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# THE TWO-COMPONENT NON-PERTURBATIVE POMERON AND THE G-UNIVERSALITY

## Aknowledgements

I thank Prof. Roberto Fiore for the kind invitation at this wonderfully organized meeting and Prof. Vladimir Ezhela for important exchanges of information during the last year. I thank Dr. Pierre Gauron for a careful reading of the manuscript.


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# Overview: Brownian Motion and Dephasing due to Dynamical Disorder

## Abstract

The motion of a particle under the influence of a dynamical disorder is described by the DLD model. One motivation is to understand the motion of an electron inside a metal; Another is to understand quantal Brownian motion. The overview is based on a research report for 1996-1998.

A generic toy model for quantal Brownian motion that takes into account the disordered nature of an environment (See Fig.1) has been defined and explored \[P1-P5\]. The treatment of diffusion localization and dissipation (DLD) has been unified, the propagator of the reduced probability-density-matrix has been calculated, and its non-classical structure has been explained.

One motivation for studying this effective ‘DLD model’, which constitutes a non-trivial generalization of Zwanzig-Caldeira-Leggett (ZCL) model, is the wish to understand the motion of an electron inside a metal, taking into account both the the static disorder configuration and also the Coulomb interaction with the rest of the Fermi sea.

An important issue \[P3\] is the study of decoherence using Wigner’s phase-space representation for the description of the evolving quantum-mechanical state. In case of the ZCL model the propagator of the Wigner function is just a Gaussian kernel. In case of the DLD model the propagator contains a singular term that corresponds to an unscattered component of the wavepacket. Consequently it is possible to distinguish between smearing mechanism and scattering mechanism for decoherence. This distinction is essential in order to get a proper understanding of dephasing.

The extension of the latter study \[P4\] to the low-temperatures regime has been done in collaboration with Y. Imry. The limitations of the semiclassical strategy have been clarified. The work was motivated by a controversy regarding the effect of ‘zero point fluctuations’ , following experimental observation by Mohanty, Jariwala and Webb .

The study of dephasing has been extended \[P3\] to various types of transport, which are illustrated by Fig.2. The main goal was to derive results for all these cases using a general formula for dephasing that applies to any temperature. The final result can be written in terms of two functions: the form-factor of the environment and the power spectrum of the motion under consideration. The introduction of ad-hoc or ambiguous cutoffs into the calculations, as in the works of Chakravarty and Schmid  and followers, is not required.

Fig.1. Illustration of the Zwanzig-Caldeira-Leggett model (upper drawings), versus the DLD model (lower drawings). DLD stands for ‘Diffusion Localization and Dissipation’, which are the three main dynamical effects that are associated with the motion in dynamical disorder. The instantaneous potential that is experienced by the particle is either linear (right upper drawing), or of disordered nature (right lower drawing) respectively. If the fluctuations are uncorrelated in time, then the two models are classically equivalent. There is no such equivalence in the quantum-mechanical case!

Fig.2. Various types of transport problems that have been studied: (a) Ballistic transport as in the two-slit experiment; (b) Transport via a chaotic cavity; (c) Transport via diffusive cavity, as in weak localization experiments. The dephasing factor that suppresses the interference contribution can be determined once the properly-defined power-spectrum of the motion is calculated.

References:

D.S. Golubev and A.D.Zaikin, Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 1074 (1998).

P. Mohanty, E.M. Jariwala and R.A. Webb, Phys. Rev. Lett. 77, 3366 (1997).

S. Chakravarty and A. Schmid, Phys. Rep. 140, 193 (1986).

Publications:

D. Cohen, ”Unified Model for the Study of Diffusion Localization and Dissipation”, Phys. Rev. E 55, 1422-1441 (1997).

D. Cohen, ”Quantum Dissipation versus Classical Dissipation for Generalized Brownian Motion”, Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 2878 (1997).

D. Cohen, ”Quantal Brownian Motion - Dephasing and Dissipation”, J. Phys. A 31, 8199-8220 (1998).

D. Cohen and Y. Imry, ”Dephasing at Low Temperatures”, Phys. Rev. B 59, 11143-11146 (1999).

D. Cohen, ”Chaos, Dissipation and Quantal Brownian Motion”, Proceedings of the International School of Physics ‘Enrico Fermi’ Course CXLIII “New Directions in Quantum Chaos”, Edited by G. Casati, I. Guarneri and U. Smilansky, IOS Press, Amsterdam (2000).

Preprints and publications are available via
http://monsoon.harvard.edu/$``$doron


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

In the recent past there has been increasing emphasis in quantum statistics of the ideal quantum gases in an arbitrary quantum potential since the recent experiment observations. The latter concerns the Bose-Einstein condensation  and the Fermi quantum degeneracy  for dilute alkali-metal atoms in magnetic or magneto-optical traps at very low temperature. These results have received renewed attention and much of this attention is paid to the study of ideal quantum gases confining in different external potentials. In particular, the Bose-Einstein condensation. This was examined in many occasions in the presence of typical external potentials, for example; harmonic potential $`[38]`$, toroidal potential , double-well potential  and in the presence of an impurity . More recently, an interesting results have been obtained by Salasnich. Ideal quantum gases in $`D`$-dimensional space and confining in power-law potential  have been studied. Among the results derived in this paper, we note the condition of the Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC). Indeed, it is shown that BEC can set up if and only if $`\frac{D}{2}+\frac{D}{n}>1`$.

In this paper we wish to extend the Salasnich analysis  to cover more general results. For this task, we investigate the ideal quantum gases trapped in the potential

$$U(𝐫)=Ar^n+Br^n$$
(1)
with $`A,B`$ strictly positives and $`n`$ is a non vanishing integer. For this type of potential, we give the thermostatistics properties which generalize the Salasnich ones. In the limit $`B0`$, we recover the Salasnich results. We prove that BEC occurs in the high temperature regime.

This paper is organised as follows. In section $`2`$, we give the quantum distribution functions in the framework of the semiclassical approximation for both bosons and fermions confining in a generic potential. Section $`3`$ is devoted to the generalization of the Salasnich analysis when the particles, bosons and fermions, are trapped in the potential given by equation $`(1)`$. We will see that in the limit $`B0`$, one can recover the results obtained by Salasnich in . Bosons and fermions are studied separately. For the fermionic gas evolving in the $`U(𝐫)`$ potential, we give the corresponding Fermi functions, the finite and zero temperature momentum distribution, and the number of particles. In a similar way, we define the Bose function corresponding to particles obeying the Bose-Einstein statistics, we compute the finite temperature non condensed momentum distribution and finally we give the relation satisfied by the Bose transition temperature below which the BEC takes place. Since, this relation can’t be solved in the general case, we restrict the BEC analysis in the high and low temperature regimes. The last section is devoted to the conclusions and perspectives of the present work.

## 2 Prelimenaries

We shall briefly review the basic tools which will be useful to investigate the thermal properties of both Bose and Fermi ideal gases in a generic confining external potential.

### 2.1 Quantum distribution functions

We start with a confined quantum gases (identical bosons or fermions). The average number of occupation for the $`k`$-mode is

$$N_k=\frac{1}{e^{\beta (ϵ_k\mu )}+1},$$
(2)
for the fermions and

$$N_k=\frac{1}{e^{\beta (ϵ_k\mu )}1},$$
(3)
for bosons. In equations $`(2)`$ and $`(3)`$, $`\mu `$ is the chemical potential, $`ϵ_k`$ are the energy of particles, and $`\beta =\frac{1}{k_BT}`$ the reciprocal temperature. Then, the total average occupation number $`N`$ of the particles is given by

$$N=\underset{k}{}N_k,$$
(4)
which leads to fix the parameter $`\mu `$. For more details about the physical meaning of the chemical potential $`\mu `$ see ref..

In conclusion, equations $`(2)`$ and $`(3)`$ will be written in the semiclassical approximation in the next subsection and will be constituted a starting point of our study for the bosons and fermions, respectively.

### 2.2 Semiclassical approximation

In the semiclassical approximation (the thermodynamical limit), the energy spectrum may be considered as a continuum. This situation occurs when the number of particles is large and the energy level spacing is small. Thus, the quantum distribution functions can be replaced by the so-called phase-space distribution

$$n(𝐫,𝐩)=\frac{1}{e^{\beta (ϵ(𝐫,𝐩)\mu )}\pm 1},$$
(5)
where $`𝐫=(r_1,r_2,\mathrm{}\mathrm{},r_D)`$ and $`𝐩=(p_1,p_2,\mathrm{}\mathrm{},p_D)`$ are the position and momentum of $`D`$-dimensional system under consideration. In equation $`(5)`$, plus and minus refer to fermions and bosons respectively. To obtain the total distribution, we compute the integral over all $`2D`$-dimensional phase-space. Then, we get

$$N=\frac{d^D𝐫d^D𝐩}{(2\pi \mathrm{})^D}n(𝐫,𝐩),$$
(6)
which can be written as follows

$`N={\displaystyle d^D𝐫n(𝐫)}={\displaystyle d^D𝐩n(𝐩)},`$ (7)
where the spacial and momentum distributions are given, respectively, by

$$n(𝐫)=\frac{d^D𝐩}{(2\pi \mathrm{})^D}n(𝐫,𝐩),$$
(8)
and

$$n(𝐩)=\frac{d^D𝐫}{(2\pi \mathrm{})^D}n(𝐫,𝐩).$$
(9)
Introducing the density of states

$$\rho (ϵ)=\frac{d^D𝐫d^D𝐩}{(2\pi \mathrm{})^D}\delta (ϵϵ(𝐫,𝐩)),$$
(10)
with $`\delta (x)`$ is the usual Dirac function. The average total occupation number of particles can be written as

$$N=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑ϵ\rho (ϵ)\frac{1}{e^{\beta (ϵ\mu )}\pm 1}.$$
(11)
The phase-distribution, in the case of fermions at zero temperature (i.e where the chemical potential $`\mu `$ coincides with Fermi energy $`E_F`$), takes the simplest form

$$n(𝐫,𝐩)=\mathrm{\Theta }(E_Fϵ(𝐫,𝐩)),$$
(12)
where $`\mathrm{\Theta }(x)`$ is the well-known Heaviside function. The case of bosons was discussed in great detail in  (see also the references therein). When, the external potential is taken in to account, the classical single-particle energy is defined as

$$ϵ(𝐫,𝐩)=\frac{𝐩^2}{2m}+U(𝐫),$$
(13)
from which one can prove that the semi-classical density function is given by

$$\rho (ϵ)=(\frac{m}{2\pi \mathrm{}^2})^{\frac{D}{2}}\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2})}d^D𝐫(ϵU(𝐫))^{\frac{D2}{2}},$$
(14)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(n)`$ is the Gamma function. It is interesting to note that equation $`(14)`$ is valid for all external potentials. We now close this section related to the main tools which will be used in the following sections investigating the thermostatistics of bosons and fermions trapped in the potential given by eq.$`(1)`$.

## 3 Ideal gases in the $`Ar^n+Br^n`$ potential

In many experiments with alkali-metals atoms, the external trap can be modelled by a harmonic potential . The effects of adiabatic change in the trap can be represented by power-law potentials . In general, to find the momentum distribution, the Fermi temperature and the Bose temperature, it is necessary to specify the external potential.

### 3.1 Fermionic gas

To discuss the statistical properties of a fermionic gas embedded in the potential $`U(𝐫)`$, let us start by defining the Fermi function. As we will see, this definition generalizes the one given in  and allows the computation of physical quantities, of interest in the study of the system under consideration, as, for instance, the density of states and number of particles.

We define the Fermi function as follows

$$f_n^{(B)}(z)=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(n)}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑yy^{n1}\frac{ze^{ayby^1}}{1+ze^{ayby^1}}.$$
(15)
where $`a`$ and $`b`$ are two arbitrary positive constants. In the particular case $`b=0`$, we get after rescaling the variable

$$f_n(z)=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(n)}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑yy^{n1}\frac{ze^y}{1+ze^y},$$
(16)
where $`f_n(z)`$ is the Fermi function definition  for a fermionic system in the $`U(𝐫)=Ar^n`$ potential. We note that, the Fermi function can be expanded, for $`|z|<1`$, as

$$f_n^{(B)}(z)=\frac{2(\frac{b}{a})^{\frac{n}{2}}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(n)}\underset{j=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(1)^{j+1}z^jK_n(2\sqrt{ab}),$$
(17)
in terms of the modified Bessel function $`K_n(2\sqrt{ab})`$

$$K_n(2\sqrt{ab})=\frac{1}{2}(\frac{a}{b})^{\frac{n}{2}}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑yy^{n1}e^{ayby^1}.$$
(18)
The density of states of a fermionic quantum gas in the potential eq.$`(1)`$ can be calculated from equation $`(14)`$. So, we have to compute the integral of type

$$\rho ^B(ϵ)=(\frac{m}{2\pi \mathrm{}})^{\frac{D}{2}}\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2})}d^D𝐫(ϵAr^nBr^n)^{\frac{D2}{2}}.$$
(19)
In this order, we put $`y=r^n`$ and solve the following equation

$$ϵAyBy^1=0.$$
(20)
The latter equation has two positive solutions

$$u=\frac{ϵ}{2A}+\sqrt{(\frac{ϵ}{2A})^2\frac{B}{A}},\alpha =\frac{ϵ}{2A}\sqrt{(\frac{ϵ}{2A})^2\frac{B}{A}},$$
(21)
when $`ϵ2\sqrt{AB}`$ is satisfied since the radius of the sphere $`r`$ should be a real positive. Using the relation $`d^D𝐫=\frac{D\pi ^{\frac{D}{2}}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)}`$ giving the $`D`$-dimensional unit sphere and the equations $`(21)`$, the integral $`(19)`$ can be written as

$$\rho ^B(ϵ)=(\frac{m}{2\pi \mathrm{}})^{\frac{D}{2}}\frac{D\pi ^{\frac{D}{2}}A^{\frac{D2}{2}}}{n\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2})\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)}_\alpha ^u𝑑yy^{\frac{D}{n}\frac{D}{2}}(\alpha +y)^{\frac{D2}{2}}(uy)^{\frac{D2}{2}},$$
(22)
which can be solved using the integral representations of the hypergeometric functions. Finally, we obtain

$$\rho ^B(ϵ)=(\frac{m}{2\sqrt{\pi }\mathrm{}})^{\frac{D}{2}}\frac{D}{n}A^{\frac{D2}{2}}(\alpha )^{\frac{D2}{2}}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n}\frac{D}{2}+1)}{[\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)]^2}{}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(1\frac{D}{2},\frac{D}{n}\frac{D}{2}+1;\frac{D}{n};\frac{u}{\alpha }).$$
(23)
We recall that the hypergeometric function $`{}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(\alpha ,\beta ;\gamma ;z)`$ is defined by

$${}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma ,z)=\frac{1}{B(\beta ,\gamma \beta )}_0^1𝑑yy^{\beta 1}(1y)^{\gamma \beta 1}(1zy)^\alpha ,$$
(24)
where $`Re\gamma >0`$, $`Re\beta >0`$ and

$$B(\alpha ,\beta )=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha )\mathrm{\Gamma }(\beta )}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\alpha +\beta )}=B(\beta ,\alpha ),$$
(25)
is the so-called beta function or Euler’s integral of the first kind, which admits the following integral representation

$$B(\alpha ,\beta )=_0^1𝑑tt^{\alpha 1}(1t)^{\beta 1}.$$
(26)
It is interesting to remark that the following relation is satisfied

$$\underset{B0}{lim}(\alpha )^\lambda {}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(1\frac{D}{2},\frac{D}{n}\frac{D}{2}+1;\frac{D}{n};\frac{u}{\alpha })=(\frac{ϵ}{A})^{\frac{D}{2}1}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2})\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n}+1)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n})}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}1)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n}\frac{D}{2}+1)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n}+2)}.$$
(27)
Using the latter relation, the density of states, in the limit $`B0`$, is given by

$$\rho (ϵ)=(\frac{m}{2\mathrm{}^2})^{\frac{D}{2}}(\frac{1}{A})^{\frac{D}{n}}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n}+1)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n}+\frac{D}{2})}ϵ^{\frac{D}{n}+\frac{D}{2}+1}$$
(28)
which coincides with the result obtained in reference .

Using the above tools, other interesting properties of the present system (fermions) may be determined in a simple way:

i- The finite temperature momentum distribution

$$n(𝐩)=\frac{1}{(2\sqrt{\pi }\mathrm{})^D}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n}+1)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)}f_{\frac{D}{n}}^{(B)}(e^{\beta (\mu \frac{𝐩^2}{2m})}).$$
(29)
ii- The zero temperature momentum distribution

$$n(𝐩)=\frac{1}{(2\sqrt{\pi }\mathrm{})^D}\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)}\mathrm{\Theta }(E_F\frac{𝐩^2}{2m})[\frac{E_F\frac{𝐩^2}{2m}}{2A}+[(\frac{E_F\frac{𝐩^2}{2m}}{2A})^2\frac{B}{A}]^{\frac{1}{2}}]^{\frac{D}{n}},$$
(30)
where we request that $`p[2m(ϵ2\sqrt{AB})]^{\frac{1}{2}}`$ for the right term makes sense.
iii- Number of particles
The number of particles is given by the following integral

$$N=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)}\frac{d^D𝐩}{(2\pi \mathrm{})^D}\mathrm{\Theta }(E_F\frac{𝐩^2}{2m})[\frac{E_F\frac{𝐩^2}{2m}}{2A}+[(\frac{E_F\frac{𝐩^2}{2m}}{2A})^2\frac{B}{A}]^{\frac{1}{2}}]^{\frac{D}{n}},$$
(31)
which can be reorganized as

$$N=\frac{1}{(2\sqrt{\pi }\mathrm{})^D}\frac{D\pi ^{\frac{D}{2}}}{[\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)]^2}_0^{[2m(ϵ2\sqrt{AB})]^{\frac{1}{2}}}𝑑pp^{D1}[\frac{E_F\frac{𝐩^2}{2m}}{2A}+[(\frac{E_F\frac{𝐩^2}{2m}}{2A})^2\frac{B}{A}]^{\frac{1}{2}}]^{\frac{D}{n}}.$$
(32)
A calculation more or less complicated, gives the following expression for the number of particles

$$N=Mf(\gamma )B(\frac{D}{2},\frac{D}{2})[f_1(\gamma ){}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(+1)f_1^1(\gamma ){}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(1)],$$
(33)
where

$$M=\frac{D(\frac{m}{2})^{\frac{1}{2}}}{\mathrm{}^2}\frac{(AB)^{\frac{D}{2n}+\frac{D}{4}}}{A^{D/n}},$$

$$f(\gamma )=(\gamma ^21)^{\frac{D1}{2}}[\gamma (\gamma ^21)^{\frac{1}{2}}]^{\frac{D}{n}\frac{D}{2}},$$

$$f_1(\gamma )=\gamma (\gamma ^21)^{\frac{1}{2}},$$

$$f_1^1(\gamma )=\frac{1}{f_1(\gamma )},$$

$$\gamma =\frac{E_F\frac{𝐩^2}{2m}}{2A},$$

$${}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(\pm 1)={}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(\frac{D}{n}+\frac{D}{2}1;\frac{D}{2};D,\frac{2(\gamma ^21)^{\frac{1}{2}}}{\gamma (\gamma ^21)^{\frac{1}{2}}}),$$

and $`B(\frac{D}{2},\frac{D}{2})`$ is given by eqs.(25,26).

The number of particles is expressed in terms of the hypergeometric and beta functions. It is clear that this relation is complicated and we believe that a more detailed study of it can generate more interesting results. We will return to this matter in a subsequent paper.

To close this subsection, we note that the results derived in ref. related to the fermionic gas, can be reproduced just by taking the limit $`B0`$.

### 3.2 Bosonic gas

We now examine the condensation of a system of bosons confining in the potential $`U(𝐫)`$ (eq.$`(1)`$). We start by defining the Bose function as follows

$$g_n^{(B)}(z)=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(n)}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑yy^{n1}\frac{ze^{ayby^1}}{1ze^{ayby^1}}.$$
(34)
For $`|z|<1`$, we have

$$g_n^{(B)}(z)=\frac{2(\frac{b}{a})^{\frac{n}{2}}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(n)}\underset{j=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}z^jK_n(2j\sqrt{ab}),$$
(35)
where $`K_n(2\sqrt{ab})`$ is given by eq.$`(18)`$. For $`B0`$, we show that

$$g_n(z)=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(n)}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑yy^{n1}\frac{ze^y}{1+ze^y},$$
(36)
which is nothing but the definition of the Bose function given in  corresponding to the bosons in the potential $`U(𝐫)=Ar^n`$.

Using the definition given by eq.$`(34)`$, one obtain the following results:
i- The finite temperature non condensed momentum distribution

$$n(𝐩)=\frac{1}{(2\sqrt{\pi }\mathrm{})^D}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n}+1)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)}g_{\frac{D}{n}}^{(B)}(e^{\beta (\mu \frac{𝐩^2}{2m})}).$$
(37)
ii- The Bose transition temperature
To obtain the Bose-temperature, we have to calculate the number of particles

$$N=d^D𝐩n(𝐩).$$
(38)
As in the case of ordinary bosons (without interaction), we define the Bose-temperature by taking the chemical potential $`\mu =0`$. By introducing $`\mu =0`$ in eq.$`(37)`$, we get

$$N=\frac{D\pi ^{\frac{1}{2}}}{(2\sqrt{\pi }\mathrm{})^D}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n}+1)}{[\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)]^2}_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑pp^{D1}g_{\frac{D}{n}}^{(B)}(e^{\frac{\beta 𝐩^2}{2m}}).$$
(39)
With the help of eq.$`(35)`$, it is easy to show that

$$N=2(\frac{B}{A})^{\frac{D}{2n}}(\frac{2m}{\beta })^{\frac{D}{2}}\frac{D\pi ^{\frac{1}{2}}}{(2\sqrt{\pi }\mathrm{})^D}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n}+1)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2}+1)}\underset{j=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{K_{\frac{D}{n}}(2j\beta \sqrt{AB})}{j^{\frac{D}{2}}}.$$
(40)
The latter equation gives a relation between the number of particles (or density) and Bose-temperature below which we obtain a Bose-Einstein condensation. Due to the complicated sum appearing in $`(40)`$, the Bose temperature can’t be calculated, in general, in a simple way. However, in the some particular situations, the solutions of this equation can be found. Indeed, in the high and low temperature regimes (which are two interesting situations from an experimental point of view) some information about BEC can be derived:
High temperature: This case corresponds to $`\beta 0`$. In this limit the functions $`K_{\frac{D}{n}}(2j\beta \sqrt{AB})`$ take the form

$$K_{\frac{D}{n}}(2j\beta \sqrt{AB})\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n})(2j\beta \sqrt{AB})^{\frac{D}{n}}.$$
(41)
Therefore, eq.$`(40)`$ implies

$$N=(\frac{m}{2\mathrm{}^2})^{\frac{D}{2}}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{n}+1)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{D}{2})}\frac{\zeta (\frac{D}{2}+\frac{D}{n})}{\beta ^{\frac{D}{2}+\frac{D}{n}}}.$$
(42)
This result is similar to the one found in ref.. From this relation we conclude that just restricting ourselves to high temperature limit, we find the Salasnich analysis related to the BEC. Indeed, it is shown that the latter takes place when the condition $`\frac{D}{2}+\frac{D}{n}>1`$ is satisfied. Strictly speaking, we obtain the condensed fraction as follows

$$\frac{N_0}{N}=1(\frac{T}{T_B})^{\frac{D}{2}+\frac{D}{n}},$$
(43)
where $`N_0`$ is the number of particles occupying the single-particle ground-state of the system when the temperature is below $`T_B`$.
Low temperature: Equivalently to $`\beta \mathrm{}`$, then we have

$$K_{\frac{D}{n}}(2j\beta \sqrt{AB})\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0}.$$
(44)
In that case, we get a number of particles $`N0`$ corresponding to a temperature $`T0`$. This result is compatible with the literature .

## 4 Conclusion

In this work, we concentrated on the influence of confining potential $`U(𝐫)=Ar^n+Br^n`$ on the main statistical properties of the ideal quantum gases (bosons or fermions) in $`D`$-dimensions. We discussed the derivation of the density of states, spacial and momentum distributions in the thermodynamical limit. For fermions, we have calculated the Fermi energy and for bosons, the phenomenon of Bose-Einstein condensation is discussed in terms of the reciprocal temperature $`(\beta )`$. Two situations were considerd $`(\beta 0)`$ and $`(\beta \mathrm{})`$ corresponding to high and low temperature, respectively. In the limit $`B0`$, our results reproduce the Salasnich ones ref. concerning the confining power-law potential.

An important result of the present work concerns the Bose-Einstein condensation, in the high temperature domain, which occurs when $`\frac{D}{2}+\frac{D}{n}>1`$, where $`D`$ is the space dimension and $`n`$ the exponent appearing in the expression of $`U(𝐫)`$. Another result concerns to the low temperature case where the number of particles vanishes.

To finalize this paper, it should be noted that the present investigation of the ideal quantum gases embedded in the potential $`U(𝐫)`$ (eq.$`(1)`$) in $`D`$-dimensions, constitutes now a very interesting topic to learn more about Bose-Einstein condensation. In fact, as we have indicated above, the BEC should be investigated in more detail in general case solving equation $`(40)`$. We believe that more important informations can be obtained in this case. We will return on this subject in a forthcoming work .

## Acknowledgment

A. Jellal is grateful to Prof. S. Randjbar-Daemi for the kind invitation to visit the High Energy Section of the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (AS-ICTP). M. Daoud acknowledges hospitality of (AS-ICTP) and would like to thank Prof. Yu Lu. The authors are thankful to Prof. Salasnich for the discussions about his work reference  and for his kind comment concerning this paper. The authors are greatly indebted to Prof. G. Thompson for reading the manuscript.


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# Comment on “Strongly interacting one-dimensional Bose-Einstein condensates in harmonic traps”

## Abstract

A recent paper of Tanatar and Erkan \[Phys. Rev. A 62, 053601 (2000)\] discusses a density functional approach to the impenetrable point Bose gas in one dimension and an equation for the order parameter of the system, due originally to Kolomeisky et al. \[Phys. Rev. Lett. 85, 1146 (2000)\], is derived. We comment on the regime of validity of such a model and on qualitative differences between predictions of the density functional approach and known exact results.

The standard Gross-Pitaevskii effective field approach to the theory of trapped atomic vapor Bose-Einstein condensates (BECs) has been shown to fail in a regime of very thin waveguides, low temperatures, low densities, and large positive scattering length where transverse modes are “frozen” and the dynamics reduces to that of a one-dimensional (1D) gas of impenetrable point bosons (Tonks gas) . A modified effective field approach has been used recently by Kolomeisky et al.  to derive a nonlinear Schrödinger equation specifically adapted to the Tonks gas limit, and their approach has been further discussed by Tanatar and Erkan . We comment herein on the regime of validity of such effective field models and on important qualitative differences between predictions of such a density functional approach and known exact results.

We recently obtained exact many-body solutions for some static and dynamical properties of trapped 1D Bose gases in the Tonks gas limit  via appropriate generalizations of our Fermi-Bose mapping theorem approach . Detailed analyses by Olshanii  and by Petrov et al.  show that for sufficiently thin atom waveguides, low temperatures, and large positive scattering lengths, the dynamics reduces to that of the Tonks gas (impenetrable point particles) in the limit of low densities. On the second page of their paper, Tanatar and Erkan state that “Our results indicate that a condensate exists even for an infinitely strongly interacting 1D model system.” On the contrary, this is their assumption, and is in no way indicated by their results. In fact, it has been proved rigorously  that for an $`N`$-boson Tonks gas with no external trapping potential and periodic boundary conditions, the occupation of the zero-momentum orbital increases like $`\sqrt{N}`$ in the thermodynamic limit, not like $`N`$ as is the case for true BEC. One might hope that a trapped Tonks gas would show true BEC, but we have recently  exhibited the exact many-body ground state of the harmonically trapped Tonks gas, and our numerical calculation of its reduced one-particle density matrix shows that the number of atoms in its most highly occupied orbital increases as $`N^{0.59}`$ for large $`N`$. Thus, in the limit $`N>>1`$ one cannot assert that there is a single orbital that acts as an order parameter or macroscopic wave function for the whole system and reflects both its density and phase coherence properties. Thus the order parameter introduced by Kolomeisky et al. and Tanatar and Erkan cannot be validly interpreted as a true condensate wave function. There is no true long-range order, so the interpretation of this quantity as a complex order parameter is questionable. Kolomeisky et al.  invoked a hydrodynamic description such that the magnitude of this quantity is the square root of the density and its phase is a velocity potential, which may be expected to capture the long wavelength behavior but not the strong short-range correlations that prevent true BEC.

If exact many-body solutions were available for the two-component Tonks gas, as they are in the one-component case , one could compare them with the approximate two-component nonlinear Schrödinger equation (NLST) solutions of Tanatar and Erkan in order to assess the reliability of their approach. However, the Fermi-Bose mapping theorem approach  fails in the two-component case because for a mixture of two different species of ideal Fermi gases, the many-body wavefunctions do not vanish at contact of different species particles, whereas such vanishing is a necessary condition for validity of the Fermi-Bose mapping theorem. Strong short-range correlations play an anomalously important role in 1D (even at low densities) for an obvious topological reason: Particle collisions are unavoidable in 1D, whereas in higher dimensions particles can “detour” around each other. These strong short-range correlations (and indeed, all two-particle correlations) are omitted in all NLST approaches.

Finally, we comment on some other strengths and weaknesses of the NLST approach of Kolomeisky et al. and Tanatar and Erkan. We note first that comparison of its predictions for the ground state density profile of a harmonically trapped Tonks gas with the exact many-body solution  show that except for small ripples exhibited by the exact solution, the NLST prediction agrees closely with the exact solution. Furthermore, our recent comparison  between the NLST prediction and the exact many-body dynamical solution for a trapped condensate which is first cut in two by a slowly ramped-up central barrier potential, then allowed to expand freely, shows that the exact time-dependent density is closely reproduced by the NLST calculation before the expanding clouds collide, but that after their collision the NLST greatly exaggerates the resultant interference fringes seen in the exact solution. The NLST therefore overestimates the phase coherence present in the system and should not be trusted in regions where there are significant spatial and/or temporal phase gradients.

This work was supported by Office of Naval Research grant N00014-99-1-0806.


text:
# Two-colour QCD at finite fundamental quark-number density and related theories.Talk presented by D. K. Sinclair.

## 1 Introduction

QCD at finite baryon number density describes nuclear matter including neutron stars and heavy nuclei. Nuclear matter at finite temperature existed in the early universe and may be observed in relativistic heavy-ion collisions at CERN and RHIC.

QCD at finite chemical potential, $`\mu `$ for quark number has a complex fermion determinant. Hence current simulation algorithms fail for this theory. Working explicitly at finite baryon number density trades this complex determinant for a sign problem.

We therefore turn to studying models which have some of the properties of QCD at finite $`\mu `$. One such property suggested for QCD at finite $`\mu `$ is diquark condensation. It is this which led us to study 2-colour ($`SU(2)`$) QCD with quarks in the fundamental representation of $`SU(2)_{colour}`$, which has a real non-negative determinant (and pfaffian), permitting simulations.

2-colour QCD with fundamental quarks is confining and has a sensible meson spectrum but an unphysical “baryon” spectrum. At $`m=0`$ and $`\mu =0`$ the usual $`SU(N_f)\times SU(N_f)\times U(1)`$ chiral symmetry is enlarged to $`SU(2N_f)`$. The “meson” multiplets are enlarged to include 2-quark “baryons”. Spontaneous breakdown of chiral symmetry gives $`SU(2N_f)Sp(2N_f)`$ rather than the usual $`SU_R(N_f)\times SU_L(N_f)\times U_V(1)U_V(N_f)`$. For large enough chemical potential we expect a spontaneous breakdown of quark number with a diquark condensate. This condensate is a colour singlet and has associated Goldstone bosons . For true QCD the condensate is, of necessity, coloured, and breaks the gauge symmetry in the Higgs manner – colour superconductivity. For a chiral perturbation theory analysis of 2-colour QCD at finite $`\mu `$ see .

The 2 flavour version of this theory can be reinterpreted as 2-colour QCD at finite chemical potential for isospin. However, it is easy to see that we can treat true (3-colour) QCD at finite chemical potential for isospin since it has a real, non-negative determinant. Since nuclear matter has finite (negative) isospin density as well as finite baryon number density, this theory describes a surface in the phase diagram for nuclear matter. For a discussion of this theory including a chiral perturbation theory analysis see .

## 2 Lattice 2-colour QCD at finite quark-number chemical potential

The standard staggered fermion transcription of this theory is:

$$S_f=\underset{sites}{}\left\{\overline{\chi }[D/(\mu )+m]\chi +\frac{1}{2}\lambda [\chi ^T\tau _2\chi +\overline{\chi }\tau _2\overline{\chi }^T]\right\}$$
(1)
where the chemical potential $`\mu `$ is introduced by multiplying links in the $`+t`$ direction by $`e^\mu `$ and those in the $`t`$ direction by $`e^\mu `$. The diquark source term (Majorana mass term) is added to allow us to observe spontaneous breakdown of quark-number on a finite lattice.

Integrating out the fermion fields gives:

$$pfaffian\left[\begin{array}{cc}\lambda \tau _2& 𝒜\\ 𝒜^T& \lambda \tau _2\end{array}\right]=\sqrt{\mathrm{det}(𝒜^{}𝒜+\lambda ^2)}$$
(2)
where

$$𝒜D/(\mu )+m$$
(3)
Note that the pfaffian is strictly positive, so that we can use the hybrid molecular dynamics method to simulate this theory using “noisy” fermions to take the square root, giving $`N_f=4`$.

When $`m=\lambda =\mu =0`$, the chiral symmetry of the above action is expanded to $`U(2)`$, from the $`U(1)\times U(1)_V`$ of true lattice QCD. This breaks spontaneously – $`U(2)U(1)_V`$ – yielding 3 Goldstone bosons. For $`m=\lambda =0`$, $`\mu 0`$ we expect spontaneous breakdown of quark number and 2 Goldstone bosons – a scalar diquark and a pseudoscalar diquark. For $`\lambda =0`$, $`m0`$, $`\mu 0`$ we have no spontaneous symmetry breaking for small $`\mu `$. For $`\mu `$ large enough ($`\mu >m_\pi /2`$ ?) we expect spontaneous breakdown of quark number and one Goldstone boson – a scalar diquark. (See  for a full discussion of these symmetries, and for early simulations of the 8 flavour theory at $`\lambda =0`$.)

We are simulating this $`N_f=4`$ theory on an $`8^4`$ lattice, measuring the chiral and diquark condensates, the fermion number density, the Wilson/Polyakov line, etc.. We are repeating these simulations on $`12^3\times 24`$ lattices, where, in addition, we are measuring all local scalar and pseudoscalar meson and diquark propagators (connected and disconnected).

## 3 Results

We have preliminary results for a relatively large quark mass, $`m=0.1`$, and $`\lambda =0.01,0.02`$ (and $`0`$ for small $`\mu `$). We have recently started simulations at a small quark mass, $`m=0.025`$ and $`\lambda =0.0025,0.005`$ where we should observe a more complex spectrum of Goldstone and pseudo-Goldstone bosons. Finally we will simulate at $`m=0`$ where there should be 3 Goldstone bosons for $`\mu =0`$ and 2 Goldstone bosons for $`\mu >0`$. All our simulations are done at $`\beta =1.5\beta _c(N_t=4)`$.

Figure 1 shows the diquark condensate $`\chi ^T\tau _2\chi `$ as a function of chemical potential potential.

For small $`\mu `$ there is no diquark condensate and quark-number is a good symmetry. At $`\mu =\mu _cm_\pi /2`$ there is a phase transition, above which there is a diquark condensate, and quark-number is spontaneously broken. This condensate increases to a maximum and then falls towards zero at large $`\mu `$.

Figure 2 shows the chiral condensate, $`\overline{\chi }\chi `$ as a function of $`\mu `$.

The chiral condensate is approximately constant for $`\mu <\mu _c`$. For $`\mu >\mu _c`$ it falls, approaching zero for large $`\mu `$.

Figure 3 shows the quark-number density as a function of $`\mu `$. The quark-number density $`j_0`$ is zero for $`\mu <\mu _c`$ and increases for $`\mu >\mu _c`$ approaching the saturation value $`j_0=2`$ for large $`\mu `$.

Finally, in figure 4 we show the masses of the pion and the scalar diquark state which is orthogonal to the diquark condensate, as functions of $`\mu `$. This is from the $`12^3\times 24`$ lattice where we have less complete ‘data’.

The mass of the scalar diquark falls roughly as the expected $`m_\pi 2\mu `$ as $`\mu `$ is increased towards $`\mu _c`$. For $`\mu >\mu _c`$ it is small enough and its $`\lambda `$ dependence is such that one can believe that it would become massless as $`\lambda 0`$. Thus the scalar diquark does appear to be the Goldstone boson associated with spontaneous quark-number breaking. The pion mass appears to remain constant for $`\mu <\mu _c`$, dropping towards zero as $`\mu `$ is increased beyond $`\mu _c`$. This mass spectrum and the behaviour of the order parameters is in good agreement with the predictions from chiral perturbation theory for $`\mu 0.6`$.

## 4 QCD at finite isospin density

For QCD at finite chemical potential for isospin ($`I_3`$), the staggered quark action is

$$S_f=\underset{sites}{}\left\{\overline{\chi }[D/(\tau _3\mu )+m]\chi +\lambda \overline{\chi }i\tau _2ϵ\chi \right\}$$
(4)
where the explicit symmetry breaking term proportional to $`\lambda `$ is needed to observe spontaneous isospin breaking on finite lattices; $`\tau _i`$ are isospin matrices acting on the isodoublet $`\chi `$, and $`ϵ=(1)^{x+y+z+t}`$. Integrating out the fermion fields yields:

$$\mathrm{det}(𝒜^{}𝒜+\lambda ^2)$$
(5)
where

$$𝒜D/(\mu )+m$$
(6)
Note $`𝒜`$ is only a $`1\times 1`$ matrix in isospin space. This describes 8 fermion flavours, so we use hybrid molecular dynamics with “noisy” fermions to perform the simulations, to reduce this to 2 flavours. Note this determinant has exactly the same form as that for 2-colour QCD at finite quark number density, except now we can use $`SU(3)`$ colour. To get a sensible flavour interpretation for this 2-flavour theory in the continuum limit requires making the field redefinition $`\chi _2\xi _5\chi _2`$, where $`\xi _5`$ is the analogue of $`\gamma _5`$ in $`SU(4)`$ flavour space.

## 5 Conclusions

2-colour QCD at finite chemical potential for quark number undergoes a phase transition at $`\mu =\mu _cm_\pi /2`$. The high $`\mu `$ phase is characterized by spontaneous breakdown of quark number precipitated by a diquark condensate, with a single Goldstone boson. Is there a second transition at high $`\mu `$ to a free-field phase? What can we learn from this model about diquark condensates in true ($`SU(3)`$) QCD?

We need to simulate at smaller quark masses (including zero) where the competition between chiral and quark-number symmetry breaking should lead to a more complex spectrum of Goldstone and pseudo-Goldstone bosons. A more extensive analysis of the spectrum of scalar and pseudoscalar mesons and diquarks is called for.

QCD at finite chemical potential, $`\mu _I`$, for isospin maps a surface in the phase diagram of nuclear matter which, in addition to having a finite baryon number density, also has a finite (negative) isospin density. A reinterpretation of 2-colour QCD at finite quark number density yields 2-colour QCD at finite isospin density, and gives us a guide as to what to expect in the 3-colour case. At finite $`\mu _I`$, true (3-colour) QCD has a real positive determinant which allows us to simulate it. For large enough chemical potential we should get spontaneous breaking of the remaining $`U(1)`$ isospin symmetry generated by $`I_3`$ with a charged pion condensate and one true Goldstone pion.

Recently, the work of  has been extended to finite temperature as well as $`\mu `$ by the Hiroshima group. In addition the eigenvalues of the Dirac matrix in  have been studied by . Finally we would like to mention related work on gauge theories with adjoint fermions .

## Acknowledgements

These simulations are being performed on the Cray SV1’s ($`8^4`$, $`m=0.1`$) and the IBM SP ($`12^3\times 24`$) at NERSC, and on the IBM SP’s ($`8^4`$, $`m=0.025`$) at NPACI.


text:
# Dynamical Phases of Driven Vortices Interacting with Periodic Pinning

## Abstract

The finite temperature dynamical phases of vortices in films driven by a uniform force and interacting with the periodic pinning potential of a square lattice of columnar defects are investigated by Langevin dynamics simulations of a London model. Vortices driven along the  direction and at densities for which there are more vortices than columnar defects ($`B>B_\varphi `$) are considered. At low temperatures, two new dynamical phases, elastic flow and plastic flow, and a sharp transition between them are identified and characterized according to the behavior of the vortex spatial order, velocity distribution and frequency-dependent velocity correlations.

74.60 Ge, 74.60 Jg

There is a great deal of current interest in the study of dynamical phases of vortices driven by an external force and interacting with various arrays of pinning centers. One possibility is periodic pinning resulting from a lattice of artificial defects. Understanding the dynamical phases in this case is of interest because it may be possible to observe them in superconducting films with periodic arrays of holes, magnetic dots and columnar defects (CD). Several techniques have been developed to fabricated these films and studies of vortex dynamics in them have been reported . Theoretical workers have carried out investigations, mostly numerical, of driven vortices under periodic pinning . However, as discussed here, several questions remain open.

To be specific, this paper considers two-dimensional vortices interacting with a columnar defect lattice (CDL). The motion of $`N_v`$ such vortices is assumed to be governed by Langevin equations for massless particles, which for the $`l`$-th vortex reads,

$$\eta \frac{d𝐫_l}{dt}=𝐅_l^{vv}+𝐅_l^{vcd}+𝐅_d+𝚪_l,$$
(1)
where $`\eta `$ is the friction coefficient, $`𝐅_l^{vv}=_{jl=1}^{N_v}_lU^{vv}(𝐫_l𝐫_j)`$ is the force of interaction with other vortices, $`𝐅_l^{vcd}=_𝐑_lU^{vcd}(𝐫_l𝐑)`$ is the force of interaction with the CDL, $`𝐑`$ denotes the CDL positions, $`𝐅_d`$ is the driving force, and $`𝚪_l`$ is the random force appropriate for temperature $`T`$.

In the absence of driving ($`𝐅_d=0`$), the equilibrium phases of this system ( hereafter called zero-drive state) are studied (at low $`T`$) in Refs..

For $`𝐅_d0`$ the simplest situation occurs at very high drives . In this case the vortices center of mass (CM) move with velocity $`𝐕_d=𝐅_d/\eta `$ and in the CM frame of reference, defined by $`𝐫_l^{}=𝐫_l𝐕_dt`$, the equations of motion are as in Eqs. (1), but without the driving term $`𝐅_d`$ and with the vortex-CDL force replaced by the time-dependent interaction $`𝐅_l^{(vcd)}(t)=_𝐐(i𝐐)U^{vcd}(𝐐)e^{i𝐐𝐫_l^{}}e^{i𝐐𝐕_dt}`$, where $`𝐐`$ denotes the CDL reciprocal lattice vectors and $`U^{vcd}(𝐐)`$ is the Fourier transform of $`U^{vcd}(𝐫)`$. For high enough drives the Fourier components in $`𝐅_l^{(vcd)}(t)`$ for which $`𝐐𝐕_d0`$ oscillate fast, thus having a negligible effect on the vortex trajectory . The vortex-CDL force in the CM frame reduces then to the static one obtained by summing the Fourier components in $`𝐅_l^{(vcd)}(t)`$ with $`𝐐𝐕_d=0`$ (or $`𝐐𝐕_d`$). This force is just that resulting from the potential obtained by averaging $`U^{vcd}(𝐫)`$ in the direction of drive. Thermal fluctuations lead, after sufficient time, to relaxation into the thermodynamic equilibrium state of the $`N_v`$ vortices interacting between themselves and with this average potential. This state is referred to here as the infinite-drive state.

Since at low $`T`$ the infinite-drive and the zero-drive states are generally different, reordering of the vortices must take place as the driving force is varied. This predicts the existence of at least two dynamical phases and, possibly, of one dynamical phase transition. One novel result obtained in this paper is to show that this prediction is correct. Studies of vortices interacting with a CDL carried out at $`T=0`$ find a rich variety of phases, but no reordering to the infinite drive-state .

For driven vortices interacting with a random pinning potential, the existence of reordering and of a dynamical transition as the driving force is varied are well established . In this case the pinning potential averaged in the direction of drive remains random in the direction perpendicular to it, and has non-trivial effects on the dynamical phase diagram, as extensively discussed in Refs.. For motion on a periodic pinning potential, numerical simulations reported in Refs. show that vortex reordering to the infinite-drive state only occurs if sufficient thermal fluctuations are present. Otherwise the vortices are trapped in a metastable state.

The numerical simulations reported here investigate the properties of the moving vortices steady-states as a function of the driving force, for a range of $`T`$ beginning at a value well below the infinite-drive state melting temperature, $`T_m`$, and extending up to $`T_m`$. The simulations are initialized with the vortices in the infinite-drive state and large enough $`F_d`$. In subsequent runs, at the same $`T`$, $`F_d`$ is progressively decreased. The main conclusions reached by this approach are that for $`T<T_m`$ a dynamical phase with the spatial symmetry of the of the infinite-drive state, elastic flow and long-range time order exists for $`F_d>F_c(T)`$. At $`F_d=F_c(T)`$ a transition separates it from another dynamical phase with distinct spatial order and plastic flow. It is found that the transition is sharp at low $`T`$ and that $`F_c(T)`$ increases as $`TT_m`$.

The details of the model are as follows . Vortices and CD are placed on a square lattice subjected to periodic boundary conditions (hereafter called the space lattice), with $`N`$ square primitive cell of dimensions $`d\times d`$, oriented with the sides in the $`x`$ and $`y`$-directions. The vortex has a core of linear dimension $`d_v>d`$ ($`d_v2\xi (0)`$). The interactions between vortices and between vortices and CD are chosen to model films in the London limit. The vortex-vortex interaction potential is a screened Coulomb one , appropriate for the space lattice, with a short distance cutoff to account for the vortex core . That is, $`U^{vv}(𝐫)`$ is the lattice Fourier transform of $`U^{vv}(𝐤)=4\pi ^2J\mathrm{exp}(\kappa ^2/\kappa _c^2)/(\kappa ^2+\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)`$, where $`J=(\varphi _0^2d_v/32\pi ^2\lambda ^2)`$ is the energy scale for vortex-vortex interactions , $`\lambda `$ is the penetration depth, $`\kappa ^2=4\mathrm{sin}^2(k_xd/2)+4\mathrm{sin}^2(k_yd/2)`$, $`\kappa _c=2\mathrm{sin}(\pi d/2d_v)`$ is the cutoff in k-space, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the screening length ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }>\lambda `$). The CD-lattice has $`N_{cd}`$ sites arranged on a square lattice, with lattice constant $`a_{cd}`$, and is commensurate with the space lattice. The vortex-CD potential is chosen with depth $`U^{vcd}(0)`$, range $`R_{cd}>d_v`$ and a spatial dependence that gives square equipotentials and an attractive pinning force of constant modulus $`F_p=U^{vcd}(0)/R_{cd}`$. That is, $`U^{vcd}(𝐫)=U^{vcd}(0)(1x/R_{cd})`$ for $`xR_{cd}`$, $`xyx`$, and $`U^{vcd}(𝐫)=U^{vcd}(0)(1y/R_{cd})`$ for $`yR_{cd}`$, $`yxy`$.

The algorithm for the simulation of this model follows the usual procedure. In the results reported next space lattices with $`N=256\times 256`$ and $`512\times 512`$ sites are used to accommodate a CDL with $`N_{cd}=64`$ and $`256`$, respectively, both with $`a_{cd}=32d`$. Other parameters are fixed at $`d_v=4d`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=160d`$, $`U^{vcd}(0)=J`$, $`R_{cd}=3d_v=12d`$, from which it follows that $`F_p=J/12d`$. The vortex systems studied have $`N_v=1.25N_{cd}`$ and $`2N_{cd}`$ or, in terms of the magnetic induction, $`B=1.25B_\varphi `$ and $`B=2B_\varphi `$, where $`B_\varphi =\varphi _0/a_{cd}^2`$ is the matching field. Typical run times are $`25\times 10^6`$ steps of $`10^2\tau `$ ($`\tau =\eta d^2/J`$ is the unit of time), after the steady state is reached. The reported results represent the average over several different realizations of the random force($`10`$). The driving force is assumed to be along $`y`$ (CDL (0,1)-direction).

To characterize the dynamical phases the following quantities are calculated in the steady-state regime: i) Time average of the individual vortex velocities, $`𝐯_j`$ ($`j=1,\mathrm{},N_v`$), their mean or the center of mass (CM) velocity, $`𝐕^{cm}=_j𝐯_j/N_v`$, and root-mean square deviation $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_\alpha ^{cm}=\sqrt{_j(v_{j\alpha }V_\alpha ^{cm})^2/N_v}`$, where $`\alpha =x,y`$. ii) Time-averaged density-density correlation function, $`P(𝐫)`$, and its Fourier transform, the structure function, $`S(𝐤)`$. iii) Time-dependent correlation functions for the CM velocity, $`C_\alpha ^{cm}(t)=V_\alpha ^{cm}(t+s)V_\alpha ^{cm}(s)_s`$, and for the vortex velocity autocorrelation function averaged over all vortices, $`C_\alpha ^{sf}(t)=\frac{1}{N_v}_iv_{i\alpha }(t+s)v_{i\alpha }(s)_s`$, where $`_s`$ denotes average with respect to time $`s`$, and the respective Fourier transforms $`C_\alpha ^{cm}(\omega )`$ and $`C_\alpha ^{sf}(\omega )`$. Physically, $`P(𝐫)`$ is proportional to the probability of finding a pair of vortices separated by $`𝐫`$, whereas $`C_\alpha ^{cm}(\omega )`$ is proportional to the noise power spectrum.

The possible infinite-drive states and the corresponding $`T_m`$ are determined by equilibrium Monte Carlo simulations of the model described above, with the vortex-CDL interaction potential replaced by its average in the $`y`$-direction. This is a periodic washboard potential, consisting of grooves of width $`2R_{cd}`$ running along the $`y`$-direction and separated by $`a_{cd}`$ along the $`x`$-direction. Inside the groove the vortex is attracted to its center by a force of constant modulus $`F<F_p`$ in the $`x`$-direction. For $`B>B_\varphi `$ these states have only two possible spatial orders: incommensurate (essentially triangular) at $`B`$ sufficiently large, and commensurate with the $`x`$-direction periodicity at lower $`B`$. The precise $`B`$ value at which the ground-state changes from one type to the other depends on a non-trivial way on the model parameters. It is found that, for the above described model parameters, two typical such infinite-drive states are the vortex-lattices (VL) for $`B=2B_\varphi `$, with the $`P(𝐫)`$ shown in Fig. 1.b.1, and for $`B=1.25B_\varphi `$ with the vortex arrangement shown in Fig. 2.a. The latter can also be seen as consisting of pairs of vortex chains located within the grooves and displaced relative to one another by half intra chain spacing. It is found that the VL for $`B=2B_\varphi `$ melts to a vortex liquid at $`T_m=0.9J`$, and that the VL for $`B=1.25B_\varphi `$ first melts to a smectic phase at $`T/T_{sm}0.85J`$ and then to a liquid at much higher $`T`$. The results reported here for $`B=1.25B_\varphi `$ are restricted to $`T/T_{sm}0.1`$. Monte Carlo simulations are also used to determine the zero-drive states for these $`B`$ values. For $`B=2B_\varphi `$ a VL commensurate with the CDL and having one extra vortex at the center of the CDL primitive unit cell is obtained, in agreement with previous results . This state’s $`P(𝐫)`$ is shown in Fig. 1.b.4. For $`B=1.25B_\varphi `$ a complex commensurate VL with several vortices in the unit cell is found.

The results of the dynamical simulations carried out here, to be discussed in detail next, identify two dynamical phases, elastic flow and plastic flow, and a transition between them around $`F_d=F_c(T)`$. It is found that for $`B/B_\varphi =1.25`$ and $`T/T_m0.2`$, $`F_c/F_p1.25`$ and that for $`B/B_\varphi =2`$ the $`F_c(T)`$ curve is that shown in Fig. 1.a. In both flow regimes the time-averaged velocity of all vortices is in the direction of drive. The $`V_y^{cm}(F_d)`$ curves ( V-I curve ) at low $`T`$ are depicted in Figs. 2.b, 3.a. The detailed properties of these phases are as follows.

i)Elastic flow: $`F_d>F_c`$, low $`T`$, both $`B`$. The moving vortices remain localized with respect to each other around the infinite-drive state relative equilibrium positions. This is suggested by $`P(𝐫)`$ shown in Figs. 1.b.1, 1.b.2 and 4.a. These consist of isolated spots with the symmetry of this state. As $`F_dF_c`$ these spots become larger, indicating increase in relative vortex motion in the CM frame. The time-averaged velocity of all vortices is, within the simulation errors, $`V_y^{cm}`$, since $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_\alpha ^{cm}/V_y^{cm}`$ ($`\alpha =x,y`$) is small for $`F_d>F_c`$ ( Figs. 2.b, and 3.a). Similar results are found for $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_x^{cm}/V_y^{cm}`$. Vortex motion consists of a translation in the direction of drive with $`V_y^{cm}`$ and of periodic oscillations with frequency $`\omega _{cm}=2\pi V_y^{cm}/a_{cd}`$ and higher harmonics around the infinite-drive state equilibrium positions. These oscillations are suggested by $`C_\alpha ^{cm}(\omega )`$ and $`C_\alpha ^{sf}(\omega )`$ which are found to have sharp peaks at $`\omega _{cm}`$ and peaks with smaller amplitudes at some harmonics as illustrated in Fig. 3.b. This frequency coincides with the oscillation frequency of the vortex-CDL interaction in the frame moving with the CM. This suggests that the periodic vortex motion is the (non-linear) elastic response of the VL to this interaction. The frequency dependence of $`C_\alpha ^{cm}(\omega )`$ and $`C_\alpha ^{sf}(\omega )`$ suggest long-range time order.

ii)Transition region: $`F_dF_c`$, low $`T`$, both $`B`$. Vortex spatial order changes in a small $`F_d`$ interval. This is seen both in $`P(𝐫)`$ and in $`S(𝐤)`$, for $`𝐤`$ equal to high-drive ground-state reciprocal lattice vectors, (Fig. 1). The value of $`F_c`$ is estimated as the mid point of this interval, as indicated in Fig. 1. This rapid change in the vortex spatial order suggests a discontinuous jump in $`S(𝐤)`$. However, the present data cannot rule out a sharp crossover. In the same $`F_d`$ interval, the $`V_y^{cm}\times F_d`$ curves changes slope, as seen in (Figs. 2.b, 3.a) and the sharp peaks in $`C_\alpha ^{cm}(\omega )`$ and $`C_\alpha ^{sf}(\omega )`$ are found to disappear.

iii)Plastic flow: $`F_d<F_c`$, low $`T`$, $`B=2B_\varphi `$. Plastic flow sets in for $`F_d`$ just below $`F_c`$ and relative motion increases as $`F_d`$ decreases, as evidenced by the sharp change in slope and continuous growth in $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_y^{cm}/V_y^{cm}`$ shown in Fig. 3.a. The vortices become pinned in the zero-drive state for $`F_d<0.45F_p`$. It is found that all vortices become pinned simultaneously at $`F_d=0.45F_p`$. The vortices are disordered for $`F_d`$ just below $`F_c`$ (Fig. 1.b.3) and, as $`F_d`$ further decreases, the vortices show increasing order in the zero-drive state symmetry, as suggested by the $`S(𝐤)`$ vs. $`F_d`$ curves for $`𝐤`$ equal to zero-drive state reciprocal lattice vectors (Fig. 1.a). This increase in order arise because as $`F_d`$ deacreses the vortices spend more of their travel time near the zero-drive state equilibrium positions. There is no long range time order as shown by the absence of sharp peaks in the frequency dependence of $`C_\alpha ^{cm}(\omega )`$ and $`C_\alpha ^{sf}(\omega )`$ ((Fig. 3.b)

iv)Plastic flow: low $`T`$, $`F_d<F_c`$, $`B=1.25B_\varphi `$. For $`F_d`$ just below $`F_c`$ some spatial order remains. For $`x=0`$ and $`x=a_{cd}`$, $`P(𝐫)`$ (Fig. 4.b) consists of isolated spots, indicating that the double vortex chain-structure of the infinite-drive state transforms to a single chain one with, roughly, nearest neighbor chains displaced relative to each other by half intra chain spacing, and that the vortices oscillate around the corresponding equilibrium positions. For larger $`x`$ the spots become interconnected by stripes in the direction of motion, indicating that inter chain relative motion at these separations, and thus plastic flow, is taking place. The behavior of $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_y^{cm}/V_y^{cm}`$ across the transition (Fig. 2.b) shows little change, suggesting that plastic flow is weak. The frequency dependence of $`C_\alpha ^{cm}(\omega )`$ and $`C_\alpha ^{sf}(\omega )`$ is found to remain sharply peaked. These results are interpreted as indicating that vortices move together with the chain, oscillating around their equilibrium position within it, but relative motion between chains is taking place. As $`F_d`$ decreases further plastic flow continues with increasing $`\mathrm{\Delta }V_y^{cm}/V_y^{cm}`$, but the vortices remain ordered in single chains and are unpinned for $`F_d>0`$ (Fig. 2.b). It is expected that vortex reordering and pinning would take place as $`F_d`$ decreases. The failure to see this in the present simulations is interpreted as evidence that trapping in a metastable state is taking place.

v)T-dependence. As $`T`$ increases $`F_c(T)`$ also increases, because thermal fluctuations make the infinite-drive state VL softer. Thermal fluctuations also lead to smaller values of $`S(𝐤)`$. This makes the dynamical transitions described above more difficult to observe, particularly for $`B=1.25B_\varphi `$. For $`B=2B_\varphi `$ the $`F_c(T)`$ curve is shown in Fig. 1.a.

For other values of $`B>B_\varphi `$, and drive in the (0,1)or (1,0)-directions, the possible infinite-drive states are either a nearly triangular VL, or a VL with $`n`$ vortex-chains trapped in each groove, so that a similar dynamical phase diagram is anticipated.

The experimental verification of the new dynamical phases and of the transition predicted in this paper may be possible in clean superconducting films with sufficient thermal fluctuations to allow relaxation to the infinite-drive state to take place at large drives. Signatures of these phases are present in the V-I curve and in the noise power spectrum. Visualization of the spatial order may also be possible using decoration or fast STM techniques.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The modifications to Herwig that are necessary to incorporate diffractive collisions are relatively simple once it is noticed that pomeron exchange events in hadron - hadron collisions look very much like resolved photoproduction events in lepton - hadron collisions. In resolved photoproduction in electron - proton collisions, for example, the process is modeled by the incoming electron radiating a quasi-real photon according to a flux formula. The photon is then treated as a hadronic object with a structure function, which undergoes a collision with the beam proton. Similarly, single diffractive interactions in proton - proton collisions may be modeled by assuming that one of the beam protons emits a pomeron, again according to some flux formula, which subsequently undergoes an interaction with the other beam proton (see figure 1). Herwig will automatically choose to radiate a photon from a beam lepton if a hard subprocess is selected which requires a hadronic structure for the beam lepton. Examples would be choosing Herwig subprocess 1500 (QCD $`22`$ scattering) in an electron - proton collision, or subprocess 9000 (deep inelastic scattering) in an $`e^+e^{}`$ collision.

All that is necessary therefore, to simulate a single diffractive interaction in a pp collision is to replace the photon flux with a suitable pomeron flux factor, and the photon structure function with a pomeron structure function, and run Herwig in ep mode rather than pp mode. The electron should then be identified with the proton which remains intact after the diffractive scattering. This process may be generalised to include sub-leading exchanges, and to perform double pomeron collisions and diffractive DIS as will be described below.

Our philosophy for Pomwig has been to make as few changes as possible to the Herwig code. In particular, the Herwig common blocks are left unchanged, and only two Herwig subroutines have been modified. This approach has some disadvantages, in that we have left the event record unchanged. An intact proton will still appear as a lepton, therefore, and a pomeron will appear as a photon. We felt that such cosmetic inconveniences are outweighed by the overall simplicity and ease of installation and maintenance which are features of Pomwig .

## 2 Installing the Code

The code can be obtained on request from the authors, or from . The routines supplied will function with all currently available versions of Herwig from 5.9 onwards. There are two Herwig routines which must be replaced: HWSFUN and HWEGAM. HWSFUN has been modified to call the H1 diffractive structure function routine H1QCD , or the user defined structure function routine POMSTR in the case of pomeron exchange, or to use a neutral pion structure function in the case of reggeon exchange. The pion structure is taken from the CERN pdflib package via a call from HWSFUN. The default reggeon structure is that of Owens , as used in the H1 diffractive DIS analysis . HWEGAM substitutes the H1 pomeron or reggeon flux for the photon flux. The flux itself is calculated by the new routine FLUX.

If beam particle 1 is the electron (playing the role of the diffracted proton), then setting Herwig parameter MODPDF(1) = -1 and NSTRU = 6 will cause the H1 pomeron structure function to be used for beam particle 1. Similarly, setting NSTRU = 7 will select reggeon exchange, and NSTRU = 8 will select the user defined pomeron structure from POMSTR. The parameters in the H1 pomeron structure function routine are set via an initialisation call to H1QCD.

To initialise the H1 pomeron structure function, the call should be made from the Herwig routine HWABEG as follows;

INTEGER ifit
DOUBLE PRECISION XPQ(-6:6),X,Q2
Q2=75
ifit=5
X=0.1
call QCD\_1994(X,Q2,XPQ,ifit)

Details of the parameters can be found in the H1QCD routine. The above parameters select the LO fit 2. For this initialisation call to H1QCD, the values of Q2 and X are irrelevant.

The Herwig parameters Q2WWMN and Q2WWMX set the minimum and maximum pomeron virtualities, $`t_{min}`$ and $`t_{max}`$ respectively. YWWMIN and YWWMAX set the minimum and maximum incoming proton energy fractions carried by the pomeron, $`x_{IP}^{min}`$ and $`x_{IP}^{max}`$ respectively.

The default parameters for the pomeron and reggeon fluxes are those found by the H1 Collaboration in , for the case in which no interference is assumed between the pomeron and reggeon contributions to $`F_2^{D(3)}`$, as shown in table 1111Note that the reggeon parameters are not well constrained by current measurements. The defaults are those used to generate the curves in figure 2.. The fluxes are parameterised as

$$f_{IP/p}(x_{IP})=N_{t_{max}}^{t_{min}}\frac{e^{\beta _{IP}(t)}}{x_{IP}^{2\alpha _{IP}(t)1}}$$
(1)
$$f_{IR/p}(x_{IP})=C_{IR}_{t_{max}}^{t_{min}}\frac{e^{\beta _{IR}(t)}}{x_{IP}^{2\alpha _{IR}(t)1}}$$
(2)
where $`\alpha _{IP}(t)=\alpha _{IP}(0)+\alpha _{IP}^{^{}}t`$ and $`\alpha _{IR}(t)=\alpha _{IR}(0)+\alpha _{IR}^{^{}}t`$. In the case of the user defined structure functions, $`N=1`$ by default, and the normalisation may be included within POMSTR or FLUX at the users discretion. The normalisation of the flux is arbitrary in the case of the H1 pomeron structure function. The H1QCD routine is implemented such that the generated cross section will always match $`F_2^{D(3)}`$ as measured by H1 at $`x_{IP}=0.003`$, irrespective of the parameters chosen for the flux.

## 3 Summary of available processes

The processes currently available in Pomwig are summarised in table 2. The particular hard subprocess required is set as usual via Herwig parameter iproc. Note that at present for double pomeron exchange, it is only possible to simulate pomeron - pomeron or reggeon - reggeon collisions, and not pomeron - reggeon. In diffractive DIS (iproc=19000), the pomeron is always emitted from the second beam particle. Note also that process $`ePePX`$ in table 2 refers only to diffractive DIS. Pomwig is unable at present to generate this process with a resolved photon component.

## 4 Example processes

In order to make the modifications clear, we shall consider the simulation of several example processes in both ep and pp collisions. First, we consider the diffractive structure function $`F_2^{D(3)}`$ as measured by the H1 Collaboration at HERA . The complete list of modifications to the Herwig main program in order to generate pomeron exchange events using the H1 pomeron structure are as follows :

PROGRAM HWIGPR
C---BEAM PARTICLES
PART1=’E+ ’
PART2=’E- ’ ! diffracted proton
C---BEAM MOMENTA
PBEAM1=27.6
PBEAM2=820.
CALL HWIGIN
MODPDF(2)=-1
iproc=19000 ! DIS hard subprocess
NSTRU=6 ! selects H1 pomeron structure routine
Q2WWMN=1.E-6 ! minimum $`t`$
Q2WWMX=4. ! maximum $`t`$
YWWMIN=.00299 ! minimum $`x_{IP}`$
YWWMAX=.00301 ! maximum $`x_{IP}`$
Q2MIN=11.9 ! minimum $`Q^2`$ of DIS photon
Q2MAX=12.1 ! maximum $`Q^2`$ of DIS photon

The event record is shown in table 3. The diffracted proton is represented by entry 5, labelled E-. Entry 4, labelled GAMMA is the pomeron. The incoming positron, entry 6, scatters off a UBAR quark in the pomeron, entry 7. The complete $`F_2^{D(3)}`$ as generated by Pomwig with the default parameters is compared to the H1 measurement  in figure 2. Pomwig fails only in the highest $`\beta `$ bins, that is at low diffractive masses, because the contribution from diffractively produced mesons is not included in Herwig .

In PP collisions at the Tevatron, we consider two example processes, diffractive dijet production and Higgs production via pomeron-pomeron fusion. The single diffractive process $`P\overline{P}PX`$ is shown in table 4. For this process, Herwig parameter iproc should be set to 11500. If diffractive $`W`$ production were required, with the $`W`$ decaying to electrons only, iproc would be set to 11451, and so on. The pomeron is represented in the event record by entry 4, labelled GAMMA. $`x_{IP}`$ for this event is 0.0067. Entry 5 in the event record, labelled E+, is the scattered proton. In the hard subprocess, entry 6 is the parton from the pomeron, and entry 7 is the parton from the proton. $`\beta `$ for this event is 0.22.

The double diffractive process $`P\overline{P}P\overline{P}H`$, for the Higgs decaying to $`b\overline{b}`$ is shown in table 5. iproc=11605 selects Higgs production with the Higgs decaying only to $`b\overline{b}`$. In this case, the two pomerons are entries 4 and 6 in the event record, labelled GAMMA. Entries 5 and 7 are the intact scattered protons, and entries 8 and 9 are the partons from the pomerons which enter the Higgs production hard subprocess.