adequate RAM space, and communication ports which can receive and execute external commands or return the voltage and current status of the individual channels. The serial port communication are adopted (the other option is the Ethernet) via a RS-232C cable to the DAQ PC. In principle, one PC can host up to 4 serial ports with each port driving one crate, such that future expansion of the system is straight-forward.

A VT100-based socket program is used to communicate with the PC serial ports using multiple Linux threads. Control and monitoring is achieved both locally on the console PC or remotely via the PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) dial-up connection from home-base laboratories, as described in Section 3.4.

Slow control data such as output voltages and currents measured by the main-frame processor are recorded by the socket program on the hard disks of the DAQ PC, at a typical frequency of once per 10 minutes. Subsequent monitoring software packages can detect the voltage or current fluctuation, and warning or fatal error messages will be issued in case of alarms. Appropriate actions will be taken automatically, like voltage ramp-up for a tripped HV channel.

Other ambient conditions like temperature readings from thermostats, as well as operating parameters like the HiThr and LoThr values, are read out by a QDC module$`^\text{5}`$. The cumulative count rates over a data-taking period from the CsI(Tl) target and the veto panels (the $`\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$ and $`\mathrm{V}_{\mathrm{IN}}`$ lines, respectively) are measured by a scaler module131313CAEN V260. Both of these are read out by the main DAQ program, at a typical frequency of once every hour.

The slow control functions consume very little CPU time, and therefore does not affect the DAQ speed, such that both operations can both be handled by a single PC without interference on the actual performance.

### 3.3 Display and Monitoring Graphics

A PAW-based  event display and monitoring program enable data quality check on-site from the information provided by the pulse shape, energy spectra, hit map, and calibration pulser analysis. Both real-time and on-disk raw data can be accessed. The graphics panels paged with these specific functional buttons are implemented with PAW executable files, and can be linked together and switched with each other on the HIGZ  window.

A clone of this program is duplicated on an off-site PC with an extra function which allows automatic data transfer (using a batch ftp shell script) from the on-site DAQ PC. To avoid the traffic caused by the low bandwidth of the networking telephone line, as discussed in Section 3.4, only a summary data in the format of HBOOK N-tuples and histograms are transferred back to home-base laboratories on a daily basis for offline monitoring and analysis.

### 3.4 Network Connection

Owing to security reasons, the on-site computer can only be accessed via telephone line from home-based laboratories, as depicted in Figure 10, to decouple the connections from the reactor plant’s internal Ethernet network. The PPP system is adopted for the network connection of the on-site DAQ PC and the off-site PC, which serves the entry point for other off-site computers. Under the PPP client-server mode, the on-site PC is configured as the PPP server, whose modem can automatically pick up a dial-up connection request from the off-site PPP client, which get its IP address from the server.

Both the server and client are equipped with 56k bit-per-second(bps) modems, and the bandwidth is limited by the quality (9.6k bps) of the existing internal telephone circuitry of of the reactor plant. An average networking speed is around 4.8k bps is achieved. This is adequate for monitoring purposes when no large amount of data transfer is involved.

## 4 Performance

The electronics and data acquisition systems with a total of 200 readout channels has been in robust operating conditions taking data from the prototype crystal modules at the laboratory. The readout scheme essentially preserves all energy and timing information recorded by the detector, providing powerful diagnostic tools for rare-search type experiments.

Using the input from the precision calibration pulser, the overall linearity of the response of the electronics and data acquisition systems is better than 0.3%. The RMS of the pedestal is equivalent to 0.30 FADC-channel corresponding to 2.3 mV baseline noise at the input level of the FADC. The resolution of the measured pulser-charge as a function of pulse amplitude, in the unit of FADC-channel, is displayed in Figure 15. The readout capabilities are much better than the detector response such that the overall performance parameters of the experiment are limited by the detector hardware.

The typical signals from the CsI(Tl)+PMT and the FADC outputs are displayed in Figure 2a and 2b, respectively. The fall times are different between $`\gamma `$/e and $`\alpha `$ events, as shown in Figure 12, providing a basis of particle identification. A typical cosmic-ray muon traversing a prototype detector set-up with 7 crystal modules is presented in Figure 13.

The integrated sum of the signals from both ends of a crystal module gives the energy information of the event. A typical energy spectrum due to a 137Cs source is depicted in Figure 14. A energy threshold of less than 50 keV is achieved. The full-width-half-max (FWHM) resolution at 660 keV is about 10%. This energy corresponds to pulses with around 50 FADC-channels in amplitude, which implies, based on Figure 15, a readout contribution of 1.6% to the resolution effects at the 137Cs energy.

The system dead time is due to the contributions of two factors: (1) veto dead time, which is the veto rate multiplied by the inactive time per event (typically 100 $`\mu `$s), and (2) DAQ dead time, which is the time needed to read out the FADC and other modules (that is, the time after the STROB gate till the RESET pulse, as displayed in Figure 8).

The DAQ dead time depends on the complexity of the events. To illustrate the range, the typical dead time is 16 ms to read out and zero-suppress the simplest event where there is a single hit without delayed cascade, requiring only one FADC per event to be handled. The corresponding dead time for the read-out of 9 FADCs each having 7 delayed cascade per event is 700-800 ms. Typically, in situations like calibration data taking with radioactive sources which give high count rate but simple hit-pattern, and where the delayed cascade functions are disabled, a DAQ rate of 100 Hz can be sustained.

## 5 Summary

An electronics and data acquisition system for low energy neutrino physics experiment, based on CsI(Tl) scintillating crystal as detectors with 100$``$500 readout channels, has been successfully designed, built and commissioned. It is modular by design and flexible in applications, such that the system can be adapted, as a whole or in parts, for other purposes.

There are several possible future upgrades which can further enhance its capabilities. The amplifier/shaper modules are equipped with shift registers such that a hit-pattern can be extracted if necessary. The readout time can then be reduced with this prior knowledge of what channels to read. Similarly, the trigger conditions employed for the current experiment are very loose and with minimal bias. With the exact hit-pattern information extracted, more sophisticated trigger selection criteria can be devised. Both functions are not critical for low count rate, low occupancy experiments, but may be desirable for higher trigger rate applications like in a high energy physics environment.

The current application requires a large dynamic range from about 10 keV (several photo-electrons) to 50 MeV (cosmic-ray muons). Although the FADC utilizes an 8-bit digitization scheme, its capabilities are beyond a $`2^8`$=256 fold dynamic range, since the entire pulse with a few hundred data-points are measured for every event. Over-scale signal manifest itself as event with a “flat-top”, the duration of which provides a measurement to the energy of the event. Using this feature , the desired range can be covered even with a readout system with an 8-bit resolution in amplitude.

The authors are grateful to the technical staff of our institutes for invaluable support. This work was supported by contracts NSC 88-2112-M-001-007, NSC 89-2112-M-001-028 and NSC 89-2112-M-001-056 from the National Science Council, Taiwan, as well as 19975050 from the National Science Foundation, China.