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# ADE-quiver theories and Mirror Symmetry11footnote 1Talk delivered by U.L.

## 1 INTRODUCTION

The $`3D`$ mirror symmetry between the Higgs and the Coulomb branch described in  seems to have a $`4D`$ counterpart in a mirror symmetry between the Higgs branch of an $`ADE`$ quiver gauge theory and the (generalized) Coulomb branch of a Seiberg-Witten (SW) theory with $`ADE`$ global symmetry. This symmetry was suggested by the results of , where the algebraic curve222We are not being very careful with the notation. ”Curve” should really be variety, but we hope that this will not cause confusion. for the $`ADE`$ series of four dimensional $`ALE`$ manifolds was related to the the description of these manifolds as hyperkähler quotients . Inclusion of Fayet-Iliopolous (FI) parameters in the quotient leads to the deformed $`ADE`$-curves, and the curve for $`E_6`$ surprisingly turned out to be identical to the SW curve of a superconformal theory with $`E_6`$ global symmetry described in . This agreement between the curves was seen when the FI parameters were substituted by the Casimirs of the group $`E_6`$. The same agreement has since been found for $`E_7`$ in  and for $`E_8`$ in .

There is thus a strong case for the proposed mirror symmetry and hence for a duality similar to that in three dimensions. This result is potentially very useful for at least two reasons. Firstly, the strongly coupled superconformal theories with $`E_n`$ global symmetry have no Lagrangian description, whereas their mirror images do. Certain aspects of the theories that are better studied in a Lagrangian formulation may thus be investigated in the mirror theory. Secondly, since the Coulomb branch receives quantum corrections but the Higgs branch does not, one consequence of the mirror symmetry is that quantum effects in one theory arise classically in the dual theory, and vice versa.

There is also an advantage in having found the relation between the deformation parameters of the algebraic curves and the FI parameters. Assume that one is contemplating a Hanany-Witten (HW) picture of NS5-branes with D4-branes ending on them as a candidate for the IIA T-dual of D3-branes on an $`E_n`$ singularity in IIB. As described in , and in section 5 below, moving the NS5-branes in the HW picture corresponds to blowing up the singularity in the dual picture, the FI parameters giving the position of the NS5-branes.

Since we have the relation of the FI parameters to the parameters governing the deformation of the algebraic curve, one may now check that the possible motions on the HW side (allowed by the particular geometry suggested) correspond to the known allowed deformations on the IIB side. In other words, our results may serve as a guideline when trying to find a HW picture.

Below we describe the derivation of the results, in particular the “bug calculus” that made the derivation technically feasible.

## 2 The ADE-series

The quiver theories  are $`𝒩=2`$ supersymmetric gauge theories that may be characterized by the extended Dynkin diagrams of the $`ADE`$-series (quiver diagrams), as depicted in figure 1. Here the gauge group is $`U(N_1)\times \mathrm{}\times U(N_k)`$, and the $`i`$’th node, labelled by $`N_i`$ in the Dynkin diagram, corresponds to a factor $`U(N_i)`$ in the gauge group. Moreover, each link between two nodes $`i,k`$ corresponds to a hypermultiplet in the $`(N_i,\overline{N_k})`$ representation. The Dynkin diagram thus sums up both the gauge group and the matter content of the quiver theory. These theories may be constructed as the worldvolume theory of $`D3`$-branes probing an orbifold singularity.

There is also a closely related point of view where the Dynkin diagram represents a hyperkähler quotient by the above gauge group and the hypermultiplets coordinatize a $`4D`$ $`ALE`$-space. It is this latter point of view which we take as the starting point for our investigations.

The hyperkähler quotient construction  starts from a $`𝒩=2`$ supersymmetric nonlinear $`\sigma `$ model coupled to an $`𝒩=2`$ vector multiplet (including FI terms). In $`𝒩=1`$ language the hypermultiplets and vectormultiplets involved are given by $`(z_+,z_{})`$ and $`V,S`$, respectively, where $`z_\pm `$ and $`S`$ are $`𝒩=1`$ chiral superfields and $`V`$ is an $`𝒩=1`$ vector superfield. With the above gauge groups, the quotient found by integrating out $`(V,S)`$ produces a new $`\sigma `$-model with an $`ALE`$-space as target space. We shall be particularly interested in the so called moment map constraints, i.e., the equations that result from integrating out $`S`$:

Classi Polynomial Deformations   fication                 $`A_k`$ $`XYZ^{k+1}`$ $`1,\mathrm{},Z^{k1}`$         $`D_k`$ $`X^2+Y^2ZZ^{k1}`$ $`1,Y,Z,\mathrm{},Z^{k2}`$         $`E_6`$ $`X^2+Y^3Z^4`$ $`1,Y,Z,YZ,`$     $`Z^2,YZ^2`$         $`E_7`$ $`X^2+Y^3+YZ^3`$ $`1,Y,Y^2,Z,YZ,`$     $`Z^2,Y^2Z`$         $`E_8`$ $`X^2+Y^3+Z^5`$ $`1,Y,Z,YZ,Z^2,`$     $`Z^3,YZ^2,YZ^3`$
Table 2

$`z_+T_Az_{}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$ $`A\text{any }U(1)\text{ factor}`$ (1)
$`=b_A`$ $`A\text{any }U(1)\text{ factor},`$ (2)
where $`b_A`$ are FI parameters and $`A`$ is a group index. Turning off the FI terms results in the orbifold limit of the $`ALE`$-space, and conversely non-zero FI terms correspond to resolutions of the orbifold.

The $`ALE`$-spaces, classified by the $`ADE`$ series, also have a description in terms of an algebraic curve in $`𝖢\text{ }^3`$ . Here the resolution of the orbifold corresponds to certain allowed deformations, as listed in Table 2.

Our goal is to find the relation between the FI parameters and the deformations of the algebraic curves. The strategy is to form gauge group invariants from the hypermultiplets and identify those invariants with the coordinates $`X,Y`$ and $`Z`$ of the curves in Table 2. All the calculations should be done taking the constraints (2) into account. Algebraically finding the curve with non-zero FI terms is rather a formidable task for most of the models. It is considerably simplified, however, by use of a “bug calculus” , which we now describe.

## 3 Bug calculus

We start from the Dynkin diagrams in Table 1 and associate a FI parameter $`b_i`$ with the $`i`$’th node. We also need to keep track of orientation; an arrow from the fundamental towards the antifundamental representation indicates the way the chiral field in the hypermultiplet transforms333A change of direction of an arrow only affects the final result by a change of sign of the corresponding FI parameter.. It is then possible to form matrices from the matter fields and depict them graphically. E.g., the holomorphic constraints (2) can be represented in bug calculus, each gauge group (i.e., node) having its own constraint. For an “endpoint” the constraint is shown in figure 2a and for a node in a chain the constraint is shown in figure 2b. For nodes connecting more than two links, the constraints generalize as indicated in figure 2c and d. When manipulating the bugs, the moves are dictated by the moment map constraints. Using them, one immediately finds that some traces of matrices reduce to polynomials in $`b_i`$ and eventually one is left with a set of non-reducible invariants. Additional use of the constraints then leads to a relation between (products of) these variables, which is the candidate for the curve. For $`D_4`$, the Dynkin diagram, the invariants and the constraint are given in figures 3a, 3b and 3c-d, respectively . Some of the moves are described in figure 4. Figure 4a expresses a four-link diagram in terms of the

basic four-link diagrams $`W`$ and $`V`$. Figures 4b and 4c relate $`U`$ to its orientation reversed image. Figure 4d yields the algebraic curve in diagramatic form. substituting 4a-c and similar relations into 4d we find the curve

$`U^2+U[(b_4b_1)V+(b_4b_2)W+a_1]`$ (3)
$`W^2VWV^2+a_2WV=0,`$ (4)
where $`a_1`$ and $`a_2`$ are polynomials in the FI parameters. To find the standard form of the $`D_4`$ curve, as given in Table 1, we have to shift the variables according to

$`U`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}[X+(b_1b_4)V+(b_2b_4)Wa_1]`$ (5)
$`\text{}V`$ $`=`$ $`\frac{1}{2}[YW+a_2\frac{1}{2}(b_1b_4)(b_2\frac{1}{2}(b_1+b_4))]`$ (6)
$`\text{}W`$ $`=`$ $`Z\frac{1}{4}(b_1b_4)^2.`$ (7)
The result is thus an explicit expression for the deformations of the algebraic curve with (functions of) the FI parameters as coefficients in the curve. Modulo the technicalities such as a fair amount of bug calculus, use of certain Schouten identities etc, this sums up the procedure for the $`A_k`$ and $`D_k`$ series.

For brevity we do not display the full result here, but note that the quantities that enter in the expression for the deformations in both these series are related to the weights of the fundamental representations of the respective Lie algebras, if we think of each FI parameter as the simple root associated to its node in the Dynkin diagram. This observation becomes crucial when we turn to the $`E`$-series, both for organizing the results in a comprehensive way and for finding the relation to the SW models.

## 4 The $`E_n`$ series

Although more involved, the procedure for deriving the deformations of the $`E_n`$-curves follows the lines described in section 3 -. The key to understanding the initially not very illuminating results is to first find an expression for the Casimirs of the Lie algebras in terms of the FI parameters, and then invert this. The final expressions for the deformed curves in terms of these Casimirs are manageable and in fact known; they are the SW curves for the superconformal “fixed point” theories described in .

The $`i`$’th Casimir $`P_i`$ can be found as the coefficient of $`x^{d_ni}`$ in the polynomial

$$det(xvH),$$
(8)
where $`d_n`$ is the dimension of the fundamental representation of $`E_n`$ and $`v`$ is an arbitrary vector in the Cartan subspace. The matrix $`vH`$ is given in terms of the weights $`\lambda `$ of this representation as $`vH=diag(v\lambda _1\mathrm{}v\lambda _d)`$. Using that each FI parameter $`b_i`$ can be thought of as the scalar product between $`v`$ and its corresponding root we rewrite the weights in terms of the FI parameters. This yields the relation between the $`P_i`$’s and the $`b_i`$’s we were looking for.

When comparing our results to the SW curves, the most immediate comparison is with  where the curves are given in terms of the Casimirs. On the other hand, the expressions in  are in terms of mass-parameters $`m_i`$ and the relation $`P_i=P_i(m)`$ thus gives us an interpretation of the $`b_i`$’s in terms of mass parameters.

While the above description of the derivation gives the principles of the procedure, there are many techincal obstacles, most notably in the $`E_8`$ calculation . In fact, although the bug calculus is very efficient (many pages of algebra are replaced by a few figures) it was not by itself enough to allow us to perform the $`E_8`$ calcualtion. Firstly we had to perform the calculations using a computer program (MAPLE), and secondly we could not do all of the comparison to the SW curve explicitly. To deal with some of the highest order terms (e.g., a polynomial of order 30 in eight variables) we had to resort to numerical methods: inserting random prime numbers we found that also the terms most difficult to compare agreed. It is thus clear that the $`ADE`$ quiver theories away from the orbifold limit have deformed algebraic curves that are identical to the SW curves of certain superconformal theories with the corresponding global symmetries.

The interpretation of this fact, suggested in , substantiated in  and further discussed in , is the existence of a mirror symmetry between the Higgs branch of the quiver theories and the Coulomb branch of the SW theories similar to that which exists for $`3D`$ gauge theories . A problem here, though, is that the Higgs branch is a hyperkähler manifold, whereas the Coulomb branch in $`4D`$ is not (in general). This is overcome by the proposal in  that what is involved is the generalized Coulomb branch, defined to be the $`4D`$ elliptically fibered space obtained by fibering the SW torus over the usual Coulomb branch.

## 5 Geometrical interpretation of $`b_i`$

We close this presentation with a section quoted from  on the geometrical meaning of the FI terms.

The $`A_{n1}`$ quiver theories can be viewed as the world-volume theory of $`D3`$-branes on a $`𝖢\text{ }^2/𝖹\text{ }_n`$ orbifold singularity in type IIB string theory. This picture is T-dual to a picture of type IIA string theory in a background of D4-branes stretching between NS5-branes . This dual picture, the Hanany-Witten (HW) picture , provides an intuitive geometric interpretation of blow-ups of $`A_{n1}`$ type singularities. An analogous picture exists for $`D_n`$ type singularities , and it seems plausible that there are generalizations also to $`E_6`$, $`E_7`$ and $`E_8`$. In this section, we analyze the HW picture for the $`𝖢\text{ }^2/𝖹\text{ }_n`$ case along the lines of  (see also ); in particular we clarify the role of the Fayet-Iliopoulos terms.

Starting from the type IIB string theory configuration ($`\times `$ means the object is extended in that direction, and $``$ means it is point-like)

$`\begin{array}{ccccccccccc}& & & & & & & & & & \\ & \text{0}& \text{1}& \text{2}& \text{3}& \text{4}& \text{5}& \text{6}& \text{7}& \text{8}& \text{9}\\ & & & & & & & & & & \\ \mathrm{sing}& \times & \times & \times & \times & \times & \times & & & & \\ & & & & & & & & & & \\ \mathrm{D3}& \times & \times & \times & \times & & & & & & \end{array}`$
we T-dualize along the 6-direction to get

$`\begin{array}{ccccccccccc}& & & & & & & & & & \\ & \text{0}& \text{1}& \text{2}& \text{3}& \text{4}& \text{5}& \text{6}& \text{7}& \text{8}& \text{9}\\ & & & & & & & & & & \\ \mathrm{NS5}& \times & \times & \times & \times & \times & \times & & & & \\ & & & & & & & & & & \\ \mathrm{D4}& \times & \times & \times & \times & & & \times & & & \end{array}`$
in type IIA string theory in flat space-time. There are $`n`$ NS5-branes, which all coincide in the 789 directions, but not necessarily in the 6-direction. Between them D4-branes are suspended, which are the T-duals of the IIB D3-branes. The rotational symmetry $`SO(3)SU(2)`$ of the 789 coordinates translates into the $`SU(2)_R`$ symmetry of the gauge theory living on the D4-branes. The hypermultiplets arise from fundamental strings stretching across the NS5-branes, between neighboring D4-branes.

Resolving singularities in the IIB picture corresponds to separating NS5-branes along the 789 directions in the IIA picture. By an $`SU(2)`$ rotation we can always pick the direction of displacement to be $`x^7`$. Note that such a displacement breaks the 789 rotational symmetry; that is, blowing up a singularity breaks the $`SU(2)_R`$ symmetry. If we move some of the NS5-branes in this way, with the D4-branes still stuck to them, and then T-dualize along $`x^6`$ again, we do not regain the D3-brane picture. Rather, the now tilted D4-branes dualize to a set of D5-branes (with nonzero B-field) with their 67 world-volume coordinates wrapped on 2-cycles. Shrinking these 2-cycles to zero size, each of the wrapped D5-branes is a fractional D3-brane, which cannot move away from the singularity. Thus a fractional D3-brane corresponds to a D4-brane whose ends are stuck on NS5-branes.

To move a fractional D3-brane, or, equivalently, a wrapped D5-brane, along the 6789 directions, we need to add $`n1`$ images (under $`𝖹\text{ }_n`$), all associated with a 2-cycle each. The sum of the full set of 2-cycles is homologically trivial and can be shrunk to zero size. Then the collection of wrapped D5-branes will look like a single D3-brane that can move around freely in the orbifold. This procedure corresponds in the HW picture to starting out with a single D4-brane stretching between two of the $`n`$ NS5-branes, and wanting to move the D4-brane (in the 7-direction, say) away from the NS5-branes, detaching its ends. In order not to violate the boundary conditions of the D4-brane, we then need to put one D4-brane between each unconnected pair of NS5-branes and join them at the ends. We then get a total of $`n`$ D4-branes forming a single brane winding once around the periodic 6-direction. The D4-brane may now be lifted off the NS5-branes and can move freely, corresponding to the free D3-brane in the T-dual picture.

We may also gain some insight concerning the role played by the FI parameters in the HW picture, from the world-volume theory of a wrapped D5-brane on the orbifold singularity. Consider such a brane living in the 012367 directions, with its 67 world-volume coordinates wrapped on a 2-cycle $`\mathrm{\Omega }_k`$. The Born-Infeld and Chern-Simons terms in the world-volume action are, schematically,

$`I_{D5}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle d^6x\sqrt{det(g+)}}+\mu {\displaystyle C^{(6)}}`$ (11)
$`+\mu {\displaystyle C^{(4)}}+\mu {\displaystyle C^{(2)}}`$
$`+\mu {\displaystyle C^{(0)}},`$
where $`g`$ is the metric on the world-volume, $`C^{(p)}`$ is the R-R $`p`$-form, $`\mu `$ is a constant, and $`=F^{(2)}+B^{NS}`$ where the 2-form $`F^{(2)}`$ is the field strength of the gauge field on the brane and $`B^{NS}`$ is the NS-NS 2-form on the brane. Dimensional reduction to the 0123 directions, by integrating over the 2-cycle, puts the first term of (11) on the form

$$_{\mathrm{\Omega }_k}d^2x\sqrt{det(g_2+_2)}d^4x\sqrt{det(g_4+_4)},$$
(12)
where $`_2=C^{(2)}+B^{NS}`$, $`g_2`$ is the metric on the 67 directions, and $`g_4`$ is the metric on the 0123 directions. Expanding (12) we obtain the coupling constant $`g_k^2`$ in four dimensions as the coefficient of $`d^4xF_{\mu \nu }F^{\mu \nu }`$. It is just the factor on the left in (12), which we can write as

$$g_k^2=\left|_{\mathrm{\Omega }_k}\left(B^{NS}+iJ\right)\right|.$$
(13)
In the HW picture the coupling constant of the four dimensional theory is proportional to the length of the D4-brane in the 6-direction. Hence (13) measures the total distance between two NS5-branes between which the D4-brane is suspended. Furthermore, since the distance between the NS5-branes in the isometry direction (in our case $`x^6`$) is given by the flux of the $`B^{NS}`$ field on the corresponding cycle, we have to interpret $`_{\mathrm{\Omega }_k}J`$ as the position of the NS5-branes in a direction orthogonal to that, let us choose $`x^7`$. Movement of the NS5-branes in the remaining directions $`x^8`$ and $`x^9`$ now corresponds to turning on the $`SU(2)_R`$ partners of the Kähler form.

The integral of $`J`$ over a 2-cycle is also, by definition, a Fayet-Iliopoulos term. A hyperkähler manifold has an SU(2) manifold of possible complex structures. Choosing a complex structure we can define the Kähler form $`J`$ as $`\omega ^1`$, and the holomorphic 2-form as $`\omega ^2+i\omega ^3`$. These three 2-forms rotate into each other under $`SU(2)_R`$ transformations, corresponding to choosing a different complex structure. The $`k`$:th triplet of FI terms is defined by the period of $`\stackrel{}{\omega }=(\omega ^1,\omega ^2,\omega ^3)`$ (and hence also transforms as a triplet under $`SU(2)_R`$), as

$$\stackrel{}{\zeta }_k_{\mathrm{\Omega }_k}\stackrel{}{\omega }.$$

Hence

$$\zeta _k^R=_{\mathrm{\Omega }_k}J,$$

where $`\zeta _k^R`$ is the real component of the triplet of FI terms $`\stackrel{}{\zeta }_k=(\zeta _k^R,\zeta _k^C,\overline{\zeta _k^C})`$.

Another way to obtain the FI terms of the four-dimensional Yang-Mills theory is via dimensional reduction and supersymmetrization of the D5-brane world-volume theory . The third term of (11) can be rewritten as

$$d^6x(A_\mu _\mu c^{(0)})^2,$$

where $`c^{(0)}`$ is the Hodge dual potential of $`C^{(4)}`$ in six dimensions. After integration over the $`k`$:th 2-cycle we supersymmetrize this to

$$d^4xd^4\theta (𝐂_k\overline{𝐂}_k𝐕)^2,$$

where $`𝐂_k`$ is a chiral superfield whose complex scalar component is $`c^{(0)}+i\zeta _k^R`$, and $`𝐕`$ is the vector superfield containing $`A_\mu `$. Here the imaginary part $`\zeta _k^R`$ of the scalar component is the real FI term in four dimensions, and we see that it arises as the superpartner of $`c^{(0)}`$.

## 6 Conclusions

As mentioned in the introduction, the mirror symmetry found is useful because it relates quantum and classical regimes as well as theories without a Lagrangian formulation to theories with such a formulation. Also mentioned is that the geometrical interpretation of the FI terms may serve as a guide-line for finding dual HW pictures of the $`D3`$-branes on the $`E_n`$ singularities.

In  it is shown that higher dimensional hyperkähler quotients may also be related to quiver diagrams, although the connection to the simple Lie algebra classification is lost. In particular, several four (complex) dimensional spaces were constructed. This opens up the possibility of a systematic investigation of these spaces, perhaps leading to an eventual classification. The physical relevance of such spaces is not obvious, but perhaps they have a place in an $`F`$-theory picture.


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# Supertubes

## I Introduction

M-theory can be viewed as an extension of string theory to a ‘democratic’ theory of branes, with dualities that allow the whole theory to be constructed from any brane. One aspect of this is that a given brane may often be considered as a partially collapsed version of another, higher-dimensional, brane. Conversely, there may be circumstances in which the lower-dimensional brane is ‘blown-up’ into the higher-dimensional one. One example of this is the observation that a IIA superstring can be blown-up to a tubular D2-brane by placing it in an appropriate (non-supersymmetric) background ; the background fields impose an external force that prevents the collapse of the D2-brane. Another example is the observation that a similar non-trivial background can blow-up a collection of D0-branes into a fuzzy 2-sphere ; this can again be considered as a D2-brane prevented from collapse by an external force . Another way to support a brane against collapse to a lower-dimensional one is to allow it to carry angular momentum; the case of branes on spheres, first analyzed in , has recently found an application to ‘giant gravitons’ ; these partially preserve the supersymmetry of an $`AdS_n\times S^m`$ supergravity background , a fact that is presumably related to the appearance of angular momentum in the anticommutator of $`AdS`$-supersymmetry charges.

Here we shall show that a cylindrical, or tubular, D2-brane in a Minkowski vacuum spacetime can be supported against collapse by the angular momentum generated by crossed electric and magnetic Born-Infeld (BI) fields. The construction involves a uniform electric field along the tube, and a constant magnetic flux. The electric field can be interpreted as a ‘dissolved’ IIA superstring, so the tube is a IIA superstring that has been ‘blown-up’ to a tubular D2-brane. The magnetic flux can be interpreted as a ‘dissolved’ D0-brane charge (per unit length). There are thus similarities to some of the previously proposed stabilization mechanisms but also some differences. Firstly, the background in our case is trivial; there is no external force. Secondly, the tubular D2-brane configuration presented here is supersymmetric; it preserves 1/4 of the supersymmetry of the IIA Minkowski vacuum, hence the term ‘supertube’.

At first sight it would appear unlikely that a brane configuration stabilized by angular momentum could be supersymmetric. For a start, supersymmetry requires a time-independent energy density, which is certainly non-generic for configurations with non-zero angular momentum. Even if this can be arranged, there is still the fact that a supersymmetric configuration in Minkowski space minimizes the energy subject to fixed values of the central charges appearing in the supersymmetry algebra, but angular momentum is not one of these charges. However, although these considerations may make supersymmetric stabilization by angular momentum unlikely, they do not make it impossible. Indeed, in the somewhat different context of field theory solitons there are known examples of supersymmetric solitons that are stabilized by angular momentum. One such example is the $`Q`$-lump of certain massive $`D=3`$ supersymmetric sigma-models , and the D2-brane supertube is essentially its worldvolume realization.

The $`Q`$-lump saturates an energy bound of the form $`M=|L|+|Q|`$, where $`L`$ is a topological (lump) charge and $`Q`$ is a Noether charge . When viewed as a string-like solution of the maximally supersymmetric $`D=4`$ sigma-model, it preserves 1/4 of the supersymmetry of the sigma-model vacuum . The simplest $`Q`$-lump-string has cylindrical symmetry , but for large $`Q`$ its energy density is not concentrated on the axis of symmetry but rather in a hollow tube of radius $`Q`$. Therefore the $`Q`$-lump-string tube can be interpreted, for large $`Q`$, as a lump-string that has been ‘blown-up’ into a cylindrical tube of kink-2-brane . This tube is prevented from collapse by a centrifugal force, generated by an angular momentum proportional to the charge $`Q`$. Because the effective action for the kink 2-brane is a Dirac-Born-Infeld (DBI) action , there should be a worldvolume description of the ‘blown-up’ sigma-model lump-string as a 1/4-supersymmetric solution of the $`D=4`$ DBI equations. Any such solution will also solve the DBI equations of the $`D=10`$ IIA D2-brane (in a IIA Minkowski vacuum) and must preserve at least two supersymmetries (this being 1/4 of the eight supersymmetries of the sigma-model vacuum). This solution is precisely the D2-brane ‘supertube’ to be discussed below; it actually preserves eight of the thirty-two supersymmetries of the IIA vacuum and is therefore still 1/4-supersymmetric.

## II Energetics of the Supertube

The D2-brane Lagrangian, for unit surface tension, is

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=\sqrt{det(g+F)},$$
(1)
where $`g`$ is the induced worldvolume 3-metric and $`F`$ is the BI 2-form field strength. We shall choose spacetime coordinates such that the $`D=10`$ Minkowski metric is

$$ds^2=dT^2+dX^2+dR^2+R^2d\mathrm{\Phi }^2+ds^2(\text{𝔼}^6),$$
(2)
with $`\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{\Phi }+1`$. If we take the worldvolume coordinates to be $`(t,x,\phi )`$ with $`\phi \phi +1`$, then we may fix the worldvolume diffeomorphisms for a D2-brane of cylindrical topology by the ‘physical’ gauge choice

$$T=t,X=x,\mathrm{\Phi }=\phi .$$
(3)
For a cylindrical D2-brane of (possibly varying, but time-independent) radius $`R(x,\phi )`$ at a fixed position in $`\text{𝔼}^6`$ (and with the $`X`$-axis as the axis of symmetry) the induced metric is

$$ds^2(g)=dt^2+dx^2+R^2d\phi ^2+\left(R_xdx+R_\phi d\phi \right)^2,$$
(4)
where $`R_x_xR`$ and $`R_\phi _\phi R`$. We will allow for a time-independent electric field $`E`$ in the $`x`$-direction, and a time-independent magnetic field $`B`$, so the BI 2-form field strength is

$$F=Edtdx+Bdxd\phi .$$
(5)
Under these conditions the Lagrangian becomes

$$=\sqrt{(R^2+R_\phi ^2)(1E^2)+B^2+R^2R_x^2}.$$
(6)
The corresponding Hamiltonian density is defined as

$$\mathrm{\Pi }E,$$
(7)
where $`\mathrm{\Pi }/E`$ is the ‘electric displacement’ subject to the Gauss law constraint $`_x\mathrm{\Pi }=0`$.

Let us now focus on the D2-brane supertube, for which $`R`$ is constant. In this case, the relation between the electric field and the electric displacement takes the form

$$E=\frac{\mathrm{\Pi }}{R}\sqrt{\frac{B^2+R^2}{\mathrm{\Pi }^2+R^2}},$$
(8)
so the Hamiltonian density becomes

$$=R^1\sqrt{\left(\mathrm{\Pi }^2+R^2\right)\left(B^2+R^2\right)},$$
(9)
where it should be noted that $`B=\mathbf{}\times 𝑨`$ for BI 2-vector potential $`𝑨`$. The Gauss law constraint implies that $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is $`x`$-independent. In addition, the equation of motion for $`𝑨`$ forces $`B`$ to be $`x`$-independent when $`R`$ is constant, as we are now assuming. Under these conditions $``$ is $`x`$-independent, and its integral over the circle parametrized by $`\phi `$ yields a constant energy per unit length, namely the tube tension

$$\tau =𝑑\phi .$$
(10)
This is a function of $`R`$ and a functional of $`\mathrm{\Pi }(\phi )`$ and $`B(\phi )`$. For an appropriate choice of units, the integrals

$$q_s𝑑\phi \mathrm{\Pi }\text{and}q_0𝑑\phi B$$
(11)
are, respectively, the conserved IIA string charge and the D0-brane charge per unit length carried by the tube. The total D0-brane charge is also conserved, so imposing periodic boundary conditions on the tube, with period $`L`$, implies conservation of $`q_0`$, and also that $`q_0`$ is quantized in multiples of some unit proportional to $`L^1`$. For fixed values of these charges, the tube tension is bounded from below:

$$\tau |q_s|+|q_0|,$$
(12)
with equality if and only if

$$\mathrm{\Pi }=q_s,B=q_0,R=\sqrt{|q_sq_0|}.$$
(13)
The crossed electric and magnetic fields generate a Poynting 2-vector-density with

$$𝒫_\phi =\mathrm{\Pi }B$$
(14)
as its only non-zero component. The integral of $`𝒫_\phi `$ over $`\phi `$ yields an angular momentum per unit length $`J=\mathrm{\Pi }B=q_sq_0`$ along the axis of the cylinder. It is this angular momentum that supports the tube at the constant radius $`\sqrt{|q_sq_0|}`$. Substituting (13) into (8) we see that

$$E=\text{sgn}(\mathrm{\Pi })=\pm 1.$$
(15)
This would be the ‘critical’ electric field if the magnetic field were absent, as is shown by the fact that $`\mathrm{\Delta }=B`$ when $`|E|=1`$.

## III Supersymmetry

We now aim to show that the tubular D2-brane configuration just described is 1/4-supersymmetric; but as we also aim to relate it to some previously discussed D2-brane configurations we shall now drop the assumption that the worldvolume fields are independent of $`x`$ and $`\phi `$. The number of supersymmetries preserved by any D2-brane configuration is the number of independent Killing spinors $`ϵ`$ of the background for which

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }ϵ=ϵ,$$
(16)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is the matrix appearing in the ‘$`\kappa `$-symmetry’ transformation of the worldvolume spinors . Introducing $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{}}`$ as the constant matrix with unit square which anticommutes with all ten spacetime Dirac matrices, and $`(\gamma _t,\gamma _x,\gamma _\phi )`$ as the induced worldvolume Dirac matrices, we have

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Delta }^1\left(\gamma _{tx\phi }+E\gamma _\phi \mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{}}+B\gamma _t\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{}}\right).$$
(17)
For the D2-brane configuration of interest here

$`\gamma _t=\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{T}},\gamma _x=\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{X}}+R_x\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{R}},`$ (18)
$`\gamma _\phi =R\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{\mathrm{\Phi }}}+R_\phi \mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{R}},`$ (19)
where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{T}},\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{X}},\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{R}}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{\mathrm{\Phi }}}`$ are the constant Minkowski spacetime Dirac matrices (with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{\mathrm{\Phi }}}^2=1`$). For the spacetime coordinates that we have chosen, any Killing spinor $`ϵ`$ can be written as

$$ϵ=M_+ϵ_0,M_\pm \mathrm{exp}\left(\pm \frac{1}{2}\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{R\mathrm{\Phi }}}\right),$$
(20)
where $`ϵ_0`$ is a constant 32-component spinor of $`Spin(1,9)`$. The condition for preservation of supersymmetry can now be written as

$`0`$ $`=`$ $`M_+\left(RR_x\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{TR\mathrm{\Phi }}}+B\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{T}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{}}+R_xR_\phi \mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{T}}\mathrm{\Delta }\right)ϵ_0`$ (22)
$`+M_{}\gamma _\phi \mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{}}\left(\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{TX}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{}}+E\right)ϵ_0.`$
It is clear that in order to satisfy this equation for all values of $`\phi `$ (equal to $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ for our gauge choice) both terms on the right hand side must vanish independently. From the vanishing of the second term we recover the condition that $`E=\pm 1`$, and we further deduce that $`ϵ_0`$ must satisfy

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{TX}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{}}ϵ_0=\text{sgn}(E)ϵ_0.$$
(23)
The vanishing of the first term leads to $`R_\phi =0`$ and

$$\left(RR_x\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{TR\mathrm{\Phi }}}+B\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{T}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{}}\right)ϵ_0=\sqrt{R^2R_x^2+B^2}ϵ_0.$$
(24)
For the supertube configuration $`R_x=0`$ and $`B`$ is constant, so the constraint above becomes simply

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{T}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{}}ϵ_0=\text{sgn}(B)ϵ_0.$$
(25)
The two conditions (23) and (25) are compatible and imply preservation of 1/4 supersymmetry; the minimal energy tubular D2-brane configuration is a supertube. Note that the constraints (23) and (25) are those associated with, respectively, a IIA superstring (in the $`X`$-direction) and D0-brane charge; in particular, there is no trace of the D2-brane in these conditions! The physical reason for this is that a cylindrical D2-brane carries no net D2-brane charge.

When $`R_x0`$, the vanishing of the first term on the right hand side of (22) implies that

$$B=B_0RR_x$$
(26)
for some constant $`B_0`$, and the constraint on the spinor becomes

$$\left(\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{TR\mathrm{\Phi }}}+B_0\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\underset{¯}{T}}\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mathrm{}}\right)ϵ_0=\sqrt{1+B_0^2}ϵ_0.$$
(27)
The Gauss law now implies that

$$R(x)=Ce^{x/E_0}$$
(28)
for some constants $`C`$ and $`E_0`$. This is just the ‘BIon in a magnetic background’ solution of  representing a IIA string ending on a bound state of D2-branes and D0-branes. To see this more clearly, first note that the constraint (27) indeed corresponds to that of a D2-D0 bound state in the $`(R,\mathrm{\Phi })`$-plane. Secondly, we can invert (28) to find

$$x=E_0\mathrm{ln}(R/C),$$
(29)
which shows that $`x`$ is a harmonic function on the D2-brane 2-dimensional worldspace, as expected for the BIon . Finally, using (29) we can rewrite the BI field strength (5) as

$$F=\frac{E_0}{R}dtdR+B_0RdRd\phi .$$
(30)
This corresponds to a radial Coulomb-like electric field on the D2-brane worldspace, as expected from the charge at the endpoint of the string, and to a constant density of D0-brane charge per unit worldspace area, precisely as in the solution of .

## IV Discussion

By definition, a Dp-brane is a sink for IIA string charge. However, the D0-brane, being point-like, is special because the IIA charge has nowhere to go and must exit on another IIA superstring. Thus D0-branes can appear as ‘beads’ on a IIA superstring, breaking the 1/2 supersymmetry of the string to 1/4 supersymmetry. Of course, quantum mechanics will ensure that the ground state of such a superstring is one for which the D0-brane charge is uniformly distributed along the string. This ‘charged’ IIA superstring will have a tension exactly equal to the D2-brane supertube discussed above, $`\tau =|q_s|+|q_0|`$. What distinguishes them is the angular momentum; the charged superstring has zero angular momentum while the supertube has angular momentum per unit length $`J`$ equal to $`q_sq_0`$. In principle, $`J`$ can be specified independently of the string and D0-brane charges, so given $`q_s`$ and $`q_0`$ we might expect there to be some supersymmetric string/tube configuration with arbitrary $`J`$. As long as $`|J||q_sq_0|`$ it is not difficult to see what this will be: a supertube with angular momentum per unit length $`J`$, together with a charged superstring along its central axis. Because $`J`$ is quantized in the same units as $`B`$, it is always possible for excess string and D0-charge to ‘condense’ out of a tubular D2-brane to leave behind a supertube supported from collapse by any given $`|J|`$ less than $`|q_sq_0|`$. On the other hand, it is unclear what the ground state could be when $`|J|>|q_sq_0|`$. It is conceivable that $`|q_sq_0|`$ is an upper bound on the angular momentum of a supersymmetric IIA superstring configuration with charges $`q_s`$ and $`q_0`$, and that supersymmetry is spontaneously broken when $`|J|>|q_sq_0|`$.

There is some similarity here to the status of angular momentum in the context of black holes of $`D=5`$ supergravity . The black hole mass is determined entirely by its charge, if it is supersymmetric. For a given charge there is a one-parameter family of supersymmetric black hole spacetimes, parametrized by an angular momentum, but there is a critical value of the angular momentum beyond which the physics is qualitatively different. There is also a similarity to the suggestion  that the ‘giant graviton’ ground state is not supersymmetric above a critical value of the angular momentum, although the supersymmetry of relevance in that case is $`AdS`$ rather than Poincaré.

Finally, we wish to comment on some M-theory configurations dual to the D2-brane supertube. The first one involves the M2-brane: the D2-brane action is equivalent to the action for the $`D=11`$ supermembrane, the equivalence involving an exchange of the BI 1-form potential for a periodically-identified scalar field $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ (with unit period) representing position in the 11th dimension . Specifically, one has

$$_i\mathrm{\Psi }=\frac{g_{ij}\epsilon ^{jkl}F_{kl}}{2\sqrt{det(g+F)}}.$$
(31)
For the D2-brane supertube this yields

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=\mathrm{\Pi }\phi t.$$
(32)
This implies, firstly, that the M2-brane is wound $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ times around the 11th dimension, as expected given the identification of $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ with IIA string charge. Secondly, it implies that $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ must be an integer, obviously equal to the number of IIA strings dissolved in the original D2-brane. Thirdly, it implies that there is a wave at the speed of light in the 11th dimension, as expected from the D0-brane charge; the momentum of this wave is proportional to $`B`$. Note that if the $`x`$ dimension is periodically identified with period $`L`$ then one can take $`L0`$ to arrive at a new (1/4)-supersymmetric IIA configuration in which a helical string rotates, producing a net momentum along the axis of the helix .

Another dual M-theory configuration consists of an M5-brane with topology $`\text{}^4\times S^1`$, carrying dissolved membrane charges oriented along orthogonal planes in $`\text{}^4`$. To see this, let the $`S^1`$ be parametrized by $`\phi `$, and let the two planes span the directions 1-2 and 3-4. Reducing to the IIA theory by compactifying the 4-direction, and T-dualizing along 2 and 3 leads to the D2-brane supertube.

## Acknowledgments

We thank Barak Kol for correspondence. D.M. is supported by a PPARC fellowship.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Since SNRs possess high enough energy, their shocks are belived to be a major contributor of both electron and nuclear components of Galactic CRs up to energies $`10^{15}\mathrm{eV}`$ . SNRs emit in all wavelengths. Their radio emission gives clear evidence about relativistic electrons accelerated on the shock front. Observed nonthermal X-ray emission from several SNRs (SN 1006 , Cas A , Tycho , G347.3-0.5 , IC443 , G266.2-1.2 ) is thought to be also synchrotron, from the shock accelereted electrons with a much higher energy ($`10^{13}\mathrm{eV}`$). Observed synchrotron X-ray  and TeV $`\gamma `$-ray  emission from SN 1006 as well as from G347.3-0.5 , by attributing the emission to the synchrotron radiation, gives firm confirmations that electrons are accelerated on the SNR shocks up to energies $`10^{14}\mathrm{eV}`$. The theory of acceleration of CRs on the shock front via the first order Fermi mechanism  predicts that the number of electrons $`N_e`$ involved in the acceleration process is much smaller than the number of protons $`N_p`$: $`N_e(\epsilon )/N_p(\epsilon )=(m_e/m_p)^{(\alpha 1)/2}10^2`$ ($`\alpha `$ is the spectral index of accelerated particles, $`\epsilon `$ is the energy of particles). Thus, if there are electrons accelereted to such high energies, we should expect that protons with the same high energy have to reveal themselves in observations, too. We have to look for the objects which might emit $`\gamma `$-rays mainly via neutral pion decays.

## 2 Observations of the $`\gamma `$-rays from SNRs

The visibility of SNRs in Gev and TeV $`\gamma `$-rays was treated in . The main conclusion from the theory is: if SNRs are mainly responsible for the galactic CRs, it may be difficult to observe SNRs by EGRET, but should be possible to detect compact (with angular size $`0.25^{}`$) remnants from a distance less than several kpc in TeV band, with Cherenkov telescopes. Unfortunately, as first results on TeV $`\gamma `$-observations  as well as most of the next (G78.2+2.1, W28, IC 443, $`\gamma `$-Cygni, W44, W63, Tycho; see short reveiw in ) have given a negative result. Till now TeV $`\gamma `$-rays were observed from only two SNRs.

SN 1006 is the first shell-like SNR detected as a $`\mathrm{TeV}`$ source . Whereas authors in  attributed this emission to synchrotron, the emission is tried to be explained by other mechanisms, too. Recent discussion on the origin of $`\mathrm{TeV}`$ $`\gamma `$-rays form SN 1006  shows that a proton origin of $`\gamma `$-rays is possible if distance to the remnant is about $`1\mathrm{kpc}`$ and there is a significant compression of gas. Nevertheless other emission mechanisms may not be excluded (see, e. g. ). The observations of G347.3-0.5 reported recently  also reveal a TeV $`\gamma `$-flux. Authors attributed this emission to inverse Compton scattering of CMBR by shock accelerated electrons and estimate $`\pi ^o`$ induced contribution as too low, but did not exclude it because of possibility of interactions with a cloud .

The first , second  and the third  EGRET catalogue of the high-energy $`\gamma `$-ray sources among the general categories (solar flare, pulsars, $`\gamma `$-ray bursts, radio galaxy, active galactic nuclei and blazars), include lists of sources for which no identification with objects at other wavelengths is yet surely found. The analysis of possible associations of the SNR positions with error circles of the unidentified $`\gamma `$-sources was first performed in . Analysis of unidentified sources from the third EGRET catalog  shows 22 such possible assosiations with probability of being of chance less than $`10^5`$. Some other unidentified EGRET sources might be related to yet undetected SNR . Of course, a part of these remnants have or may have their compact stellar remnants , pulsars, which can be responsible for the $`\gamma `$-ray emission. There are 225 known SNRs in our Galaxy . The short history of studies on association of EGRET sources with SNRs may be found in .

Up to now, there is no clear observational confirmation that nuclear component of CRs is generated by SNRs. There is only one observation reported as confirmation of this thought . The nature of $`\gamma `$-emission in all observations is very questionable.

There are several emission processes in competition in analysis of observed SNR $`\gamma `$-ray spectra. It depends on the conditions in emission site and on the way to the observer which one will dominate. It is well known that we should have a high number density of target nuclei in order to make the $`\pi ^o`$ decay mechanism dominate in a model. Therefore, $`\gamma `$-rays from proton-proton collisions are expected from the SNRs which are located near the dense interstellar material and reveal evidence about interaction with it.

## 3 Thermal X-ray composites. A new model in 3 dimensions

To look for signatures of proton acceleration in SNR, it is interesting to consider a mixed-morphology class of SNRs which is known also as thermal X-ray composites (TXCs). These are remnants with a thermal X-ray centrally filled morphology within the radio-brightened limb. Such remnants were first reviewed in . The authors of  argued that they create a separate morphological class of SNR. It is interesting that most of these SNRs reveal observational evidence about the interaction with nearby molecular clouds. There are 7 remnants in the analysis of assosiation of the 2EG sources with SNRs . Four of them (W28, W44, MSH 11-61A, IC443) belong to the class mentioned and interact with clouds.

The authors of  have emphasized two prominent morphological distinctions of TXCs: a) the X-ray emission is thermal; the distribution of X-ray surface brightness is centrally peaked and fills the area within the radio shell, b) the emission arises primarily from the swept-up ISM material, not from ejecta. Besides similar morphology, the sample of SNRs also has similar physical properties . Namely, i) the same or higher central density compared to the edge, ii) complex interior optical nebulosity, iii) higher emission measure in the region of X-ray peak localisation, v) temperature profiles are close to uniform. Seven objects from the list of 11 TXCs interact with molecular clouds . Thus, ambient media in the regions of their location are nonuniform and cause a nonsphericity of SNRs.

Two physical models have been presented to explain TXC (see review in ). These models are used to obtain the centrally filled X-ray morphology within the framework of one-dimensional (1-D) hydrodynamic approaches. When we proceed to 2-D or 3-D hydrodynamical models, we note that a simple projection effect may cause the shell-like SNR to fall into another morphology class, namely, to become TXC . The main feature of such a SNR is the thermal X-rays emitted from the swept-up gas and peaked in the internal part of the projection. Densities over the surface of a nonspherical SNR may essentially differ in various regions. If the ambient density distribution provides a high density in one of the regions across the SNR shell and is high enough to exceed the internal column density near the edge of the projection, we will see a centrally filled X-ray projection. Thus, this new model strongly suggests that the thermal X-ray peak inside the radio shell tells us that one part of SNR shock has entered into a denser medium compared with other parts. This makes TXCs promising sites for $`\gamma `$-ray generation via $`\pi ^o`$ decays.

## 4 SNR $`\gamma `$-rays from decay of neutral $`\pi `$-mesons

Whereas astrophysical realisations of several emission mechanisms allow us to make conclusions about acceleration of CR electron component on the shock fronts of SNRs, only $`\pi ^o`$ decay $`\gamma `$-rays  give us the possibility to look at the proton component acceleration processes having data in $`\epsilon _\gamma 100\mathrm{MeV}`$.

### 4.1 Estimations on the $`\pi ^o`$ decay $`\gamma `$-ray luminosity

Luminosity of an SNR in $`\pi ^o`$ decay $`\gamma `$-rays in $`\epsilon \epsilon _{\mathrm{min}}/6`$ band is :

$$L_\gamma =\frac{c\overline{\sigma }_{pp}}{6}n_NW_{\mathrm{cr}}.$$
(1)
where $`\epsilon _{\mathrm{min}}600`$ MeV is the minimal proton kinetic energy of the effective pion creation, cross section $`\sigma _{pp}(\epsilon )`$ is close to the mean value $`\overline{\sigma }_{pp}=310^{26}`$ cm2, $`n_N`$ is the mean number density of target nuclei and $`W_{\mathrm{cr}}`$ is the total energy of cosmic rays in the SNR with $`\epsilon \epsilon _{\mathrm{min}}`$. There are different estimations of the efficiency $`\nu `$ of the flow’s kinetic energy transformation into the energy of accelerated particles: $`W_{\mathrm{cr}}=\nu E_o`$. We take acceptable value $`\nu =0.03`$. Thus, in the first approach, the theoretical estimation on the $`\pi ^o`$ decay $`\gamma `$-luminosity of any SNR is

$$L_\gamma ^{100}=6.310^{33}\overline{n}_o\nu _3E_{51}\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s},$$

where $`\nu _3=\nu /0.03`$, $`E_{51}`$ is the energy of supernova explosion $`E_o`$ in the units of $`10^{51}\mathrm{erg}`$, $`\overline{n}_o=\overline{n}_N^o/1.4`$ is the average hydrogen number density within SNR which equals to average hydrogen number density of the ambient medium in the region of an SNR location, in $`\mathrm{cm}^3`$.

The real situation is more complicated. Often only a part of SNR interacts with a denser ISM material. There are factors which increase CR energy density $`\omega _{cr}`$ : 1) The CRs are not uniformly distributed inside an SNR; most of CRs are expected to be in a thin shell near the shock front where most of swept-up mass is concentrated. 2) The reverse shock from interaction with dense cloud also increases the energy density of CRs. These factors enhance $`\omega _{cr}`$ in the region of interaction :

$$\omega _{\mathrm{cr}}1.7\left(\frac{\gamma }{\gamma 1}\right)^{3/2}\overline{\omega }_{\mathrm{cr}},$$
(2)
where CR energy density in the region of interaction is $`\omega _{\mathrm{cr}}=W_{\mathrm{cr}}/V_{\mathrm{int}}`$ and $`\overline{\omega }_{\mathrm{cr}}=W_{\mathrm{cr}}/V_{\mathrm{snr}}`$. This gives $`\omega _{\mathrm{cr}}6.6\overline{\omega }_{\mathrm{cr}}`$ for $`\gamma =5/3`$.

If we put $`W_{\mathrm{cr}}=\omega _{\mathrm{cr}}V_{\mathrm{int}}`$ into (1), we obtain with (2) that for any SNR

$$L_\gamma ^{100}=1.710^{35}\eta n_o\nu _3E_{51}\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}$$
(3)
where $`\eta =V_{\mathrm{int}}/V_{\mathrm{snr}}`$, $`n_o`$ is the number density of the ambient medium before the shock wave in the region of interaction, $`\gamma =5/3`$. We have to take into account that region of interaction is not extended to the region before the shock, since the energy density of CR should be considerably lower outside the SNR . It is easy to estimate $`\eta `$ following the consideration in :

$$\eta =0.18\mu ^2\sqrt{\xi },\mu 0.2,$$
(4)
where $`\xi =n_o/\overline{n}_o`$, $`\mu =R_{int}/\overline{R}`$ , $`R_{int}`$ is the avarage radius of the surface of interaction, $`\overline{R}`$ is the avarage radius of SNR.

Thus, considering the hydrodynamic process of SNR-cloud interaction in details, it is possible to increase the expected $`\pi ^o`$ decay $`\gamma `$-ray flux by $`26\eta \xi 0.2\xi ^{3/2}`$ times, i. e., up to few orders of magnitude. This is enough e.g. for explanation of TeV $`\gamma `$-rays from SN1006 as a result of decays of neutral pions . Additional factor increasing the effectivity of $`\pi ^o`$ meson production is instability of contact discontinuity between the SNR and the cloud material which mixes the media with high energy particles and target nuclei . This factor should also be considered in future.

### 4.2 Nucleonic origin $`\gamma `$-rays from MSH 11-61A

SNR G290.1-0.8 (MSH 11-61A) is located in the southern hemisphere. The distance to the remnant, $`7\mathrm{kpc}`$, is obtained from the optical observations , but not yet confirmed by X-ray observations . X-ray and radio morphologies  make the SNR a member of TXC class. In the direction to MSH 11-61A lies the $`\gamma `$-ray source 2EG 1103-6106 (3EG J1102-6103) . Is it possible to consider observed flux of the EGRET source directed toward the MSH 11-61A as $`\pi ^o`$ decay $`\gamma `$-ray emission?

The $`\gamma `$-flux from the source 2EG 1103-6106 in the EGRET band $`\epsilon _\gamma =30÷210^4\mathrm{MeV}`$ is approximated as

$$S_\gamma =(1.1\pm 0.2)10^9\left(\frac{\epsilon _\gamma }{213\mathrm{MeV}}\right)^{2.3\pm 0.2}\frac{\mathrm{photon}}{\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}\mathrm{MeV}}.$$

Thus, the luminosity of the source in $`\epsilon _\gamma 100\mathrm{MeV}`$ band is respectively

$$L_{\gamma ,\mathrm{obs}}^{100}=410^{34}d_{\mathrm{kpc}}^2\mathrm{erg}/\mathrm{s}.$$

Most recent study on MSH 11-61A  gives the parameters of the object presented in Table 1 (different for different distance assumed). There are also values of $`\xi `$ in the table which allow to adjust the expected luminosity of MSH 11-61A in $`\pi ^o`$ decay $`\gamma `$-rays with observed flux from the source 2EG 1103-6106. We see that moderate number density $`150\mathrm{cm}^3`$ of cloud located near the one region of the remnant is enough to explain the luminocity of 2EG 1103-6106, by protons accelereted on the shock front of MSH 11-61A. Note, if we take $`\nu 0.10.2`$  instead of the value used here, $`\nu =0.03`$, the density of cloud needs to be only $`20÷40\mathrm{cm}^3`$. It is interesting that the same consideration allows also to adjust the $`\pi ^o`$ decay $`\gamma `$-luminosity of the source 2EG J0618+2234 (3EG J0617+2238) directed toward IC 443 with the luminosity of this SNR .

## 5 Conclusions

We may expect that nucleonic component of CRs accelerated on SNR shocks have to reveal itself in observations. Which SNRs might emit $`\gamma `$-rays mainly via neutral pion decays? Presented model for TXCs makes the members of this class very promising candidates for the $`\pi ^o`$ decay $`\gamma `$-ray sources since a central thermal X-ray peaked brightness might be evidence for density gradient and high density in one of the regions before SNR shock. CR distribution inside SNR is not uniform; most of CR should be confined in a relatively thin SNR shell. CRs are accelerated not only by the forward shock, but also by the reverse one. Consideration of these factors causes an enhancemnent of the $`\pi ^o`$ decay $`\gamma `$-ray flux of at least on an order of magnitude. This allows us to adjust the theoretical flux with observed one in at least few cases. So, we have enigmatic situation. There are the class of prospective sources. Theory can fit the $`\pi ^o`$ decay $`\gamma `$-ray fluxes. Why we do not have many direct observations of such $`\gamma `$-rays in order to confirm theoretical predictions about CR generation by SNRs? The question remains open.

Acknowledgements. This work was partially supported by INTAS through grant 99-1065. Author is thankful to the organizers for support which allows him to participate in the Course.


text:
# The Transverse Energy as a Barometer of a Saturated Plasma

## Abstract

The evolution of the gluon plasma produced with saturation initial conditions is calculated via Boltzmann transport theory for nuclear collisions at high energy. The saturation scale increases with $`A`$ and $`\sqrt{s}`$, and thus we find that the perturbative rescattering rate decreases relative to the initial longitudinal expansion rate of the plasma. The effective longitudinal pressure remains significantly below the lattice QCD pressure until the plasma cools to near the confinement scale. Therefore, the transverse energy per unit of rapidity and its dependence on beam energy provides a sensitive test of gluon saturation models: the fractional transverse energy loss due to final state interactions is smaller and exhibits a weaker energy dependence than if ideal (nondissipative) hydrodynamics applied throughout the evolution.

In collisions of heavy ions at high energy a large number of gluons is liberated from the nuclear wave functions. The “plasma” is produced from copious minijet gluons at central rapidity, $`y0`$, with transverse momentum $`p_T>p_0`$. For large $`p_0`$, the produced gluon plasma is dilute. As $`p_0`$ decreases, however, the density of gluons increases rapidly due to the increase of $`G(x,p_T^2)`$ as $`x2p_T/\sqrt{s}`$ decreases. It has been conjectured  that below some transverse momentum scale $`p_0p_{\mathrm{sat}}`$ the phase-space density of produced gluons may saturate since $`ggg`$ recombination could limit further growth of the structure functions. Phenomenologically, this condition may arise when gluons (per unit rapidity and transverse area) become closely packed and fill the available nuclear interaction transverse area. The saturation scale $`p_{\mathrm{sat}}`$ can thus be estimated from $`\mathrm{d}N(p_{\mathrm{sat}})/\mathrm{d}y=p_{\mathrm{sat}}^2R_A^2/\beta `$, where $`\beta 1`$. For $`\beta =1`$ the solution reported in EKRT  was $`p_{\mathrm{sat}}0.208A^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.128}}\sqrt{s}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.191}}`$, where $`p_{\mathrm{sat}}`$ and $`\sqrt{s}`$ are in units of GeV, and $`C_1\mathrm{d}E_T/\mathrm{d}y/p_{\mathrm{sat}}\mathrm{d}N/\mathrm{d}y1.34A^{0.007}\sqrt{s}^{0.021}`$. Our focus is to investigate whether the final observed $`\mathrm{d}E_T^f/\mathrm{d}y`$ can be used to test the predicted $`A`$ and $`\sqrt{s}`$ dependence of the initial $`\mathrm{d}E_T^i/\mathrm{d}y`$.

Different gluon saturation models based on classical Yang-Mills equations  suggest that the factor $`\beta `$ may vary parametrically as $`\beta (p_{\mathrm{sat}})=4\pi \alpha (p_{\mathrm{sat}})N_c/c(N_c^21)`$, where $`c1`$ is a nonperturbative factor proportional to the fraction of the initial gluons in the nucleus which are liberated. This factor was recently estimated  to be $`c1.21.5`$. On the other hand, PHOBOS and PHENIX data  require $`c1.9`$ if one assumes entropy conserving hadronization, and for $`\alpha `$ running with $`p_{\mathrm{sat}}`$; that is, $`50\%`$ additional entropy must be produced during nonideal expansion of the saturated gluon plasma. In the approach of , the ratio of final to initial multiplicity (or entropy) also grows with energy as $`\alpha ^{2/5}`$. This, in turn, suggests that less mechanical work is being performed by the longitudinal expansion than predicted by ideal fluid dynamics , and so the $`E_t`$ in the final state should be closer to it’s initial value.

If the expansion proceeds in approximate local equilibrium with pressure $`p=c^2ϵ`$ and speed of sound $`c`$, then the energy density, $`ϵ(\tau )`$, must decrease faster than the expansion rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{exp}=1/\tau `$ and leads to a bulk transverse energy loss

$$\frac{E_T(\tau )}{E_T(\tau _0)}=\frac{\tau ϵ}{\tau _0ϵ_0}=\left(\frac{\tau _0}{\tau }\right)^\delta .$$
(1)
If local equilibrium is maintained during the evolution $`\delta =c^2`$. In contrast, if the system expands too rapidly to maintain local equilibrium, then the effective pressure is reduced due to dissipation. The extreme asymptotically free plasma case corresponds to free streaming with $`\delta =0`$. $`E_T`$ thus provides an important barometric observable that probes the (longitudinal) pressure in the plasma.

The relevant relaxation rate is given by the fractional energy loss per unit length, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{rel}=\mathrm{d}\mathrm{log}E/\mathrm{d}z`$, which receives a contribution both from elastic and inelastic scattering. The relaxation rate is approximately given by

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_{rel}9\pi \alpha ^2\frac{\rho ^3}{ϵ^2}\left(\mathrm{log}\frac{1}{\alpha }+\frac{27}{2\pi ^2}\right)K_{in}9\pi \alpha ^2\frac{\rho ^3}{ϵ^2}\mathrm{log}\frac{1}{\alpha },$$
(2)
where we lumped energy loss from radiation into $`K_{in}`$, the inelasticity $`K`$-factor. $`K_{in}=1`$ corresponds to purely elastic scattering, while $`K_{in}=2`$, for example, corresponds to twice the lowest-order elastic scattering rate.

At the initial time $`\tau _0=1/p_{\mathrm{sat}}`$, $`\overline{s}/2=ϵ_0^2/\rho _0^2=C_1^2p_{\mathrm{sat}}^2`$. Therefore, noting that the comoving gluon density at time $`\tau _0`$ is $`\rho _0=p_{\mathrm{sat}}^3/\pi \beta `$, the ratio of the relaxation rate to the expansion rate is given by

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{rel}}{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{exp}}=K_{in}\frac{9\alpha ^2}{\beta C_1^2}\mathrm{log}\frac{1}{\alpha }.$$
(3)
While $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{rel}p_{\mathrm{sat}}`$ increases as a power of the energy, the Bjorken boundary conditions force the system to expand londitudinally initially also at an increasing rate $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_{exp}(\tau _0)=p_{\mathrm{sat}}`$. The essential quantity that fixes the magnitude of the effective pressure relative to that predicted by lattice QCD (LQCD) is the ratio of rates in Eq. (3), which dimensionally is simply a function of $`\alpha (p_{\mathrm{sat}})`$. The asymptotic freedom property of QCD therefore requires that this ratio vanishes as $`\sqrt{s}\mathrm{}`$. In (3) the rate of how fast it vanishes is controlled by $`K_{in}\alpha ^2(p_{\mathrm{sat}})/\beta (p_{\mathrm{sat}})`$. Therefore, with saturation initial conditions, asymptotic freedom reduces the effective pressure acting at early times $`\tau \tau _0`$ and causes the initial evolution to deviate from ideal hydrodynamics for a time interval that increases with energy .

For a more quantitative estimate of the transverse energy loss due to longitudinal work, we employ the Boltzmann equation in relaxation time approximation . As initial condition, we assume that the initially produced partons have a vanishing longitudinal momentum spread in the comoving frame, i.e. we assume a strong correlation between space-time rapidity and momentum space rapidity; the accuracy of this approximation at the finite RHIC energy remains to be checked within more elaborate models. In any case, our gluon plasma thus starts at zero longitudinal pressure, and we shall follow its evolution up to the point where it reaches the $`p/ϵ`$-ratio from LQCD .

In Fig. 2 we show the effective longitudinal pressure as a function of the energy density for $`\sqrt{s}=20,200,5400A`$ GeV saturation initial conditions . Initially $`p/ϵ`$ starts at zero and remains small for a large time relative to $`\tau _0=1/p_{\mathrm{sat}}`$ because the plasma is torn apart by the initial rapid longitudinal expansion. The effective pressure approaches the LQCD curve from below and reaches it at a time $`\tau _L12`$ fm at RHIC, $`\sqrt{s}=200A`$ GeV, by which time the energy density has dropped by an order of magnitude, $`ϵ_Lϵ(\tau _L)=6.512`$ GeV/fm3. For LHC $`\sqrt{s}=5400A`$ GeV, $`\tau _L=37`$ fm during which the energy density falls by almost two orders of magnitude to $`ϵ_L=9.521.5`$ GeV/fm3. The quoted intervals correspond to $`K_{in}=12`$ using the EKRT parametrization . The contrast between the dynamical path followed by the saturated plasma compared to the equilibrium equation of state is striking. A qualitatively similar behavior of the early logitudinal pressure has also been found from solutions of diffusion equations .

The main experimentally observable consequence of the reduced effective pressure is shown in the right panel. The ratio $`E_T^f/E_T^i=\tau _fϵ_f/\tau _0ϵ_0`$ has been obtained from the solution of the transport equation assuming free streaming at $`ϵ_f=2`$ GeV/fm3 which corresponds roughly to $`TT_c`$. $`\tau _f`$ is determined assuming hydrodynamic expansion from the point were the LQCD pressure curve is reached. On the other hand, for an ideal gas of gluons produced at time $`\tau _0`$, the final observed transverse energy for 1+1 dimensional adiabatic expansion would be

$$\frac{E_T^f}{E_T^i}=\frac{\tau _fϵ_f}{\tau _0ϵ_0}=\frac{\tau _f(T_fs_fp_f)}{\tau _0(T_0s_0p_0)}=\frac{T_f}{T_0}.$$
(4)
Clearly, for $`T_fT_c`$ one would observe a much smaller transverse energy in the final state than in the initial state. Moreover, $`E_T^f/E_T^i`$ would also have significantly stronger energy dependence such that $`E_T^f`$ deviates more and more from $`E_T^i`$ with increasing $`\sqrt{s}`$. In this sense isentropic hydrodynamics erases information on the interesting initial conditions via this observable. The solutions of the transport equations clearly show a smaller decrease of $`E_T^f`$ and of the logarithmic slope, $`\kappa =\mathrm{d}\mathrm{log}E_T^f/\mathrm{d}\mathrm{log}\sqrt{s}`$, due to final state interactions. We find that $`\kappa =0.50`$ for the evolution with $`K_{in}=1`$, $`\kappa =0.46`$ with $`K_{in}=2`$, while $`\kappa =0.40`$ with isentropic expansion, eq. (4). For comparison, the initial EKRT saturated $`E_T^i=\pi R_A^2\tau _0ϵ_0`$ scales with the higher power $`\kappa =0.59`$. The fractional transverse energy loss is thus less dependent on energy than for entropy conserving expansion for which $`E_T^f/E_T^i1/T_01/\sqrt{s}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0.2}}`$. This is due to the increasingly long time spent far from equilibrium in Fig. 2 as the beam energy increases.

The results in Fig. 2 are encouraging from the point of view of searching for evidence of gluon saturation in nuclei at high energies. Experimental data on $`\mathrm{d}E_T/\mathrm{d}y`$ or $`\mathrm{d}E_T/\mathrm{d}\eta `$ for central Au+Au collisions at RHIC will soon provide a new test of saturation and non-saturation models at those energies. Since we predict that dissipative effects reduce considerably the effective longitudinal pressure in Fig. 2, the beam-energy dependence of the transverse energy is expected to reflect much more accurately the predicted power law dependence of the initial conditions as seen in Fig. 2. We have also shown the preliminary result from PHENIX , $`\mathrm{d}E_t/\mathrm{d}\eta 570`$ GeV for the $`2\%`$ most central Au+Au events at $`\sqrt{s}=130A`$ GeV, scaled to $`\mathrm{d}E_t/\mathrm{d}y`$ and divided by the initial $`E_t`$ from EKRT. It would be most interesting to have data both at higher and lower energy to determine the slope $`\kappa `$, and compare to the expectation for a saturated plasma. The energy and $`A`$ systematics of the bulk calorimetric observable, $`\mathrm{d}E_T/\mathrm{d}y`$, will be a sensitive test of saturation models of gluon plasmas produced in the RHIC to LHC energy range.
Acknowledgement: We acknowledge support from the DOE Research Grant, Contract No.DE-FG-02-93ER-40764.


text:
# Low-energy excitations in NaV2O5.

## Abstract

In the (ab) polarized Raman scattering spectra of NaV2O5 single crystals, measured with 647.1 nm laser line at $`T<T_c`$, we found two modes at 86, and 126 cm-1 not previously reported. These two modes, together with 66, and 106 cm-1 modes, make an array of four low-energy equidistant modes below the energy onset of the continuum at about 132 cm-1. All four modes are strongly suppressed by increasing Na deficiency, indicating their nonvibrational origin and the existence of a quantum phase transition at critical Na deficiency between 3 and 4%. These results question current understanding of NaV2O5 as quasi one-dimensional Heisenberg antiferromagnet.

PACS: 78.30.-j, 75.50.Ee, 75.30.Ds, 75.30.Hx

Sodium vanadate, NaV2O5, is a mixed valence compound ($`V^{4+}:V^{5+}=1:1`$) with a structure consisting of vanadium-oxygen ($`VO_5`$) pyramids, that are connected via common edges and corners to form layers in the the ab plane. The structure can be described as an array of parallel ladders (running along the b axis) that are coupled to form a trellis lattice, see Fig. 1. Each rung is made of V-O-V bond, and contains one valence electron donated by the sodium atoms which are situated between layers as intercalants.

This compound exhibits a phase transition at $`T_c=34K`$  that is usually referred to in the literature as a charge-ordering (CO) phase transition. From the mixed-valence point of view its existence is not unusual, since a common consequence of the mixed valence is the appearance of charge-ordering, which is a class of metal-insulator transitions . However, the phases on both sides of the transition in NaV2O5 are insulators, and a very interesting interplay between charge and spin dynamics results in the phase-transition discovered in this compound. Indeed, despite the fact that the vanadium ions have uniform valence of $`+4.5`$ at room temperature  (indicating the quarter-filled structure of V-O-V rungs , and suggesting a metalic state!), the magnetic susceptibility of NaV2O5 is in excellent agreement with Bonner-Fisher curve for a one-dimensional antiferromagnet (AF) . The one-dimensionality of the magnetic ordering is realized along the b axis which is perpendicular to the V-O-V rungs . Furthermore, at low temperatures, the susceptibility decreases rapidly to zero in accord with a spin-liquid ground state, and suggesting the existence of a spin-Peierls (SP) transition. However, since the physical properties (e.g. transition temperature) of NaV2O5 are insensitive to an applied magnetic field , the SP scenario can be ruled out.

Accordingly, several theoretical investigations of the role of electron correlations (intersite Coulomb interactions) in charge dynamics, and/or charge-ordering have been presented . So far, almost all proposed charge configurations (”in-line”, ”zigzag”, or a ”ladder-like”) effectively lead to an 1D Heisenberg AF with a spin-excitation gap, and a spin-liquid ground state. In the spin-cluster model , which is different in that respect, the spin-gap arises from a finite number of spins of the isolated cluster. All concepts were tested by comparison with experimental data with some success, but no consistent picture has emerged yet. In fact, the central issue appears to be the energy scale of the CO in NaV2O5 and how it should manifest itself in optical , and neutron scattering spectra . This concerns both the origin of optical transitions in the 0.8-5 eV energy range, as well as the origin of the low-frequency electronic excitations (observed in both IR and Raman spectra), and the modes associated with a spin dynamics.

In Raman spectra of NaV2O5, the phase transition manifests itself through the appearance of various new Raman active modes  below the phase transition temperature. The high-temperature phonon excitations in the Raman spectra  are well understood in terms of the crystal symmetry (space group Pmmn) and of the selection rules as determined from structural analysis . The origin of the newly activated Raman modes is, however, still unclear mainly due to a lack of understanding of the low-temperature NaV2O5 crystal structure . Of particular interest are the low-frequency modes at 66, 106, and 132 cm-1 found in the Raman spectra of the low temperature phase . These modes are of special interest because of their proximity to spin-gap energy ($`6585`$ cm-1 ), and their potential magnetic origin. The 66 and 106 cm-1 modes were previously assigned as magnetic bound states , mainly based on the slow increase (almost perfectly linear) of their intensities with decreasing temperature (similar behavior is found for the two-magnon bound state at 32 cm-1 in $`CuGeO_3`$  ), and because of their insensitivity to the magnetic field. This assignation is supported by most of the theoretical models that predict a chain type effective magnetic ordering in NaV2O5. However, the energy of the 66 cm-1 mode is very close to the spin gap. According to the recent neutron scattering study the spin-gap mode coincides in energy with 66 cm-1 mode at ($`Q_a=integer,Q_b=Q^{ZC}`$), and at ($`Q_a=halfinteger,Q_b=Q^{AF}`$). If this mode is truly a magnetic bound state of two spin-gap excitations, it is difficult to understand why its binding energy is close to (equal to), the spin-gap energy itself. Two questions naturally arise: Is the one-dimensional AF Heisenberg model relevant for the magnetic dynamics of NaV2O5, and are those low-frequency Raman-active modes really the magnetic bound states? Clearly, further experiments are necessary in order clarify present understanding of physical properties and Raman spectra of NaV2O5.

Here, we present the temperature dependent Raman spectra of NaxV2O5, $`1x0.96`$. Four modes are found in the low-temperature, $`T<T_c`$, (ab) polarized Raman spectra of NaV2O5 that are separated by a common energy of 20 cm-1. Two of them, at 66 and 86 cm-1, are also detected in recent neutron scattering experiments . Simultaneous activity of the modes in the Raman and neutron scattering spectra, suggest that, at least, the 66 cm-1 mode is not the magnetic bound state. The equal energy separation of the low-frequency modes and a strong suppression of their energy and intensity by Na deficiency, question current understanding of the low-temperature magnetism in NaV2O5 as being simple 1D alternating Heisenberg AF.

Polarized Raman experiments were performed on NaxV2O5 single crystals (size $``$ $`1\times 3\times 1`$ mm3 along a, b, and c) prepared as described in Refs. . As excitation source we used 647.1 nm line from Kr+ ion laser. The beam, with an average power of 5 mW, was focused (spot diameter $`80\mu `$m) on (001) surfaces of the crystals. The spectra were measured in a quasi-backscattering geometry using a dilor triple monochromator equipped with a LN2 cooled CCD camera.

In Fig. 2 we present the typical Raman scattering spectra of nominally pure NaV2O5 in (aa) and (ab) polarized configurations, measured at T=6 K with 647.1 nm laser line. The modes in the (aa) spectra are in agreement with previous reported data but are more intense due to a resonance effect . However, in (ab) spectra the two new modes at 86 and 126 cm-1 are found. These modes were not previously observed in the Raman spectra measured with 488 and 514.5 nm laser lines . Altogether, the modes at 66, 86, 106, and 126 cm-1 make an array of four low-energy equidistant modes, separated by 20 cm-1. Besides, all four modes have energies lower then the onset of the continuum that starts at about 132 cm-1, which is twice the energy of the lowest mode, see Inset of Fig. 2. A four modes show strong temperature dependence. In fact, their intensities strongly reduce at the phase transition temperature, forming a broad band at higher temperatures, see Fig.3. Also, while all four modes have comparable intensities in the (ab) polarized configuration, the 86 and 126 cm-1 modes are strongly suppressed in the (aa) and (bb) polarized geometries with respect to the 66 and 106 cm-1 modes (Fig. 2). As we already mentioned, the simultaneous activity of the 66 and 86 cm-1 modes in both neutron and Raman scattering spectra, make assignation of the 66 cm-1 mode as a magnetic bound state highly questionable, since singlet-singlet transitions cannot be observed with a neutron scattering. Possible interpretation of this mode as one-magnon excitation  seems also unlikely, since no change of either intensity or energy is found in the magnetic fields up to 12 T, which is in contrast to the expected linear splitting for a singlet-triplet transition. The next possibility is that 66 cm-1 excitation is a vibrational mode; folded phonon for example. If so, the equidistant energy separation between modes in (ab) polarization would then be a simple coincidence, which we believe is not the case as discussed in the next paragraph.

In order to further examine the low-frequency dynamics of NaV2O5 we analyze the effects associated with sodium deficiency. Sodium deficiency strongly influences the properties of NaV2O5. With increasing sodium deficiency, the CO phase transition temperature decreases and disappears with Na content around 0.97 (3% deficiency) . Fig. 3 shows the low-frequency Raman spectra of nominally pure NaV2O5 as a function of temperature (upper panel), and several Na-deficient NaxV2O5 samples at T=6 K (lower panel) in the (aa) scattering geometry. For sodium deficiencies above 3% the modes associated with the CO phase completely vanish, in a good agreement with earlier data showing a full suppression of the phase transition at about this concentration . The modes also shift in energy as the Na concentration is reduced by about 6-7% in clear contrast to other (aa) low-temperature modes (shifts are $`1\%`$). In the (ab) scattering geometry these modes behave in a similar way, except that now the 86 and 106 cm-1 modes cannot be observed for $`[Na]0.99`$, probably because of their relatively small intensity. Decreasing $`[Na]`$ introduces the holes in the V-O planes since it transforms the $`V^{4+}`$ (S=1/2) ions into $`V^{5+}`$ (S=0). This effect is similar to nonmagnetic-magnetic substitution of ions. Similar mode suppression is observed in the Raman spectra of Zn-substituted CuGeO3 , where the singlet mode (the magnetic bound state) shifts to lower energies with increasing Zn doping, demonstrating renormalization of the spin-gap (a suppression of the phase transition is observed by substitution of non-magnetic ions for Cu in the spin-Peierls compound CuGeO3 ). In this case the effect is caused by the presence of unpaired spins, introduced by breaking of the spin-singlets upon substitution. Thus, although we question here the assignation of 66 and 106 cm-1 modes as a magnetic bound states, sodium deficient Raman spectra indicate that low-frequency modes in NaV2O5 are not vibrational modes, since phonon energies should not be so sensitive to small impurity concentrations.

From the neutron scattering spectra  it has been argued that the 66 and 86 cm-1 modes have a common origin (two spin-gap modes from two unequal magnetic chains), but on the other hand, the Raman spectra indicate that 66 and 106 cm-1 make pair. Therefore, having all this in mind, it is possible that all four modes have the same origin (note, that the weak structure around 106 cm-1 seems to exist in the neutron scattering spectra ). If so, this question our present understanding of physical properties of NaV2O5 since, the equidistant mode separation is not inherent property of 1D Heisenberg AF model. The quasi-1D Heisenberg or spin-phonon model has been predicted to have a spectrum consisting of multiple soliton-antisoliton boundstates, with the number of boundstates increasing as the inter-chain coupling gets weaker. However, such a model does not naturally predict 4 equally spaced states .

Still, the presence of a strong singularity at $`2\mathrm{\Delta }_s`$ in the Raman spectra is the important indication of the low-dimensional magnetism. The features that represent the onset of a two-magnon continuum at $`2\mathrm{\Delta }_s`$ have been observed in the Raman spectra of CuGeO3 , and CaV2O5 , in the form of strong asymmetric lines with a tail towards higher energies. The both compounds are quasy-1D magnetic systems with a spin-gap. CuGeO3 is a 1D AF with a spin gap which opens due to alternation of exchange constants along the chain. CaV2O5 is a weakly coupled dimmer system, i.e a two-leg-ladder compound with much stronger exchange along the rungs than along the legs. In NaV2O5 a similar structure is found around 132 cm-1 which could represent the onset of two-magnon continuum (see Inset Fig. 2). If so, the spin-gap in NaV2O5 should be 66 cm-1, and there is a mode at this energy in both neutron and Raman spectra. The spin-gap mode is a singlet-triplet transition which should split in an applied magnetic field (which is not observed), unless the triplet ($`S^z`$) degeneracy is already somehow removed? On the other hand, its activity in (ab) polarized scattering configuration indicates that the magnetic order in NaV2O5 is not the chain-type like CuGeO3, where two-magnon excitation is observed only with incident and scattered electromagnetic fields polarized parallel to the chain direction (note that in a ladder case the Fleury and Loudon exchange scattering mechanism , allows the two-magnon Raman scattering in a crossed configuration as well).

Finally, let us return to Fig. 3. The most remarkable effect is the similarity between the temperature dependent Raman spectra of pure NaV2O5, and Na deficient, T=6 K Raman spectra. If the behavior of any of these modes can be related to order parameter of the NaV2O5 phase transition, then the order parameter must have the same scaling for either T or x. At the moment, it is not clear what causes such an effect, but we believe that it indicates the influence of quantum criticality to the phase transition of NaV2O5.

In conclusion, we find four low-frequency modes separated by a common energy of 20 cm-1, that can be associated with the CO phase of NaV2O5. These modes are strongly suppressed with Na deficiency indicating their nonvibrational origin and the existence of a quantum phase transition at critical Na deficiency between 3 and 4%. The equal energy separation of the low-frequency modes and a strong suppression of their energy and intensity with Na deficiency, question current description of the low-temperature magnetism in NaV2O5 as being simple 1D alternating Heisenberg AF.

Acknowledgments

We thank I. Affleck for fruitful discussions. This work is supported by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

$`{}_{}{}^{}mkonstan\mathrm{@}sfu.ca`$