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# On the second overtone stability among SMC Cepheids

## 1 Introduction

The existence of overtone pulsators among radial variables is a long-standing astrophysical problem (Eddington 1926; Ledoux & Walraven 1958). On the basis of pulsating polytropic models, Schwarzschild (1941) suggested that among actual RR Lyrae variables are present both fundamental -$`RR_{\mathrm{ab}}`$\- and first overtone -$`RR_\mathrm{c}`$\- pulsators. This identification was facilitated by the empirical evidence that the pulsation amplitude and shape of the light curve of the two groups are quite different. The same outcome does not apply to high amplitude $`\delta `$ Scuti stars (McNamara 2000) and classical Cepheids, since fundamental (F) and overtone pulsators do show quite similar light curves nor the pulsation amplitudes can be safely adopted to identify the pulsation mode (Santolamazza et al. 2000).

The occurrence of FO pulsators among classical Cepheids was originally suggested by Pel & Lub (1978), but their existence was a matter of concern till few years ago (Bohm-Vitense 1994) and it was definitively settled by the large sample of variable stars collected by the microlensing experiments (MACHO, EROS, OGLE). These teams also reported the detection of some tens of double-mode Magellanic Cepheids pulsating simultaneously in the first and in the second overtone (Beaulieu et al. 1997; Alcock et al. 1999; Udalski et al. 1999a, U99a). Even though, the existence of pure SO Cepheids was originally predicted by Stobie (1969) only two candidates (Galaxy, Burki et al. 1986; LMC, Alcock et al. 1999) have been proposed. Useful hints on the selection criteria to single out SOs were suggested by Antonello & Kanbur (1997, AK97) on the basis of nonlinear SO models. However, the existence and the observational properties of these objects were rooted to the ground by Udalski et al. (1999b, U99b) who found a dozen low-amplitude, short-period SOs in a sample of 2300 SMC Cepheids.

The main aim of this investigation is to present Cepheid full amplitude, convective SO models and compare theoretical predictions with observed SO Cepheids in the SMC. We selected these variables because we are interested in testing whether nonlinear, convective models account for the pulsation behavior of relatively metal-poor Cepheids. In fact, it has been recently suggested that current turbulent convective (TC) models do not account for energy dissipation sources in metal-poor Cepheids (Feuchtinger et al. 2000). At the same time, we are also interested in assessing whether SOs can be safely adopted to estimate stellar distances. Finally, we also computed nonlinear FO models, to figure out how the instability strip changes when moving toward lower luminosities.

## 2 Theoretical models and data

The full amplitude, nonlinear convective models presented in this investigation were constructed by adopting the input physics and physical assumptions discussed in Bono, Caputo, & Marconi (1998, BCM) and in Bono, Marconi & Stellingwerf (1999, BMS). In contrast with BCM and BMS we assumed a vanishing efficiency of turbulent overshooting in the regions where the superadiabatic gradient attains negative values. In fact, nonlinear, convective RR Lyrae models constructed by adopting this assumption account for the luminosity variation over a full cycle of U Com a field $`RR_c`$ variable (Bono, Castellani, & Marconi 2000). Numerical experiments performed by adopting the same input parameters adopted by BMS suggest that the stability and the shape of the light curve of F Cepheid models are marginally affected by this assumption. However, the luminosity amplitudes of both first and second overtones roughly decrease by 24%.

To cover the observed period range of SO Cepheids we constructed four different sequences of models at fixed chemical composition Y=0.25, Z=0.004 and stellar masses equal to 3.25, 3.5, 3.8, and 4.0 $`M_{}`$. The luminosity of these models was fixed according to the mass-luminosity (ML) relation adopted by BCM and BMS. Recent calculations (Bono et al. 2000) based on up-to-date canonical evolutionary models which cover a wide range of He and metal contents support this choice. To assess how the topology of the instability strip changes when moving toward lower luminosities, the previous models were implemented with three series of FOs with stellar masses equal to 5.0, 5.5, and 5.8 $`M_{}`$. The static models were forced out of equilibrium by imposing a velocity amplitude of $`5kms^1`$ to the radial eigenfunctions. The nonlinear equations are integrated in time until the pulsation amplitudes show, over consecutive cycles, a periodic similarity of the order of $`10^4`$.

Table 1 summarizes the input parameters and selected nonlinear observables for the sequences of first and second overtone models. From left to right the first three columns give the stellar mass, the luminosity and the effective temperature (K), while columns (4) to (6) list the period (d), the mean radius, and the fractional radius. Columns (7) to (9) give the bolometric (mag), the radial velocity (Km/s), and the effective temperature (K) amplitudes, while the last three columns list the I band amplitudes, as well as the Fourier parameters $`\varphi _{21}`$ and $`R_{21}`$.

Fig. 1 shows the run of bolometric light and radial velocity curves over two consecutive cycles. Data plotted in this figure show two interesting features: i) both luminosity and velocity curves do show, in agreement with empirical evidence, smooth changes over the full pulsation cycle. However, few light curves show a small bump along the rising branch. It is not clear, whether this is a drawback of theoretical models, since one of the criteria adopted to select pure SO pulsators is a sinusoidal luminosity variation along the pulsation cycle. Note that the 9 pure SO pulsators we selected (see below) according to the Wesenheit index present light curves that are somewhat noisy, and therefore the bump can be barely detected. ii) SO luminosity, radius, and velocity amplitudes are approximately a factor of two smaller than FO amplitudes. On the other hand, the temperature amplitudes are roughly a factor of three smaller (see column (9) in Table 1). This suggests that the SO luminosity changes are mainly governed by radius rather than by temperature variations. Note that current SO bolometric and radial velocity amplitudes appear to be smaller than predicted by AK97. However, AK97 adopted a slightly different He and metal contents (Y=0.29, Z=0.01 against Y=0.25, Z=0.004).

We first consider the modal stability of the selected Cepheid models. In order to compare theory and observations the predicted instability edges were transformed into the observational plane by adopting the bolometric corrections and color-temperature relations derived by Castelli, Gratton, & Kurucz (1997). Fig. 2 shows the topology of the Cepheid instability strip for the first three radial modes in the $`M_V,VI`$ Color Magnitude (CM) diagram.

A glance at the data plotted in this figure shows that the region within which the SO is unstable widens when moving from high to low luminosities, and indeed the temperature width increases from 100 K to almost 500 K. The same outcome applies to the OR region, i.e. the region in which both SO and FO pulsators are unstable, and indeed its temperature width for M=3.25 $`M_{}`$ is roughly equal to 200 K. Moreover, predicted period ratios -$`P_{SO}/P_{FO}`$\- in this region range from 0.799 to 0.805 and are in fair agreement with empirical values ($`0.802÷0.809`$, U99a). The widening of the SO instability strip is mainly caused by the fact that the decrease in luminosity causes a substantial decrease in the SO total kinetic energy when compared with the FO. In fact, along the FOBE the ratio between SO and FO kinetic energy ranges from 0.66 at $`M/M_{}`$=5 to 0.55 at $`M/M_{}`$=4, and to 0.39 at $`M/M_{}`$=3.25. A decrease in the SO total kinetic energy implies a decrease in the pulsation inertia of the envelope, and in turn in the amount of energy necessary to destabilize this mode (Gilliland et al. 1998).

Data plotted in Fig. 2 also show that the width of the FO instability region remains almost constant when moving from 5 to 3.25 $`M_{}`$, whereas the width of the F region decreases from 400 K to 200 K. The narrowing of the F region is mainly due to a sharp change in the slope of the red edge at lower luminosities. This finding supports the empirical evidence recently brought out by Bauer et al. (1999) that when moving toward lower luminosities the number of F pulsators decreases and the slope of the PL relation for this mode changes. A more quantitative analysis of this effect will be addressed in a forthcoming paper (Bono et al. 2000). We also note that, the width of the OR region between F and FO remains constant and for $`M3.8M_{}`$ it becomes a factor of two smaller than the OR region between FO and SO. This difference supplies a qualitative explanation to the empirical evidence that among double-mode SMC Cepheids the 25% are F/FO, while the other are FO/SO variables (U99a). We also find that, the predicted period ratios $`P_{FO}/P_F`$ in this region range from 0.725 to 0.746 that are once again in very good agreement with the observed ones ($`0.728÷0.746`$, U99a). Moreover, it is worth underlining that the total width of the instability strip, in the above mass range, remains constant and roughly equal to 1000 K. This means that when accounting for F, FO, and SO variables the edges of the Cepheid instability strip in the SMC are approximately parallel. It goes without saying that the occurrence of two OR regions makes fainter SMC Cepheids key objects to constrain predictions on the topology of the instability strip and on modal selection (Kollath 1999).

To properly identify pure SO pulsators in SMC, U99b adopted three different selection criteria, namely the Fourier parameters together with the location in both the Color-Magnitude and the PL diagram. The range of plausible $`R_{21}`$ and $`\varphi _{21}`$ values was selected, according to Alcock et al. (1999), on the basis of Fourier parameters of SO light curves in double-mode pulsators, while the period range was selected according to the $`P_{SO}/P_{FO}`$ period ratio. By using these criteria U99b found 13 bona fide pure SO pulsators. We can now check whether the selection criteria they adopted are supported by current nonlinear convective models. Fig. 3 shows the comparison between the Wesenheit index of pure SO pulsators detected by U99b and predicted SO models (solid line). Although few objects seem to be systematically brighter/cooler than predicted the agreement between theory and observations is quite satisfactory.

Note that current predictions suggest that some FO variables which do not obey to the selection criteria adopted by U99b could be pure SO pulsators, since they are located in the same region covered by theoretical models. As a preliminary but plausible assumption we decided to include in the sample of pure SO pulsators the FO variables located within three $`\sigma `$ ($`\sigma _W`$=0.03 mag, Udalski 2000, private communication) from the predicted SO loci. Interestingly, enough we find that the color distribution of the new candidates (open triangles) are quite similar to the V-I colors of FO/SO Cepheids, and indeed they range from 0.45 to 0.65 (U99a). Finally, we also included in Fig. 3 the FO/SO double-mode Cepheids to test whether current models do account for their distribution. The adopted periods, mean magnitudes and colors refer to data given by U99a (see their Appendix C). The physical assumptions adopted for constructing current nonlinear, convective models are somehow supported by the agreement between theory and observations. However, before any firm conclusion on the TC model currently adopted can be reached predictions based on nonlinear convective models should account for the entire observational scenario, and in particular for mixed-mode variables, and Fourier coefficients of F and FO Cepheids (Feuchtinger et al. 2000).

Fig. 4 shows the comparison between predicted and observed luminosity amplitudes (top panel) as well as $`\varphi _{21}`$ (bottom panel) values. Data plotted in this figure refer to the Fourier fit of the I band light curves of SO components in FO/SO Cepheids and to pure SO Cepheids. Predicted amplitudes (filled triangles) up to $`\mathrm{log}P0.15`$ are systematically larger than the observed ones, whereas at longer periods they are quite similar to empirical ones.

Theoretical $`\varphi _{21}`$ values are, within current uncertainties, in fair agreement with observed data for pure SO variables. The same outcome applies for the bulk of the $`\varphi _{21}`$ values of the SO components in FO/SO Cepheids. The error bars for these objects are larger because the SO is the secondary mode and therefore their luminosity amplitudes are relatively small. Predicted and empirical $`R_{21}`$ parameters are also in plausible agreement but unfortunately the latter ones are affected by large errors. Data plotted in the top panel support the evidence that the luminosity amplitudes can be safely adopted for selecting pure SO pulsators, since in this period range they are systematically smaller than FO amplitudes (Fig. 5). At the same time, the selection criterium based on the Fourier parameters of SO components in FO/SO Cepheids does not seem appropriate, since the SOs cover the same region covered by FOs (Figs. 4 and 5).

Fig. 5 shows the same data of Fig. 4 but they refer to pure FOs and to FO components in FO/SO Cepheids. Once again predicted amplitudes are, at short periods, systematically larger than the observed ones, whereas for periods longer than $`\mathrm{log}P0`$ the theoretical amplitudes attain values closer to the empirical ones. On the other hand, predicted $`\varphi _{21}`$ values agree quite well with observations for periods shorter than $`\mathrm{log}P=0.4`$. Note that theoretical models for $`M/M_{}`$=5.5 and 5.8 show for $`0.4<\mathrm{log}P0.5`$ a well-defined minimum in the pulsation amplitude, whereas predicted $`\varphi _{21}`$ values are, in the same period range, larger than the empirical ones. More detailed calculations are necessary to assess whether this feature is connected with the occurrence of a Hertzsprung progression among FOs (Kienzle et al. 1999).

To disclose whether SOs are good standard candles we derived on the basis of current SO models the following analytical Period-Luminosity-Color (PLC) relation:

| $`M_V=`$ | 3.961 | $`3.905\mathrm{log}P`$ | $`+3.250(VI)`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | $`\pm 0.005`$ | $`\pm 0.019`$ | $`\pm 0.054`$ |

where $`M_V`$ and (V-I) are weighted mean intensities transformed into magnitudes, $`P`$ is the period (d), and the standard deviation is $`0.004`$. The spread of this relation is small because the temperature width of SO instability strip is substantially smaller than F and FO strips.

The top panel of Fig. 6 shows the projection of the PLC relation into a plane. Interestingly enough, we find that by fitting the sample of pure SO pulsators together with the FO/SO Cepheids the SMC distance modulus is $`19.11\pm 0.08`$ mag. The uncertainty accounts for errors on both photometry and reddening but does not account for depth effects. Owing to the lack of individual reddening estimates we adopted, according to Caldwell & Coulson (1986), a mean reddening value of $`E(BV)=0.054\pm 0.029`$. The current SMC distance estimate supports the distance determination derived by Bono et al. (1999, $`DM=19.19\pm 0.17`$ mag) on the basis of the fundamental PLC (V, B-V) relation and data available in the literature. Our distance estimate is in very good agreement with the SMC distance derived by Laney & Stobie (1994) on the basis of empirical PL relations in four different photometric bands i.e. $`DM=18.94\pm 0.04`$ mag (internal error), by Kovacs (2000) using double-mode SMC Cepheids ($`DM=19.05\pm 0.13`$ mag), and by Groenewegen (2000) using both the Wesenheit index ($`DM=19.08\pm 0.11`$ mag) and the $`PL_K`$ relation ($`DM=19.04\pm 0.17`$ mag).

Forced by the above result we decided to estimate the SMC distance by adopting the theoretical PLC relation for FOs. By taking into account current and old (Bono et al. 1999) models we find the following PLC (V, V-I) relation:

$`M_V=3.61(\pm 0.03)3.85(0.02)\mathrm{log}P+3.33(\pm 0.09)(VI)`$ where the symbols have their usual meaning and the standard deviation is $`0.03`$. The fit of this relation to both pure FOs and FO/SO Cepheids (see bottom panel of Fig. 6) supplies $`DM=19.16\pm 0.19`$ mag. The mean magnitudes and colors of these variables were corrected by adopting the same mean reddening adopted for SO variables. Even though FOs cover different period and luminosity ranges, the new distance agrees, within the errors, with the distance based on SOs. At the same time, both of them are at odds with SMC distances based on red clump stars ($`DM=18.63\pm 0.07`$ mag) and on field RR Lyrae stars ($`DM=18.66\pm 0.16`$ mag) derived by Udalski (1998) and by Udalski et al. (1998). Finally, we note that FO models for $`M/M_{}`$=5 allow us to test the dependence of predicted FO edges on the adopted TC calibration. Interestingly enough, the new edges differ by less than 100 K when compared with the edges predicted by Bono et al. (1999) on the basis of the old TC calibration (Bono & Stellingwerf 1994). Therefore, it turns out that the new TC calibration marginally affects predicted PL and PLC relations.

## 3 Conclusions

We have presented and discussed theoretical predictions concerning the pulsation properties of SO pulsators among SMC Cepheids. The comparison between theory and observations brought out the following results: i) current metal-poor, nonlinear, convective models account for the pulsation behavior of pure first and second overtone Cepheids. In fact, predicted $`\varphi _{21}`$ parameters are in fair agreement with empirical data (U99a,U99b). ii) Theoretical predictions show that the OR region, i.e. the region in which both first and second overtones are unstable, widens in temperature when moving from higher to lower luminosities. This evidence supplies a qualitative explanation to the large number of FO/SO double-mode Cepheids detected by OGLE in the SMC. iii) Predicted period ratios -$`P_{SO}/P_{FO}`$, $`P_{FO}/P_F`$\- of the models located in the two OR regions are in good agreement with observed values for FO/SO and F/FO double-mode SMC Cepheids (U99a).

Interestingly enough we find that both pure SO variables and the SO components in FO/SO Cepheids are good distance indicators, and indeed the fit of the theoretical PLC (V,V-I) relation to empirical SMC data supplies a distance modulus of $`19.11\pm 0.08`$ mag. This result is further strengthened by the fact that the distance modulus we obtain by adopting the predicted PLC relation for FO variables is $`19.16\pm 0.19`$ mag. These distance estimates are based on a mean reddening correction, since the SMC Cepheid sample collected by OGLE lack of individual reddening measurements. Current distance estimates are, within the uncertainties, at odds with the so-called short distance scale.

## Acknowledgments

We thank V. Castellani for a critical reading of an early draft of this manuscript and D. Laney for useful discussions on reddening estimates. We also acknowledge A. Udalski for many helpful advice to retrieve data from the OGLE database, M. Groenewegen for communicating his results in advance of publication, and an anonymous referee for useful comments that improved the content of this paper. This work was supported by MURST -Cofin98- under the project: ”Stellar Evolution”.


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# Brief introduction

## Brief introduction

This paper deals with QED-particles and the interaction between them on a classical level. The Maxwell-equations are used mainly. (Proofs are not used in a mathematical but intuitive sense.) In the first step the main statements are presented. The corresponding proofs are given in the second and final step.

## Statements

* An electron/positron is a sink/source of electromagnetic scalar quanta.
* These electromagnetic scalar field quanta should clearly be identified with photons.
* Charge-charge interaction is easily conceivable.
* The magnetic vector field constitutes a flow of photons.
* It becomes clear, why a charged particle is deflected perpendicular to the magnetic field lines.

## Proofs

I. Lemma. It is sufficient to consider the electromagnetic scalar field only without the vector field.

Proof. According to the Lorentz-condition

$$_\mu A^\mu =0_0A^0+\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{A}=0$$

It is

$$A^\mu =\left(\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{\Phi }\\ \stackrel{}{A}\end{array}\right)$$

and

$$x^\mu =\left(\begin{array}{c}t\\ \stackrel{}{x}\end{array}\right)$$

with

(1) $`\stackrel{}{B}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{A}\text{and}`$
(2) $`\stackrel{}{E}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{}{}\varphi {\displaystyle \frac{1}{c}}_t\stackrel{}{A}.`$
Integrate the Lorentz-condition over a finite volume and use Gauss’ law in order to obtain

$`O`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{V}{}}_t\varphi d^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}}x+{\displaystyle \underset{V}{}}\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{A}d^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}}x={\displaystyle \underset{V}{}}_t\varphi d^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}}x+{\displaystyle \underset{V}{}}\stackrel{}{A}𝑑\stackrel{}{n}`$
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{V}{}}_t\varphi d^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}}x={\displaystyle \underset{V}{}}\stackrel{}{A}𝑑\stackrel{}{n}`$
Now, if $`\varphi `$ is increasing with time, there is a net inward flow or a net nonvanishing component of $`\stackrel{}{A}`$ pointing inward the volume. $`\mathrm{}`$

Notice: $`_t\rho +\stackrel{}{}\stackrel{}{ȷ}=0`$ for charge density $`\rho `$ and $`\stackrel{}{ȷ}=\rho \stackrel{}{v}`$ being the charge flux.

Hence, let us make the following asumptions: (1) $`\stackrel{}{A}`$ is a flow of the electromagnetic scalar field $`\varphi `$. (2) $`\varphi `$ is quantized.

Proof (I. Statement). For a point charge $`\varphi \frac{1}{r}`$.

The scalar potential should weaken, if the seperation $`ds`$ between its quanta increases. Therefore, we expect

$$\varphi \frac{1}{ds}=\frac{1}{r},$$

which is a confirmation of our image.

According to $`\stackrel{}{E}=\stackrel{}{}\varphi `$ for an electron the concentration increases for bigger distances from the core. Hence, an electron is a sink. By reverse argumentation, a positron is a source of electromagnetic scalar field quanta. $`\mathrm{}`$ The scalar potential should weaken, if the seperation $`ds`$ between its quanta increases.

II.  Trivial, as nescessarily, these quanta represent the photons, as they create the electric field via (2). $`\mathrm{}`$

III.  Charge-Charge interaction.

(1) Electron-Photon. The moving electron is dragged towards to source of electromagnetic scalar field and vice versa.

Proof. This is a fact, just the image is different.

(2) Electron-Electron. The agglomeration of photons between the two sources pushes them apart from each other, the same way like two firemen sitting on movable chairs would seperate by directing their running waterguns towards each other.

(3) As the concentration of electromagnetic scalar field quanta between the two sinks is lower than aside from them, they are dragged apart towards the higher concentration, therefore seperate. $`\mathrm{}`$

IV.  Magnetism/Lorentz-force.

$`\stackrel{}{B}=\stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{A}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{A}`$ is flow of eletromagnetic scalar field quanta (see Lemma in I). Therefore, we have a nonvanishing whirl of moving photons, constituting the magnetic field. $`\mathrm{}`$

V.  Lorentz-force

$$\stackrel{}{B}=\stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{A},\stackrel{}{F}=q\stackrel{}{v}\times \stackrel{}{B}.$$

$`\text{rot}\stackrel{}{A}`$ is a whirl of moving photons. An electron is deflected downwards coming from the front, as it runs towards, where the most photons are coming from. A positron is deflected upwards, as photons are coming slightly from below.

This is what the Maxwell equations say together with the Lorentz condition taken physically relevant.

Magnetism can therefore be reduced to photon-charge interaction in the same way like charge-charge interaction takes place, classically. $`\mathrm{}`$


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# A Targeted Survey for H I Clouds in Galaxy Groups

## 1 Introduction

Groups of galaxies have been the subject of many H i studies. Famous H i maps of, for example, the M81 group (van der Hulst 1979, Appleton, Davies & Stephenson 1981, Yun, Ho & Lo 1994) show that these groups often host tidal H i features (see also e.g., van Driel et al. 1992, Li & Seaquist 1994, Rand 1994, and Haynes, Giovanelli & Chincarini 1984 for a review). The incidence of H i features was quantified by Haynes (1981) who found that six galaxy groups from a sample of 15 show H i appendages from at least one member galaxy. These data might suggest that H i filaments and intragroup clouds are commonplace throughout galaxy groups, but such a conclusion could be misleading since H i surveys are normally concentrated on the inner parts of galaxy groups and often on interacting pairs within the groups. Systematic searches throughout the volumes occupied by the groups are rare because the projected sizes of groups on the sky are too large to be covered by aperture synthesis instruments. A notable exception is the survey described by Lo & Sargent (1979) who systematically searched for H i clouds throughout the volumes around the M81, CVnI and NGC 1023 groups. No clouds were detected to the H i mass limit of $`4\times 10^7\mathrm{M}_{}`$, although several new dwarf galaxies were discovered.

Lo & Sargent (1979) discussed their null-result in the context of Galactic High Velocity Clouds (HVCs). They concluded that HVCs are unlikely to be intergalactic gas clouds in the Local Group (LG) because they should have detected an equivalent population in the external groups. Similar conclusions were reached by Giovanelli (1981) and Wakker & van Woerden (1997). However, the idea that the HVCs instead of being small clouds close to the Milky Way galaxy, are clouds of primordial composition at LG distances has recently seen a revival. Originally proposed by Oort (1966), subsequently discussed by Verschuur (1969) and Hulsbosch (1975), the idea has been refined by Blitz et al. (1999, hereafter BSTHB), who added a dark matter component to the clouds. The problem with earlier considerations of the extragalactic origin of HVCs was their derived distance. Hulsbosch (1975) concluded on the basis of the virial theorem that typical distances would be approximately 10 Mpc, which places the clouds outside the LG. BSTHB show that if the HVCs are built from the same material that galaxies are made of (typical baryon content $`f_\mathrm{B}`$ of 10 per cent), their distances would reduce to $`1`$ Mpc. Moreover, they show that the clouds’ distribution on the sky resembles that of LG dwarfs, and their kinematics as an ensemble can be well modelled if they are distributed throughout the LG. Braun & Burton (1999, hereafter BB) define a subsample of 65 compact HVCs and come to essentially the same conclusions about their subsample. Note that the BSTHB and BB models do not apply to the HVCs associated with the Magellanic Stream, which are likely the result of tidal interactions between the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds (Putman et al. 1998)

Placed at LG distances, the HVCs have H i masses of $`3\times 10^7M_{}`$ and typical diameters of 30 kpc. In this picture, approximately 500 to 1000 clouds are distributed throughout the LG, together adding approximately $`4\times 10^{10}\mathrm{M}_{}`$ to the LG H i mass. Interestingly, this number of HVCs is in reasonable agreement with the number of mini halos that are predicted by numerical simulations of the hierarchical LG formation (Klypin et al. 1999; Moore et al. 1999). Corrected for incompleteness, the BB sample comprises $`100`$ clouds. Using the updated average distance of 650 kpc (Braun & Burton 2000), the total H i mass in their clouds would be approximately $`10^9\mathrm{M}_{}`$.

Charlton, Churchill & Rigby (2000) show that the statistics of Mgii and Lyman limit absorbers in the spectra of quasars is in conflict with the hypothesis that the HVCs are intragroup material (see also Zwaan 2000). For analogous HVC populations to exist around intervening galaxies as well as in the LG, the typical distances would need to be less than 200 kpc from the LG barycenter. A very similar conclusion has been reached by Zwaan & Briggs (2000) who show that existing H i surveys impose strong constraints on the existence of extragalactic HVCs. If H i clouds exist in other groups or around galaxies, with properties similar to those proposed for the LG, several instances should already have been detected in large H i surveys such as the Arecibo survey discussed by Zwaan et al. (1997).

In this paper we present additional evidence by means of a targeted survey of five galaxy groups with the Arecibo telescope. The selection of the targets is discussed in § 2 and the data acquisition and analysis is summarised in § 3. In § 4 the detections are presented, and in § 5 we discuss the implications on the existence of intragroup H i clouds. To enable direct comparison between the surveyed groups and the LG, we adopt distances to the groups based on their redshift velocities and a Hubble constant of $`H_0=65h_{65}\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$.

## 2 Sample selection

In order to make the targeted survey for H i clouds most efficient, we have selected the galaxy groups according to the following criteria: 1) The distance to the groups must be such that the expected H i cloud diameters match the projected extent of the Arecibo beam. BSTHB estimate that the cloud diameters are approximately 30 kpc. The $`3^{}`$ beam of the Arecibo Telescope subtends $`d_{\mathrm{beam}}=0.87D`$ kpc at a distance $`D`$ Mpc. The optimal group distance at which the clouds fill the beam is therefore 30 Mpc. We have selected groups with radial velocities in the range $`1800\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ to $`3000\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. 2) The declination must be in the range 10 to 30 so that the groups are accessible to the Arecibo Telescope and can be tracked for at least one hour. 3) To enable comparison with the LG, the global properties of the groups, such as the integral H i mass, luminosity, and dynamical mass, must be comparable to those of the LG.

The list of galaxy groups compiled by Garcia (1993) was found to be the most successful in meeting the above listed criteria. This catalogue was compiled from the LEDA111We have made use of the Lyon-Meudon Extragalactic Database (LEDA) supplied by the LEDA team at the CRAL-Observatoire de Lyon (France). galaxy sample, and is basically a cross section of groups found via a percolation method (Huchra & Geller 1982) and groups identified via the hierarchical clustering method (Materne 1978). Table 1 gives the measured and derived properties of the selected groups. The groups are named after their brightest member.

We have made crude estimates of the groups’ dynamical masses by applying the ‘projected mass estimator’ which is discussed by Heisler, Tremaine & Bahcall (1985) and is defined as

$$M_{\mathrm{PM}}=\frac{32/\pi }{G(N_\mathrm{m}1.5)\mathrm{\Sigma }_iV_i^2R_i},$$
(1)
where $`N_\mathrm{m}`$ is the number of members, $`V_i`$ is the radial velocity of member $`i`$ with respect to the group mean velocity, and $`R_i`$ is the projected distance of member $`i`$ from the centre of the group. Since the groups have only 3 to 6 identified members, the errors on the mass estimates are large (approximately $`M_{\mathrm{PM}}/\sqrt{N_\mathrm{m}}`$). The radius of the zero-velocity surface, $`R_0`$, beyond which galaxies participate in the Hubble expansion, can be calculated via (Sandage 1986)

$$R_0=\left(\frac{8GT^2}{\pi ^2}M_{\mathrm{dyn}}\right)^{1/3},$$
(2)
where $`T`$ is the age of the group. We take the ages of all groups to be 14 Gyr.

For comparison, we also give in Table 1 the most recent published properties of the LG, taken from Mateo (1998), Courteau & van den Bergh (1999), and van den Bergh (2000). For the LG, the dynamical mass is estimated using the virial theorem, but it has been shown by Heisler et al. (1985) that the virial theorem and the ‘projected mass estimator’ give very similar results. It is evident from the table that the selected groups have properties not very dissimilar from those of the LG: the selected groups are on average equally gas rich, luminous, and massive and have a similar radial extent as the LG. Note that the centres of the NGC 5962 and NGC 5970 groups are only $`1.6h_{65}^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$ apart and that their formal zero velocity radii are overlapping. Their difference in $`v_{\mathrm{hel}}`$ is only 15 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. It is suggestive that these two groups actually form one gravitationally bound system. If we assume that they form one group, its dynamical mass would become $`\mathrm{log}M_{\mathrm{dyn}}=13.2\mathrm{log}h_{65}`$, and its zero velocity radius would be $`2.3h_{65}^1\mathrm{Mpc}`$. In the remainder of this paper we regard the NGC 5962/5970 group as one group.

## 3 Observational strategy

Observations were carried out with the refurbished Arecibo222The Arecibo Observatory is part of the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center, which is operated by Cornell University under a cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. Telescope during five nights in the period from April 18 until 24, 1999 and on June 8 and 9, 1999. The data were taken with the L-narrow Gregorian receiver which has a measured system temperature of 32 K, and a gain of $`10\mathrm{K}\mathrm{Jy}^1`$. Spectra of 2048 channels were recorded for two polarisations over a bandwidth of 12.5 MHz, centred on the frequency of the 21cm line redshifted to the mean velocity of each galaxy group. This setting results in a total velocity coverage of $`2600\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ and a velocity resolution of 1.3 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ before Hanning smoothing. Spectra were dumped every 60 seconds.

The pointings were arranged in rectangular grids centred on the galaxy groups. The grids were built from several series of five pointings on lines of constant declination, where each pointing was separated by 5 minutes in hour angle. The integration time per pointing was 4 minutes and integrations were separated exactly 5 minutes in time. The remaining minute was used to slew the telescope back. This strategy insures that the same path on the telescope dish was traced during each of the five pointing in a series. No separate OFF scans were taken, but for each scan a synthetic OFF scan was computed by averaging the other four scans in the same series. This synthetic OFF scan $`y_j`$ can be written as

$$y_j=\frac{N\overline{x}x_j}{N1},$$
(3)
where $`N`$ is the number of pointings in an array, $`x_j`$ is an individual scan and $`\overline{x}`$ is the average of all scans in one series.

For this type of observation, this observing technique is superior in its efficiency compared to a traditional observing scheme where separate ON/OFF pairs are taken for each pointing. For this ON/OFF scheme the total noise depends on integration time as $`\sigma \sqrt{1/T_{\mathrm{ON}}+1/T_{\mathrm{OFF}}}`$. Normally, the integration times for the ON and the OFF scans are taken to be equal so that $`\sigma 2/\sqrt{T_{\mathrm{tot}}}`$, where $`T_{\mathrm{tot}}=T_{\mathrm{ON}}+T_{\mathrm{OFF}}`$ is the total integration time needed for each pointing. For our strategy, where we make composite OFF scans from other scans in the array, the noise $`\sigma ^{}\sqrt{1/T_{\mathrm{tot}}^{}+1/([N1]T_{\mathrm{tot}}^{})}`$, where $`N`$ is the number of pointings in one series and $`T_{\mathrm{tot}}^{}`$ is the time spend on each pointing. From this we can derive

$$\frac{T_{\mathrm{tot}}}{T_{\mathrm{tot}}^{}}=\frac{4(N1)}{N}\frac{\sigma ^2}{\sigma ^2}.$$
(4)
This shows that in our case, where $`N=5`$, the technique is a factor of 3.2 faster than traditional ON/OFF procedures. In other words, in the same amount of time a factor 1.8 higher signal to noise can be achieved.

Fig. 1 shows a schematic view of the pointings that were observed, together with the positions of the group galaxies. The circles indicate the sizes of the groups characterised by the zero-gravity radius $`R_0`$. The grids of pointings sparsely sample rectangular areas of approximately $`2.5\times 1.5`$ Mpc.

Calibration of the data was performed by observing continuum sources with known flux densities. Separate scans and polarisations were averaged and Hanning smoothed. Polynomials were fitted to regions free from obvious signals, and subtracted from the spectra in order to obtain flat baselines. A first order polynomial (linear baseline) was generally found to be sufficient. Each spectrum was then Gaussian smoothed to resolutions 5, 10, 25 and 50 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The resulting noise level was on average 0.75 mJy at 10 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ resolution, which corresponds to a minimal detectable H i column density level of $`1.2\times 10^{18}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ ($`4.5\sigma `$). The lowest detectable H i mass at 30 Mpc was $`7.1\times 10^6\mathrm{M}_{}`$ for a 10 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ broad signal. The H i mass limit increases to $`1.6\times 10^7\mathrm{M}_{}`$ for signals 50 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ wide.

All spectra were checked for $`4.5\sigma `$ peaks in the full resolution and the smoothed spectra. The list of 4.5$`\sigma `$ peaks was first checked for false positives due to RFI by re-analysing the separate 60 second scans for both polarisations. All peaks that could not unambiguously be attributed to RFI were re-observed for confirmation on 8 and 9 June 1999. The new observations were conducted following an ON/OFF fashion, spending 8 minutes ON and 8 minutes OFF on each position. The resulting noise level for these observations was therefore a factor $`0.89`$ lower than for the original observations carried out in April 1999.

## 4 The detections

Three pointings were deliberately aimed at the positions of known galaxies. This was done to check the positional accuracy of the pointing method, and to obtain a confirmation of the flux calibration. The left three panels of Fig. 2 show the spectra of NGC 5789, UGC 11168 and NGC 6500. The latter one shows a secondary peak at $`3500\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. This turns out to be part of the H i filament in the galaxy pair NGC 6500/6501, that has been mapped with the WSRT by van Driel, Davies & Appleton (1988). The authors describe the H i structure as a ‘classical bridge and tail configuration of a double galaxy interaction’. This is obviously of tidal origin, and not a primordial H i cloud.

The right panels of Fig. 2 show the three other confirmed detections. The first one is due to UGC 11037. This galaxy was not intentionally pointed at, but one of the pointings happened to fall very close ($`1.3^{}`$) to this galaxy. There is a similar explanation for the detection in the spectrum in the central right panel. This pointing was only $`2.6^{}`$ separated from the centre of NGC 6574. The redshift of the signal agrees very well with the measured redshift of NGC 6574.

Finally, the lower right spectrum shows a detection at $`15^\mathrm{h}39^\mathrm{m}00^\mathrm{s}`$, $`12^{}30^{}00^{\prime \prime }(\alpha ,\delta )`$ in the direction of the NGC 5962/5970 group. There is no catalogued galaxy at this position, but there is an obvious optical galaxy visible on the DSS, only $`3^{}`$ to the north. The observed H i redshift is consistent with membership in the NGC 5962/5970 group. From the DSS we estimate the brightness of the galaxy to be $`m_B=17`$ (assuming $`BV=0.5`$). The number density of galaxies brighter that $`m_B=17`$ is approximately 4.0 per square degree (Metcalfe et al. 1995). The probability of encountering a galaxy of such brightness within a $`3^{}`$ radius is therefore approximately 3 per cent. Furthermore, the velocity width of the signal is $`150\pm 15\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, a factor of $`7`$ larger than the typical width of the HVCs in the Wakker & van Woerden (1991) catalogue, and broader than any known HVC. We therefore conclude that this H i signal is very likely associated with the optical galaxy. Additional 21cm observations on this field are required to confirm this.

In summary, no H i clouds of the type predicted by the BSTHB scenario have been found. Two detections were made that could not unambiguously be identified as known optical galaxies. One is a known tidal H i filament in the NGC 6500/6501 pair, similar to the Magellanic Stream seen in the Local Group (Putman et al. 1998). The other detection is very likely the result of a uncataloged member of the NGC 5970 group.

## 5 Space density of H I clouds

We now use the null-result of the Arecibo group survey to derive upper limits to the space density of H i clouds in galaxy groups and discuss the cosmological significance of intragroup H i clouds.

### 5.1 HVCs as intragroup clouds

An explanation for Galactic HVCs that is of widespread current interest is provided by BSTHB who suggest that most of the HVCs are actually distributed throughout the LG and each cloud contains a few $`\times 10^7\mathrm{M}_{}`$ of H i. We perform Monte Carlo simulations to test this scenario by filling the five observed galaxy groups with synthetic populations of clouds following a recipe outlined by BSTHB. For the cloud properties we use the measured solid angles $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, velocity widths $`\mathrm{\Delta }V`$, and average brightness temperatures $`T_\mathrm{B}`$ for Galactic HVCs from Wakker & van Woerden (1991). Virial distances $`r_\mathrm{g}`$ are calculated for each cloud individually. The values of $`r_\mathrm{g}`$ are directly proportional to the assumed ratio of baryon to total mass $`f_\mathrm{B}`$. If $`f_\mathrm{B}`$ is 0.1, the virial distances $`r_\mathrm{g}`$ are found to be approximately 1 Mpc. At those distances, the distribution of HVCs is in agreement with the kinematics of the LG, which was one of the main motivations of BSTHB to propose the extragalactic HVC scenario.

Within the groups, the clouds are placed at $`r_\mathrm{g}`$ from the group’s barycenter, in a random direction. This situation would resemble that in the LG, except that the substructure that BSTHB attribute to LG dynamics is not simulated in the models of the external groups. The radial column density distribution for each cloud is first assumed to be flat. The average column density is calculated by taking $`N_{\mathrm{HI}}=M_{\mathrm{HI}}/(\pi r_{\mathrm{cloud}}^2)`$, where $`M_{\mathrm{HI}}`$ is the cloud H i mass based on its value of $`r_\mathrm{g}`$ and its observed flux, and $`r_{\mathrm{cloud}}`$ is the cloud radius, calculated from its measured solid angle and $`r_\mathrm{g}`$. For each model, a number $`N`$ clouds per group is drawn randomly from the Galactic HVC parent population.

The synthetic cloud ensembles are ‘observed’ with patterns of beams following the observational strategy of our survey. A detection is counted if the fraction of the flux of a cloud within the beam exceeds the detection threshold. The simulations are run with velocity resolutions of 5, 10, 25 and 50 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, similar to the searching of the real data. The same simulation is run 100 times for each group in order to obtain reliable error estimates on the expected number of detections.

First, we assume that the number of clouds per group, $`N`$, is invariant over the different groups. If $`N=100`$, which is substantially lower than the number of HVCs observed around the Milky Way Galaxy, the expected total number of detections is $`6\pm 3`$, where the error indicates the $`1\sigma `$ variation around the mean. Note that $`N1000`$ in the BSTHB scenario and $`N100`$ in the BB scenario. The expected number of detections increases linearly with increasing $`N`$. Next, we drop the restriction that all groups contain an equal number of clouds and instead scale $`N`$ with the dynamical mass of the group. This seems like a more logical thing to do since the H i mass and luminosity are also observed to scale in direct proportion to the dynamical mass. However, $`N`$ could of course be dependent on the dynamical state of the groups. In groups that have formed more recently, the primordial clouds are likely to have been less efficient in merging than in older groups. We have no detailed information on the dynamical state of the groups, and therefore simply assume that $`N`$ scales proportional to $`M_{\mathrm{dyn}}`$. We find that the expected total number of detections rises under this assumption: $`23\pm 8`$ clouds are expected if the number of clouds in a group with LG mass is $`N=100`$. The reason for this increase is that the average $`M_{\mathrm{dyn}}`$ for the external groups is slightly higher than that for the LG.

The conclusion from this exercise is that the hypothesis set forward by BSTHB that HVCs are in-falling gas clouds in the LG is highly inconsistent with the observations, unless the LG is an unusual group. If the LG is a representative group and the five surveyed external groups are similar to the LG, our survey should have detected at least 30 clouds (assuming $`N=500`$).

### 5.2 Constraints on intragroup H I cloud properties

A graphical representation of the constraints on intragroup H i clouds is presented in Fig. 3. This figure shows the combined constraints on the mean H i mass of clouds, and the number of clouds in each group. The lines show 68, 90, 95, and 99 per cent confidence levels at which the existence of a cloud population can be excluded. Again we have made use of the observed parameters of Galactic HVCs to model cloud populations in the external groups and the number of clouds $`N`$ is again scaled with $`M_{\mathrm{dyn}}`$. For reference, the cloud populations proposed by BSTHB and BB are indicated by hatched boxes, the size of which reflects the uncertainty in the number and average H i mass. The horizontal arrow indicates the effect of changing the mean distance of the BB clouds from 1 Mpc to 650 kpc from the Local Group barycenter. This latter value is preferred by Braun & Burton (2000) after they have estimated the distance to one HVC by comparing the measured H i column density and the angular size of the cool core. Both the BSTHB and the BB populations are inconsistent with the observations at the $`>99`$ per cent confidence level.

The distribution of H i column densities in HVCs often show a core-halo structure (Wakker & van Woerden 1997). Braun & Burton (2000) present high resolution WSRT imaging of six compact HVCs and show that the morphology can be described by a diffuse halo that encompasses one or more compact cores. We test the influence of this morphology on the detection efficiency in our survey by designing clouds with cores which account for 50 per cent of the total flux and have a radius $`R_{\mathrm{core}}=R_{\mathrm{cloud}}/5`$. The remaining 50 per cent of the flux is distributed over a halo with a flat H i column density distribution. The 95 per cent confidence level on this population is indicated by a dashed line. It is clear that the detection efficiency is not significantly changed by this modification of the cloud structure.

Fig. 4 is similar to Fig. 3, but here the number of clouds per group is non-variant. Again in this case, neither proposed population of clouds can be reconciled with our observations.

### 5.3 Significance of intragroup clouds

How do these upper limits compare to the hierarchical formation scenarios of galaxy groups? Klypin et al. (1999) and Moore et al. (1999) show that in numerical simulations of a hierarchical universe the relative amount of dark matter substructure halos is scale-invariant. The predicted relative number of dark matter halos is similar in clusters, groups and galaxies. However, only in clusters does the predicted number of clumps agree with observed luminosity functions; on galaxy and group scale the simulations predict an excess over the observed number of satellites by a factor of 10, especially for halos with circular velocities $`<50\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$.

One of the proposed solutions for this problem of missing satellites is provided by the BSTHB hypothesis. However, the evidence presented in this paper, by Charlton et al. (2000) and by Zwaan & Briggs (2000) seem to rule out this solution. Only a very limited number of clouds with $`M_{\mathrm{HI}}10^7\mathrm{M}_{}`$ could exist in galaxy groups. A similar conclusion has been reached by Verheijen et al. (2000), who systematically survey a region of the Ursa Major cluster of galaxies and find no H i clouds to a limit of $`10^7\mathrm{M}_{}`$.

From Fig. 3 we conclude that the intragroup H i clouds contribute a maximum of $`1.0\times 10^9\mathrm{M}_{}`$ of H i to the total group mass. This implies that no more than 10 per cent of all the H i in groups can reside in clouds with masses greater than $`M_{\mathrm{HI}}=7\times 10^6\mathrm{M}_{}`$. The H i mass in clouds must be less than 0.05 per cent of the total dynamical mass of the groups. In the non-variant $`N`$ case, these numbers rise to 20 and 0.1 per cent. The dynamical mass of a cloud population that is still permitted by the observations is more difficult to constrain. If we assume that the cold gas (H i and He i) is the only baryonic component in the clouds, and the baryon fraction $`f_\mathrm{B}=0.10`$ (a factor normally observed in galaxies and clusters, Fukugita, Hogan & Peebles 1998), then the total contribution of the clouds to the dynamical mass of the groups must be less than 1 per cent. Note that Klypin et al. (1999) estimate that the total mass in the predicted dark matter satellites amounts to approximately 5 per cent of the total group mass. Such a high prediction can only be brought into agreement with our survey results if the clouds’ $`f_\mathrm{B}`$ is lowered to 0.02. However, the median distance of the clouds from the groups’ barycentres would then reduce to $`200`$ kpc. It is not clear whether this is still consistent with the hierarchical model predictions in which the dark matter satellites are distributed throughout the groups.

A solution to the problem of missing satellites might be that the cold neutral gas is only a minor contributor to the total baryonic content of the clouds making the H i so insignificant that it can not be detected in 21cm surveys. This situation could occur if a large fraction of the gas reservoirs in the satellites are ionised by the intergalactic background. Klypin et al. (1999) and Moore et al. (1999) discuss gas ejection by early generation supernova-driven winds and inhibiting gas cooling and star formation by photo-evaporation as possible explanation of the absence of cold gas and stars in the satellites.

Solutions of a different kind can be found by changing the predicted number of clouds instead of modifying the baryons within the clouds. This can be achieved by suppressing of the primordial density fluctuation spectrum on small scales (Kamionkowski & Liddle 1999). Self-interacting dark matter (e.g., Spergel & Steinhardt 1999) and other dark-matter flavours (fluid dark matter, repulsive dark matter) have been suggested as possible explanations for a less efficient formation of small mass halos.

## 6 Summary

The conclusion reached by Lo & Sargent (1979) that Galactic HVCs are unlikely to be intergalactic gas in the Local Group (LG) remains sound and intact under scrutiny of a new 21cm survey with the refurbished Arecibo Telescope. This new survey consists of 300 pointings in five nearby galaxy groups and is sensitive to H i masses of approximately $`7\times 10^6\mathrm{M}_{}`$, depending on the velocity spread and distance of the signals. Two detections have been made that are not unambiguously caused by known optically selected galaxies. One is a known tidal H i filament in the NGC 6500/6501 pair, comparable to the Magellanic Stream (Putman et al. 1998). The other detection very likely originates in an uncataloged member of the NGC 5970 group. We therefore conclude that we have made no significant detections of H i clouds in galaxy groups.

We use this null-result to estimate constraints on the proposed population of H i clouds in groups, suggested by Blitz et al. (1999) and Braun & Burton (1999). These authors present a scenario in which the Galactic high velocity clouds (HVCs) are actually distributed throughout the LG at typical distances of a few hundred kpc to 1.5 Mpc. Fig. 3 shows the combined upper limits on the number of clouds per galaxy group, and the average H i mass on such clouds. The Blitz et al. (1999) scenario can be ruled out with $`>99`$ per cent confidence levels, assuming that the LG is typical of the five groups studied here. The integral amount of H i in intragroup clouds is typically less than 10 per cent of the groups’ total H i mass, and less than 0.05 per cent of the total dynamical mass of the groups.

The absence of clouds in groups seems to present a problem for hierarchical structure formation scenarios that predict many satellites within groups. At present it remains unclear whether the solution to this problem lies in modifying the descriptions of hierarchical formation so that the predicted number of satellites drops, or that the baryons in the clouds are simply hiding from detection.

## acknowledgements

I thank F. Briggs and the referee, V. Kilborn, for useful comments and discussion and K. O’Neil for doing part of the observing for this project.


text:
# Computing 𝑲-theory and Ext for graph 𝐶^∗-algebras

## 1. Introduction

In  Cuntz and Krieger described a way to associate a $`C^{}`$-algebra $`𝒪_A`$ to a finite square matrix $`A`$ with entries in {0,1}. Since that time these Cuntz-Krieger algebras have been generalized in a remarkable number of ways. Perhaps the most direct of these is due to Exel and Laca, who define $`𝒪_A`$ for an infinite {0,1}-matrix $`A`$ . Another generalization involves associating a $`C^{}`$-algebra to a countable directed graph. These graph algebras have drawn much interest because they comprise a wide class of $`C^{}`$-algebras, and yet many of their $`C^{}`$-algebraic properties can be easily deduced from the associated graphs.

In order to make sense of the relations for the generators of the graph algebra, it was often assumed in the original treatments that the graphs were row-finite; that is, each vertex is the source of finitely many edges . However, in the past few years it has been shown how to define graph algebras for arbitrary graphs . Consequently, much work has been done to extend results for the $`C^{}`$-algebras of row-finite graphs to the $`C^{}`$-algebras of arbitrary graphs .

In , Raeburn and Szymański computed the $`K`$-theory of $`C^{}(E)`$, where $`E`$ is a row-finite directed graph. We briefly review that result here. Let $`J`$ denote the set of sinks of $`E`$, let $`I=E^0J`$, and let $`A_E=\left(\begin{array}{cc}B& C\\ 0& 0\end{array}\right)`$ denote the vertex matrix of $`E`$ with respect to the decomposition $`E^0=IJ`$. Then because $`E`$ is row-finite, the matrix $`\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)`$ determines a homomorphism from $`_I`$ to $`_I_J`$. The kernel and cokernel of this homomorphism are isomorphic to $`K_1(C^{}(E))`$ and $`K_0(C^{}(E))`$, respectively. In , $`\mathrm{Ext}(C^{}(E))`$ is computed similarly for row-finite graphs $`E`$ which satisfy Condition (L) and have no sinks. Specifically, $`\mathrm{Ext}(C^{}(E))`$ is isomorphic to the cokernel of the homomorphism $`A_EI:_{E^0}_{E^0}`$.

In this paper, we will show that the above results remain true for graphs which are not necessarily row-finite, provided we replace the word “sink” with the phrase “sink or vertex which emits infinitely many edges.” We remark that Raeburn and Szymański have computed the $`K`$-theory for Exel-Laca algebras using direct limits \[10, Theorem 4.1\]. Also, the $`K`$-theory results have been obtained by Szymański in  for graphs with finitely many vertices, and the proof given there holds for arbitrary graphs as well. Our proof is different, and relies on desingularization , a tool for generalizing from the row-finite case to arbitrary graphs. If $`E`$ is an arbitrary graph, we say a vertex $`v`$ of $`E`$ is a singular vertex if either $`v`$ is a sink or $`v`$ emits infinitely many edges. In , it is shown that there exists a graph $`F`$, called a desingularization of $`E`$, such that $`F`$ has no singular vertices and $`C^{}(F)`$ is Morita equivalent to $`C^{}(E)`$. The key ingredient in our calculations of $`K`$-theory and $`\mathrm{Ext}`$ is a technical lemma, proven in Section 2, which shows that desingularizing a graph does not alter the kernel and cokernel of the maps determined by its vertex matrix. Thus we can apply the results of  and  to obtain the $`K`$-theory and $`\mathrm{Ext}`$ of $`C^{}(F)`$ in terms of the vertex matrix of $`E`$. This, together with the fact that $`K`$-theory and $`\mathrm{Ext}`$ are stable, yields the $`K`$-theory and $`\mathrm{Ext}`$ of $`C^{}(E)`$ stated in Theorem 3.1.

Finally, we use this result to shed some light on a question posed by Raeburn and Szymański in . They showed that if $`A`$ is any countable square $`\{0,1\}`$-matrix and if $`E_A`$ is the graph obtained by viewing $`A`$ as a vertex matrix (that is, let $`E_A^0`$ be the index set of $`A`$ and draw $`A(i,j)`$ edges from $`i`$ to $`j`$), then the graph algebra $`C^{}(E_A)`$ is a $`C^{}`$-subalgebra of the Exel-Laca algebra $`𝒪_A`$. We will show that it is possible for $`C^{}(E_A)`$ and $`𝒪_A`$ to have different $`K`$-theory. So in particular $`C^{}(E_A)`$ is not always a full corner in $`𝒪_A`$.

## 2. The Technical Lemma

Given a graph $`E`$, it was shown in  how to construct a graph $`F`$, called a desingularization of $`E`$, such that $`F`$ has no singular vertices and $`C^{}(E)`$ is Morita equivalent to $`C^{}(F)`$. We review that procedure here.

###### Definition 2.1.

Suppose $`E`$ is a graph with a singular vertex $`v_0`$. We add a tail to $`v_0`$ by performing the following procedure. List the vertices $`w_0,w_1,\mathrm{}`$ of $`r(s^1(v_0))`$. Note that the list of $`w`$’s could be empty (if $`v_0`$ is a sink), finite, or countably infinite.

We begin by adding an infinite tail to $`v_0`$ as in \[1, (1.2)\]:

Now, for every $`j`$ with $`w_jr(s^1(v_0))`$, let $`C_j`$ be the number of edges from $`v_0`$ to $`w_j`$. For every $`i`$ with $`ji<j+C_j`$, draw an edge labelled $`f_j^{ij+1}`$ from $`v_i`$ to $`w_j`$. To be precise, if $`E`$ is a graph with a singular vertex $`v_0`$, we define $`F^0:=E^0\{v_1,v_2,\mathrm{}\}`$ and

$$F^1:=\{eE^1|s(e)v_0\}\{e_i\}_1^{\mathrm{}}\underset{\{j|w_jr(s^1(v_0))\}}{}\{f_j^i\}_{i=1}^{C_j}.$$

We extend $`r`$ and $`s`$ to $`F`$ as indicated above. In particular, $`s(e_i)=v_{i1}`$, $`r(e_i)=v_i`$, $`s(f_j^i)=v_{i+j1}`$, and $`r(f_j^i)=w_j`$.

###### Definition 2.2.

If $`E`$ is a directed graph, a desingularization of $`E`$ is a graph $`F`$ obtained by adding a tail at every singular vertex of $`E`$.

Note that different orderings of the vertices of $`r(s^1(v_0))`$ may give rise to non-isomorphic graphs via the process of adding a tail. Thus a graph may have many desingularizations.

If $`E`$ is a graph, then any desingularization $`F`$ of $`E`$ is a row-finite graph, so the rows of the matrix $`A_F`$ are eventually zero. Thus $`A_F:_{F^0}_{F^0}`$ and $`A_F^t:_{F^0}_{F^0}`$.

###### Lemma 2.3.

Let $`E`$ be a graph. Also let $`J`$ be the set of singular vertices of $`E`$ and let $`I:=E^0\backslash J`$. Then with respect to the decomposition $`E^0=IJ`$ the vertex matrix of $`E`$ will have the form

$$A_E=\left(\begin{array}{cc}B& C\\ & \end{array}\right)$$

where $`B`$ and $`C`$ have entries in $``$ and the $``$’s have entries in $`\{\mathrm{}\}`$. If $`F`$ is a desingularization of $`E`$, then $`\mathrm{coker}(A_FI)\mathrm{coker}(BIC)`$ where $`(BIC):_I_J_I`$. Furthermore, $`\mathrm{ker}(A_F^tI)\mathrm{ker}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)`$ and $`\mathrm{coker}(A_F^tI)\mathrm{coker}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)`$, where $`\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right):_I_I_J`$.

###### Proof.

List the elements of $`J`$ as $`J:=\{v_1^0,v_2^0,v_3^0,\mathrm{}\}`$. (Note that $`J`$ may be either finite or countably infinite.) For each $`1i|J|`$ let $`D_i`$ be the $`J\times `$ matrix

$$D_i=\left(\begin{array}{ccccc}0& 0& 0& 0& \\ 0& 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}\\ 1& 0& 0& 0& \\ 0& 0& 0& 0& \\ & \mathrm{}& & & \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)$$

with a $`1`$ in the $`(i,1)`$ position and 0’s elsewhere. Also let $`Z`$ be the $`\times `$ matrix

$$Z=\left(\begin{array}{ccccc}1& 1& 0& 0& \\ 0& 1& 1& 0& \mathrm{}\\ 0& 0& 1& 1& \\ 0& 0& 0& 1& \\ & \mathrm{}& & & \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)$$

with $`1`$’s along the diagonal and $`1`$’s above the diagonal. Now for each $`1i|J|`$ let $`\{v_i^1,v_i^2,\mathrm{}\}`$ be the vertices of the tail which is added to $`v_i^0`$ to form $`F`$. Then, by the way that desingularization is defined, we see that with respect to the decomposition $`IJ\{v_1^1,v_1^2,v_1^3,\mathrm{}\}\{v_2^1,v_2^2,v_2^3,\mathrm{}\}\mathrm{}`$ the matrix $`A_FI`$ will have the form

$$A_FI=\left(\begin{array}{ccccc}BI& C& 0& 0& \\ X_1& Y_1I& D_1& D_2& \mathrm{}\\ X_2& Y_2& Z& 0& \\ X_3& Y_3& 0& Z& \\ & \mathrm{}& & & \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)$$

where the $`X_i`$’s and $`Y_i`$’s are row-finite. If we let $`P:=_{}`$, then $`A_FI:_I_J_JP_I_J_JP`$. Also $`(BIC):_I_J_I`$. Let us define a map $`\varphi :_I_J_JP_I`$ by

$$\varphi \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)=𝐱.$$

We shall show that $`\varphi `$ induces a map from $`\mathrm{coker}(A_FI)`$ to $`\mathrm{coker}(BIC)`$. Let

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)=(A_FI)\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐚\\ 𝐛\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐜_1\\ 𝐜_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right).$$

Then

$$\varphi \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)=𝐱=(BIC)\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐚\\ 𝐛\end{array}\right)\mathrm{im}(BIC).$$

Thus $`\varphi `$ induces a map $`\overline{\varphi }:\mathrm{coker}(A_FI)\mathrm{coker}(BIC)`$.

We shall show that $`\overline{\varphi }`$ is an isomorphism. To see that $`\overline{\varphi }`$ is injective suppose that

$$\varphi \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)=𝐱\mathrm{im}(BIC).$$

Then there exists $`\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐚\\ 𝐛\end{array}\right)_I_J`$ such that $`𝐱=(BI)𝐚+C𝐛`$. For each $`1i|J|`$ let

$$c_i^1:=𝐲_i(X_1𝐚+(Y_1I)𝐛)_i,$$

where $`(X_1𝐚+(Y_1I)𝐛)_i`$ denotes the $`i^{\text{th}}`$ entry of the vector $`X_1𝐚+(Y_1I)𝐛`$. Then, for each $`k\{1,2,\mathrm{}\}`$ define $`c_i^k`$ recursively by

$$c_i^{k+1}:=c_i^k+(𝐳_i)_k(X_{i+1}𝐚+Y_{i+1}𝐛)_k,$$

where $`(𝐳_i)_k`$ denotes the $`k^{\text{th}}`$ entry of the vector $`𝐳_i`$ and $`(X_{i+1}𝐚+Y_{i+1}𝐛)_k`$ denotes the $`k^{\text{th}}`$ entry of the vector $`(X_{i+1}𝐚+Y_{i+1}𝐛)`$. Now for each $`1i|J|`$ define $`𝐜_i_{}`$ by $`𝐜_i:=\left(\begin{array}{c}c_i^1\\ c_i^2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)`$. Then

$$(A_FI)\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐚\\ 𝐛\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐜_1\\ 𝐜_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}(BI)𝐚+C𝐛\\ X_1𝐚+(Y_1I)𝐛+D_1𝐜_\mathrm{𝟏}+D_2𝐜_\mathrm{𝟐}+\mathrm{}\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}X_2𝐚+Y_2𝐛+Z𝐜_\mathrm{𝟏}\\ X_3𝐚+Y_3𝐛+Z𝐜_\mathrm{𝟐}\\ X_4𝐚+Y_4𝐛+Z𝐜_\mathrm{𝟑}\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)$$

and thus $`\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)\mathrm{im}(A_FI)`$ and $`\overline{\varphi }`$ is injective. Furthermore, since $`\varphi `$ is surjective it follows that $`\overline{\varphi }`$ is surjective. Thus $`\mathrm{coker}(A_FI)\mathrm{coker}(BIC)`$.

Next we shall examine $`A_F^tI`$. Note that with respect to the decomposition mentioned earlier $`A_F^tI`$ will have the form

$$A_F^tI=\left(\begin{array}{ccccc}B^tI& X_1^t& X_2^t& X_3^t& \\ C^t& Y_1^tI& Y_2^t& Y_3^t& \mathrm{}\\ 0& D_1^t& Z^t& 0& \\ 0& D_2^t& 0& Z^t& \\ & \mathrm{}& & & \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)$$

where the $`X_i^t`$’s and $`Y_i^t`$’s are column-finite matrices. If we let $`Q:=_{}`$, then $`(A_F^tI):_I_JQ_I_JQ`$. Also $`\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right):_I_I_J`$. Let us define a map $`\psi :_I_I_JQ`$ by

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐱)=\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 0\\ 0\end{array}\right).$$

Note that if $`𝐱\mathrm{ker}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)`$, then

$$(A_F^tI)\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 0\\ 0\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}(B^tI)𝐱\\ C^t𝐱\\ 0\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ 0\\ 0\end{array}\right)$$

so $`\psi `$ restricts to a map $`\psi :\mathrm{ker}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)\mathrm{ker}(A_F^tI)`$. We shall show that this map is surjective. Suppose that

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)\mathrm{ker}(A_F^tI).$$

Then for each $`1i|J|`$ we must have that $`D_i^t𝐲+Z^t𝐳_i=0`$. If $`𝐳_i=\left(\begin{array}{c}z_i^1\\ z_i^2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)`$, then for all $`k`$ we must have

$$y_iz_i^1=0\text{ and }z_i^kz_i^{k+1}=0.$$

Since $`𝐳_i_J`$ we know that $`z_i^k`$ is eventually zero. Thus the above equations imply that $`y_i=z_i^1=z_i^2=\mathrm{}=0`$. Since this holds for all $`i`$ we have that

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 0\\ 0\end{array}\right)=\psi (𝐱)$$

and $`\psi `$ is surjective. Furthermore, since $`\psi `$ is clearly injective, $`\psi :\mathrm{ker}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)\mathrm{ker}(A_F^tI)`$ is an isomorphism and $`\mathrm{ker}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)\mathrm{ker}(A_F^tI)`$.

Next we shall define a map $`\rho :_I_J_I_J_JQ`$ by

$$\rho \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ 0\end{array}\right).$$

We shall show that $`\rho `$ induces a map from $`\mathrm{coker}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)`$ to $`\mathrm{coker}(A_FI)`$. Suppose that $`\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\end{array}\right)\mathrm{im}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)`$. Then there exists an element $`𝐚_I`$ such that $`\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}(B^tI)𝐚\\ C^t𝐚\end{array}\right)`$. Hence

$$(A_F^tI)\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐚\\ 0\\ 0\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}(B^tI)𝐚\\ C^t𝐚\\ 0\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ 0\end{array}\right).$$

Thus $`\rho `$ maps $`\mathrm{im}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)`$ into $`\mathrm{im}(A_F^tI)`$ and hence induces a map $`\overline{\rho }:\mathrm{coker}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)\mathrm{coker}(A_F^tI)`$. We shall show that this map is injective. Suppose that $`\overline{\rho }\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\end{array}\right)`$ equals zero in $`\mathrm{coker}(A_F^tI)`$. Then

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ 0\end{array}\right)=(A_F^tI)\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐚\\ 𝐛\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐜_1\\ 𝐜_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)\text{ for some }\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐚\\ 𝐛\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐜_1\\ 𝐜_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)\underset{I}{}\underset{J}{}\underset{J}{}Q.$$

But then as before we must have that $`𝐛=𝐜_1=𝐜_2=\mathrm{}=0`$ and the above equation implies that $`\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}(B^tI)𝐚\\ C^t𝐚\end{array}\right)\mathrm{im}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)`$ so $`\overline{\rho }`$ is injective. We shall now show that $`\overline{\rho }`$ is surjective. Let $`\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱\\ 𝐲\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)_I_J_JQ`$. It suffices to show that there exists $`\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐮\\ 𝐯\\ 0\end{array}\right)_I_J_JQ`$ such that

$$\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱𝐮\\ 𝐲𝐯\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)\mathrm{im}(A_F^tI).$$

For each $`1i|J|`$ write $`𝐳_i=\left(\begin{array}{c}z_i^1\\ z_i^2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)`$ and define

$$b_i:=\underset{j=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}z_i^j\text{ and }c_i^k:=\underset{j=k+1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}z_i^j\text{ for }k\text{.}$$

Note that since $`𝐳_i`$ is in the direct sum, all of the above sums are finite, and since $`\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)_JQ`$ we have that eventually $`𝐳_i=0`$ and hence

$$𝐛:=\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐛_1\\ 𝐛_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\underset{J}{}\text{ and }𝐜:=\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐜_1\\ 𝐜_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\underset{J}{}Q,\text{ where }𝐜_i:=\left(\begin{array}{c}c_i^1\\ c_i^2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right).$$

If we then take

$$𝐮:=𝐱(B^tI)𝐚X_1^t𝐛X_2^t𝐜_1X_3^t𝐜_\mathrm{𝟐}\mathrm{}$$

and

$$𝐯:=𝐲C^t𝐚(Y_1^tI)𝐛Y_2^t𝐜_1Y_3^t𝐜_2\mathrm{},$$

which are finite sums since $`\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐜_1\\ 𝐜_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)`$ is in the direct sum, we have that

$$(A_F^tI)\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐚\\ 𝐛\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐜_1\\ 𝐜_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}𝐱𝐮\\ 𝐲𝐯\\ \left(\begin{array}{c}𝐳_1\\ 𝐳_2\\ \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)\end{array}\right).$$

Thus $`\overline{\rho }`$ is surjective. Hence $`\overline{\rho }`$ is an isomorphism and $`\mathrm{coker}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)\mathrm{coker}(A_F^tI)`$. ∎

## 3. Main Results

###### Theorem 3.1.

Let $`E`$ be a graph. Also let $`J`$ be the set of singular vertices of $`E`$ and let $`I:=E^0\backslash J`$. Then with respect to the decomposition $`E^0=IJ`$ the vertex matrix of $`E`$ will have the form

$$A_E=\left(\begin{array}{cc}B& C\\ & \end{array}\right)$$

where $`B`$ and $`C`$ have entries in $``$ and the $``$’s have entries in $`\{\mathrm{}\}`$. Then $`K_0(C^{}(E))\mathrm{coker}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)`$ and $`K_1(C^{}(E))\mathrm{ker}\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right)`$ where $`\left(\begin{array}{c}B^tI\\ C^t\end{array}\right):_I_I_J`$.

If, in addition, $`E`$ satisfies Condition (L), then $`\mathrm{Ext}(C^{}(E))\mathrm{coker}(BIC)`$ where $`(BIC):_I_J_I`$.

###### Proof.

Let $`F`$ be a desingularization of $`E`$. Since $`F`$ is row-finite and has no sinks it follows from \[10, Theorem 3.2\] that $`K_0(C^{}(E))\mathrm{coker}(A_F^tI)`$ and $`K_1(C^{}(E))\mathrm{ker}(A_F^tI)`$. By \[3, Theorem 2.11\] $`C^{}(E)`$ is Morita equivalent to $`C^{}(F)`$. Because $`K`$-theory is stable, we have that $`K_0(C^{}(E))\mathrm{coker}(A_F^tI)`$ and $`K_1(C^{}(E))\mathrm{ker}(A_F^tI)`$. The result then follows from Lemma 2.3.

Furthermore, if $`E`$ satisfies Condition (L), then it follows from \[3, Lemma 2.7\] that $`F`$ also satisfies Condition (L). Hence by \[13, Theorem 6.16\] we have that $`\mathrm{Ext}(C^{}(F))\mathrm{coker}(BIC)`$. Since $`\mathrm{Ext}`$ is stable, the result again follows from Lemma 2.3. ∎

###### Corollary 3.2.

If every vertex of $`E`$ is either a sink or emits infinitely many edges, then $`K_0(C^{}(E))_{E^0}`$ and $`K_1(C^{}(E))\mathrm{Ext}(C^{}(E))\{0\}`$.

###### Proof.

$`I=\mathrm{}`$, so we have $`_I=_I=\{0\}`$, and the result then follows from Theorem 3.1. ∎

In , Raeburn and Szymański prove that every graph algebra is an Exel-Laca algebra, but not conversely. In particular, they produce a matrix

$$A=\left(\begin{array}{ccccccc}1& 0& 1& 1& 1& 1& \\ 0& 1& 1& 1& 1& 1& \\ 1& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}\\ 0& 1& 0& 1& 0& 0& \\ 0& 0& 1& 0& 1& 0& \\ 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 1& \\ & & & \mathrm{}& & & \mathrm{}\end{array}\right)$$

such that the Exel-Laca algebra $`𝒪_A`$ is not a graph algebra. They do prove, however, that $`C^{}(E_A)`$ is a $`C^{}`$-subalgebra in $`𝒪_A`$, where $`E_A`$ is the graph whose vertex matrix is $`A`$ \[10, Proposition 5.1\], and this prompts them to ask if anything more can be said about the relationship between the two.

It appears not. For if $`A`$ and $`E_A`$ are as above, the reader can check using Theorem 3.1 that $`K_0(C^{}(E_A))K_1(C^{}(E_A))\{0\}`$. In \[10, Remark 4.3\], the $`K`$-theory of $`𝒪_A`$ is computed as $`K_0(𝒪_A)\{0\}`$ and $`K_1(𝒪_A)`$. Hence $`C^{}(E_A)`$ is not a full corner of $`𝒪_A`$, and in fact $`C^{}(E_A)`$ and $`𝒪_A`$ are not even Morita equivalent.

We also point out that, for the matrix $`A`$ above, knowing the $`K`$-theory of $`C^{}(E_A)`$ allows one to actually determine $`C^{}(E_A)`$ up to isomorphism. $`C^{}(E_A)`$ is a purely infinite, simple, separable, nuclear $`C^{}`$-algebra without unit and hence the Kirchberg-Phillips Classification Theorem tells us that it it is determined up to Morita equivalence by its $`K`$-theory \[9, Theorem 4.2.4\]. Since $`𝒪_2`$ has the same $`K`$-theory we may conclude that $`C^{}(E_A)`$ is Morita equivalent to $`𝒪_2`$. Finally, since $`E_A`$ is transitive with infinitely many vertices it follows from \[6, Theorem 2.13\] that $`C^{}(E_A)`$ is stable. Hence $`C^{}(E_A)𝒪_2𝒦`$.


text:
# DESY 01–031 ISSN 0418–9833 hep–ph/0103091 March 2001 Jet Photoproduction at THERA

## 1 Motivation

In electron-proton collisions at the DESY HERA collider, the exchange of almost real photons is responsible for the largest fraction of the scattering events. In a subclass of these photoproduction events, hard jets are produced with large transverse energies. The presence of a hard scale then allows for a comparison of the data with predictions based on perturbative QCD.

Measurements of inclusive jets, dijets, and three jets have been performed by the H1 and ZEUS collaborations at HERA over the last nine years and were found to be in qualitatively good agreement with these predictions. They can also be used to extract the free parameters of the theory like the strong coupling constant or the parton densities in the colliding proton and photon. In the proton case, this information is complementary to determinations in deep-inelastic electron- or neutrino scattering or lepton pair production in hadronic collisions. The HERA deep-inelastic scattering data have been particularly useful to pin down the previously unknown gluon density at low values of the partonic momentum fraction $`x`$. However, it is important to test this determination in a second independent process like photoproduction. Information on the photonic parton densities is still very limited: Only the quark distributions have been constrained in deep-inelastic electron-photon scattering, and only at large $`x`$. Little is known about the gluon density in the photon.

The determination of the parton densities in the proton and photon is thus an important research goal in the jet photoproduction experiments at HERA and also in photon-photon scattering at LEP2. Unfortunately, the experiments have so far been limited to transverse jet energies which may be too low to suppress the soft underlying event coming from the proton or photon remnants or the non-perturbative effects affiliated with hadronization. Furthermore, they are kinematically limited to relatively large values of $`x`$.

It is the aim of this paper to demonstrate that both of these restrictions can be overcome if the electron energy is raised and/or the exchanged photons are produced by laser backscattering. This may be possible at a facility where a high-energy electron beam from a future linear electron accelerator like TESLA is collided with a high-energetic proton beam like the one available at HERA. At such a ‘THERA’ collider it will thus be possible to reach smaller values of $`x`$ and larger hard scales at the same time.

## 2 Dijet Cross Section

For the proton beam we choose an energy of $`E_p=920\mathrm{GeV}`$, at which HERA is currently operating. For the electron beam, we start with the current HERA energy of $`E_e=27.5\mathrm{GeV}`$. If only one arm of the future electron accelerator is used, $`250`$ and $`400\mathrm{GeV}`$ can be reached in the first and second stages of TESLA, respectively. If both arms are used, the electron energy can be raised to as much as $`500\mathrm{GeV}`$ already in the first stage. Photoproduction events are selected by requiring that the electron scattering angle is less than $`1^{}`$ and that the photon momentum fraction lies within the range $`0.2<y<0.85`$. For the different electron beam energies, this maximum scattering angle corresponds to maximum photon virtualities of $`0.18`$, $`15`$, $`39`$, and $`61\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ at low $`y`$. The alternative approach of choosing a constant maximum virtuality of $`1\mathrm{GeV}^2`$ leads to unrealistically small values of $`0.1^{}`$ at TESLA energies. Finally, we investigate the potential of a THERA $`\gamma p`$ collider where highly energetic real photons are produced by backscattering laser light off a $`250\mathrm{GeV}`$ electron beam.

In leading order of perturbative QCD, two partons with equal transverse energies are produced, corresponding to two hard jets. The dijet cross section is then given by

$$\frac{\text{d}^3\sigma }{\text{d}E_T^2\text{d}\eta _1\text{d}\eta _2}=\underset{a,b}{}x_\gamma yf_{a/e}(x_\gamma y,\mu _f^2)x_pf_{b/p}(x_p,\mu _f^2)\frac{\text{d}\sigma }{\text{d}t}(abp_1p_2).$$
(1)
In next-to-leading order there may also be a third, softer jet. We can then use the average transverse energy $`\overline{E}_T`$ and the average rapidity $`\overline{\eta }`$ of the dijet system as observables and allow the two jets to differ in transverse energy by as much as $`\mathrm{\Delta }E_T<\overline{E}_T/2`$. This choice, which allows for a full cancellation of infrared singularities and avoids the sensitive region of two equal minimal $`E_T`$ , has also been made in a recent H1 analysis . The rapidity difference of the two jets $`\mathrm{\Delta }\eta `$ is related to the center-of-mass scattering angle $`\mathrm{cos}(\theta ^{})=\mathrm{tanh}(\mathrm{\Delta }\eta )/2`$. While inclusive jet measurements yield higher statistics, only dijet analyses allow for a reconstruction of

$`x_p^{\mathrm{obs}}={\displaystyle \frac{E_{T,1}e^{+\eta _1}+E_{T,2}e^{+\eta _2}}{2E_p}}`$ , $`x_\gamma ^{\mathrm{obs}}={\displaystyle \frac{E_{T,1}e^{\eta _1}+E_{T,2}e^{\eta _2}}{2yE_e}}`$ (2)
which, in leading order, match exactly the momentum fractions of the partons in the proton $`x_p`$ and photon $`x_\gamma `$, but neglect the contribution of a possible third jet. Jet photoproduction has been calculated in next-to-leading order QCD using three different phase space slicing methods  and the subtraction method . The results were found to agree with each other within a few percent . In our next-to-leading order calculation , jets are defined according to the $`k_T`$ cluster algorithm with the parameter $`R=1`$ . For the parton densities in the photon and proton, we choose the next-to-leading order set of GRV  and the latest CTEQ parameterization 5M  with the corresponding value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\overline{\mathrm{MS}}}^{\mathrm{nf}=5}=226\mathrm{GeV}`$. The strong coupling constant $`\alpha _s`$ is evaluated at two loops and at the scale $`\mu =\mu _f=\mathrm{max}(E_{T,1},E_{T,2})`$. The sensitivity of a THERA collider to different photon parton densities has been analyzed in detail elsewhere .

With higher electron beam energies, the HERA center-of-mass energy $`\sqrt{S}`$ of $`318\mathrm{GeV}`$ can be increased to $`959`$, $`1213`$, or even $`1357\mathrm{GeV}`$, approaching the $`2\mathrm{TeV}`$ regime of the Fermilab Tevatron in Run 2. At the Tevatron, jets with transverse energies in excess of $`50\mathrm{GeV}`$ are selected. Since THERA would operate at roughly half the Tevatron center-of-mass energy, we cut on $`\overline{E}_T>25\mathrm{GeV}`$.

## 3 Results

Like hadronic jet cross sections, photoproduction jet cross sections drop steeply in transverse energy. It is therefore interesting to study the size of the dijet photoproduction cross section as a function of $`\overline{E}_T`$ as shown in Figure 1.

At $`\overline{E}_T=40\mathrm{GeV}`$, THERA with electron beam energies of $`250`$ to $`500\mathrm{GeV}`$ produces cross sections which are larger than the HERA cross section by about a factor of 20-40. At a THERA photon collider, the cross section is even larger by a factor of 500. The larger cross sections result, of course, in a much extended range in $`\overline{E}_T`$. With an expected luminosity of 100 pb<sup>-1</sup>/year, the range can be extended from $`75\mathrm{GeV}`$ at HERA to $`150\mathrm{GeV}`$ at THERA $`ep`$ or $`225\mathrm{GeV}`$ at THERA $`\gamma p`$, i.e. by a factor of 2-3.

Of course, these jets need not only be produced but also be measured in a detector. An important question in this context is the required coverage in rapidity. In Figure 2 we therefore show the average rapidity distribution of the produced dijet system with $`\overline{E}_T>25\mathrm{GeV}`$.

Jets at HERA are produced mostly in the proton (forward) direction $`0<\overline{\eta }<3`$, which has lead to the characteristic asymmetric designs of the H1 and ZEUS detectors. In contrast, jets at THERA will be produced centrally in the range $`3<\overline{\eta }<3`$, requiring a more symmetric detector design, closer to the design used at hadron colliders. Therefore, if the H1 and ZEUS detectors are to be used, some modifications will be necessary. However, an upgrade of the electron beam energy from 250 to $`500\mathrm{GeV}`$ will probably not necessitate additional changes, since the rapidity range is then only slightly extended.

The rapidity difference of the two jets or, equivalently, the cosine of the center-of-mass scattering angle $`\mathrm{cos}(\theta ^{})`$ is related to the $`22`$ Mandelstam variables of the underlying partonic subprocesses by

$`t={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}s(1\mathrm{cos}\theta ^{})`$ , $`u={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}s(1+\mathrm{cos}\theta ^{}),`$ (3)
where $`s=(p_a+p_b)^2=x_\gamma yx_pS`$ is the partonic center-of-mass energy squared. Most of the resolved (parton-parton) scattering processes are characterized by the exchange of a massless vector boson in the $`t`$-channel

$$\overline{||^2}t^2=\left[\frac{1}{2}s(1\mathrm{cos}\theta ^{})\right]^2,$$
(4)
whereas the direct processes proceed through a massless fermion exchange in the $`t`$-channel with less singular behavior,

$$\overline{||^2}t^1=\left[\frac{1}{2}s(1\mathrm{cos}\theta ^{})\right]^1$$
(5)
or through $`s`$-channel contributions without any singular behavior. In Figure 3 we show the normalized dijet cross section as a function of $`|\mathrm{cos}(\theta ^{})|`$. At HERA, the rather high cut on $`\overline{E}_T>25\mathrm{GeV}`$ results in a $`|\mathrm{cos}(\theta ^{})|`$ distribution which is mostly dominated by phase space. At THERA, the center-of-mass energies are larger: Phase space restrictions are unimportant, and the normalized distribution no longer depends on the electron beam energy or the collider mode ($`ep`$ or $`\gamma p`$), if the $`\overline{E}_T`$ cut is kept fixed. Therefore the expected singular behavior can now clearly be seen. The same distribution is valid if the HERA cut is scaled down to $`\overline{E}_T>318\mathrm{GeV}/959\mathrm{GeV}\times 25\mathrm{GeV}8\mathrm{G}\mathrm{e}\mathrm{V}`$, which is similar to the cut $`E_T>6\mathrm{GeV}`$ used in a recent ZEUS analysis . The ZEUS data were found to agree with next-to-leading order QCD predictions . In Figure 3 we also show results for direct and resolved photoproduction separately (thin curves). The resolved curve clearly shows the singular behavior in contrast to the direct contribution, which contributes only a small fraction to the total result (see also Figure 1).

For determinations of the partonic structure of protons and photons, distributions in the observed partonic momentum fractions are of great value.

Figure 4 demonstrates that the range in $`x_p^{\mathrm{obs}}`$, in which the proton structure can be analyzed, is extended by at least one order of magnitude from 0.03 at HERA to 0.003–0.001 at THERA. Since the gluon dominates at values below 0.2, the low-$`x`$ gluon determinations in deep-inelastic scattering could thus be tested in photoproduction for the first time.

Similarly, the range in $`x_\gamma ^{\mathrm{obs}}`$ would be extended by at least one order of magnitude from 0.04 at HERA to 0.004–0.0025 at THERA.

This can be seen in Figure 5. In the photon case, the gluon dominates below 0.25, so that HERA should already have the potential to constrain the gluon in the photon with photoproduced high-$`\overline{E}_T`$ jets in the region 0.04–0.25. THERA could, however, constrain the gluon down to much lower values of $`x_\gamma ^{\mathrm{obs}}`$. THERA $`ep`$ cross sections with an electron beam energy of $`250\mathrm{GeV}`$ and different next-to-leading order parameterizations for the gluon density in the photon differ by 30–50% for $`E_T>29`$ and $`14\mathrm{GeV}`$ .

## 4 Conclusion

Collisions of high-energy electrons from a future linear accelerator like TESLA with an existing proton beam in a ‘THERA’ $`ep`$ machine offer great opportunities for jet photoproduction: They would naturally build on the current HERA program of testing QCD and determining the partonic structure of the proton and the photon. The range in the hard scale $`\overline{E}_T`$ could be extended by a factor of 2–3, which would reduce complications from the soft underlying event and hadronization. At the same time the range in the partonic momentum fractions $`x_p`$ and $`x_\gamma `$ could be extended by at least one order of magnitude. Determinations of the gluon in the proton at low $`x_p`$ in deep inelastic scattering could then be tested, and the gluonic structure of the photon could be determined for the first time. Furthermore, event rates with three or more observed jets in the final state are expected to be larger at higher energies and could be compared to then-available higher order predictions to study the multi-particle QCD dynamics. The physics program of any future linear collider would thus greatly benefit from these additional opportunities.

## Acknowledgments

The author thanks G. Kramer and H. Spiesberger for their encouragement and useful discussions and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and the European Commission for financial support through Grants KL 1266/1-1 and ERBFMRX-CT98-0194.