text:
# The Spectrum of QED₁₊₁ in the framework of the DLCQ method invited talk given at the Hadron Structure ’94 conference, Kosice, Slovakia, 19/9 – 23/9/1994

## 1 Motivation

We concern ourselves with $`\mathrm{QED}_{1+1}`$ in the Discretized Light-Cone Quantization formalism suggested by Pauli and Brodsky \[Pau85\] as presented in Eller, Pauli and Brodsky \[Ell87\] to investigate the influence of the fermion field boundary conditions on the spectrum and wavefunctions.

The DLCQ approach is chosen because its relativistic, non-perturbative treatment of gauge theories enables us to aim for hadronic physics, i.e. a solution of $`\mathrm{QCD}_{3+1}`$ obtaining spectra and wavefunctions. The boundary condition question is motivated by the so-called “background field” or “zero mode problem” generally existing for photons and electrons. In the case of photons this problem, despite some recent investigations e.g. by McCartor \[McC88\] or Heinzl, Krusche and Werner \[Hei92\], is still unsolved. Insights quantizating fermion fields in the ’toy model’ of $`\mathrm{QED}_{1+1}`$ can be generalized to the fundamental problem.

## 2 Method

Following Dirac \[Dir49, Dir64\] physical degrees of freedom are quantized on a equal light-cone time $`x^+=(x^0+x^3)/\sqrt{2}=0`$ surface instead of on the usual $`t=0`$ surface. To find the dynamical degrees of freedom an analysis of the constraints using e.g. the Dirac-Bergman algorithm \[Dir64, Sun82\] is used. The time evolution operator propagating in a generalized time direction $`x^+`$ is regarded as the Hamiltonian. This light-front scheme, somewhat improperly called light-cone quantisation (LCQ), offers advantages for field theories, mainly a simpler vacuum structure \[Wei66\]. For details, we refer to \[Bro91\].

Pauli and Brodsky \[Pau85\] realized the existence of a compactified formulation equivalent to lattice gauge theory, where space is compactified using periodic boundary conditions for physical observables on a finite intervall $`[L,+L]`$ in light-cone longitudinal dimension $`x^{}=(x^0x^3)/\sqrt{2}`$ and $`[L_{},+L_{}]`$ in the transverse dimensions $`x_{}=(x^1,x^2)`$ and a basis of plane waves in momentum space. The problem can be formulated as a Schrödinger eigenvalue equation for the time evolution operator or equivalently for the Lorentz-invariant mass squared. Writing the theory in creation and annihilation operators representing particles with positive longitudinal momentum as elements of a denumerable Fock-Hilbert space results in a finite matrix equation

$`i|:2P^+P^{}(\stackrel{}{P_{}})^2:|jj||\mathrm{\Psi }=m^2j||\mathrm{\Psi },`$
which can be diagonalized numerically. Approximations like restrictions of particle number, in the literature mostly called Tamm-Dancoff truncation \[Tam45\], or the construction of effective potentials are solidly based \[Pau93\]. Real physics of the system can be investigated at each step as the continuum limit of arbitrarily large volume both analytically or numerically.

Not touching on the still existing problems of DLCQ (“left movers”, “zero modes”, “renormalization of a Hamiltonian light-cone theory”), we concentrate on the question still under discussion whether the choice of boundary conditions of the fields can have impact on the results of the theory. For details of the calculation we refer to the thesis of Elser \[Els94\]

We therefore consider three cases:

* anti-periodic boundary conditions for fermions (i.e. no zero Fourier mode)
* periodic boundary conditions for fermions (zero Fourier mode neglected)
* periodic boundary conditions for fermions (zero Fourier mode included)

To depict our results, two coupling constants are chosen for convenience by

$`\lambda ^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{1+\frac{\pi m_f^2}{g^2}}}\mathrm{and}\rho ={\displaystyle \frac{m_f}{g}},`$
using the existence of an arbitrary mass scale. The ultra-violett cut-off connected to the periodicity length is the so-called harmonic resolution $`K`$.

## 3 Schwinger model

QED in one space and one time dimension with massless fermions, i.e. $`m_f=0`$, the Schwinger model \[Sch62\], is known from an analytic solution to allow only uncharged states. This is sometimes called “quark” trapping \[Sch63\]. The calculated spectrum is that of free bosons, the ground state with mass $`m_B`$ corresponding to a quark-antiquark pair, i.e. a meson. Above that we find a continuum of two, three, $`\mathrm{}`$ meson states.

$`\mathrm{QED}_{1+1}`$ proper, also called the massive Schwinger model, shows a number of stable particles calculated by Coleman which at vanishing coupling diverges as exspected. In the strong coupling limit the result is three stable particles for the case considered \[Col75\].

Basic to the expansion around the massless case is the proof that this limit is allowed and leads to the soluble massless Schwinger model \[Kog75\]. Although this still being under discussion \[Par93\], the mass squared of the ground state was calculated pertubatively to be linear with the bare fermion mass \[Kog75, Ban76\]. Low-lying state masses and this behaviour were numerically confirmed by lattice gauge theory \[Kog75, Ban76, Car76, Cre80\].

## 4 Results

All results are shown at a fixed harmonic resolution of $`K=16`$ unless extrapolated data is mentioned. Here a quadratic fit routine was used to go beyond this limit.

Comparison to lattice gauge theory. The main impression in fig. (1a) considering the lowest states in the spectra is the good agreement for the whole range of possible couplings and masses to the lattice results of Crewther and Hamer \[Cre80\]. Especially the extrapolated data (stars) is excellent.

In figs. (1b+c) this is investigated in more detail. Focussing on the small mass limit, only the antiperiodic case of fig. (2a) is able to regain the Schwinger ($`m_f=0`$) limit, whereas the periodic case neglecting zero modes is 50% off, showing the importance of the zero mode. It also can be seen that both do not obtain the linear behaviour found in lattice gauge calculations.

Complete mass spectrum. The mass eigenvalues in fig. (2) are normalized to the ground state mass. Decomposition of scattering states with invariant masses below two ground state masses and bound stable states is then obvious. States just below threshhold are identified as weakly bound dipositronium molecules \[Ell87, Els94\]. A qualitative consideration shows good agreement to Coleman’s prediction of stable states in the cases with no neglected zero modes in figs. (2a+c).

Tamm-Dancoff truncation. For space reasons we do not depict results, but simply state that a good quality of this approximation in the extreme case of a two-particle cut-off can be found for small coupling constants, where all stable states can be thus obtained. But already at a coupling of $`g=0.9m_f`$ ($`\lambda =0.45`$) this is no longer true. Exactly the interesting weakly bound states are four particle states and therefore unobtainable in this extreme approximation.

Small mass limit. Recent investigation based on work by K. Hornbostel \[Hor90\] showed that the problems in the small mass limit can be regarded as numerical artefacts from the limited harmonic resolution. A extrapolation scheme is able to improve results by a factor of about 20 using the same computer facilities. This is depicted is fig. (3) suggesting that the linear behaviour of the mass squared can be obtained to a very high precision.

## 5 Extensions

In this work we did for space reasons not include some rather preliminary investigations into ground and exited states wave functions and structure functions calculated in the full Fock space. This is different to other approaches, where only the two-particle sector was investigated, and results in detailed information on the internal structure of bound many-particle states \[Ell87\]. Following a suggestion by L.C.L. Hollenberg \[Hol94\] we also calculated finite temperature quantities like the energy density and the specific heat from our mass spectra results assuming the partition function of a micro-canonical ensemble \[Els94b\].

## 6 Conclusions

Mainly, the method of DLCQ and the results of Eller, Pauli and Brodsky are confirmed. We obtained relativistic, non-pertubative mass spectra for a gauge field theory with dynamic fermions and (not shown) wave functions, structure functions and thermal quantities. Tamm-Dancoff particle number cut-offs are possible if treated with some care.

The basic lesson is that one Fourier mode (namely the zero mode) can be decisive for even the ground state mass. The choice of boundary conditions is seen to be not important, if and only if all degrees of freedom are treated properly. This is still a problem for light-cone quantization in general.


format: text

text:
# SNO and Supernovae

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Supernova neutrinos carry information about both the core collapse process and intrinsic properties of the neutrinos. The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory  (SNO) with its capability to differentiate $`\nu _e`$ from $`\overline{\nu }_e`$–induced events, as well as Charged Current (CC) from Neutral Current (NC) events, is well positioned to make unique contributions to the wealth of physics that would be done with the neutrino signal from the next galactic supernova.

In the event of a galactic supernova several current generation large-scale detectors would see, over a few tens of seconds, hundreds to thousands of neutrino-induced events . Many of these detectors have an active program of on-line monitoring for such a burst of events and most are presently participating in an inter-experiment collaboration, the Supernova Early Warning System  (SNEWS). Through this cooperation a supernova could be confirmed, to a high degree of confidence, by the coincident observation of bursts in the sensitive detectors. Such an observed coincidence could allow a prompt notification of the astronomical community affording them the opportunity to follow the development of the supernova, with modern instruments, from the earliest possible moment, thus maximizing the scientific return on the galactic event.

The SNO supernova trigger has been active since May 1999 achieving $`92`$% livetime, a sensitivity that covers $`>99`$% of our galaxy, and is now nearing completely automated operation.

## 2 NEUTRINOS FROM SUPERNOVAE

A type II supernova is a prodigious source of neutrinos. The gravitational collapse of an $`1.4\mathrm{M}_{}`$ stellar core releases approximately $`3\times 10^{53}`$ ergs of gravitational binding energy. A full 99% of this energy leaves the proto-neutron star as neutrinos, in a few tens of seconds, roughly evenly distributed across the three flavours and particle/antiparticle. This represents, in the span of a few seconds, roughly a thousand times more neutrinos than our sun will produce in its entire $``$10 billion year life-time.

The average energy of supernova neutrinos is of order 15 MeV. Coupled with distance scales of a few kpc, the observation of supernova neutrinos would allow a brief peek at an $`L/E`$ neutrino oscillation regime not accessible in terrestrial experiments. Neutrino oscillations within the supernova are also interesting to explore with data for multiple neutrino types. Two possibilities exist for a sharp timing signal which would facilitate the extraction of neutrino mass information from the neutrino arrival time spectrum. The first is the ms-scale risetime in neutrino luminosity and the second possibility is the sharp flux cutoff that would accompany the formation of a black hole. Beacom et al.  argue that black hole formation during the period of high neutrino flux is a reasonably probable outcome with tremendous advantages to the direct measurement of neutrino masses. Although supernovae occur at a rate of $``$1/sec in the universe at large, the estimated supernova rate in our galaxy seems to range from an optimistic 1/10 years to a more conservative 1/30-50 years .

The potential of supernova neutrino physics was well demonstrated by the flurry of physics results which followed SN1987A . Three detectors, Kamiokande-II , IMB , and Baksan  observed a total of 24 neutrino events from the explosion of an $`20\mathrm{M}_{}`$ blue supergiant in the LMC. Based on these relatively meager statistics it was possible to set several limits , of unprecedented precision, particularly on properties of the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$.

Just as neutrinos are our only window into the solar core they are also the only window into the interior of a supernova and the physics of stellar core collapse. Through measurements of the neutrino energy, luminosity and flavour evolution during the course of a supernova it is possible to extract information about the explosion mechanism, proto-neutron star cooling, and black hole formation. Such observations could then be compared with the predictions of current models of these processes. The SNO collaboration’s efforts to date to simulate a supernova signal in the detector  have been focused on the 1992 model of Burrows et al. . Figure 1 shows the neutrino luminosity as a function of neutrino species and time that is used as input to the SNO supernova Monte Carlo. Similarly figure 2 shows the input assumptions for the evolution of the average energy of the different neutrino

species as a function of time. In both of these figures the first second of time since core bounce is shown on an expanded scale in the upper plot, and “$`\nu _\mu `$” refers to $`\nu _\mu `$, $`\nu _\tau `$ and their antiparticles, which are indistinguishable in the detector.

Although this is only one of many models of supernova dynamics this model contains the robust and generic features expected to be present in a supernova neutrino signal. As such it is useful to illustrate the potential sensitivity of SNO to features that would permit a detailed test of supernova models.

The time regime may be divided into three regions, a collapse phase, prior to core bounce at 0 seconds; an accretion phase, from 0 to 0.45 seconds in this model; and a cooling phase, for times following the explosion at 0.45 seconds. In the collapse phase neutronization produces a sharp burst of $`\nu _e`$’s. Core bounce is accompanied by an abrupt $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ and “$`\nu _\mu `$” turn-on in the high temperature wake of the launched shock wave. Throughout the accretion phase there is gradual spectral hardening of all the neutrino species as the infalling stellar matter heats the early proto-neutron star. The average neutrino energies of the different species are determined by the neutrinosphere radius, for that species, with the smaller radii being hotter. Following a sudden spectral hardening that occurs at the point of explosion, where the flow of infalling matter is reversed, the trend throughout the cooling phase is one of slow spectral softening.

As discussed in the following section it is the deuterium in the heavy water and the arising distinct event signatures that give SNO the capability to distinguish between various neutrino species in the supernova neutrino signal. Figures 1 and 2 therefore illustrate well the rich possibilities for constraining supernova models with data in the case where sufficient statistics are available and these unique capabilities are exploited. By contrast a full 95% of the supernova events in a light water Cerenkov detector are attributable to the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ flux alone.

## 3 SNO AS A SUPERNOVA DETECTOR

The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory detector and its early results are described elsewhere in these proceedings by Noble . As a supernova detector SNO consists of 1000 tonnes of heavy water and about 1400 of light water efficiently viewed by over 9000 PMTs. Both the heavy and light water are active detector volumes for supernova detection. The detector is located 2km underground, at 6000 mwe depth, in a carefully controlled and radioactively very quiet environment. The high-energy background at this depth is due to cosmic ray muons at a rate of about 3 hr-1 with a smaller, low-energy contribution from solar neutrino-induced reactions. Sensitivity to galactic supernova is efficiently achieved by the simple trigger condition of 50 events, above an approximately 4 MeV threshold, within a 2 second window. Some on-line processing of the data stream is required to deal with an occasional instrumental event burst and to remain “live” to supernovae through most detector calibration procedures. The SNO front-end electronics has the capability to accept burst data rates approaching 2 MHz for short times, and has the capacity to buffer approximately $`10^6`$ typical neutrino events for later readout.

Figure 3 shows the cross-sections as a function of neutrino energy for the charge current (CC), neutral current (NC), and elastic scattering (ES) reactions in heavy and light water. The combination of the NC and CC reactions on deuterium roughly matches the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ CC cross-section on protons in the light water resulting in the statistics for a supernova being divided approximately equally between the two water volumes. As seen in the reactions listed in table 1, the advantage of the heavy water is in the possibility to distinguish between the $`\nu _e`$ CC reaction, with a single energetic electron; the $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ CC reaction, with an energetic positron and two neutron captures; and the combined NC reactions, with no electron and a single neutron capture signal.

Neutron detection in SNO is as essential to the analysis of a supernova neutrino burst as it is to solar neutrino data. To meet the objectives of the solar neutrino measurement program SNO is foreseen to run in three distinct modes with different neutron detection methods and characteristics. In its first running phase, with pure $`\mathrm{D}_2\mathrm{O}`$, neutrons are detectable by capture on deuterium to form tritium accompanied by a 6.3 MeV gamma-ray. The capture efficiency is only 24% and the capture is indistinguishable from CC events, on an event-by-event basis, except to the extent that the signal is seen at lower energies than the typical supernova neutrino CC events. The neutron capture life-time in pure $`\mathrm{D}_2\mathrm{O}`$ is 40 ms. In order to enhance the neutron detection efficiency $`{}_{}{}^{35}\mathrm{Cl}`$ will be added to the $`\mathrm{D}_2\mathrm{O}`$ in the form of NaCl for the second “salt” running phase. This will raise the neutron capture efficiency to approximately 83% and shorten the neutron capture life-time to 4 ms. $`{}_{}{}^{36}\mathrm{Cl}`$ de-excites via an 8.6 MeV total energy gamma-ray cascade which is statistically distinguishable from CC (single energetic particle Cerenkov) events by angular isotropy measures. As a third and longer term running configuration the salt added in the second phase will be removed and SNO will install $`700`$ m of $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$ proportional counters on a 1 m by 1 m grid throughout the $`\mathrm{D}_2\mathrm{O}`$ volume. Neutron capture on $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$ will provide positive NC identification on an event-by-event basis with a capture efficiency of 45%. An additional 12% will still capture on $`\mathrm{D}_2\mathrm{O}`$ with a combined neutron capture life-time of 16 ms. For a supernova at 10 kpc the Monte Carlo program with realistic thresholds and efficiencies gives 606, 804, and 681 detected events in pure $`\mathrm{D}_2\mathrm{O}`$, with added salt, and with the $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$ “Neutral Current Detectors” (NCD) respectively.

Table 1 summarizes the number of events, for a 10 kpc distant supernova, broken down by the reaction in either the light or heavy water. Also summarized is the quality of the information, provided by each reaction channel, for the energy, interaction time, and direction of the supernova neutrinos. For elastic scattering channels the energy information is comparatively poor but timing and directional information are good. Even the small number of ES events, for a 10 kpc supernova, will be adequate to determine the stellar coordinates of the supernova with an approximate $`25^{}`$ resolution. In the case of the neutral current channels the timing information is slightly degraded by the neutron capture times and no useful energy or directional information is possible from the data. The charged current channels provide good energy and timing information. However the angular asymmetries of the electron wrt the neutrino direction are weak, energy dependent, and change sign  in going from light to heavy water (i.e. as a function of radius). The net effect is that they sum to an approximately isotropic distribution from which it is challenging, if not impossible, to extract directional or “pointing” information even with sophisticated effort.

## 4 SNEWS

Depending on the mass and nature of the progenitor star neutrinos decouple and escape from the supernova anywhere from 30 minutes to 10 hours before the first photons. The opportunity is therefore present, if the neutrino experiments are able to provide accurate directional information, to alert the astronomical community to the next galactic supernova and enable them to observe it from the earliest possible times. Without directional information the earliest times are very likely to go unobserved and some part of the unique opportunity is lost. In the early stages of a supernova one may learn about the progenitor and its environment. A UV / soft X-ray flash is expected at shock breakout that would illuminate the surroundings.

The inter-experiment Supernova Early Warning System (SNEWS) aims to provide a fast and very reliable alert to the astronomical community by forming a coincidence of burst signals from several operating detectors. Individual detectors employ a burst detection algorithm with a threshold adjusted such that they are highly efficient for galactic supernova and have an false alert rate of not more than one per week on average. The individual alert signals are transmitted as secure encrypted datagrams via the Internet to redundant coincidence servers located in Japan and Italy. An alert to the astronomical community would be issued if there was a coincidence within a 10 second window in the UT timestamped datagrams from two or more of the participating experiments. If the individual alerts are poissonian then the false coincidence rate is of order once per century. More details on the current status and operation of SNEWS may be found in references . SNO is preparing to provide a signal for SNEWS in the near future.

In the case of the SNO supernova trigger the threshold has been set such that alerts would be forwarded to the coincidence servers only when the event burst is identified by in-line analysis to be largely consistent with Cerenkov light in the detector. At present the only regular occurences which satisfy this criteria are muon spallation events followed by multiple pion decays and neutron captures. Such events occur in the SNO detector, because of the great depth, roughly every second month.

The SNEWS objective of providing a fast and reliable alert to the astronomical community is ensured by the redundancy of the coincidence requirement. Our high standards for a low false alarm rate should carry over into efforts to obtain redundant directional information if at all possible as the consequence of an incorrect or misleading single determination is likely to be a significant loss of opportunity. Extreme care is being devoted to avoiding any false alarms. Discussions are continuing among the SNEWS members to decide on the information that can be provided promptly in the event of a supernova, particularly directional information.

## 5 CONCLUSIONS

The SNO detector’s capabilities to distinguish between $`\nu _e`$, $`\overline{\nu }_e`$ and NC interactions are unique among existing detectors and, in the event of a galactic supernova, represent an extraordinary opportunity to probe and constrain supernova dynamics and neutrino physical properties. Our participation in SNEWS should help to provide a reliable early warning to the astronomical community of a nearby supernova. Work is continuing on maximizing the detector livetime for supernova and on ensuring the reliability of the on-line supernova trigger under all detector operating conditions. Where statistics permit redundant determinations of the supernova direction would be highly desirable.

## 6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is a pleasure to acknowledge the contributions of Peter Doe, Jaret Heise, Mike Schwendener and Réda Tafirout as the other members of SNO’s Supernova Trigger Group.

aThe SNO Collaboration includes: M. G. Boulay, E. Bonvin, M. Chen, F. A. Duncan, E. D. Earle, H. C. Evans, G.T. Ewan, R. J. Ford, A. L. Hallin, P. J. Harvey, J. D. Hepburn, C. Jillings, H. W. Lee, J. R. Leslie, H. B. Mak, A. B. McDonald, W. McLatchie, B. A. Moffat, B.C. Robertson, P. Skensved, B. Sur, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada.; I. Blevis, F. Dalnoki-Veress, W. Davidson, J. Farine, D.R. Grant, C. K. Hargrove, I. Levine, K. McFarlane, T. Noble, V.M. Novikov, M. O’Neill, M. Shatkay, C. Shewchuk, D. Sinclair, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada.; T. Andersen, M.C. Chon, P. Jagam, J. Law, I.T. Lawson, R. W. Ollerhead, J. J. Simpson, N. Tagg, J.X. Wang, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada.; J. Bigu, J.H.M. Cowan, E. D. Hallman, R. U. Haq, J. Hewett, J.G. Hykawy, G. Jonkmans, A. Roberge, E. Saettler, M.H. Schwendener, H. Seifert, R. Tafirout, C. J. Virtue, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario P3E 2C6, Canada.; S. Gil, J. Heise, R. Helmer, R.J. Komar, T. Kutter, C.W. Nally, H.S. Ng, R. Schubank,,Y. Tserkovnyak, C.E. Waltham, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada.; E. W. Beier, D. F. Cowen, E. D. Frank, W. Frati, P.T. Keener, J. R. Klein, C. Kyba, D. S. McDonald, M.S.Neubauer, F. M. Newcomer, V. Rusu, R. Van Berg, R. G. Van de Water, P. Wittich, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.; T. J. Bowles, S. J. Brice, M. Dragowsky, M. M. Fowler, A. Goldschmidt, A. Hamer, A. Hime, K. Kirch, J. B. Wilhelmy, J. M. Wouters, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA.; Y. D. Chan, X. Chen, M.C.P. Isaac, K. T. Lesko, A.D. Marino, E.B. Norman, C.E. Okada, A.W. P. Poon, A. R. Smith, A. Schuelke, R. G. Stokstad, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.; Q. R. Ahmad, M. C. Browne, T.V. Bullard, P. J. Doe, C. A. Duba, S. R. Elliott, R. Fardon, J.V. Germani, A. A. Hamian, K. M. Heeger, R. Meijer Drees, J. Orrell, R. G. H. Robertson, K. Schaffer, M. W. E. Smith, T. D. Steiger, J. F. Wilkerson, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.; J. C. Barton, S.Biller, R. Black, R. Boardman, M. Bowler, J. Cameron, B. Cleveland, G. Doucas, Ferraris, H. Fergami, K.Frame, H. Heron, C. Howard, N. A. Jelley, A. B. Knox, M. Lay,W. Locke, J. Lyon, N. McCaulay, S. Majerus, G. MacGregor, M. Moorhead, M. Omori, N. W. Tanner, R. Taplin, M. Thorman, P. T. Trent, D. L.Wark, N. West, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3NP, United Kingdom.; J. Boger, R. L Hahn, J.K. Rowley, M. Yeh Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973-5000, USA.; R.G. Allen, G. Buhler, H.H. Chen (Deceased), University of California, Irvine, CA 92717, USA.


text:
# The complete ISO spectrum of NGC 6302Based on observations with ISO, an ESA project with instruments funded by ESA Member States (especially the PI countries: France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom) and with the participation of ISAS and NASA

## 1 Introduction

The bipolar planetary nebula (PN) NGC 6302 is one of the brightest PN in our galaxy, and its central star is one of the hottest stars known (Ashley & Hyland 1988; Pottasch et al. 1996). These properties suggest that the progenitor of NGC 6302 was massive, which is consistent with the high nebular abundance of nitrogen (Aller et al. 1981). The morphology of the nebula is strongly bipolar, with a dense, dusty torus (Lester & Dinerstein 1984) and ionized polar regions as traced by the free-free radio emission (Gomez et al. 1993). Roche & Aitken (1986) detected 8.6 and 11.3 $`\mu `$m polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) band emission from NGC 6302, usually associated with carbon-rich material, while the presence of oxygen-rich material was indicated by the detection of an OH-maser (Payne, Phillips & Terzian 1988) and an 18 $`\mu `$m amorphous silicate emission feature (Justtanont et al. 1992). NGC 6302 therefore can be considered as an important test of stellar evolution models: the nebular abundances provide constraints on the chemical evolution and nucleosynthesis processes, and the thermal emission from dust gives information on the mass loss and its geometry at the end of the AGB phase.

The infrared brightness and unique properties of NGC 6302 made it an excellent target for study with the Short Wavelength (SWS; de Graauw et al. 1996) and Long Wavelength (LWS; Clegg et al. 1996) Spectrometers on board the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO; Kessler et al. 1996). Several papers have already reported on some aspects of these ISO observations. One of the most remarkable results of the ISO observations of NGC 6302 was the discovery of strong emission due to crystalline silicates (Waters et al. 1996; Barlow 1998; Beintema 1998), as well as several other solid state emission bands, including those of water ice. A full inventory and characterization of these emission bands requires access to the entire 2.4–197 $`\mu `$m wavelength range that ISO offers. In this paper, we present for the first time the full grating spectrum of NGC 6302. The present analysis of the spectrum will concentrate on the dust features.

This paper is organized as follows. In Sect. 2 we briefly describe the observations and data reduction. Sect. 3 discusses the placement of the continuum and presents the continuum subtracted spectrum. We identify most of the solid state bands. In Sect. 4 the results of a simple model to fit the spectral dust features and the continuum are presented and in Sect. 5 we discuss the results of our analysis.

## 2 The observations and data reduction

The SWS spectrum from 2.4 to 45 $`\mu `$m of NGC 6302 was obtained with ISO on February 19, 1996 as an AOT01, with the highest resolution (speed 4). The total integration time was 6528 seconds. The spectra were reduced using the SWS offline processing software, version 7.0. For a description of flux and wavelength calibration procedures, see Schaeidt et al. (1996) and Valentijn et al. (1996). The main fringes in the 12.0 – 29.5 $`\mu `$m part of the spectrum were removed using the Interactive (IA) data reduction package routine FRINGES. Major irregularities due to glitches and large drops or jumps in each detector were removed by hand. A comparison between the different detectors scanning the same wavelength region was used to determine the location of such jumps. The 12 SWS sub-spectra, when combined into a single spectrum, can show jumps in flux levels at band edges due to imperfect flux calibration or dark current subtraction. We have adjusted the different sub-bands, according to the expected source of discrepancy in each band, to form a continuous spectrum. Note that all the adjustments are well within the photometric absolute calibration uncertainties of 20% (Schaeidt et al. 1996). The relative error depends on band and flux but is typically much less than 5%. The final resolving power ($`\lambda /\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda `$) is 1000, apart from band 2C (7 – 12 $`\mu `$m) and 3E (27.5 – 29 $`\mu `$m) which have a resolving power of 500 and from band 1A (2.4 – 2.6 $`\mu `$m) which was rebinned to a resolving power of 2000.

The LWS spectrum from 40 to 197 $`\mu `$m was obtained by combining seven full-range grating scan AOT L01 observations, obtained between 1996 August 31 and 1997 September 23, in revolutions 289, 482, 489, 503, 510, 671, and 678. An off-source spectrum, of a position 8 arcmin from NGC 6302, was also obtained in revolution 289. For a description of the flux and wavelength calibration procedures see Swinyard et al. (1996). Each of the seven observations consisted of six fast grating scans, with 0.5 s integration at each commanded grating position. The observations taken in revolutions 289 and 671 were sampled at 1/4 of a spectral resolution element, the latter being 0.3 $`\mu `$m in second order (detectors SW1–SW5 $`\lambda `$93$`\mu `$m) and 0.6 $`\mu `$m in first order (detectors LW1–LW5 $`\lambda `$80$`\mu `$m). All other observations were made with a sampling of 1/8 of a resolution element. The total on-target integration time was 13243 s. The data were reduced with the LWS offline processing software version 7.0. No scaling between the datasets was necessary before combining them to form a single dataset. The sub-spectra from the ten LWS detectors were individually rescaled to give the same flux in the regions of overlap, adopting a polynomial fit through all detectors to give scaling values. Each detector was scaled by a factor within 10% of unity. This is consistent with the formal absolute error of 10% per detector for a medium flux point source such as NGC 6302 (Swinyard et al. 1996). The scans were then averaged giving a relative error of no more than 3% per point. The ten sub-spectra were then merged to form a complete spectrum from 40 to 197$`\mu `$m.

The whole SWS spectrum has to be multiplied by 1.22 to match the LWS-spectrum. The LWS observation was taken at the central position but for the SWS observation the satellite was pointed 5 arcsec away from the centre of NGC 6302. It should be noted that the sensitivity of the SWS decreases with distance from the centre. Another factor in the photometric differences between the two ISO spectrometers is the aperture size. The aperture of LWS is circular with a diameter of about 80 arcsec and the aperture size for SWS is rectangular and varies from band to band, from 14 arcsec $`\times `$ 20 arcsec for the shortest wavelengths to 20 arcsec $`\times `$ 33 arcsec for the longest wavelengths. The final spectrum is shown in Fig. 1, together with the IRAS broadband photometry points. The differences found between the IRAS fluxes and the ISO-fluxes convolved with the IRAS system response curves are well within the quoted IRAS, SWS and LWS flux uncertainties. The IRAS 12 micron flux, which seems to deviate, is actually consistent with our ISO observations when the forbidden emission lines are taken into account. The combined spectrum shows a wealth of atomic lines which are described in Beintema & Pottasch (1999) and a series of broad emmission bands due to solid state features, which will be described in this paper.

## 3 The dust features

To aid the identification of the spectral features, we have subtracted a spline curve ‘continuum’ fit to the spectrum. The fit was made through selected points where no feature was believed to be present, with the only other two constraints being that the fit was smooth (both in $`F_\nu `$ as well as in $`F_\lambda `$) and contained as much continuum as possible. This approach will however reduce the strength of the features; it is also possible that very broad features have been treated as continuum. Note that a spline fit continuum has no physical meaning and is only used to enhance the visibility of the sharp solid state features. The continuum-subtracted spectrum is shown in Fig. 2. We find a wealth of solid state features. The dust features naturally divide the spectrum into a carbon-rich and an oxygen-rich part. Apart from the forbidden emission lines, the spectrum below 15 $`\mu `$m is dominated by the aromatic infrared bands (AIBs) and above 15 $`\mu `$m by O-rich dust features.

In Table 1 we list features found in the spectrum. The features were fitted with Gaussians using a ‘local’ continuum, i.e. the flux apart from the feature(s), and which was not necessarily the same as the overall continuum. Since the errors are largely determined by this local continuum, we estimated our errors by fitting the data for different baseline continua. The spread in these results were used to calculate the errors, which are quoted in Table 1. This local fitting may prevent the discernment of some broad spectral features under narrow features. Although most features are fitted reasonably well with a Gaussian shape, we do not claim this to be the real shape. Since a lot of features are blended with others, this method is a systematical and reproducable way of determining the strength and position of the features. Features visible at 12.8, 13.6, 14.2, 14.8, 15.3, 15.8, 16.2 and 25.8 $`\mu `$m are not listed since they are possibly instrumental artifacts, caused by the presence of very strong forbidden emission lines on top of them (see below).

In the following sub-sections, we identify the different structures found in the continuum-subtracted spectrum. In case of doubt about the reality of features in the SWS wavelength range we compared the two scan directions and, if possible, the AOT06 spectra of NGC 6302 taken on 20 February and 9 March 1997, with the final spectrum. For the LWS range we checked for the presence of the feature in the individual observations, scans and sub-spectra.

### 3.1 The 2.4 – 12 $`\mu `$m region; C-rich dust

The continuum subtracted spectrum from 2.4 to 12 $`\mu `$m (Fig. 2) is dominated by the well known AIBs at 3.3, 3.4, 6.2, 7.7, 8.5, 11.0 and 11.3 $`\mu `$m, usually attributed to PAHs (Allamandola et al. 1989, Puget & Leger 1989). Hence there is a clear indication of a C-rich dust environment, as first found by Roche & Aitken (1986). A plateau is present at the long wavelength side of the 11.3 $`\mu `$m feature extending to roughly 11.7 $`\mu `$m.

### 3.2 The 12 – 17 $`\mu `$m region; An uncertain area of the spectrum

The reality and strength of the features from 12 to 17 $`\mu `$m is uncertain. We do see structures in our spectrum at 12.8, 13.6, 14.2, 14.8, 15.3, 15.8, and 16.2 $`\mu `$m. In other sources PAH features are seen at 12.8, 13.6, 14.2 and 16.2 $`\mu `$m (Hony et al. 2000; Van Kerckhoven et al. 2000). However this region in NGC 6302 is one with many very strong forbidden emission lines, some of which lie on top of the continuum features. The resultant shape of the continuum may be perturbed due to detector problems caused by shotnoise (Morris, private communication) and a comparison between the up and down scans does reveal that the two scan directions show a systematic offset with respect to each other at these wavelengths. We have also checked the SWS-AOT06 observation and found similar differences between the up and down scans, but also the absence of e.g. the 16.2 $`\mu `$m feature. Further, there is also evidence for spurious features in the instrumental responsivity files at 13.6 and 14.2 $`\mu `$m (Morris, private communication). Therefore although features are likely to be present in this wavelength region, the reality of the shape, strength and even presence of the features found in the 12–17 $`\mu `$m spectrum of NGC 6302 remains uncertain, so they are not listed in Table 1.

### 3.3 The 17 – 200 $`\mu `$m region; O-rich dust

The spectral region between 15 and 50 $`\mu `$m is characterized by a wealth of relatively sharp emission features. Most of the emission features can be identified with the Mg-rich crystalline silicates: forsterite (Mg2SiO4) and enstatite (MgSiO3). The identification of the crystalline silicate features is based on the laboratory measurements of Koike & Shibai (1998) and Jäger et al. (1998), see Table 1. The wavelength position of the different features, especially at the long wavelengths, indicate that there is hardly any Fe present (Mg/(Fe+Mg) $`>`$ 0.99) in the crystalline silicates. The different laboratory data sets for enstatite, which in general are in agreement about the position and strength of the features, do not agree in the details of their spectral shape. Therefore it is difficult to firmly identify some of these features to enstatite and in Table 1 they are listed as ‘possibly enstatite’.

Amorphous silicates may well be present as indicated by the relatively broad emission feature at 18 $`\mu `$m (not separately measured in Table 1), which is too broad to be just due to crystalline silicates. The presence of a 10 $`\mu `$m silicate feature is suppressed by the low temperature of the (silicate) dust (see Sect. 4) and the C-rich dust continuum which is dominant at that wavelength. Another point which favours the presence of an amorphous dust component besides the crystalline dust, is the relative weakness of the crystalline dust features in the spectrum of NGC 6302 in this wavelength range compared with the laboratory measurements of pure crystalline silicates. Other sources with crystalline silicates also show evidence for amorphous silicates e.g. AFGL 4106 (Molster et al. 1999b). It is of course possible that other materials make a contribution to the 18 micron feature and this would give an alternative explanation for the suppression of the 10 $`\mu `$m band, but we have found no reasonable candidate (yet).

The strength of the 20.7 $`\mu `$m band is not completely reproduced by enstatite (see Sect. 4). This might be an indication of the presence of quartz (SiO2), which shows a very prominent peak at this wavelength. Unfortunately, the other emission peaks of quartz are at much shorter wavelengths, and are suppressed due to the quartz being at low temperature compared to the hot C-rich dust. Therefore it is difficult to prove the presence of quartz based on this single feature. If quartz is present it will be only in small amounts.

The broad feature peaking at 63.6 $`\mu `$m, hereafter referred to as the 60 $`\mu `$m feature, is probably a blend of diopside (Koike et al. 2000) and crystalline H2O ice with probably a small contribution from enstatite. This feature, as well as the 43-$`\mu `$m ice feature, was observed by Omont et al. (1990) with KAO in the spectrum of IRAS 09371+1212 (Frosty Leo), while Barlow (1998) reported the presence of 60 $`\mu `$m emission in several dusty circumstellar shells and Sylvester et al. (1999) reported the ice emission in several OH/IR stars. Laboratory data published by Bertie et al. (1969) and Schmitt et al. (1998) show that crystalline H2O ice has two strong bands, one at about 43 $`\mu `$m, the other at roughly 62 $`\mu `$m with a weak shoulder at 52 $`\mu `$m. All these features are also present in the spectrum of NGC 6302 and especially the 43 and 60 micron feature cannot be explained by enstatite and/or diopside alone. Together with the expected presence of water-ice in a cold O-rich environment, the identification of crystalline water ice is very robust. However, it should be noted that a 52 $`\mu `$m feature is also seen in $`\eta `$ Car, which has no further indication for crystalline H2O ice. Therefore we do not exclude that this feature is (a blend with) another dust species, probably a crystalline silicate.

There remain a handful of yet unidentified features, indicating the presence of other dust species. The broad feature at 91 $`\mu `$m indicates that there must be a very cool dust component present. A feature around 100 $`\mu `$m in HD147527 was suggested by Malfait et al. (1999) to be due to the presence of a hydrous silicate. Hydrous silicates often show a broad peak in this wavelength range (Koike & Shibai 1990) and should only exist at low temperatures. However, we do not know of a mechanism that would produce hydrous silicates in the surroundings of NGC 6302. Furthermore the peak in HD147527 is quite shifted from the one in NGC 6302, which makes it somewhat unlikely that this is the same material. As very little data for silicate minerals exists in this wavelength region, the identification remains open.

## 4 Fitting the features and continuum

Assuming that the dust shell is optically thin for wavelengths above 20 $`\mu `$m, we applied a very simple procedure to get an estimate for the relative amount of the crystalline and amorphous silicate dust fraction in the circumstellar dust shell around NGC 6302.

In order to determine the temperature and relative abundance of enstatite and forsterite we fitted continuum subtracted laboratory spectra to the continuum subtracted ISO spectrum of NGC 6302. Since one of the requirements of the spline fit to the continuum of NGC 6302 was that it should contain as much flux as possible, it also contains continuum flux caused by the crystalline silicate components. Although this is a small contribution, it is not negligible. So, we subtracted also a continuum of the laboratory spectra in the same way as we did for NGC 6302, i.e. by removing as much flux as possible but keeping the continuum smooth. Fitting the continuum subtracted spectrum has the advantage that one can immediately fit the temperature. It is also insensitive to the temperature of the continuum, which might be different from the temperature of the dust features.

The temperature of forsterite is mainly determined by the strength ratio of the features at 23.71 and 33.79 $`\mu `$m, while the temperature of enstatite depends on the ratio of the features around 28 and 40 $`\mu `$m. The laboratory data of Koike et al. (1999) were taken to fit the spectra. In this way we were able to determine independently the temperature of forsterite (65 $`\pm `$ 10K) and of enstatite (70 $`\pm `$ 10K), see Fig. 3. The main uncertainty in the derived temperature is caused by the determination of the continuum subtraction. Based on the laboratory mass absorption coefficients we were able to derive relative abundances of forsterite and enstatite. The derived enstatite over forsterite mass ratio is 1.0, i.e. they are found in equal amounts. The typical error in the mass ratios is a factor 2. This is mainly due to uncertainties in the temperature, which directly translate into differences in the mass fraction necessary to explain the strength of the features.

The temperature and relative abundance of the amorphous silicates have been determined by assuming that this material is mainly responsible for the infrared excess. We fitted a single temperature single grain (0.1 $`\mu `$m) astronomical silicate, data from Ossenkopf et al. (1992), to the complete (not continuum subtracted) spectrum. Part of the continuum contains a small contribution of the crystalline silicate dust, the relative mass estimate of the amorphous silicate will be slightly (not more than a few percent) overestimated, but this is negligible compared to the other sources of uncertainty. The first major uncertainty is the fact that the infrared excess is too broad for a single temperature, single grain size approach. A fit to the spectrum up to 35 $`\mu `$m results in a temperature of about 80 K, but in a clear underestimation of the flux at longer wavelengths (see Fig. 4). A fit which would contain most of the flux results in a temperature of about 50 K (see Fig. 4). However, it is clear that this fit underestimates the flux at these wavelengths were the temperature and mass of the crystalline silicates has been determined ($`<45\mu `$m). It also is a much lower temperature than what has been derived for forsterite and seems therefore unlikely. Finally we also tried a fit with a similar temperature as found for forsterite (65 K, see Fig. 4). The amorphous silicate over forsterite mass ratios derived for these different temperatures are 6.3, 20.4 and 97 for respectively 80, 65 and 50 K.

The gentle slope up to the 1.1mm point (Hoare et al. 1992) indicates that large grains ($`>10\mu `$m) are present. They will be responsible for most of the flux at the long wavelengths, but due to their low temperature not for the flux below 40 $`\mu `$m. We therefore assume that the typical temperature of the small amorphous silicates, which are the source of flux below 40 $`\mu `$m, is somewhere between 65 and 80 K (see Fig 4). We have calculated the dust mass necessary to explain the strength of the curves in Fig 4 assuming a grainsize of 0.1 $`\mu `$m. We found that the fraction of crystalline silicates (enstatite and forsterite) in the total mass of small dust grains will be between 9 (when the small amorphous silicate dust grains are 65 K) and 24 % (when they are 80 K). The composition and thus the abundance of the large grains is very difficult to determine, since they will not show spectral features.

We have made no effort to calculate the abundance of the water-ice or diopside. Both contribute significantly to the feature at 60 $`\mu `$m. Because of their blending it is very difficult to disentangle them and derive estimates for their temperature and thus their mass fraction.

As shown above the temperature for the amorphous silicates is difficult to determine, and the width of the infrared excess suggests a temperature distribution. The slope below 40 $`\mu `$m suggests the presence of a population of relative warm (i.e. warmer than forsterite and enstatite) amorphous grains. We would like to note that in other studies, with full radiative transfer modeling (Molster et al. 1999b; 2001), it is shown that amorphous silicates are warmer than crystalline silicates. This may be due to a difference in chemical composition (i.e. the lack of Fe in the crystalline silicates), which results in different absorptivities in the UV, visual and near-IR wavelengths for the crystalline and amorphous silicates.

## 5 Discussion

Both C-rich (PAH features) and O-rich (silicate features) chemistry is present in the spectrum of NGC 6302. A mixed chemistry is remarkable in an outflow, since one of the first formed stable molecules in an outflow is CO. The formation of CO is very efficient and completely ’absorbs’ the less abundant of the two. This leaves the most abundant atom to determine the dust composition. In the context of the massive N-rich Type I planetary nebula NGC 6302, Justtanont et al. (1992) and Barlow (1993) pointed out that hot-bottom burning (HBB) at the base of the hydrogen envelopes of sufficiently massive AGB stars can eventually convert carbon dredged-up after a thermal pulse to nitrogen via the CN cycle. Thus the surface C/O ratios and the grains condensed, can go from O-rich to C-rich and back again after each of the multiple thermal pulses experienced. This would allow both types of grains to be present in the resulting nebulae, without a single transition radius from O-rich to C-rich material. This scenario would produce a mixed chemistry in the whole nebula.

It is difficult in this instance to explain the strength of the crystalline silicate features. They are much stronger than what is seen in normal outflow sources (Molster et al. 1999a). However, there are other evolved stars which show PAHs and crystalline silicates in their spectrum and are supposed to follow a different scenario. A famous example of this mixed chemistry is the Red Rectangle (Waters et al. 1998). This binary system formed a stable circumbinary disk while the star was still oxygen-rich. While the star evolved to a carbon-rich star, the disk remained. This is evidenced by the carbon-rich outflow and the oxygen-rich disk. The presence of a toroidal disk in NGC 6302 has long been known (Meaburn & Walsh 1980; Lester & Dinerstein 1984; Rodriguez et al. 1985), which, if stable, can explain the high degree of crystallinity by processes suggested by Molster et al. (1999a). The relatively high mm flux of NGC 6302 (Hoare et al. 1992) points to the presence of a population of large and cold grains. The presence of a stable disk naturally provides a suitable surrounding to produce large, and therefore cold, grains. This scenario would predict the O-rich material only to be present in the disk, with the C-rich dust dominating in the outflow and less pronounced in the disk.

In this context it is interesting to compare NGC 6302 with CPD$`56^{}8032`$. Although the central stars of these PNe are different, the spectra of the dust shells look quite similar. Both have roughly the same degree of crystallization, and the crystalline silicates have similar temperatures (Cohen et al. 1999). This is quite striking since the nebula around CPD$`56^{}8032`$ is expected to be much younger ($`10^2`$ yr, De Marco et al. 1997) than the nebula around NGC 6302 ($`10^4`$ yr, Terzian 1997). The expansion velocities are not that different, therefore it is likely that the crystalline material is not formed in the present day outflow, but more likely was already present around these objects, e.g. in a disk, before this outflow started. It has been suggested that we see here the destruction of Oort-cloud like objects (Cohen et al. 1999), however the degree of crystallization is much higher than the crystallinity so far known for comets and interplanetary dust particles in our own solar system, which may make this Oort-cloud scenario unlikely.

The weakness of the PAH features with respect to the rest of the spectrum in NGC 6302 resembles the strength of the PAH features in the spectra of Luminous Blue Variables (LBVs) like R71 and AG Car, which show weak PAH emission and relatively strong crystalline silicates (Voors et al. 1999; Voors et al. 2000). Since these massive stars have a C/O ratio lower than 1, the formation of PAHs is not understood. It has been suggested that shocks might dissociate the CO and that the PAHs form in the after-shock region. If the PAHs in NGC 6302 are formed in a similar way, one would expect to find the PAHs in the neighbourhood of these shocked regions. Casassus et al. (2000) show that the 3.3 $`\mu `$m emission is predominantly coming from the central region where the present-day outflow is expected to collide with the disk. Also the C/O ratio of 0.88 (see Casassus et al. 2000) points to an oxygen-rich outflow. In the case of this scenario it is expected that the outflow and disk will be oxygen-rich and PAHs are only seen in the (after-)shocked regions. This would even allow the star to have been oxygen-rich for its entire life.

This last scenario explains the observed features best. However, one should keep in mind that a thorough understanding of the PAH formation in an oxygen dominated environment is still lacking. All three scenarios predict a different dust distribution. With the aid of future high spatial resolution observations in the PAH and crystalline silicate bands (and the continuum) we may be able to distinguish between the HBB scenario and the two different disk scenarios for NGC 6302.

###### Acknowledgements.

FJM acknowledges support from NWO under grant 781-71-052 and under the talent fellowship program. LBFMW acknowledge financial support from an NWO ’Pionier’ grant. This work was partly supported by NWO Spinoza grant 08-0 to E.P.J. van den Heuvel. MC acknowledges the support of NASA under grant NAG 5-4884 and contract 961501 through JPL.


text:
# Entropy of the Randall-Sundrum black brane world in the brick-wall method

## Abstract

We calculate the entropy of the brane-world black hole in the Randall-Sundrum(RS) model by using the brick-wall method. The modes along the extra dimension are semi-classically quantized on the extra dimension. The number of modes in the extra dimension is given as a simple form with the help of the RS mass relation, and then the entropy for the scalar modes in the five-dimensional spacetime is described by the two-dimensional area of the black brane world.

preprint:  SOGANG-HEP 280/01
Recently, there has been much interests in the Randall and Sundrum(RS) model to resolve the gauge hierarchy problem , which is based upon the fact that our universe may be embedded in higher-dimensional spacetimes . Furthermore, the various aspects of this model have been studied on the cosmological grounds . In order to study the gauge hierarchy problem, RS have proposed a two-brane model called RS1 model involving a small and curved extra dimension, which is a slice of anti-de Sitter (AdS) spacetime . The negative tension brane is regarded as our universe, and the hierarchy between physical scales naturally appears in our brane. Furthermore, they have studied a single-brane model(RS2 model) by taking $`r_c\mathrm{}`$, where $`r_c`$ is a radius of the extra dimension . In these models, the nonfactorizable metric is essential as a static anti-de Sitter(AdS) spacetime, which is different from that of the conventional Kaluza-Klein(KK) style in that the extra coordinate is associated with a conformal factor. On the other hand, the static AdS domain wall has been already found as BPS domain walls of supergravity theories in Ref. , which is relevant to the RS model in a special case.

Subsequently, it has been shown that the curved domain wall solution in the RS models can be given by transforming the Minkowskian metric by the Schwarzschild one, which is described by a black string solution in five dimensions . The $`d`$-dimensional generalization of this has been shown in Ref.  and a brane-world black hole for a rotating case has recently been studied in Ref. . In Refs. , thermodynamics and aspects of evaporation in brane-world black holes have been studied. To study quantum mechanical aspect of this black brane world (black string intersecting the brane world), we may first consider its entropy, which is expected to satisfy the area law . In this paper, we would like to calculate the statistical entropy of the black brane world in terms of the brick wall method . We first derive the brane-world black hole solution directly starting from the equation of motion, and obtain the black brane world system. And then we semi-classically quantize the massive scalar field on this five-dimensional background. First, the modes along the extra dimension is quantized, and then the mass is naturally discretized. Next, we calculate the other modes following the brick wall method, and obtain the desired entropy of the brane-world black hole by using the RS relation. This shows that the number of modes in the five-dimensional spacetime are can be effectively described by the two-dimensional surface.

Let us now consider the RS model in $`(4+1)`$ dimensions,

$$S_{(5)}=\frac{1}{2\kappa _{(5)}^2}d^4x𝑑y\sqrt{g_{(5)}}\left[R^{(5)}+12k^2\right]d^4x\left[\sqrt{g_{(+)}}\lambda _{(+)}+\sqrt{g_{()}}\lambda _{()}\right],$$
(1)
where $`\lambda _{(+)}`$ and $`\lambda _{()}`$ are tensions of the branes at $`y=0`$ and $`y=\pi r_c`$, respectively, $`12k^2`$ is a cosmological constant, and $`\kappa _{(5)}^2=8\pi G_N^{(5)}`$. Note that we use $`M,N,K,\mathrm{}=0,1,\mathrm{},4`$ for $`(4+1)`$-dimensional spacetime indices and $`\mu ,\nu ,\kappa ,\mathrm{}=0,1,\mathrm{},3`$ for branes. We assume orbifold $`S^1/Z_2`$ which has a periodicity in the extra coordinate $`y`$, and identify $`y`$ with $`y`$. Two singular points on the orbifold are located at $`y=0`$ and $`y=\pi r_c`$, and two 3-branes are placed at these points, respectively. Note that the metric on each brane is defined as $`g_{\mu \nu }^{(+)}g_{\mu \nu }^{(5)}(x^\mu ,y=0)`$ and $`g_{\mu \nu }^{()}g_{\mu \nu }^{(5)}(x^\mu ,y=\pi r_c)`$, respectively.

We now assume the bulk metric as

$$ds_{(5)}^2=e^{2k|y|\mathrm{\Phi }(x)}g_{\mu \nu }(x)dx^\mu dx^\nu +T^2(x)dy^2,$$
(2)
where the moduli field $`T(x)`$ is different from $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)`$ for the present. From Eq. (1), the equation of motion is given as

$$G_{MN}^{(5)}=T_{MN}^{(5)}.$$
(3)
By using the metric (2), the Einstein tensors are calculated as

$`G_{\mu \nu }^{(5)}`$ $`=`$ $`G_{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{T}}\left(_\mu _\nu Tg_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{}T\right)+2k|y|\left(_\mu _\nu \mathrm{\Phi }g_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Phi }\right)`$ (6)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{k|y|}{T}}\left(_\mu T_\nu \mathrm{\Phi }+_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }_\nu T+g_{\mu \nu }_\rho T^\rho \mathrm{\Phi }\right)`$
$`+k^2|y|^2\left(2_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }_\nu \mathrm{\Phi }+g_{\mu \nu }(\mathrm{\Phi })^2\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{6k\mathrm{\Phi }}{T^2}}e^{2k|y|\mathrm{\Phi }}g_{\mu \nu }\left(k\mathrm{\Phi }\delta (y)+\delta (y\pi r_c)\right),`$
$`G_{\mu y}^{(5)}`$ $`=`$ $`3k\left(_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Phi }}{T}}_\mu T\right)_y|y|,`$ (7)
$`G_{yy}^{(5)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}T^2e^{2k|y|\mathrm{\Phi }}\left(R+6k|y|\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Phi }6k^2|y|^2(\mathrm{\Phi })^2{\displaystyle \frac{12k^2\mathrm{\Phi }^2}{T^2}}e^{2k|y|\mathrm{\Phi }}\right),`$ (8)
and the stress-energy tensor is explicitly written as

$`T_{MN}^{(5)}=6k^2g_{MN}^{(5)}`$ $`+`$ $`\kappa _{(5)}^2{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{g_{(+)}}}{\sqrt{g_{(5)}}}}\lambda _{(+)}\delta (y)g_{\mu \nu }^{(+)}\delta _M^\mu \delta _N^\nu `$ (9)
$`+`$ $`\kappa _{(5)}^2{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{g_{()}}}{\sqrt{g_{(5)}}}}\lambda _{()}\delta (y\pi r_c)g_{\mu \nu }^{()}\delta _M^\mu \delta _N^\nu .`$ (10)
Since ($`\mu y`$)-component of Eq. (10) vanishes, from Eqs. (3) and (7) we obtain the following relation,

$$G_{\mu y}^{(5)}=3k\left(_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }}{T}_\mu T\right)_y|y|=0,$$
(11)
which yields simply $`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)=T(x)`$.

In the ($`\mu \nu `$)-component of Eq. (3), there exist discontinuities resulting from the delta functional source due to the presence of brane tensions at $`y=0`$ and $`y=\pi r_c`$. At this stage, we now consider junction conditions , and integrate out the Einstein equation near the branes,

$`{\displaystyle _{0ϵ}^{0+ϵ}}𝑑yG_{\mu \nu }^{(5)}={\displaystyle _{0ϵ}^{0+ϵ}}𝑑yT_{\mu \nu }^{(5)},`$ (12)
$`{\displaystyle _{\pi r_cϵ}^{\pi r_c+ϵ}}𝑑yG_{\mu \nu }^{(5)}={\displaystyle _{\pi r_cϵ}^{\pi r_c+ϵ}}𝑑yT_{\mu \nu }^{(5)}.`$ (13)
The jump along the extra coordinate near the 3-branes gives a relation between brane tensions and the cosmological constant,

$$\lambda _{(+)}=\lambda _{()}=\frac{6}{\kappa _{(5)}^2}k,$$
(14)
where we note that the branes at $`y=0`$ and $`y=\pi r_c`$ have a positive tension ($`\lambda _{(+)}`$) and a negative one ($`\lambda _{()}`$), respectively. Using the relation (14) for this brane model, the equation of motion (3) is explicitly given as

$`R_{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}g_{\mu \nu }R{\displaystyle \frac{1}{T}}\left[_\mu _\nu Tg_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{}T\right]+k^2y^2\left[2_\mu T_\nu T+g_{\mu \nu }(T)^2\right]`$ (15)
$`+2k|y|\left[_\mu _\nu Tg_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{}T\right]{\displaystyle \frac{k|y|}{T}}\left[2_\mu T_\nu T+g_{\mu \nu }(T)^2\right]=0,`$ (16)
$`R+6k|y|\mathrm{}T6k^2y^2(T)^2=0.`$ (17)
Traces of Eq. (16) and Eq. (17) give the following reduced equations,

$`R+3k|y|\mathrm{}T=0,`$ (18)
$`\mathrm{}T2k|y|(T)^2=0.`$ (19)
In Eq. (19), as a simple constant solution of $`T(x)`$, let us set $`T(x)=1`$. Then metric solution $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ should be determined by $`R=0`$. Combining $`R=0`$ and $`T(x)=1`$ with Eq. (16), the Ricci flat condition, $`R_{\mu \nu }=0`$, introduced in Ref. , is obtained from the equations of motion. From this condition, it is natural to consider the 4-dimensional Schwarzschild black hole solution as a slice of AdS spacetime as a brane solution,

$$ds^2=e^{2k|y|}\left[\left(1\frac{2M}{r}\right)dt^2+\left(1\frac{2M}{r}\right)^1dr^2+r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_{(2)}^2\right]+dy^2,$$
(20)
where $`d\mathrm{\Omega }_{(2)}^2`$ is a metric of unit 2-sphere and we set $`G_{(4)}=1`$ for convenience. It is a black string solution intersecting the brane world, which describes a black hole placed on the hypersurface at the fixed extra coordinate. Arnowitt-Deser-Misner(ADM) mass $`\stackrel{~}{M}`$ of the brane-world black hole measured on the brane is $`\stackrel{~}{M}=Me^{ky_0}`$ where $`y_0`$ is $`0`$ or $`\pi r_c`$. Then, ADM mass would be exponentially suppressed as $`\stackrel{~}{M}=Me^{ky_c}|_{y_c\mathrm{}}0`$ on the negative tension brane for the RS2 model. In our work, we shall focus on the black hole placed at $`y=0`$.

Let us now study the black hole entropy in terms of the brick wall method. With the help of the RS relation which connects the bulk mass with the mass on the brane, the quantization will be simplified. We now assume the massive scalar field $`f`$ on the five-dimensional background (20),

$$(\mathrm{}_{(5)}m^2)f=0,$$
(21)
and it is explicitly given as

$`e^{2k|y|}`$ $`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{g}}_t^2f+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2}}_r\left(r^2g_rf\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2\mathrm{sin}\theta }}_\theta (\mathrm{sin}\theta _\theta f)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }}_\varphi ^2f\right]`$ (23)
$`+e^{4k|y|}_y(e^{4k|y|}_yf)m^2f=0,`$
where $`g=g(r)=1\frac{2M}{r}`$. If we set

$$e^{4k|y|}_y(e^{4k|y|}_y\chi )m^2\chi +\mu ^2e^{2k|y|}\chi =0,$$
(24)
where $`f(t,r,\theta ,\varphi ,y)\mathrm{\Psi }(t,r,\theta ,\varphi )\chi (y)`$, then the separation of variables is easily done, and the reduced form of the effective field equation becomes

$$\frac{1}{g}_t^2\mathrm{\Psi }+\frac{1}{r^2}_r\left(r^2g_r\mathrm{\Psi }\right)+\frac{1}{r^2\mathrm{sin}\theta }_\theta (\mathrm{sin}\theta _\theta \mathrm{\Psi })+\frac{1}{r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }_\varphi ^2\mathrm{\Psi }\mu ^2\mathrm{\Psi }=0.$$
(25)
Note that the above eigenvalue $`\mu ^2`$ plays a role of the effective mass on the brane. Then further separation of variables is straightforward, which gives

$$\frac{1}{r^2}(r^2g_rR)+\left(\frac{\omega ^2}{g}\frac{\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)}{r^2}\mu ^2\right)R=0,$$
(26)
where $`\mathrm{\Psi }(t,r,\theta ,\varphi )R(r)S(\theta )e^{i\alpha \varphi i\omega t}`$. The exact quantization of Eq.(24) seems to be cumbersome. However, in the WKB approximation , the wave number $`k_\chi `$ of the wave function $`\chi (y)`$ is easily written as

$$k_\chi ^2(y,\mu )=\mu ^2e^{2k|y|}m^2.$$
(27)
Therefore, the number of modes $`n_\chi `$ is obtained as

$`\pi n_\chi (\mu )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\pi r_c}}𝑑yk_\chi (y,\mu )`$ (28)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{\mu ^2m^2}}{k}}+{\displaystyle \frac{m}{k}}\mathrm{tan}^1\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{\mu ^2m^2}}{m}}\right]`$ (29)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{\mu ^2e^{2k\pi r_c}m^2}}{k}}{\displaystyle \frac{m}{k}}\mathrm{tan}^1\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{\mu ^2e^{2k\pi r_c}m^2}}{m}}\right].`$ (30)
Unfortunately, it is difficult to write the eigenvalue $`\mu `$ as a function of $`n_\chi `$ since the inverse function is not easily obtained. However, we now consider the RS relation , which is key to the breakthrough. It has been used to connect the effective four-dimensional mass with the five-dimensional bulk mass, and it is given by $`\mu =me^{ky_c}`$ at the branes. We note that in Ref.  to resolve the hierarchy problem between physical couplings, the negative tension brane at $`y_c=\pi r_c`$ is regarded as our universe. On the other hand, in our black hole case, the positive tension brane has been taken as our spacetime of black brane world since the negative tension brane has naked singularities. Furthermore, at the negative tension brane the real wave number can not be defined. So, for the present case, it is possible to take $`y_c=0`$ without these problems. Then the RS relation is reduced to

$$\mu =m,$$
(31)
which yields

$$\mu =\mu _{n_\chi }=\frac{\pi k}{\gamma }n_\chi (n_\chi =1,2,3,\mathrm{})$$
(32)
from Eq. (28) with $`\gamma =\sqrt{e^{2k\pi r_c}1}\mathrm{tan}^1\sqrt{e^{2k\pi r_c}1}`$. If we take $`r_c\mathrm{}`$, then the mode spectrum is continuous similarly to the quantization on a circle.

At last, the radial wave number $`k_R^2=g^2\left[\omega ^2g\left(\frac{\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)}{r^2}+\mu ^2\right)\right]`$ from Eq. (26) is semi-classically quantized as

$$\pi n_R(\omega ,\mathrm{},\mu )=_{2M+h}^L𝑑rg^1\sqrt{\omega ^2g\left(\frac{\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)}{r^2}+\mu ^2\right)},$$
(33)
where $`h`$ and $`L`$ are ultra and infrared cutoffs, respectively which are needed in the brick wall formalism. Now the degeneracy for a given energy is defined by

$`g(\omega )\pi N`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle 𝑑\mathrm{}(2\mathrm{}+1)𝑑n_\chi \pi n_R(\omega ,\mathrm{},n_\chi )}`$ (34)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle 𝑑\mathrm{}(2\mathrm{}+1)𝑑n_\chi _{2M+h}^L𝑑rg^1\sqrt{\omega ^2g\left(\frac{\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)}{r^2}+\lambda ^2n_\chi ^2\right)}},`$ (35)
where $`\lambda =k\pi \gamma ^1`$.

The free energy $`F`$ for this black brane world system is given as

$$e^{\beta F}=e^{\beta \omega }=\underset{n_R,\mathrm{},n_\chi }{}\frac{1}{1e^{\beta \omega }},$$
(36)
which is explicitly written as

$`\pi \beta F`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑\omega {\displaystyle \frac{\beta g(\omega )}{e^{\beta \omega }1}}`$ (37)
$`=`$ $`\beta {\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}𝑑\omega (e^{\beta \omega }1)^1{\displaystyle 𝑑\mathrm{}(2\mathrm{}+1)𝑑n_\chi _{2M+h}^Lg^1\sqrt{\omega ^2g\left(\frac{\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)}{r^2}+\lambda ^2n_\chi ^2\right)}}.`$ (38)
For the reality condition of the free energy, the integration ranges are restricted to $`0n_\chi \left(\sqrt{\omega ^2/g\mathrm{}(\mathrm{}+1)/r^2}\right)/\lambda `$ and $`0\mathrm{}\left(1+\sqrt{1+4\omega ^2r^2/g}\right)/2`$.

In the approximation of $`L>>2M`$, the free energy is evaluated as

$$F64\frac{\gamma \zeta (5)}{\pi h^2}\sqrt{\frac{h}{2M}}\left(\frac{M}{\beta }\right)^5\frac{3}{8\pi k}\gamma L^3_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\omega \frac{\omega ^4}{e^{\beta \omega }1}.$$
(39)
It is interesting to note that Eq. (39) is more or less different from the four-dimensional free energy calculation in the Schwarzschild black hole background , which is given as

$$F\frac{2\pi ^3}{45h}\left(\frac{2M}{\beta }\right)^4\frac{2}{9\pi }L^3_m^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\omega \frac{(\omega ^2m^2)^{3/2}}{e^{\beta \omega }1}.$$
(40)
The reason why the mass term of the scalar field in the bulk spacetime does not appear in the free energy expression (39) on the contrary to the four-dimensional case is that the mass $`m`$ in the bulk can be effectively interpreted as that of the four-dimensional mass $`\mu `$ in terms of the RS relation (31), and it is integrated out in the free-energy calculation after semi-classical quantization along the extra dimension.

Now the Hawking temperature is defined by

$$T_H=\frac{\kappa _H}{2\pi }$$
(41)
where $`\kappa _H^2=\frac{1}{2}(^\mu \chi ^\nu )(_\mu \chi _\nu )|_{r=r_H}`$ and $`\chi `$ is a time-like Killing vector, which yields

$$T_H=\beta ^1=\frac{1}{8\pi M}.$$
(42)
Therefore, from the free energy (39) the entropy is

$`S`$ $`=`$ $`\beta ^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{F}{\beta }}\right)`$ (43)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{𝒜_H}{4G_{(4)}}}`$ (44)
$`=`$ $`4\pi M^2,`$ (45)
as far as the brick wall is located at $`h=\left(\frac{5\gamma \zeta (5)}{2^8\pi ^6}\right)^2\frac{1}{2M}`$. Of course, the invariance distance from the horizon is calculated so that in the approximation, $`M>>h`$,

$`{\displaystyle _{r=2M}^{r=2M+h}}{\displaystyle \frac{dr}{\sqrt{1\frac{2M}{r}}}}`$ $``$ $`\sqrt{2Mh}`$ (46)
$`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{5\gamma \zeta (5)}{2^8\pi ^6}}\right),`$ (47)
which is independent of the black hole mass.

We have calculated the entropy of the massive scalar field in the RS model by using the brick-wall method. In our model, the positive tension brane as a black hole solution was considered in order to avoid curvature singularities whereas in the cosmological consideration the negative tension brane has been identified as our universe to resolve the gauge hierarchy problem.

In our result, it is reminiscent of the holographic principle  of black hole physics, so the number of degrees of freedom can be derived by the horizon area of the brane, although this does not mean that the massive modes live on the brane. It would be interesting whether or not the area law of the black hole entropy can be derived from the bulk theory by using the other methods.

A final comments are in order. At first glance, the massless limit does not exist in Eq. (31). However, from the beginning equation (27), one can easily take the massless limit of the scalar field, and the quantized rule is given as $`\pi n_\chi (\mu )=_0^{\pi r_c}𝑑y\mu e^{2ky}=\frac{\mu }{2k}\left(e^{2k\pi r_c}1\right)\frac{\mu }{k}\lambda _0`$ where $`\lambda _0=(e^{2k\pi r_c}1)/2`$. As a result, the quantized rule is not changed except the coefficient, that is $`\mu =k\pi /\lambda _0n_\chi `$. Therefore, the result for the massive case is still valid. The physical significance for the massless limit is that in fact the expected entropy can be obtained without recourse to the RS mass relation (31), while for the massive case the relation is helpful in the derivation of the entropy. At this stage, we do not know physically whether the RS relation (31) is essential or not in deriving the entropy. We hope this problem will be discussed in elsewhere.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by grant No. 2000-2-11100-002-5 from the Basic Research Program of the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation. We would like to thank P. Jung for exciting discussions.


text:
# Reply to “Comment about pion electroproduction and the axial form factors”

## Abstract

It is shown that comments by Guichon , and also by Bernard, Kaiser, and Meißner , regarding my recent criticism  of how the axial form factor is supposed to enter pion electroproduction do not address the main point of my argument and therefore are irrelevant.

In a comment, Guichon  criticizes my recent paper  which shows that one cannot measure the axial form factor in pion production measurements at threshold. The same criticism, albeit in a less civilized manner, but based on essentially the same argument, was also raised by Bernard, Kaiser, and Meißner . I will show here that none of these criticisms does address the main point of my argument. I still maintain therefore, that the conclusions of  stand as stated.

Both arguments  concern the splitting of the axial current $`\widehat{ȷ}_A^\mu `$ into $`\widehat{ȷ}_A^\mu =\widehat{ȷ}_{A,W}^\mu +\widehat{ȷ}_{A,H}^\mu `$, where

$`\widehat{ȷ}_{A,W}^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`\gamma _5\left[\gamma ^\mu +(p^{}p)^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{2m}{t}}\right]G_A{\displaystyle \frac{\tau }{2}},`$ (2)
$`\widehat{ȷ}_{A,H}^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`f_\pi (p^{}p)^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{\mu ^2}{t}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{t\mu ^2}}\gamma _5G_t\tau `$ (3)
separate the dependence on the axial form factor $`G_A`$ and the $`\pi NN`$ form factor $`G_t`$. The $`\pi NN`$ form factor enters the expression for the axial current upon invoking the PCAC constraint and eliminating the pseudoscalar form factor $`G_P`$. The criticisms center now on the occurrence of the $`1/t`$ singularities in both of the terms of (Reply to “Comment about pion electroproduction and the axial form factors”).

Clearly, this splitting, referred to as “strange” in Ref. , is without question algebraically valid, even if it creates seemingly artificial poles 1/t in both terms. Written differently,

$`\widehat{ȷ}_A^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`\gamma _5\gamma ^\mu G_A{\displaystyle \frac{\tau }{2}}f_\pi {\displaystyle \frac{(p^{}p)^\mu }{t\mu ^2}}\gamma _5G_t\tau `$ (5)
$`+(p^{}p)^\mu \gamma _5{\displaystyle \frac{f_\pi G_tmG_A}{t}}\tau ,`$
these singularities for $`t=0`$ are recast in the well-defined $`\frac{0}{0}`$ situation contained in the last term in view of the validity of the Goldberger–Treiman relation.

This splitting clearly shows that in the chiral limit of vanishing pion mass, the hadronic part of the axial current, Eq. (3), vanishes. The $`1/t`$ pole of the remaining weak part, Eq. (2), now cannot be cancelled any longer and thus becomes physically relevant in the chiral limit. Furthermore, this splitting allows for a most detailed description of how the electromagnetic (vector) current couples to the axial current, as given in Eq. (14) and as depicted in Fig. 3, both of Ref. . I presume that this is what is referred to as the “trap in the reasoning” . There is, however, nothing wrong with this procedure. As mentioned in my paper, it can be shown quite directly by employing Green’s function techniques that since the splitting $`\widehat{ȷ}_A=\widehat{ȷ}_{A,W}+\widehat{ȷ}_{A,H}`$ is valid, the coupling to the electromagnetic current does indeed produce Eq. (14). For this result to obtain, it is irrelevant whether one uses Eq. (Reply to “Comment about pion electroproduction and the axial form factors”) here or the nonsingular form (5). The advantage of the former, in my opinion, is simply that it allows for a more straightforward graphical interpretation (see Fig. 3 of ). The subsequent steps in  leading to Eq. (19) and finally to Eq. (23) are purely algebraic. In particular, they show that the complete cancellation of the $`G_A`$ dependence obtains before the $`q=0`$ limit is taken. The fact that $`𝒲`$ \[of Eq. (20)\] vanishes even if the nucleon has structure (which I don’t dispute and which I didn’t discuss in my Letter for lack of space) is irrelevant in this context. What is relevant is the statement after Eq. (23) that “on the right-hand side the dependence on $`G_A`$ cancels completely even before the limit is taken”. This crucial statement can very easily be verified by direct evaluation of the expression in the square brackets on the right-hand side of Eq. (23) along the lines given in my Letter. If the author of Ref.  believes that this evaluation is in error, he should be able to point out precisely which of the steps outlined in detail in my paper is in error. The splitting discussed above clearly is not at issue in this respect.

The arguments of Ref.  are based on arbitrarily demanding that the factor $`\mu ^2/t`$ in Eq. (3) above should be replaced by unity. This would essentially drop part of the last term in Eq. (5) containing the $`\frac{0}{0}`$ situation and would indeed lead to the result desired by these authors. There is, however, nothing which justifies this arbitrary replacement and this argument evidently is in error. The conclusions of my paper, therefore, stand as stated.


text:
# Time dependence of breakdown in a global fiber-bundle model with continuous damage

## Abstract

A time-dependent global fiber-bundle model of fracture with continuous damage is formulated in terms of a set of coupled non-linear differential equations. A first integral of this set is analytically obtained. The time evolution of the system is studied by applying a discrete probabilistic method. Several results are discussed emphasizing their differences with the standard time-dependent model. The results obtained show that with this simple model a variety of experimental observations can be qualitatively reproduced.

preprint: HEP/123-qed

Fracture in disordered media has attracted much scientific and industrial interest for many years ; it is, however, a complex problem for which a definite physical and theoretical treatment is still lacking. An important class of models of material failure is the fiber-bundle models (FBM) which have been extensively studied during the past decades . These models consist of a set of parallel fibers having statistically distributed strength. The sample is loaded parallel to the fiber direction, and a fiber fails if the load acting on it exceeds a threshold value. When a fiber fails, its load is transferred to other surviving fibers in the bundle, according to a specific transfer rule. Among the possible options of load transfer, one simplification that makes the problem analytically tractable is the assumption of equal load sharing (ELS), or global load transfer, which means that after each fiber breaks, its stress is equally distributed among the intact fibers. Thus, the ELS option constitutes a sort of mean field approximation to other more realistic rules of stress transfer where a stress enhancement occurs in the neighborhood of failed elements. So far, the failure rule applied in standard FBM is discontinuous and irreversible, i.e., when the local load exceeds the failure threshold of a fiber, the fiber is removed from the calculation and is never restored. Recently, a novel continuous damage law was introduced in these models . Thus, when the strength threshold of a fiber is exceeded, it yields, and the elastic modulus of the fiber is reduced by a factor $`a`$ ($`0<a<1`$). Multiple yields of a given fiber are allowed. It is argued that this description of damage in terms of a continuous parameter corresponds to the consideration of the system at a length scale larger than the typical crack size; i.e., if the smallest elements of the model are the fibers, the continuous damage is due to cracking inside the fibers. This generalization of the standard FBM is suitable to describe a variety of elasto-plastic constitutive behaviors .

FBM come in two settings, static and time-dependent or dynamic. The static version of FBM simulates the failure of materials by quasiestatic loading, i.e, by a steady increase in the load over the system up to its macroscopic failure. The stress on each fiber is the independent variable and the strength of each element is the distributed random variable. On the other hand, the dynamic FBM simulates failure by creep rupture, static fatigue, or delayed rupture, i.e., a (usually) constant load is imposed on the system and the elements break because of fatigue after a period of time. The time elapsed until the system collapses is the lifetime of the bundle. Time acts as an independent variable, and the initial lifetime of each element, for a prescribed initial stress, is the independent identically distributed random quantity.

The concept of continuous damage in FBM has only been applied to the static setting. However, time-dependent mechanisms also play a key role in the process of fracture. Phenomena such as fatigue and stress corrosion are of utmost importance for real applications. These time-dependent effects have not been included before in continuous damage descriptions. So, the precise purpose of this paper is to formulate for the first time, the time-dependent FBM with continuous damage and compute the differences appearing with respect to the standard dynamic FBM.

In these models the most widely used breaking rate function is the power law , in which elements break at a rate proportional to a power of their stress, $`\sigma ^\rho `$, where the exponent $`\rho `$ is an integer called the stress corrosion exponent. This type of breaking rate will be assumed here.

Our analysis will be restricted to the global transfer modality, and we will assume that the size of the bundle, $`N`$, is very large. This enables us to formulate the evolution of the system in terms of continuous differential equations. This type of equations, similar to those appearing in radioactivity, was first used by Coleman , and later in . At this point, it is worth recalling that for the standard model, the lifetime $`T`$ of the bundle can be analytically obtained. In this case, the differential equation governing the time evolution of the system reads

$$\frac{dN_0}{dt}=N_0f^\rho ,$$
(1)
where $`f=\sigma =N/N_0`$ is the strain of the bundle assuming that the elastic modulus of the fibers is $`Y=1`$ and $`\sigma `$ is the individual stress acting on one fiber. The solution of Eq. (1) should fulfill the condition $`N_0(t=0)=N`$. The integration of (1) is straightforward and the lifetime of the bundle is given by $`T=\frac{1}{\rho }`$.

Now, suppose an ELS bundle formed by $`N`$ fibers which breaks because of stress corrosion under the action of an external constant load $`F=N\sigma _0`$, with $`\sigma _0=1`$. The breaking rate of the fibers, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, is assumed to be of the power-law type, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\sigma ^\rho `$. As before, $`f`$ will denote the strain of the bundle and $`Y=1`$ will represent the initial stiffness of the individual fibers. The original dynamic FBM is generalized by allowing that one fiber can fail more than once, and thus we define the integer $`n`$ as the maximum value of failures allowed per fiber. Besides, the parameter $`a`$ ($`<1`$) will represent the factor of reduction in the stiffness of the fibers when they fail. As up to $`n`$ partial yielding events are permitted per fiber, at any time the population of fibers will be sorted in $`n+2`$ lists. Thus $`N=N_0+N_1+\mathrm{}+N_n+N^{},`$ where $`N_j`$ ($`j=0,\mathrm{},n`$) denotes the number of elements that have failed $`j`$ times. $`N^{}`$ denotes the number of elements that have failed $`n+1`$ times and therefore are inactive (i.e., they do not support load anymore). At $`t=0`$, the $`N`$ elements of the bundle form the list $`0`$, $`N_0=N`$, and at $`t=T`$, $`N^{}=N`$. The specification, at a given time $`t`$, of the value of $`N_j`$, for $`j=0,1,\mathrm{},n`$, provides the state of the system. In our continuous formulation the $`N_j`$ will be real positive numbers lower than $`N`$.

As the external load $`F=N`$ is supported by the present active fibers, we have

$$N=f(N_0+aN_1+a^2N_2+\mathrm{}+a^nN_n),$$
(2)
and hence $`f=N/(N_0+aN_1+a^2N_2+\mathrm{}+a^nN_n)`$.

The time evolution equations are:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dN_0}{dt}}=f^\rho (N_0),`$ (3)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{dN_1}{dt}}=f^\rho (N_0kN_1),`$ (4)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{dN_2}{dt}}=f^\rho k(N_1kN_2),`$ (5)
$`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ (6)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{dN_n}{dt}}=f^\rho k^{n1}(N_{n1}kN_n),`$ (7)
where the ubiquitous constant factor $`k`$ represents $`k=a^\rho `$. This is a system of coupled, first-order, non-linear differential equations. Its solution must fulfill the initial condition

$`N_0(t=0)=N`$ (8)
$`N_j(t=0)=0,j0.`$ (9)
On the right-hand side of Eq. (5), the positive terms represent the sources and the negative ones represent the sinks of the various lists. Eq. (5) does not have an analytic solution. However a first integral can be given expressing $`N_j`$ ($`j0`$) in terms of $`N_0`$. The source of non-linearity in Eq. (5) is the factor $`f^\rho `$ on the right-hand side. This factor can be eliminated by reformulating the system of equations in such a way that $`N_0`$ is the new independent variable and $`N_j`$ ($`j0`$) the dependent variables. Denoting by a prime the derivative with respect to $`N_0`$, one easily obtains

$`N_1^{}=(kN_1N_0)/N_0,`$ (10)
$`N_2^{}=k(kN_2N_1)/N_0,`$ (11)
$`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ (12)
$`N_n^{}=k^{n1}(kN_nN_{n1})/N_0.`$ (13)
This coupled set of first-order linear differential equations must fulfill

$$N_j(N_0=N)=0,j0$$
(14)
as initial conditions.

The solutions of Eq. (11) fulfilling Eq. (14) for an arbitrary index $`l`$, $`l=1,2,\mathrm{},n`$, are

$$N_l=\underset{j=0}{\overset{l}{}}a_j^{(l)}N_0^{k^j}.$$
(15)
This ansatz is easily proved by induction, and the $`a_j^{(l)}`$ coefficients are recursively calculated,

$`a_j^{(l+1)}={\displaystyle \frac{k^la_j^{(l)}}{(k^{l+1}k^l)}},j=0,1,2,\mathrm{},l`$ (16)
(17)
$`a_{l+1}^{(l+1)}={\displaystyle \frac{\left(\underset{j=0}{\overset{l}{}}a_j^{(l+1)}N^{k^j}\right)}{N^{k^{l+1}}}}.`$ (18)
These exact functions $`N_j=N_j(N_0)`$, $`j0`$ can be used as the base of an elegant numerical method suited to compute the time-dependent solution of Eq. (5). This will be commented on in a forthcoming publication. In this paper, however, we will use Eq. (15) merely to test the accuracy of another approximated method, a discrete probabilistic one , that will be used to solve Eq. (5). In this case of an ELS model with continuous damage, the elementary time step for one fiber to yield is given by :

$$\delta =\frac{1}{N_0f^\rho +N_1(af)^\rho +N_2(a^2f)^\rho +\mathrm{}+N_n(a^nf)^\rho },$$
(19)
with

$$f=\frac{N}{N_0+aN_1+a^2N_2+\mathrm{}+a^nN_n}.$$
(20)
Thus, $`\delta `$ is the inverse of the total “decay width” of the system. The total decay width is the sum of the contribution of all the lists $`j=0,1,\mathrm{},n`$. And each list contributes with a term

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_j=N_j\sigma _j^\rho =N_j(a^jf)^\rho .$$
(21)
The probability that the individual failure takes place in the list $`j`$ is equal to $`p_j=\mathrm{\Gamma }_j\delta `$. With this natural assignment of probabilities, it is apparent that $`_{j=0}^np_j=1`$. In the process of breaking, a set of $`N`$ elements and $`n`$ allowed partial yields, we will have a total of $`N(n+1)`$ deltas, whose sum $`_{i=1}^{N(n+1)}\delta _i=T`$, is the lifetime of the bundle. This method starts from an initial state, $`(N_0,N_1,N_2,\mathrm{},N_n,N^{})=(N,0,0,\mathrm{},0,0)`$ and ends in $`(0,0,0,\mathrm{},0,N)`$.

The results obtained with this method are shown in Figs. 1-3. In each simulation, one has to fix the vector $`(N,\rho ,a,n)`$, under the hypothesis that $`F=N`$ and $`Y=1`$. The standard model is obtained by setting $`n=0`$. In Fig. 1, for a vector $`(10^4,2,0.8,4)`$, we compare the prediction of this method for $`N_1(N_0)`$ and $`N_2(N_0)`$ with the analytic result expressed in equation (15). It is apparent that the agreement is excellent. In Fig. 2, the behavior of the bundle strain, $`f`$, as a function of time, is plotted for the same vector of parameters as before but considering also the cases of $`n=0`$ and $`n=1`$. Here, one appreciates how the hypothesis of continuous damage leads to increasing the bundle’s lifetime. It is interesting to note that at the time at which the system collapses, the relation $`F=a^nf_c`$ holds, i.e., the ultimate strain of the bundle, $`f_c`$, is related to the external load imposed over the system through the factor $`a^n`$. This is also the case for the static continuous damage model  but substituting $`F`$ by $`F/N`$. Finally, Fig. 3 shows the behavior of the bundle’s strain near the point of macroscopic rupture. It turns out that the strain scales with the distance to the critical point, $`Tt`$, as $`f(Tt)^\beta `$ with $`\beta =\frac{1}{\rho }`$. This result is universal, i.e., the material approaches its macroscopic collapse in this way regardless of the number of allowed partial yields. Universal behaviors are quite important in fracture processes because of the intrinsic and unavoidable sample to sample variations. Thus, although the lifetime of the bundle varies from one realization to another, the strain of the bundle would satisfy, for a given $`\rho `$ value, the same scaling function near the point of macroscopic collapse regardless of $`n`$. It is worth noting that this feature is not observed only in our simple model. For example, in a similar (in spirit) although more complicated model where visco-elastic cells are introduced, the same behavior near the critical point is found .

Up to now, we have assumed that the external load acting on the bundle is $`F=N`$. If we consider that $`F`$ is modified in a factor $`\varphi `$, $`F_\varphi =\varphi N`$, then the lifetime of reference $`T`$ would be modified in the following way,

$$T_\varphi =\frac{T}{\varphi ^\rho }.$$
(22)
Thus, we see that this exact property that works for the standard dynamic FBM with any load transfer rule and the power-law breaking rate  extends to the continuous damage version of this model.

Throughout this paper, we have considered brittle failure after $`n`$ damage events. Nevertheless, in order to describe macroscopic strain hardening instead of global failure, we should allow the fibers to have a $`a^n`$ residual stiffness after having yielded $`n`$ times.

Figure 4 shows the creep compliance $`J(t)`$, defined as $`J(t)=f(t)/F`$, as a function of dimensionless time $`t`$ for different values of $`n`$. It can be seen that the model qualitatively reproduces the behavior of $`J(t)`$ observed in experiments on amorphous materials . For short times, the compliance is very slowly time dependent. As time passes, $`J(t)`$ becomes very strongly time dependent and finally the system approaches a plastic state for which the compliance is again very slowly time dependent. This confirms that the behavior of $`J(t)`$ depends on the time scale of the experiment .

In short, we have introduced a novel time dependent model of fracture with continuous damage for the breakdown of materials. The model was formulated in terms of a set of coupled non-linear differential equations and the time evolution of the system was studied by applying a discrete probabilistic method. This model is potentially useful to describe some elasto-plastic behaviors observed in real material fracture processes. Besides, it could guide our understanding to more complex time dependent models of fracture with continuous damage.

A.F.P thanks Javier Ribera for discussions. Y.M thanks A. Vespignani, H. J. Herrmann and F. Kun for stimulating discussions on our model, and the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics for hospitality and financial support. This work was supported in part by the Spanish DGICYT Project PB98-1594.