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# Phase separation in La0.5Ca0.5MnO3 doped with 1% 119Sn detected by Mössbauer spectroscopy

## I Introduction

The Lanthanum manganite series La1-xCaxMnO3 presents a remarkably complicated phase diagram as the number of Mn4+ changes.  For $`x0.45`$ the ground state is a FM metal and above $`x=0.55`$ a charge ordered AF insulator.  In the intermediate doping regime, mixtures of the two phases have been observed and close to $`x0.5`$ it was shown that even a small variation of the Mn4+ content can greatly change the properties.

The co-existence of FM and AF phases (or phase separation) in this doping regime has been predicted theoretically  and witnessed by a number of techniques. This co-existence can be expected since the energies of the two relevant interactions (double-exchange and superexchange) are comparable. This energetic argument is supported by the fact that application of an external magnetic field changes the energy balance enhancing the FM phase through a melting transition of the charge-ordered lattice.  In bulk magnetization measurements, the high value of the magnetic moment observed at low temperatures implies the existence of a ferromagnetic component (its amount varies with the sample preparation route).  Electron diffraction studies  have shown that, between $`95`$ and $`135`$ K, La0.5Ca0.5MnO3 is an inhomogeneous spatial mixture of incommensurate charge-ordered and ferromagnetic charge-disordered microdomains with a size of $`200300`$ Å(chemical inhomogeneities have been ruled out with electron microprobe analysis with a spatial resolution of $`200`$ Å). Phase separation was detected by local NMR probes (139La, 55Mn) at all temperatures below the first formation of the CO state in La0.5Ca0.5MnO3.  Mössbauer specrtroscopy in 57Fe-doped La0.5Ca0.5MnO3 has also shown coexistence of the two phases and manifested clearly the thermal and magnetic history dependence of their relative fractions.  Finally, coexistence of charge ordered AF and charge disordered FM phases was observed below the charge-ordering transition by neutron diffraction measurements in the $`x=0.5`$  and $`x=0.47`$ compounds.

In this paper, we report a detailed Mössbauer study of La0.5Ca0.5MnO3 doped with $`1\%`$ 119Sn. The aim is to follow microscopically the evolution of the phases that appear as the temperature is varied. The latter substitutes for Mn4+ and serves as a probe of the magnetic state of the host lattice through the transferred hyperfine interactions from its neighbor Mn magnetic ions in a similar fashion with the 139La probe in NMR investigations. The results show phase separation at all temperatures below the CO temperature as witnessed by the FM and AF components in the Mössbauer spectra. A third component appearing in the Mössbauer spectra even at $`4.2`$ K is attributed to spin clusters. The relative intensities of these components show thermal and magnetic hysteresis,indicating that the FM-AF transition is of first-order. Hysteretic behavior is also displayed in bulk magnetic moment and resistivity measurements.

## II Experimental

We prepared a sample with nominal composition La0.5Ca0.5Mn0.99Sn0.01O3 by thoroughly mixing high purity stoichiometric amounts of La2O3, CaCO3, MnO2 and SnO2 ($`90\%`$ enriched in 119Sn). The mixed powders were pelletized and annealed in air at $`1390^\mathrm{o}`$ C and $`1410^\mathrm{o}`$ C for approximately $`300`$ h with intermediate grindings and reformation into pellets each time. Finally, the sample was slowly cooled in the furnace.

X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) data were collected with a D500 SIEMENS diffractometer, using CuK$`\alpha `$ radiation and a graphite crystal monochromator, from 4$`^\text{o}`$ to 120$`^\text{o}`$ in steps of 0.03$`^\text{o}`$ in $`2\mathrm{\Theta }`$. The power conditions were set at 40KV/35mA. The aperture slit as well as the soller slit were set at $`1^\text{o}`$. The refinement of the x-ray diffraction patterns was carried out by the BBWS-9006 Rietveld program  using the space group Pnma. The shape of the peaks was assumed to be Pearson VII and the background was refined together with the structure.

The isotropic temperature factors for the oxygen atoms were kept constant at the same value. The refined pattern shown in Fig. 1 and the results of the refinement given in Table I show the high crystalline quality of our sample. The lattice parameters obtained $`a=5.4175(2)`$ Å, $`b=7.6401(2)`$ Å and $`c=5.4276(3)`$ Å are very close to those of the undoped $`x=0.5`$ compound.

DC magnetization measurements were performed in a SQUID magnetometer (Quantum Design) for fields up to $`50`$ kOe. ac susceptibility measurements were performed at zero dc field by means of a laboratory-constructed probe at a frequency of $`317`$ Hz and with an ac external field of amplitude $`h_{ac}=1.5`$ Oe. Four-probe resistivity measurements with and without a magnetic field were performed on a sintered bar in the temperature range $`4.2`$-$`320`$ K. Mössbauer spectra were recorded with a conventional constant acceleration spectrometer with a $`5`$ mCi CaSnO3 (119Sn) source moving at room temperature (RT), while the absorber was kept fixed in a variable temperature cryostat equipped with a superconducting magnet ($`65`$ kOe) in a geometry perpendicular to the $`\gamma `$-ray beam. The calibration of the spectrometer was made with $`\alpha `$-Fe and $`\alpha `$-Fe2O3 absorbers and isomer shifts are quoted relative to $`\alpha `$-Fe at room temperature.

## III Results and Discussion

### A Magnetic moment and resistivity measurements

Figure 2a shows bulk magnetic moment $`m`$ vs $`T`$ measurements in field-cooling (FC) and field-cooling warming (FCW) modes in an external magnetic field of $`10`$ kOe. The sample undergoes a rather broad paramagnet-to-ferromagnet transition at $`245`$ K (defined in a measurement at $`50`$ Oe).

On cooling, $`m`$ increases smoothly with a maximum magnetic moment around $`140`$ K. Below this temperature the bulk magnetic moment drops to a value that is approximately $`55`$% of the maximum value and then remains constant down to $`4.2`$ K. The value of $`m`$ at $`4.2`$ K is rather large and certainly cannot be explained by an antiferromagnetic or canted antiferromagnetic phase. The presence of a ferromagnetic phase is needed. Warming from $`4.2`$ K shows a strong hysteresis in the region $`100`$-$`185`$ K, indicating the first-order nature of this transition. Under an applied field of $`5`$ T the transition is smeared out and the bulk magnetic moment reaches $`80`$% of its full FM saturation value at low temperatures (for an ideal ferromagnetic state in the sample it is $`101.5`$ emu/g or $`3.5`$ $`\mu _B`$). The ac susceptibility measurement shown in fig. 2b is in agreement with the dc data.

Resistivity measurements in zero and $`5`$ T fields performed following the same sequence as the magnetic measurements are shown in fig. 3. At zero field, on cooling, the resistivity increases below $`250`$ K and shows two small maxima at $`T160`$ and $`110`$ K, whereas on warming a broad peak appears at $`T140`$ K, showing in strong hysteresis. In a $`5`$ T measurement the hysteresis disappears and only a broad maximum centered around $`150`$ K is observed. The magnetoresistance effect $`(\rho (0)\rho (5T))/\rho (0)`$ is $`85\%`$ at the maximum of the resistivity curve (around 140 K).

The maximum value of the resistivity observed at $`T140`$ K indicates that above this temperature ”activated” conduction occurs and below this temperature conduction takes place probably through a percolation path created by FM regions in the sample, in agreement with the magnetization data

In a recent study Roy et al.  have investigated the region around $`x=0.5`$ and found differences between the $`x`$ value and the Mn4+ fraction which reflect on the magnetization and resistivity behavior of the corresponding samples. Comparing our bulk measurements with their detailed data we can conclude that the Sn-doped sample is slightly below $`x0.5`$ (e.g. $`x=0.49`$) in the magnetic ($`T`$ vs $`x`$) phase diagram of the La1-xCaxMnO3 manganites.

### B  Mössbauer measurements

Figure 4 shows Mössbauer spectra at 300 K, $`4.2`$ K and $`4.2`$ K after field-cooling in the presence of an external field of $`60`$ kOe. The results of the fitting at 4.2 K are presented in Table II. The RT spectrum consists of a single absorption line with linewidth $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=0.78`$ mm/s and isomer shift $`\delta =0.10`$ mm/s. This latter value corresponds to a $`4+`$ valence state of Sn, indicating that Sn ions substitute for Mn4+. The $`4.2`$ K spectrum is fitted with three magnetic components, one with a large hyperfine field ($`H_{hf}=249`$ kOe) and the other two with smaller hyperfine fields ($`93`$ and $`47`$ kOe). The FC spectrum shows a dramatic increase of the high field component at the expense of the low field components. An analogous increase (actually a reversal of the FM and AF fractions) was observed in Fe-doped La0.5Ca0.5MnO3,  and was attributed to the ”melting” of the CO-AF state to a FM state.

The fact that Sn nucleus senses transferred hyperfine field from the overlapping of the $`3`$d orbitals of the Mn neighbors in the surrounding Mn octahedron with its $`5`$s orbitals, leads us to the following assignment of the three components in the $`4.2`$ K Sn spectrum. The large field component ($`H_{hf}=249`$ kOe) arises from a ferromagnetic environment where all the Mn moments are parallel and add up to a large transferred hyperfine field at the Sn nucleus (FM component). The $`93`$ kOe component arises from an antiferromagnetic environment where the antiparallel moments contribute transferred hyperfine fields with opposite sign and which tend to cancel. (AF component). Since in the CE structure  there are four Mn3+ ions with antiparallel moments and two Mn4+ ions with parallel moments in the Mn octahedron surrounding the Sn4+ probe, the cancellation is not total and a hyperfine field value of $`1/3`$ of the field of the FM component would be expected for the AF component. As mentioned above, this component transforms to the FM component under the influence of cooling in a $`6`$ T field. We will discuss the nature of the third component (CL) with a hyperfine field of $`43`$ kOe at a later stage.

The FC spectrum at $`4.2`$ K (Fig. 4c) was modelled with one component ($`H_{hf}=288`$ kOe) with line intensity ratio $`3:4:1`$ and two components ($`H_{hf}=120`$ and $`80`$ kOe) modulated by a distribution of hyperfine fields ($`\mathrm{\Delta }H=21`$ kOe) with line intensity ratio $`3:2:1`$ (see Table I).

The relative intensity of the high field component (FM phase) increases considerably (80%) at the expense of the low-field components. The AF component present in the zero field spectrum has a reduced intensity of 20%, and the CL component is absorbed in the FM component due to the applied field. The two AF components describe the modulation of the net hyperfine field seen by the nucleus in the case of a polycrystalline antiferromagnet with large magnetic anisotropy in an external field. The net field at the nucleus varies from $`H_0H`$ to $`H_0+H`$ ($`H_0`$ is the internal and $`H`$ is the external field), causing the Mössbauer spectra to be broadened.  The overall effect of the applied field to the system (and thus to the spectrum) is the same as that observed in Fe-doped La0.5Ca0.5MnO3.

An important difference should be noted here for the hyperfine fields probed by the 119Sn and 57Fe nuclei. The 119Sn ion is diamagnetic and detects the vector sum of the hyperfine fields transferred from neighboring moments. Thus opposite moments have a cancelling effect. However, for 57Fe the hyperfine field arises from the iron ion’s own moment. The polarisation of the iron moment arises from the (super)exchange interactions of the Mn and Fe spins. The superexchange interaction may result in ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic alignment, but the iron moment remains the same. Thus, parallel neigbouring spins are equivalent to antiparallel spins, i.e. FM and AF environments result in the same hyperfine field.

We turn now to the temperature dependence of these three components. Figure 5 (upper panel) shows some characteristic spectra upon warming (fig. 5a) and cooling (fig. 5b) in zero field. The general features of the spectra do not change up to $`120`$ K. Above this temperature a single peak emerges from the central region of the spectra whose intensity increases quickly as the temperature is raised. The FM component persists up to $`230`$ K and above this temperature the spectra consist of a single line only. Hysteresis is clearly evident in the central part of these spectra. The wings which are present in the warming mode in the temperature range $`120`$ to $`180`$ K are reduced considerably at the corresponding temperature in the cooling mode (compare the spectra at $`155`$ K in the two modes in the lower panel of fig. 5).

We have fitted the spectra throughout the whole temperature range with the three components of the $`4.2`$ K spectrum. In our fitting procedure the linewidths of the three components were kept constant to the RT value, the isomer shift values were the same for the three components allowing a small temperature variation due to the second order Doppler shift, and the quadrupole interaction was kept equal to zero due to the cubic symmetry of the Sn site. The free parameters were the hyperfine field, the intensity of each spectral component, and a distribution of the hyperfine fields $`\mathrm{\Delta }H`$. The latter arises from small deviations of the Sn positions to which the transferred hyperfine field at the Sn nuclei is very sensitive.

Figure 6 shows the main result of the paper: the temperature variation of the relative intensity of each component. The intensities of the FM and AF phases show hysteresis in the temperature range $`120185`$ K, as observed in the magnetic moment and resistivity measurements described in the previous section. In particular, on warming, the FM spectral area remains constant up to $`185`$ K and then drops, while on cooling it increases to $`40\%`$ at $`150`$ K, then drops to $`25\%`$ at $`100`$ K, and remains constant down to $`4.2`$ K, in agreement with the magnetization data (Fig 2a), and with the La NMR results of Allodi et al.  obtained in the cooling mode. The opposite behaviour is observed for the AF spectral area, which disappears at $`180`$ K on warming and reappears at $`150`$ K on cooling, thereby marking the charge-ordering temperature. It should be noted that this phase is absent in the zero field La NMR data due to the complete cancellation of the transferred hyperfine interactions from the neighbor Mn ions.  Also, it cannot be discerned in the 57Fe Mössbauer spectra  since, as mentioned above, it coincides with the FM component. Thus the 119Sn probe is ideal to detect the AF phase.

Hysteresis is also observed in the temperature variation of the hyperfine field of the AF phase (fig. 7). The temperature variation of Hhf for the FM phase follows a typical meanfield-like curve, as for the case of a ferromagnet, up to $`230`$ K, above which this component disappears. It is interesting to note that at this temperature the $`H_{hf}`$ value is still considerable ($`142`$ kOe). This discontinuity has also been observed in La NMR experiments and it has been attributed to a first-order transition.  This zeroing of the volume of the FM phase and not of the hyperfine field (which is contrary to ordinary ferromagnets) implies the existence of a mixed state of FM and paramagnetic phases near $`T_c`$ , thus leading to the possibility of ferromagnetic clusters.

Examining the temperature behavior of the third component (CL component) we notice that its hyperfine field decreases smoothly with temperature and drops to zero at $`125`$K (fig. 7). Above this temperature this component appears as a single paramagnetic peak with some broadening, with its intensity increasing with temperature (see fig. 5 and the Mössbauer spectra in fig. 4). The zeroing of the hyperfine field of the CL component coincides with the temperature at which the charge-ordering is completed on cooling and is beggining to breakdown on warming. The small saturation field ($`47`$ kOe) of the component does not allow its assignment to any AF spin configuration of the Mn nearest neighbors. Thus, we ascribe this component to ferromagnetic clusters which exhibit a reduced hyperfine field either due to relaxation phenomena or to a reduced moment within the clusters. These clusters are present at $`4.2`$ K and their spectral area remains practically constant up to $`125`$ K. Above this temperature they exhibit superparamagnetic behaviour and their intensity increases rapidly at the expense of the AF and FM phases. The existence of ferromagnetic clusters in manganites has been used by Moreo et al. to account for the density of states in the framework of one- and two-orbital models. Recently, Allodi et al.  have shown by 55Mn NMR that the field-induced FM phase in Pr0.5Sr0.5MnO3 develops by the nucleation of microscopic ferromagnetic domains, which may be similar in nature to the ferromagnetic clusters proposed here.

It should be noted that a paramagnetic-like component appears for $`T<T_c`$ in all the reported Mössbauer experiments of La manganites doped with Fe , Co  or Sn,  for values of Ca(Sr) doping between $`0.17`$ and $`0.60`$, which covers the phase diagram range where the ground state is FM ($`x0.45`$) and AF ($`x0.55`$). In addition, neutron scattering experiments for $`x=0.33`$,  and $`x=0.17`$,  have detected a quasielastic component for $`T<T_c`$ which becomes dominant as the temperature approaches $`T_c`$. We speculate that this component is associated with ferromagnetic clusters in all these cases. It appears that both Mössbauer and neutron scattering techniques have the sensitivity to directly detect the formation of ferromagnetic clusters. The coincidence of the zeroing of the hyperfine field of the CL component with the completion and breakdown (on cooling and warming respectively) of the charge ordering indicates that the cluster development and growth is directly associated with charge ordering or charge localization.

In summarizing the Mössbauer data, we notice that the hysteretic range of the system is characterized by two temperatures, $`T_1=120`$ K and $`T_2=185`$ K, in agreement with the bulk measurements. In the temperature interval $`4.2<T<120`$ K the system comprises a FM phase ($`30`$%), an AF phase ($`50`$%) and FM clusters ($`20`$%). The FM and AF phases display hysteresis in the range $`120<T<185`$ K. The disintegration (formation) of the AF phase on warming (cooling) is clearly manifested through Mössbauer spectroscopy in this temperature interval. For $`T>125`$ K, ferromagnetic clusters with superparamagnetic behavior grow rapidly in number and dominate up to the ferromagnetic to paramagnetic transition at $`T_c=225`$ K. This picture for the La0.5Ca0.5MnO3 system is in agreement with the phase separation models  and supplements the electron diffraction investigations  and the La NMR data.

## IV Conclusions

119Sn Mössbauer spectroscopy reveals that the Sn probe monitors the phase evolution during the charge-ordering transition in La0.5Ca0.5MnO3. Complementary bulk magnetic moment and resistivity measurements are in agreement with the Mössbauer findings. Below the charge-ordering transition, phase separation occurs into FM and AF phases down to $`4.2`$ K. The hysteresis observed shows that the FM-AF transition is of first order. The phase separation is associated with the existence of FM clusters which dominate in the system above the CO transition.

## V Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Mössbauer group of the University of Ioannina, Greece (Drs. A. Moukarika, Th. Bakas and V. Papaefthymiou) for lending us their new Sn source and for preliminary meaurements, Dr. Elias Moraitakis for the ac susceptibility measurements and Dr. G. Papavassiliou for very stimulating discussions. Partial support by the European INTAS (Grant No. 30253/97) is also acknowledged.


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# PROPERTIES OF SIMULATED MAGNETIZED GALAXY CLUSTERS

## 1 Introduction

Observations consistently show that clusters of galaxies are pervaded by magnetic fields of $`\mu \mathrm{G}`$ strength. Coherence of the observed Faraday rotation across large radio sources demonstrates that there is at least a field component that is smooth on cluster scales. The origin of such fields is largely unclear. Models invoking individual cluster galaxies for field generation and amplification generally yield field strengths too low by an order of magnitude.

We used the cosmological MHD code described in Dolag et al. (1999) to simulate the formation of magnetised galaxy clusters from an initial density perturbation field. Our main results can be summarised as follows: (i) Initial magnetic field strengths are amplified by approximately three orders of magnitude in cluster cores, one order of magnitude above the expectation from flux conservation and spherical collapse. (ii) Vastly different initial field configurations (homogeneous or chaotic) yield results that cannot significantly be distinguished. (iii) Micro-Gauss fields and Faraday-rotation observations are well reproduced in our simulations starting from initial magnetic fields of $`10^9\mathrm{G}`$ strength at redshift 15. Our results show that (i) shear flows in clusters are crucial for amplifying magnetic fields beyond simple compression, (ii) final field configurations in clusters are dominated by the cluster collapse rather than by the initial configuration, and (iii) initial magnetic fields of order $`10^9\mathrm{G}`$ are required to match Faraday-rotation observations in real clusters.

We used these magnetized clusters to study the final magnetic field structure, the dynamical importance of magnetic fields for interpretation of observed X-Ray properties and start to constrain further processes in galaxy clusters like the population of relativistic particles causing the observed radio halos or the behavior of magnetized cooling flows.

## 2 GrapeSPH+MHD

The code combines the merely gravitational interaction of a dark-matter component with the hydrodynamics of a gaseous component. The gravitational interaction of the particles is evaluated on GRAPE boards (Sugimoto et al. 1990), while the gas dynamics is computed in the SPH approximation. It was also supplemented with the magneto-hydrodynamic equations to trace the evolution of the magnetic fields which are frozen into the motion of the gas because of its assumed ideal electric conductivity. The back-reaction of the magnetic field on the gas is included. It is based on GrapeSPH (Steinmetz 1996) and solves the following equations:

* Equation of motion:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{d}\stackrel{}{v}_a}{\mathrm{d}t}}=`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{b}{}}m_b\left({\displaystyle \frac{P_b}{\rho _b^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{P_a}{\rho _a^2}}+\mathrm{\Pi }_{ab}\right)_aW(\stackrel{}{r}_a\stackrel{}{r}_b,h)`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{b}{}}m_b\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{_{ij}}{\rho ^2}}\right)_a+\left({\displaystyle \frac{_{ij}}{\rho ^2}}\right)_b\right]_{a,j}W(\stackrel{}{r}_a\stackrel{}{r}_b,h)`$
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{m_i}{(|\stackrel{}{r}_a\stackrel{}{r}_i|^2+ϵ_a^2)^{1.5}}}(\stackrel{}{r}_a\stackrel{}{r}_i)`$
$`+`$ $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }^0H_0^2\stackrel{}{r}_a`$
* Energy equation:

$$\frac{\mathrm{d}u_a}{\mathrm{d}t}=\frac{1}{2}\underset{b}{}m_b\left(\frac{P_a}{\rho _a^2}+\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Pi }_{ab}\right)(\stackrel{}{v}_a\stackrel{}{v}_b)_aW(\stackrel{}{r}_a\stackrel{}{r}_b,h)$$
* Ideal gas equation: $`P_i=(\gamma 1)u_i\rho _i.`$
* Induction equation:

$$\frac{\mathrm{d}\stackrel{}{B}_{a,j}}{\mathrm{d}t}=\frac{1}{\rho _a}\underset{b}{}m_b(\stackrel{}{B}_{a,j}\stackrel{}{v}_{ab}\stackrel{}{v}_{ab,j}\stackrel{}{B}_a)_aW(\stackrel{}{r}_a\stackrel{}{r}_b,h)$$
* Cooling:
Non-equilibrium solver, 6 Species H,H+, He, He+, He++, e- (Cen 1992 , Katz et al. 1996)
* Heating:
UV background (Haardt & Madau 1996)

## 3 Initial Conditions

We need two types of initial conditions for our simulations, namely (i) the cosmological parameters and initial density perturbations, and (ii) the properties of the magnetic seed field. Two different kinds of cosmological models are used, EdS and FlatLow. For each cosmology, we calculate ten different realisations which result in clusters of different final masses and different dynamical states at redshift $`z=0`$. We simulate each of these clusters with different initial magnetic fields, yielding a total of more than 100 cluster models. Since the origin of magnetic fields on cluster scales is unknown, we use either completely homogeneous or chaotic initial magnetic field structures. An overview of the initial conditions is given in Figure 1.

## 4 The Simulation

The simulations consist of a dissipation-free dark matter component interacting only through gravity, and a dissipational, gaseous component. The surroundings of the clusters are dynamically important because of tidal forces and the details of the merger history. To account for that, the cluster simulation volumes are surrounded by a layer of boundary particles which accurately represent accurately the sources of the tidal fields in the cluster neighborhood. Figure 2 shows the structure of one of our simulations, figure 3 shows the whole clusters catalog.

## 5 Results

### 5.1 Faraday Rotation Measurements

We found that the synthetic Faraday-rotation measurements produced by the clusters in our simulations match very well those measured in individual clusters like Coma (Figure 4) or A119 (Figure 5). For details, see Dolag et al. 1999.

The statistics of the synthetic Faraday-rotation measurements produced by our simulated cluster sample also match the observations quite well, as demonstrated in figure 6 for both cosmologies. For detail see Dolag, Bartelmann & Lesch (1999, 2000a). The conclusions drawn from the comparison of synthetic and observed rotation measurements can be summarized as follows:

* While simple collapse models for motivated initial magnetic fields only predict final field strengths of $`0.1\mu \mathrm{G}`$, additional field amplification by shear flows indeed produce the observed $`\mu \mathrm{G}`$ fields.
* The final field configuration in the clusters is dominated by the cluster collapse rather than the initial field configuration. Simulations starting with either chaotic or homogeneous initial fields lead to indistinguishable Faraday rotation measures.
* Synthetic RM observations obtained from our simulations agree very well with collections of real observations. The best agreement is reached when starting with $`10^9\mathrm{G}`$ fields at z=15.
* The RM statistic of the best-observed clusters, Coma and A 119, are well reproduced by simulated clusters with comparable masses and temperatures.

### 5.2 Dynamical Importance

The magnetic fields affect the balance between the gravitational force and the total (magnetic plus thermal) pressure in the cluster and therefore can change the temperature of the inter- cluster medium. Figure 7 shows the change of the temperature in the inter-cluster medium due to the presence of magnetic fields in our simulation. Figure 8 shows how this affects the temperature-mass relation in our simulated cluster samples. For details see Dolag, Evrard & Bartelmann (2000).

The magnetic pressure is not taken into account in the X-ray mass-determination methods and therefore potentially leads to an underestimation of the mass. Figure 9 focusses on the effect on the mass reconstructed via the X-ray method. For details see Dolag & Schindler (2000). The conclusions drawn from synthetic X-ray observations can be summarized as follows:

* Non-thermal pressure support reaches 5% at most.
* The core temperatures of clusters drop by about 5% due to the non-thermal pressure support. The induced spread in the mass-temperature relation can be up to 15%.
* The mean effect on the mass reconstruction of relaxed clusters via the X-ray method is negligible compared to the uncertainties of the widely used $`\beta `$-model. Nevertheless, the additional effect due to the magnetic field in merging clusters can lead to wrong reconstructed masses up to a factor of two.

### 5.3 Additional Processes

We demonstrated that a simple model for hadronic electron injection in a realistic magnetic field configuration taken from our simulated cluster sample leads to radio halos which reproduce several types of observations: the profile of the radially decreasing radio emission as shown in figure 10, the low radio polarization, the correlation between radio luminosity an x-ray surface brightness and the cluster radio halo luminosity-temperature relation as shown in figure 11. For details see Dolag & Ensslin (2000).

It is known from observations that strong magnetic fields appear in cooling-flows. Turning cooling on in our simulations, the collapse of the cool regions strongly amplifies the magnetic field. The magnetic field reaches the regime, where the magnetic pressure exceeds the thermal pressure and stops the collapse of the gas. The synthetic rotation measures in these cool regions are well in agreement with the observed values of thousands of rad/m2. For details see Dolag, Bartelmann & Lesch (2000b). The conclusions drawn for additional processes in our simulations can be summarized as follows.

* The energy content of relativistic protons needed to produce enough relativistic electrons to get typical radio luminosities for the simulated clusters lies between 4% and 15% of the thermal energy content of the gas (in the range of magnetic field strength suggested by Faraday measurements).
* The synthetic radio halo of one simulated cluster with comparable mass and temperature reproduces the radial profile observed in Coma very well.
* Using one normalization for the whole set of simulations the simulation predicts the observed, strong correlation between the temperature and the radio luminosity of galaxy clusters.
* For simulations allowing the ICM to cool, the magnetic pressure becomes important for the dynamics of the regions with strong cooling. The temperature drops less and the cool regions get less dense in the presence of magnetic fields.
* The synthetic Faraday rotation measurements in the cooling-flow regions reach the observed extreme values.

## References


text:
# Erratum

F. Wagemann: Some Remarks on the Cohomology of Krichever-Novikov Algebras, Lett. Math. Phys. 47  (1999), 173–177

There is a mistake in the statement of the main lemma. It should read:

###### Lemma 1

Let $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_r=\mathrm{\Sigma }\{p_1,\mathrm{},p_r\}`$ be an open Riemann surface of finite type.

Suppose that $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_r`$ is trivializable, i.e. that the algebraic tangent bundle of the corresponding affine cuve is trivial. Then $`\overline{Mer(\mathrm{\Sigma }_r)}=Hol(\mathrm{\Sigma }_r)`$,

in full words,

in the topology of uniform convergence on the compact sets $`K_n`$, a function with essential singularities in the points $`p_k`$ may be approximated by functions with poles in the points.

The proof given in the article obviously works only for this case, for an open Riemann surface is always holomorphically trivializable, but the globally non-zero vector field is meromorphic only under the above hypothesis.

The trivializability condition can be expressed as the hypothesis that the divisor associated to the tangent bundle of the affine algebraic curve lies in the linear span of the points $`p_1,\mathrm{},p_r`$. This is only valid in very rare cases, the points $`p_1,\mathrm{},p_r`$ being required to lay at special places, except for genus 0 and 1 where it is always true ($`r1`$).

The question whether this lemma remains true even for non-trivializable Riemann surfaces of finite type is - to our knowledge - open.

Acknowledgements:

The author thanks A. Rieman for very useful discussions on the subject.


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# 1 The experimental apparatus, viewed from above. The detectors are arranged symmetrically about the beam line. Each side has a forward thin scintillator (S1), two delay-line wire chambers (WC1 and WC2), and a stack of three thick scintillators (S2). Possible trajectories of an outgoing proton (p) and deuteron (d) are also shown. Not shown are the polarized source above the target cell and the atomic polarimeter below.

Evidence for a three-nucleon-force effect in proton-deuteron elastic scattering

R. V. Cadman1, J. Brack2, W. J. Cummings3, J. A. Fedchak3, B. D. Fox2, H. Gao4, W. Glöckle5, C. Grosshauser6, R. J. Holt1, C. E. Jones7, E. R. Kinney2, M. A. Miller1, W. Nagengast6, B. R. Owen1, K. Rith6, F. Schmidt6, E. C. Schulte1, J. Sowinski8, F. Sperisen8, E. L. Thorsland1, R. Tobey1, J. Wilbert6, H. Witała9

1Department of Physics, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801
2Nuclear Physics Laboratory, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309-0446
3Physics Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439
4Laboratory for Nuclear Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
5Institut für theoretische Physik II, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, D-44780 Bochum, Germany
6Physikalisches Institut, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, D-91058 Erlangen, Germany
7W.K. Kellogg Radiation Lab, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
8Indiana University Cyclotron Facility, Bloomington, Indiana 47408
9Institute of Physics, Jagellonian University, PL-30059 Cracow, Poland

## Abstract

Developments in spin-polarized internal targets for storage rings have permitted measurements of 197 MeV polarized protons scattering from vector polarized deuterons. This work presents measurements of the polarization observables $`A_y`$, $`iT_{11}`$, and $`C_{y,y}`$ in proton-deuteron elastic scattering. When compared to calculations with and without three-nucleon forces, the measurements indicate that three-nucleon forces make a significant contribution to the observables. This work indicates that three-body forces derived from static nuclear properties appear to be crucial to the description of dynamical properties.

Understanding how nuclei are built from their constituent protons and neutrons and the forces between them is one of the fundamental goals of nuclear physics. An important aspect of the nuclear force is the modification which occurs as nucleons become embedded in the nuclear medium. The three-nucleon system provides an important laboratory because the Schrödinger equation, in the form of Faddeev equations, can be solved exactly for three bodies. New computational capabilities have extended the range of validity for Faddeev calculations to a wide range of kinematics, from bound states to scattering and three-body breakup at energies up to 200 MeV.

Modern two-nucleon potentials based on the exchange of pions and heavier mesons  provide an excellent description of neutron-proton and proton-proton scattering data and of the deuteron. In contrast, it is now generally accepted that the binding energies of other light nuclei cannot be calculated from the modern two-nucleon potentials alone . The only successful resolution of this problem has been to include additional potential terms which act only in the presence of at least three nucleons . These terms, known as three-nucleon forces (3NF), are also essential for understanding nuclear matter in extreme conditions, such as dense nuclear matter and neutron stars .

Three-body forces are expected in nuclear physics because conventional nuclear theory is a simplification of the fundamental theory of the strong interaction, quantum chromodynamics. In conventional nuclear theory, the nucleons are treated as fundamental particles, and the nucleon excited states, which are an expression of the underlying quark degrees of freedom, are not explicitly included. The addition of nucleon excited states leads to forces which cannot be reduced to successive two-nucleon interactions. For example, a pion exchange between two nucleons can excite one nucleon two a $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ which subsequently decays by pion exchange with a third nucleon. That process was included in the first three-nucleon potential, proposed by Fujita and Miyazawa in 1957 . Modern three-nucleon potentials are more extensive, and include terms which follow from a fundamental symmetry of the strong interaction, chiral symmetry .

Although the binding energies imply that the 3NF is significant, they only constrain its overall strength. An investigation of nucleon-deuteron ($`Nd`$) scattering is needed to study the dynamical characteristics of the three-body force. For example, since the momentum transferred to the deuteron can be varied by changing the incident nucleon energy and the scattering angle, it is possible to probe the spatial dependence of the 3NF by using this reaction. Recent calculations have shown that the Tucson-Melbourne (TM) 3NF  predicts a significantly enhanced differential cross section in $`Nd`$ elastic scattering when the kinetic energy of the incident nucleon is greater than about 60 MeV .

Previous work compared measurements of the proton analyzing power $`A_y`$ in $`\stackrel{}{p}\stackrel{}{d}`$ elastic scattering to Faddeev calculations . These authors showed that for a deuteron recoil angle $`\theta _{\mathrm{lab}}=42.6^{}`$ and over a proton energy range from 120 to 200 MeV, the Tucson-Melbourne potential over-corrects the prediction of the CD-Bonn potential. They also showed earlier measurements of $`A_y`$ at 200 MeV , which demonstrate that neither theory predicts the correct angular dependence for $`A_y`$. Another recent measurement showed the same result at 150 MeV . This indicates that the $`A_y`$ puzzle  first observed at low energies  persists at higher energies. The discrepancy in $`A_y`$ at low energies is believed to be due in part to an uncertainty in the $`{}_{}{}^{3}P_{J}^{}`$ $`np`$ phase shifts  or to the need for a tensor component in the three-nucleon force . Measurements of the deuteron analyzing power $`iT_{11}`$ at the equivalent of a proton energy of 135 MeV  are in good agreement with the predictions of CD-Bonn+TM3NF. However, at that energy none of the predictions match the angular dependence of the tensor analyzing powers $`A_{xx}`$ and $`A_{yy}`$. At 200 MeV, the previous measurement of $`iT_{11}`$  is not sensitive enough to distinguish the effect of the 3NF. Preliminary measurements of the spin correlation parameter $`C_{y,y}`$ at 200 MeV  were made at small angles ($`\theta _{\mathrm{cm}}<60^{}`$) where the Tucson-Melbourne potential does not contribute significantly to the observables.

In an effort to provide further constraints on the nuclear three-body force, we provide measurements of the three spin observables $`A_y`$, $`iT_{11}`$, and $`C_{y,y}`$ at a proton energy of 197 MeV and throughout the angular range $`65^{}<\theta _{\mathrm{cm}}<115^{}`$, where the 3NF contribution is expected to be large. $`C_{y,y}`$ is a measure of the asymmetry between beam and target spins parallel and anti-parallel, $`iT_{11}`$ is a measure of the asymmetry associated with changing the sign of the deuteron’s vector polarization, and $`A_y`$ is a measure of the asymmetry associated with changing the sign of the proton polarization. The present work made use of the polarized proton beam at the Indiana University Cyclotron Facility (IUCF) with a vector polarized deuteron target. Both the beam and target polarizations were parallel to the $`y`$ axis or perpendicular to the scattering plane. Both polarizations were changed regularly and independently, so that the three different polarization observables could be measured simultaneously.

The proton beam used in this experiment was accelerated to 197 MeV by IUCF’s two cyclotrons and then stored in an electron-cooled proton storage ring. The average beam current was about 75 $`\mu `$A. The beam spin direction was alternated between parallel and anti-parallel to $`\widehat{𝐲}`$ each time the ring was filled.

The experimental apparatus is shown schematically in Figure 1. The

detectors were symmetric about the beam line, and included a forward thin scintillator (0.31 cm thick), two delay-line wire chambers, and a stack of three 100 cm $`\times `$ 15 cm $`\times `$ 10 cm scintillator bars. The wire chambers consisted of two planes of wires, with wires running horizontal in one plane and vertical in the other. The wire spacing was 0.8 cm, which led to an angular resolution of about 15 mr. The momentum of the scattered protons and deuterons was measured from the time of flight between the thin scintillator and the thick scintillator array. Deuterons were distinguished from protons by the relationship between the time of flight and the energy deposited in the thick scintillators.

Polarized deuterium atoms were injected into the center of the target, a 40 cm $`\times `$ 3.2 cm $`\times `$ 1.3 cm rectangular aluminum tube open at both ends to allow the proton beam to pass. The polarization of the target was continuously monitored using a Rabi polarimeter which sampled atoms from the center of the target cell. The magnetic field in the target cell was directed along the $`y`$ axis, and its magnitude ranged from 70 mT in the center to 40 mT at the ends.

A more complete description of the laser-driven polarized deuterium source used in this experiment can be found elsewhere . The main points are summarized here. Deuterium molecules were dissociated and the resulting atoms were mixed with a potassium vapor in a spin-exchange cell. The valence electrons of the potassium atoms were polarized by optical pumping with circularly-polarized light from a titanium-sapphire laser. The target polarization was reversed at intervals of about 30 seconds by switching the helicity of the laser light and slightly retuning the laser to the appropriate frequency. A 70 mT magnetic field in the cell inhibited radiation trapping in the potassium vapor. The magnetic field was parallel to the $`y`$ axis and defined the polarization axis for the source. The deuterium electrons were polarized by collisions between deuterium and potassium atoms in which the spins of the valence electrons in the two atoms are exchanged. This spin-exchange mechanism also polarized the deuterium nuclei through deuterium-deuterium (D-D) collisions as a result of the small mixing between the electron and nuclear spins still present at 70 mT . The D-D spin-exchange distributed angular momentum between the electrons and nuclei, bringing the system toward a state of spin-temperature equilibrium. Previous work verified that spin-temperature equilibrium is reached in laser-driven hydrogen  and deuterium  sources.

The most accurate measurement of the beam polarization was obtained by using a previous measurement of $`A_y`$ in $`\stackrel{}{p}d`$ elastic scattering at 198.6 MeV proton energy and at a recoil deuteron lab angle of $`42.6^{}`$ . The beam polarization has a relative statistical error of 1.1%, and the previous measurement had a total error of 0.4%. The different beam energies in the two experiments contribute an error of 0.3%. Added in quadrature, these errors give an overall relative error of 1.2% in the normalization of $`A_y`$. During the experiment, the beam polarization varied between 0.61 and 0.75.

The target polarization was determined by measuring the polarization asymmetries in the deuteron breakup reaction. In the plane-wave impulse approximation, the spin observables for proton knockout are equal to the well-known spin observables for $`\stackrel{}{p}\stackrel{}{p}`$ elastic scattering at the center of mass energy of the two protons. A Monte Carlo calculation using a deuteron momentum wave function derived from the Argonne V18 potential  was used to determine the correction to the spin observables due to the momentum of the proton within the deuteron. The momentum of the outgoing neutron was restricted to $`|\text{p}_n|<60`$ MeV/c so that the deuteron $`D`$ state contribution could be ignored. The results were not sensitive to the maximum neutron momentum. However, the beam polarization measured using this technique was approximately 13% below the value measured in the elastic reaction as described above. For this reason the relative systematic error in the target polarization was assigned to be 13%.

The uncertainty in the target polarization is the dominant systematic error in $`iT_{11}`$ and $`C_{y,y}`$. Systematic errors in the angle reconstruction are less than 10 mr, and this leads to the largest systematic error in $`A_y`$ of $`\pm 0.007`$. Errors due to particle identification, background subtraction, luminosity normalization, and beam energy have also been considered. The total systematic error from all sources other than the polarizations is $`\pm 0.010`$ for $`A_y`$, $`\pm 0.011`$ for $`iT_{11}`$, and $`\pm 0.015`$ for $`C_{y,y}`$.

The spin observables measured in this experiment have been compared to predictions both with and without the addition of a 3NF. These predictions require a calculation of the transition amplitude for elastic nucleon-deuteron scattering, which includes the nucleon exchange term, the direct action of a 3NF, and rescattering interactions of three nucleons through two- and three-nucleon forces. Details of the computational methods and performance have been published . The CD-Bonn  and Argonne V18  potentials were both used. Of the modern two-nucleon potentials, these two are believed to be the most different . The 3NF was chosen to be the two-pion-exchange Tucson-Melbourne model. In the 3NF, the strong cutoff parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is adjusted separately for each two-nucleon potential to match the experimental triton binding energy . The numerical error in solving the Schrödinger equation for $`Nd`$ scattering is less than 2%. The calculations were performed at an incident nucleon energy of 190 MeV. The resulting predictions are shown along with the experimental results in Figure 2.

The top panel of Figure 2 shows the proton analyzing power $`A_y`$. These results are consistent with the previous measurements, and fall in between the two predictions. The center panel of Figure 2 shows the deuteron analyzing power $`iT_{11}`$. The pure two-nucleon force calculations disagree with these results, but the calculations including the 3NF are consistent with the results. The bottom panel of Figure 2 shows the spin correlation parameter $`C_{y,y}`$. Again, the 2NF calculations disagree with the results at the largest angles, but the Argonne V18 calculation without the 3NF is consistent with the data at the smallest angles.

In conclusion, polarization observables in $`\stackrel{}{p}\stackrel{}{d}`$ elastic scattering have been measured at a proton energy of 197 MeV over the angular range $`65^{}<\theta _{\mathrm{cm}}<115^{}`$. This was the first experiment to use a laser-polarized deuterium target. Calculations with the two-nucleon force alone do not reproduce the data, but the inclusion of the Tucson-Melbourne 3NF improves the agreement with data. These results provide evidence for the nuclear three-body force; however, further theoretical and experimental work is needed to fully characterize its spin dependence.

We thank J. L. Friar and V. R. Pandharipande for useful comments. We thank the staff and operators at IUCF, especially G. East, T. Sloan, R. Pollock, and J. Doskow, for their help and for the high quality of the beam we received. We also thank R. S. Kowalczyk, Z.-T. Lu, K. Bailey, G. Smith, and A. Kenyon for assisting with the development of the laser-driven source, D. Tupa for the loan of the two titanium-sapphire lasers, C. A. Miller for the loan of the four wire chambers, and our glass blower, W. Lawrence. This work was supported by the U. S. National Science Foundation, the U. S. Department of Energy, the German Bundesministerium für Bildung, Wissenschaft, Forschung und Technologie, and the Polish Committee for Scientific Research. The calculations were performed on the CRAY T90 and T3E at the John von Neumann Institute for Computing, Jülich, Germany.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The idea that the Standard Model particles can be localized on a brane may dramatically change the low-energy implications of extra dimensions and quantum gravity. In conjunction with simple compactifications, this idea allows for extra dimensions to be macroscopically large ($`10^0`$ mm or so), with the fundamental quantum gravity scale being as low as a few TeV, thus providing an alternative view on the hierarchy problem . Noncompact, but finite-volume extra dimensions are also possible if one introduces a negative bulk cosmological constant .

Putting aside the hierarchy problem, the brane world idea may have other implications, e.g., it can give rise to a natural mechanism for supersymmetry breaking. If the brane at hand is a non-BPS state then it breaks all supercharges of the bulk space rendering the four-dimensional world free of the Fermi-Bose degeneracy . Moreover, one may naturally explain in this way the smallness of the SUSY-breaking parameters .

In the brane world model-building the question of paramount importance is the localization of the Standard Model particles on the brane. A mechanism of the fermion localization was suggested long time ago in , based on an index theorem of Ref. . The localization mechanisms for scalar and fermion fields in warped backgrounds are known as well  (see also ).

The vital issue is how vector fields can be localized on the brane. This question will be the main concern of the present paper. The gauge fields can be localized on D-branes very naturally in the framework of string theory . D-branes are BPS objects that preserve half of the original supersymmetry; their low-energy world-volume theory is described by massless fluctuations of open strings ending on them. In fact, the localized vector fields on a D-brane world-volume are just spin-1 massless fluctuations of the corresponding open strings. Unbroken supersymmetry then guarantees that these spin-1 fluctuations stay massless in order to correctly fill up the supermultiplets together with the massless world-volume scalars and fermions.

However, in the brane world context it is highly desirable that the brane is not a BPS state since supersymmetry must be broken in a world-volume theory. Whether or not the same mechanism of localization of the vector fields holds for non-BPS branes, especially those which cannot be presented as bound states of BPS states, is not clear. In this respect it is crucial to develop additional field-theoretic mechanisms for the massless spin-1 localization on a brane, which would be independent of BPS properties.

One such mechanism was proposed in Ref. , where the gauge theory is assumed to be confining in the bulk but not on the brane. As a result the electric charges on the brane are not screened, but rather are in a Coulomb phase since the electric flux cannot spread in the bulk. Thus, there is a massless gauge field trapped on the brane world-volume theory. In this case neither photon nor electric charges can escape to extra dimensions. Another possibilities were recently proposed in Refs.  and  where the gauge fields were localized on the brane in extra-dimensional space which was warped (and in addition compactified in ).

In this work we will present a mechanism of (quasi)localization of gauge fields on a brane which is rather model-independent. This mechanism can be used in theories with compact, warped and, most importantly, infinite-volume extra dimensions. This is a generalization of the mechanism of Ref.  for the localization of a massless spin-2 field on the brane due to a “brane-induced” world-volume Ricci term. The main idea of Ref.  is as follows: Consider a bulk field coupled minimally to some of the brane-localized degrees of freedom. Then, a four-dimensional kinetic term for a given bulk field is generated on the brane world-volume due to loop corrections associated with localized matter fields . This brane-induced kinetic term ensures that the propagation of the bulk field on the brane is four-dimensional at the distances smaller than a certain crossover scale $`r_c`$. In this way brane “induces” an effectively four-dimensional theory in its world-volume. In Ref.  this idea was used for the (quasi)localization of the massless spin-2 field on a brane. In this case the four-dimensional laws of gravity can be obtained on a delta-function type brane even if extra dimensions have infinite volume . This mechanism is quite universal since it requires only the presence of localized spinor and/or scalar fields on the brane. Moreover, the same mechanism is valid even if there are no localized matter fields on the brane but the brane has a finite thickness. In the latter case the four-dimensional Ricci scalar is induced in the low-energy world-volume theory after the effects of the finite brane thickness are integrated out . In this framework there is no need to compactify or to warp the extra space, it can have an infinite volume .

In the present work we will generalize the above mechanism for spin-1 fields. For this mechanism to work it is sufficient to have bulk gauge fields and a brane on which charged matter fields are localized. Then the quantum fluctuations of localized matter automatically take care of (quasi)localization of the bulk gauge fields. To be specific, in the present work we deal with five-dimensional models. Higher dimensions can be treated in a similar manner. In Sect. 2, we consider an idealized case of a five-dimensional theory with a delta-function type brane. This simplification is temporary as in Sect. 3 we consider a field-theoretic setting with a finite-thickness brane 111In those cases when there is a menace of confusion, we will refer to the field-theoretic setting with the finite-thickness brane as to a domain wall, or wall for short, reserving the term “brane” for the object which has zero transverse width in a classical approximation.. The field-theoretic consideration is instructive since it allows us to deduce an exact expression for a tree-level four-dimensional potential mediated by the quasilocalized gauge fields. Moreover, we note that quasilocalization on the zero-thickness brane can be applied to objects which can be treated as singular sources in the weak coupling approximation of string theory. Such are D-branes, orientifold planes and/or extended objects which are stuck to the orbifold fixed points222This statement needs some qualifications since in Type IIA,B string theories in ten dimensions there are no bulk gauge fields in the first place. However, bulk gauge fields can emerge once some of the extra six dimensions are compactified. For instance, in compactification to five dimensions on $`K3\times S^1`$ there are points of enhanced gauge symmetry on the moduli space where the gauge fields emerge. Thus, we can have a brane with localized matter as well as the bulk populated by the gauge fields. (all at weak coupling).

In Sect. 3 we consider a five-dimensional field theory with a domain wall soliton in which we derive the results of Sect. 2 in the case of a finite-thickness wall. In fact, we will show that the domain wall with the localized fermion zero-modes produces a four-dimensional kinetic term for the gauge fields and, thus, leads to quasilocalization of spin-1 particles.

Finally, in Sect. 4 we analyze some phenomenological consequences of quasilocalization. Since now the gauge fields can escape in the bulk, local charges in the world-volume are not necessarily conserved . A very intriguing feature of the framework is that the large wavelength cosmic radiation can dissipate into the bulk over the cosmic distances, by the rate that is, in principle, detectable. This offers a number of exciting astrophysical implications for the above scenario, which we shall briefly discuss.

## 2 Induced Gauge Fields on a Brane

In this section we consider a simple case – a brane of the delta-function type embedded in five-dimensional space. In other words, we will disregard effects due to non-vanishing thickness of the wall.

We will not be interested in effects due to gravity. We rather assume that the brane at hand is made of some heavy fields which are already decoupled from the low-energy dynamics (an explicit field-theoretic realization will be give in the next section).

Suppose that there are some gauge fields $`𝒜_C`$ (here $`C=0,1,2,3,5`$) living in the bulk for which the Lagrangian takes the form

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4g^2}}_{AB}^2+\mathrm{other}\mathrm{fields},`$ (1)
where $`g`$ is a coupling constant with the dimensionality

$`[g^2]=[\mathrm{mass}]^1.`$ (2)
For simplicity we can assume that $`𝒜_C`$ is an Abelian field; similar considerations can be carried out in the non-Abelian case. The three-brane on which matter is localized can be put at the point $`y=0`$.

The Dirac-Nambu-Goto action for a brane takes the form:

$`S_{\text{3-brane}}=T{\displaystyle d^4x\sqrt{|\mathrm{det}\overline{g}|}},`$ (3)
where $`T`$ stands for the brane tension, and

$$\overline{g}_{\mu \nu }=_\mu X^A_\nu X^BG_{AB}$$

denotes the induced metric on the brane (with $`G_{AB}`$ being the metric of five-dimensional space-time). $`X^A`$ ($`A=1,2,\mathrm{},5`$) are the coordinates in 5D space. If for simplicity we neglect brane’s fluctuations (these are just scalar particles which can easily be included in the consideration if so desired) then $`_\mu X_5=0`$, and $`X_\mu =x_\mu `$ so that the induced metric can be written as follows:

$$\overline{g}_{\mu \nu }(x)=G_{\mu \nu }(x,y)|_{y=0}.$$

In general, there could be localized matter fields on the brane world-volume. One can take them into account by writing the following action:

$`\stackrel{~}{S}_{\text{3-brane}}^{\mathrm{matter}}=S_{\text{3-brane}}+{\displaystyle d^4x\sqrt{|\mathrm{det}\overline{g}|}\stackrel{~}{}(\psi )},`$ (4)
where $`\psi `$ denotes collectively all localized fields for which the four-dimensional Lagrangian density is $`\stackrel{~}{}`$. The world-volume field theory may be regarded as an effective field theory with some cutoff $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. The current of the localized matter fields on a brane can be written as follows:

$`J_A(x,y)=J_\mu (x)\delta (y)\delta _A^\mu .`$ (5)
The five-dimensional current conservation associated with the five-dimensional gauge invariance, implies the four-dimensional current conservation on the brane, since the fifth component of the current vanishes. This current couples to the bulk gauge field. The interaction Lagrangian is

$`_{\mathrm{int}}={\displaystyle d^4x𝑑yJ_C(x,y)𝒜^C(x,y)}={\displaystyle d^4xJ_\mu (x)𝒜^\mu (x,0)}.`$ (6)
Thus, the current of localized matter interacts with the gauge field

$`A_\mu (x)𝒜(x,y=0).`$ (7)
Due to the interaction (6) an induced kinetic term for the field $`A_\mu (x)`$ emerges on the brane world-volume. This term is generated by a one-loop diagram with two external legs of $`A_\mu (x)`$ and localized matter running in the loop. The four-dimensional current conservation implies transversality of this loop; as a result, the following term should be included in the total low-energy action on the brane

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4e^2}}F_{\mu \nu }^2+\mathrm{higher}\mathrm{derivative}\mathrm{terms},`$ (8)
where

$$e^2=\frac{2N_f}{3\pi }\mathrm{ln}\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\mu },$$

$`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and $`\mu `$ are the ultraviolet and infrared cut-offs, respectively. The sign of the induced term is negative, as it should be, since it is generated by localized scalar and/or spinor fields (confined to the brane world-volume) running in the loops. Were the loops generated by localized vector fields, the sign would be wrong (positive).

The total (five-dimensional) Lagrangian for the gauge fields takes the form

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4g^2}}_{AB}^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4e^2}}F_{\mu \nu }^2\delta (y)+\mathrm{other}\mathrm{interactions}.`$ (9)
Below we will study the impact of the induced kinetic term in (9) at the tree-level.

Our first task is to calculate the Coulomb potential induced by a probe charged particle placed on the brane. To this end, we add a source term $`𝒜^BJ_B`$ to the Lagrangian (9). The equation of motion in the theory with the source is

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{g^2}}_C^C𝒜_B+\delta (y){\displaystyle \frac{1}{e^2}}\left(_\mu ^\mu 𝒜_\nu +_\nu (_y𝒜_y)\right)\delta _{\nu B}=J_B(x,y),`$ (10)
where we have chosen the Lorentz gauge in the bulk

$`^C𝒜_C=0.`$ (11)
Next, we assume the source to be localized in the $`y`$ direction (see Eq. (5)) to transform Eq. (10) into

$`_C^C𝒜_\mu +{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{e^2}}\delta (y)\left[_\beta ^\beta 𝒜_\mu +_\mu (_y𝒜_y)\right]=g^2J_\mu (x)\delta (y),`$
$`_C^C𝒜_y=0.`$ (12)
To derive the propagator for the gauge field $`A_\mu (x)`$ it is convenient to Fourier-transform these equations with respect to the four world-volume coordinates. The corresponding momenta will be denoted by $`p`$; we will work in Euclidean space,

$$p^2=p_4^2+p_1^2+p_2^2+p_3^2.$$

Equations (12) can be written as follows:

$`(p^2_y^2)\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_\mu (p,y)+{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{e^2}}\delta (y)\left(p^2\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_\mu (p,y)+ip_\mu _y\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_y(p,y)\right)`$
$`=g^2\stackrel{~}{J}_\mu (p)\delta (y),`$ (13)
$`(p^2_y^2)\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_y(p,y)=0,`$ (14)
where the tilde denotes the Fourier transform. Equation (13) can be readily solved. Multiplying both sides by $`\stackrel{~}{J}_\mu (p)`$ and using the four-dimensional transversality (i.e. $`p^\mu \stackrel{~}{J}_\mu (p)=0`$) we obtain

$`\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_\mu (p,y)\stackrel{~}{J}^\mu (p)=e^2\left[\stackrel{~}{J}_\mu (p)\right]^2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{p^2+(2pe^2/g^2)}}\mathrm{exp}\left(p|y|\right),p\sqrt{p^2}.`$ (15)
It describes the gauge field with somewhat unusual propagator, more of which will be said later.

Moreover, Eq. (10) combined with the four-dimensional transversality of the current implies that $`^\mu 𝒜_\mu (x,y)=0`$, which entails, in turn, from the gauge fixing condition (11) that

$`_y𝒜_y(x,y)=0.`$ (16)
Combining this with (14) we get the following equation for the fifth component of the bulk gauge field:

$`_\mu ^2𝒜_y(x,y)=0.`$ (17)
The latter equation describes a four-dimensional massless scalar field which is decoupled from the matter fields localized on the brane 333Effects due to interactions of this scalar with the matter will be considered in the next section.. Therefore, from the point of view of a four-dimensional observer we can forget about $`𝒜_y`$ for the time being, and focus on $`A_\mu `$.

The propagator of the gauge field on the brane world-volume at $`y=0`$ takes the form

$`D_{\mu \nu }(p)={\displaystyle \frac{\eta _{\mu \nu }}{p^2+(2e^2p/g^2)}}\left[1+𝒪(p)\right].`$ (18)
Physics of this type of propagators was elucidated in Ref. . There are two distinct regimes (a critical value of momentum is $`p_{}=2e^2/g^2`$). For small momenta, $`pp_{}`$ (i.e. at large distances) the propagator resembles that of the five-dimensional theory. However, at large momenta, $`pp_{}`$ (i.e. at small distances) it behaves as the four-dimensional propagator. The crossover scale is determined by the bulk coupling constant $`g^2`$.

It is instructive to study these properties in more detail in the coordinate space. For static probe charges only the time component of the current survives; it is not difficult to calculate the tree-level scalar potential due to the exchange of the vector field (18). Using the results of Ref.  we get

$`V(r){\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}\left\{\mathrm{sin}\left({\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_c}}\right)\mathrm{Ci}\left({\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_c}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{cos}\left({\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_c}}\right)\left[\pi 2\mathrm{Si}\left({\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_c}}\right)\right]\right\},`$ (19)
where

$$\mathrm{Ci}(z)\gamma +\mathrm{ln}(z)+_0^z(\mathrm{cos}(t)1)𝑑t/t,\mathrm{Si}(z)_0^z\mathrm{sin}(t)𝑑t/t,$$

$`\gamma 0.577`$ is the Euler-Mascheroni constant, and the distance scale $`r_c`$ is defined as follows:

$`r_c{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{2e^2}}.`$ (20)
Let us examine more carefully the short- and long-distance behavior of this expression.

At short distances when $`r<<r_c`$ we find:

$`V(r){\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{2}}+\left[1+\gamma +\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_c}}\right)\right]\left({\displaystyle \frac{r}{r_c}}\right)+𝒪(r^2)\right\}.`$ (21)
As was expected, at short distances the potential has the correct four-dimensional $`1/r`$ scaling. At intermediate distances it is modified by a logarithmic repulsion term.

Now let us turn to the large-distance behavior. Using (19) we obtain for $`rr_c`$

$`V(r){\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{r_c}{r}}+𝒪\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2}}\right)\right\}.`$ (22)
Thus, the large-distance potential scales as $`1/r^2`$, in full accordance with the five-dimensional theory laws.

The physical interpretation of this crossover phenomenon is as follows. A gauge field emitted by the source localized on the brane propagates along the brane but gradually dissipates in the bulk. The lower the frequency of the signal the faster it leaks in the extra space (this is the phenomenon of “infrared transparency”). This is similar to what happens with the metastable gravitons in the models of Refs. . Since in the model at hand the bulk gauge coupling is a free parameter, its value should be fixed by experimental bounds on the photon propagation in four dimensions (see below).

Returning to the momentum representation we observe that in Minkowski the propagator (18) develops a discontinuity across the cut. Denoting the Minkowski (four-)momentum squared by $`p_M^2`$ one readily gets both the imaginary and real parts of the photon propagator on the cut (i.e. at $`p_M^2>0`$),

$`\mathrm{Re}D(p)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{p_M^2+p_{}^2}},\mathrm{Im}D(p)={\displaystyle \frac{p_{}}{p_M}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{p_M^2+p_{}^2}},`$ (23)
where we suppressed the tensorial structure of $`D_{\mu \nu }`$. In Sect. 4 we will discuss effects due to the deviation of (23) from the Feynman propagator at small momenta. Note that the imaginary part is suppressed with regards to the real part by one power of $`p_{}/p_M`$.

## 3 Spontaneous Quasilocalization on Finite-Thickness Domain Wall

In this section we will consider a field-theoretic model resulting in a finite-thickness domain wall and analyze how quasilocalization of the gauge field works in this case. The main emphasis is put on effects which are invisible in the zero-width limit.

Our starting point is the five-dimensional model with scalars, spin-1/2 fermions and the vector fields in the bulk. The Lagrangian has the form

$``$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4g^2}}_{AB}^2+i\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}\gamma ^C(_C+i𝒜_C)\mathrm{\Psi }`$ (24)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(_\mu \varphi )^2{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda }{2}}(\varphi ^2v^2)^2+\varphi \overline{\mathrm{\Psi }}\mathrm{\Psi },`$
where $`\varphi `$ is a real scalar field, and $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is a five-dimensional spinor. From the point of view of a four-dimensional observer $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is a set of two Weyl spinors, one dotted and one undotted, $`\mathrm{\Psi }=\{\xi ,\overline{\eta }\}`$. Moreover, $`\left(\gamma ^5\right)_{5\mathrm{D}}=i\left(\gamma ^5\right)_{4\mathrm{D}}`$.

The equation of motion for the scalar field $`\varphi `$ has a well-known kink solution,

$`\varphi _0(y)=v\mathrm{tanh}\left(\sqrt{\lambda }vy\right).`$ (25)
The corresponding domain wall provides a toy model for our four-dimensional world.

To begin with, let us put the vector field $`𝒜_C=0`$. There are fermion zero modes localized on the domain wall, i.e. normalizable solutions of the equation $`i\left(\gamma ^5\right)_{5\mathrm{D}}_5\mathrm{\Psi }+\varphi _0\mathrm{\Psi }=0`$. For the wall configuration (25) a normalizable solution exists for $`\xi `$, while for antikink a normalizable solution exists for $`\eta `$, i.e. the zero modes are chiral .

From the standpoint of a four-dimensional observer the only fermionic mode which is light is

$`\mathrm{\Psi }(x,y)=\{\xi (x)f(y),\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}0}\},f(y)𝒩\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle _0^y}\varphi _0(z)𝑑z\right),`$ (26)
where $`\xi _\alpha (x)`$ is the four-dimensional fermion field ($`\alpha =1,2`$); it is left-handed. Moreover, $`𝒩`$ is a normalization factor introduced in such a way that $`𝑑yf^2(y)=1`$.

All other modes acquire masses of order $`\sqrt{\lambda }v`$. In the low-energy approximation these heavy modes should be integrated out. The result of this procedure is well-known, it gives rise to higher-dimensional operators which are suppressed by powers of $`v`$. The only remnant which is important is a Chern-Simons term which could have been anticipated a priori. Indeed, while five-dimensional electrodynamics of the field $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is well defined, this is not the case for four-dimensional electrodynamics of a chiral field $`\xi `$; it is anomalous. The Chern-Simons term eliminates this anomaly.

The five-dimensional Chern-Simons term generated in the bulk  has the form

$`kϵ^{ABCDE}𝒜_A_{BC}_{DE},`$ (27)
where $`k`$ is some dimensionless constant. This term provides anomaly inflow from the bulk in the theory living on the wall so that the axial anomaly due to the coupling of the localized chiral zero-modes to the vector field is canceled by the surface term emerging from the variation of the Chern-Simons term in (27) 444 In general, one could introduce $`N_f`$ flavors with different charges so that the anomaly in the worldvolume theory is canceled..

Having said this, let us return to the localized massless modes on the wall, and switch on the gauge field. From the standpoint of a four-dimensional observer $`𝒜_\mu `$ ($`𝒜_y`$) is a vector (scalar) field. The latter is not coupled to the zero mode. This follows from the fact that the only 4D scalar bilinear one can write is $`\xi _\alpha \xi ^\alpha `$ and its Hermitian conjugate. This combination is charged, however, with respect to the conserved U(1) present in (24) and, thus, cannot appear. Thus, the chirality of the zero modes prevent nonderivative couplings of $`𝒜_y`$ to localized matter.

The coupling of the zero mode to the bulk vector field is as follows:

$`\overline{\xi }_{\dot{\alpha }}(x)\xi _\alpha (x)(\sigma ^\mu )_{\dot{\alpha }\alpha }{\displaystyle 𝑑y𝒜_\mu (x,y)f^2(y)}\overline{\xi }_{\dot{\alpha }}(x)\xi _\alpha (x)(\sigma ^\mu )_{\dot{\alpha }\alpha }a_\mu (x),`$ (28)
where we defined a new four-dimensional vector field $`a_\mu (x)`$ as

$$a_\mu (x)=𝑑y𝒜_\mu (x,y)f^2(y).$$

The four-dimensional chiral fermions are coupled to $`a_\mu (x)`$ in the standard manner, in the way the charged fermions should be coupled to the U(1) gauge field. This coupling necessarily induces a gauge kinetic term for the vector-potential $`a_\mu (x)`$, via the fermion loop with two external $`a_\mu (x)`$ legs, much in the same way as in Eq. (8), with the substitution of $`A_\mu `$ of Eq. (7) by $`a_\mu `$. The coefficient in front of this term has the right sign.

The total low-energy action for the fermions and gauge fields is the sum of the bulk kinetic term (1), the Chern-Simons term (27), the induced term

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4e^2}}\left(_\mu a_\nu _\nu a_\mu \right)^2,`$ (29)
and the interaction term (28). Besides, there is a massless Goldstone boson and the massless $`𝒜_y`$ field in the world-volume. The former interacts with fermions with derivatives and does not contribute to the Coulomb potential between the localized sources. The latter field has no relevant interactions with localized fields in the given model555There are interaction vertices of the $`𝒜_y`$ scalar with one light and one heavy state. Thus, $`𝒜_y`$ can be produced by a light state in high energy processes with the energy of order $`v`$..

Let us now study the Coulomb force between the localized sources on the brane. This problem is quite similar to the one studied in the previous section. There are two modes of propagations of the vector field between any two points on the brane. One is a bulk kinetic term for the gauge fields and the other one is the induced kinetic term. As before, choosing the Lorentz gauge in the bulk we write equations of motion analogous to (12),

$`_C^C𝒜_\mu (x,y)+{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{e^2}}f^2(y)\left[_\nu ^\nu 𝒜_\mu +_\mu (_y𝒜_y)\right]=g^2J_\mu (x)\delta (y),`$
$`\left(_\mu ^\mu +_y^2\right)𝒜_y=0.`$ (30)
Making a (partial) Fourier transformation to the momentum space, as defined in the previous section, we arrive at

$`(p^2_y^2)\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_\mu (p,y)+{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{e^2}}f^2(y)\left[p^2\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_\mu (p,y)+ip_\mu _y\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_y\right]=g^2\stackrel{~}{J}_\mu (p)\delta (y).`$ (31)
The function $`f(y)`$ is peaked and quickly drops down to zero away from the origin. To solve this equation we approximate it by a step-function ansatz,

$`f(y)=\alpha \mathrm{for}|y|<y_0,f(y)=0\mathrm{for}|y|>y_0,`$ (32)
where $`y_0`$ is some positive constant. The delta-function approximation studied in the previous section is obtained in the limit

$`y_00,\alpha \mathrm{},\mathrm{with}y_0\alpha \mathrm{const}.`$ (33)
Equation (31) can be solved piecewise in three different intervals. The solutions are

$`\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_\mu (p,y)=g^2\stackrel{~}{J}_\mu (p)\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\sqrt{\beta }p}}e^{p\sqrt{\beta }|y|}+be^{p\sqrt{\beta }y}+de^{p\sqrt{\beta }y}\right\},`$
$`\mathrm{for}|y|<y_0,\mathrm{where}\beta 1+\alpha ^2{\displaystyle \frac{g^2}{e^2}};`$ (34)
$`\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_\mu (p,y)=g^2\stackrel{~}{J}_\mu (p)c\mathrm{exp}(py),\mathrm{for}y>y_0`$
$`\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_\mu (p,y)=g^2\stackrel{~}{J}_\mu (p)c\mathrm{exp}(py),\mathrm{for}y<y_0,`$ (35)
where $`b,d`$ and $`c`$ are momentum-dependent constants which can be determined by matching the solutions and their derivatives at $`y=\pm y_0`$.

In addition, we get that $`_y\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_y=0`$. Our primary interest is the solution confined to the wall. This is determined by Eq. (34) near the point $`y=0`$,

$`\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_\mu (p,0)=g^2\stackrel{~}{J}_\mu (p)\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\sqrt{\beta }p}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\sqrt{\beta }p}}{\displaystyle \frac{(\sqrt{\beta }1)\mathrm{exp}(\sqrt{\beta }y_0p)}{\mathrm{ch}(\sqrt{\beta }y_0p)+\sqrt{\beta }\mathrm{sh}(\sqrt{\beta }y_0p)}}\right\}.`$ (36)
Taking the limit (33) we find

$`\stackrel{~}{𝒜}_\mu (p,y=0)={\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{J}_\mu (p)}{p^2+pp_{}}},`$ (37)
i.e. precisely the expression which we analyzed in the previous section. Thus, the vector fields are quasilocalized due to the induced kinetic term on the domain wall.

## 4 Some Phenomenological and Astrophysical Implications

Let us first discuss the mass scale relevant to five- and four-dimensional physics. The mass parameter relevant to five-dimensional physics is $`g^2`$. Since the five-dimensional theory under consideration is an effective one, a five-dimensional cut-off $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_5`$ must be introduced. The loop expansion in the five-dimensional theory runs in powers of $`g^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_5/4\pi .`$ For the theory to make sense we must require that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_5g^2.`$ On the other hand, the scale of $`g^2`$ is set from requiring deviations from the Coulomb law in our wall-confined world to be acceptable, i.e. parameter $`p_{}`$ be small enough. Barring the possibility of exceedingly large $`N_f`$ one can say that $`p_{}`$ and $`g^2`$ are of the same order of magnitude.

Note that the four-dimensional world the expansion runs in $`p_{}/M=1/(g^2M)`$ where the parameter $`M`$ is related to the masses of the localized modes. In this way this is the strong coupling expansion with respect to the five-dimensional theory. However, the above constraints are evaded if one adopts a scenario where the charged matter fields are confined to a brane and do not propagate in the bulk. Then, in the case of the Abelian gauge field, there are no loops in the bulk, all loops are confined to the wall world-volume666Another option, which we will not pursue here, is to make $`g^2`$ defined by a scalar field (“dilaton”) which has a $`y`$ dependent profile so that $`g^2`$ is large on the brane while it is suppressed away from the brane..

Let us discuss some bounds on the crossover scale $`r_c`$. At distances $`r>r_c`$ the electrodynamics we consider becomes five-dimensional. At first sight, the bound on $`r_c`$ is expected to be very severe, at least comparable to the present Hubble size. This is due to the fact that we are constantly detecting electromagnetic waves propagating over the cosmic distances, and these waves seem to behave in a perfectly four-dimensional way.

Surprisingly enough, the actual bound on $`r_c`$ is rather mild, as we explain below. This is due to the phenomenon of an “infrared transparency” according to which the large wavelength radiation penetrates easier in extra dimensions. To illustrate the point let us consider an electromagnetic wave produced by a monochromatic source $`l`$ located on the brane

$`J_\mu (x,y)l_\mu \delta (y)\delta ^{(3)}(x)\mathrm{exp}(i\omega t).`$ (38)
The corresponding wave equation is given in (30) where the right-hand side is substituted by (38) and $`𝒜_y`$ is put to zero. Qualitatively, the wave behavior can be understood as follows. If it were not for the brane world-volume contribution (the second term on the left-hand side of Eq. (30)) the wave would behave as five-dimensional,

$`\sqrt{\omega }{\displaystyle \frac{e^{i\omega (tR)}}{R^{\frac{3}{2}}}}.`$ (39)
where $`R`$ stands for the five-dimensional radial coordinate. On the other hand, a four-dimensional wave which propagates in the world-volume would be described by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{e^{i\omega (tR)}}{R}}\delta (y).`$ (40)
Using these expressions and Eq. (30) one can estimate a distance in the brane world-volume at which the crossover between the four-dimensional and five-dimensional behavior should take place,

$`rr_\omega \omega r_c^2.`$ (41)
Thus $`r_\omega `$ sets the distance below which the wave propagates as four-dimensional. Surprisingly enough, this resembles the behavior of the gravitational waves in . For short wave length physics becomes exceedingly more four-dimensional. The waves with the frequency $`\omega 1/r_c`$ will propagate as four-dimensional waves over the distances much larger than $`r_c`$. This suggests that even if the Coulomb law gets modified at relatively short distances, propagation of visible light at larger scales will still look perfectly four-dimensional. For instance, let us assume that the Coulomb law breaks down beyond the solar system size, that is to say $`r_c10^{15}`$ cm. The largest wave-length radiation propagating over cosmic distances which has been detected so far are the radio waves in a meter wave-length range. Such radiation would propagate according to the laws of four-dimensional physics over the distance scale

$`r_{\mathrm{radio}}10^{28}\mathrm{cm}.`$ (42)
This is comparable to the size of the Universe. Thus, the Coulomb law might break down at a scale of the solar system size and we would not even notice it!

By the same reason, astrophysical processes, such as star cooling, cannot provide any significant bound on $`r_c`$. The photons emitted by stars will remain four-dimensional over the scales larger that the present Hubble distance. In this respect, the radio astronomy may provide a useful bound on $`r_c`$ through precision measurements of the frequency-on-intensity dependence of the large wave-length radiation.

Another prediction of the present scenario, is a possibility of the charge non-conservation on the brane. Non-conservation of global charges is a generic feature of brane world scenarios . However, local charges, the ones that are associated with the unbroken local symmetries are expected to be conserved in the world-volume due to the flux conservation arguments. This takes place in the scenario of Ref.  where photon is strictly localized on the brane due to the condensation of magnetic charges in the bulk. As a result, the electric flux is repelled from the exterior and spreads on the brane, producing a four-dimensional Coulomb potential between the two brane-localized sources. In such a scenario, if one tries to remove a $`Q`$-amount of the electric charge from the brane, the flux tube will be stretched between the brane and the particle. The throat of the flux tube on the brane will be seen by the brane observer as a charged particle of the same charge $`Q`$ and no apparent charge violation will be present. The flux tube may break into charge-anticharge pairs, and neutral states can escape into extra dimensions. However, the end of the flux tube that will remain attached to the brane will still carry the same charge $`Q`$.

In our present scenario photons may leak in extra dimensions, and thus, electric charge can leak there too. Both of these effects give new striking features, very different from the standard brane-world scenarios in which gauge fields are localized on the brane.

One may think of various astrophysical implications of the photon disappearance in extra dimensions. For instance, there is a certain observational evidence  that distant supernovae appear to be dimmer than it is expected in the standard matter-dominated cosmological scenario. The results of these studies show that the distant supernovae are fainter. In the conventional four-dimensional theory this would mean that they are more distant than expected for the decelerating Universe, and, thus, indicate that the Universe is accelerating. In our case, however, this may mean that photons spread to extra dimensions.

A natural question in our framework is whether or not the dimmer supernovae can be simply the consequence of the fact that photons emitted by these stars dissipate into the fifth dimension on their way to the Earth? Unfortunately, this idea is not very easy to realize. For instance, the immediate question would be: What prevents the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) from dissipating into the extra dimension? (The CMBR wave-length is much longer than that for the radiation detected from distant supernovae777We thank V. Rubakov for commenting on this issue..) In this respect it may be interesting to find a scenario in which the resonance photon has a decay width which vanishes below some frequency $`\omega _0`$ and is nonzero for higher frequencies. Assuming that $`\omega _0`$ is less than the visible light frequency ($`10^6`$ m-1), but is above the frequency of CMBR (mm-1), the CMBR photons would not be able to escape in the bulk. On the other hand, the photons emitted by the distant supernovae are more energetic and would dissipate in extra dimensions. Of course, even in this case it is not at all clear that the frequency dependence on the disappearance rate can correctly fit into the observed supernovae spectrum, so that a more careful study is required.

Another comment concerns the galactic magnetic fields. These are used to put constraints on photon mass. In our case, however, we deal with a mild power-law modification of the Coulomb law and the use of galactic magnetic fields to constraint $`r_c`$ would only be possible if detailed properties and the origin of these fields were known. Unfortunately, this information is not available at present (see, e.g., ).

## 5 A Byproduct Application?

One may try to exploit the very same idea of (quasi)localization of the gauge fields within the framework of Kaplan’s suggestion  to generate chiral fermions on the lattice by considering five-dimensional lattice with a domain wall to which fermion zero modes are confined. As long as these wall-confined fermions carry color quantum numbers, they will generate, through the loops a kinetic term to the gauge fields which will be peaked on the four-dimensional wall. If the lattice parameters are appropriately chosen, the above kinetic term may force localization of the gauge fields on the same wall.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to B. Bajc, C. Deffayet, A. Glassgold, P. Huggins, V. Rubakov and A. Sirlin for useful discussions. G.D. and G.G. thank the Aspen Center for Physics for hospitality where a part of this project was performed. The work of G.D. was supported by David and Lucille Packard Foundation Fellowship for Science and Engineering, and by Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellowship and by NSF grant PHY-0070787. Work of G.G. and M.S. was supported by DOE grant DE-FG02-94ER408.