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# Clusters in the Precision Cosmology Era

## Introduction

Because of their relative simplicity, galaxy clusters provide a uniquely useful probe of the fundamental cosmological parameters. The formation of the large–scale dark matter potential wells of clusters is likely independent of complex gas dynamical processes, star formation, and feedback, and involve only gravitational physics. The observed abundance of nearby clusters implies robust constraints on the amplitude $`\sigma _8`$ of the power spectrum on cluster scales to an accuracy of $`25\%`$ white93 ; viana96 . In addition, the redshift–evolution of the observed cluster abundance constrains the matter density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ bahcall98 ; blanchard98 ; viana99 .

In order to be useful for these cosmological studies, the masses of galaxy clusters have to be known. Existing studies utilized the presently available tens of clusters with mass estimates gioia90 ; vikhlinin98 , and as a result, were limited in their scope. The present samples, however, will likely soon be replaced by catalogs of thousands of intermediate redshift and hundreds of high redshift ($`z>1`$) clusters. At a minimum, the analysis of the European Space Agency X–ray Multi–mirror Mission (XMM) archive for serendipitously detected clusters will yield hundreds, and perhaps thousands of new clusters with temperature measurements romer00 . Dedicated X–ray and SZE surveys could likely surpass the XMM sample in areal coverage, number of detected clusters or redshift depth.

The imminent improvement of distant cluster data motivates us to estimate the cosmological power of future surveys. In particular, we study the constraints provided by a 12 deg2 SZE survey carlstrom99 , or by a deep 104 deg2 X–ray survey. Our primary goals are (1) to quantify the accuracy to which various cosmological models can be distinguished from a standard $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ Cold Dark Matter ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM) cosmology; and (2) to contrast constraints from clusters to those available from CMB anisotropy measurements, from high–redshift SNe, or from high–redshift galaxy counts schmidt98 ; perlmutter99 ; newman99 .

The galaxy cluster abundance provides a natural test of models that include a dark energy component with an equation of state parameter $`wp/\rho 1`$ turner97 ; caldwell98 ; huterer00 . The value of $`w`$ directly affects the linear growth of fluctuations, and the angular diameter distance (and hence the SZE decrement and the X–ray luminosity) to individual clusters. We restrict our analysis to a flat universe, and focus on the following four parameters: the matter density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$; the equation of state parameter $`w`$ (assumed to be constant); the Hubble constant $`hH_0/100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$’ and the amplitude of the power spectrum on $`8h^1`$Mpc scales, $`\sigma _8`$. A broader range of parameters, including open/closed universes, and evolving $`w(z)`$, will be examined in future work holder01 . Details of the study described here can be found in haiman01 .

## Modeling Details

### General Approach

To quantify the power of a future cluster survey to distinguish cosmologies, we utilize the following approach:

1. We pick a fiducial cosmological ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM) model, with the parameters $`(\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda },\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m},h,\sigma _8,n)=(0.7,0.3,0.65,0.9,1)`$, based on present large scale structure data bahcall99 . We assume this model describes the “real” universe.
2. In the fiducial model, we compute the abundance of clusters $`dN_{\mathrm{fid}}/dz`$ as a function of redshift in a specific (SZE or X–ray) survey. This simulates the dataset that will be available in the future for cosmological tests.
3. We vary parameters of our model, and recompute the cluster abundance $`dN_{\mathrm{test}}/dz`$ as a function of redshift in this new “test” cosmology. In each test cosmology, we set the value of $`\sigma _8`$ by requiring the local cluster abundance at redshift $`z0`$ to match the value in the fiducial cosmology.
4. We compute the likelihood of observing the redshift distribution $`dN_{\mathrm{fid}}/dz`$ if the true distribution were $`dN_{\mathrm{test}}/dz`$. We utilize both the normalization and shape of the distributions, by combining the standard Poisson and Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests.
5. We repeat steps 3 and 4 for a wide range of values of $`w`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$, and $`h`$.

### Predicting Cluster Abundance and Evolution

The fundamental ingredient of this approach is the cluster abundance, given a cosmology and the parameters of a survey. In this study, we utilize the “universal” halo mass function found in a series of recent large–scale cosmological simulations jenkins00 . Following these simulations, we assume that the comoving number density of clusters at redshift $`z`$ with mass $`M`$ is given by

$$\frac{dn}{dM}(z,M)=0.315\frac{\rho _0}{M}\frac{1}{\sigma _M}\frac{d\sigma _M}{dM}\mathrm{exp}\left[\left|0.61\mathrm{log}(D_z\sigma _M)\right|^{3.8}\right],$$
(1)
where $`\sigma _M`$ is the present day r.m.s. density fluctuation on mass–scale $`M`$eisenstein98 , $`D_z`$ is the linear growth function, and $`\rho _0`$ is the present–day mass density. The directly observable quantity is the number of clusters with mass above $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ at redshift $`z\pm dz/2`$ in a solid angle $`d\mathrm{\Omega }`$:

$$\frac{dN}{dzd\mathrm{\Omega }}\left(z\right)=\left[\frac{dV}{dzd\mathrm{\Omega }}\left(z\right)_{M_{\mathrm{min}}(z)}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑M\frac{dn}{dM}\right]$$
(2)
where $`dV/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the cosmological volume element, and $`M_{\mathrm{min}}(z)`$ is the limiting mass of the survey, as discussed below. Equations 1 and 2 reveal that the cluster abundance depends on cosmology through several quantities: (1) the growth function $`D_z`$; (2) the volume element $`dV/dzd\mathrm{\Omega }`$; (3) the power spectrum $`\sigma _M`$; (4) the mass density $`\rho _0`$; and (5) the survey mass threshold $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$. The first four of these dependencies are well–determined, once the parameters of the cosmological model and the power spectrum are specified (in particular, note that the abundance is exponentially sensitive to the growth function). The scaling of the limiting mass with cosmology depends on the specific survey.

### Cluster Surveys

In this study, we examine two specific surveys, in which clusters are detected through either their SZ decrements, or X–ray fluxes. In practice, the only survey details we utilize in our analyses are the virial mass of the least massive, detectable cluster (as a function of redshift and cosmological parameters), and the solid angle of the survey. The SZE survey we consider is that proposed by J. Carlstrom and collaborators carlstrom99 . This interferometric survey will detect clusters more massive than $`2\times 10^{14}M_{}`$, nearly independent of their redshift, and will cover an area of 12 deg2 in a year. The relatively small solid angle of the survey will allow cluster redshifts to be determined by deep optical and near infrared followup observations. The X–ray survey we consider is similar to a proposed Small Explorer mission, called the Cosmology Explorer, spear-headed by G. Ricker and D. Lamb. The survey depth is $`3.6\times 10^6`$ cm2s at 1.5 keV, and the coverage is 104 deg2 (approximately half the available unobscured sky). We focus on clusters which produce 500 detected source counts in the 0.5:6.0 keV band, sufficient to reliably estimate the emission weighted mean temperature. The X–ray survey could be combined with the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) to obtain redshifts for the clusters.

The most important aspect of both surveys is the limiting halo mass $`M_{\mathrm{min}}(z,\mathrm{\Omega }_m,w,h)`$, and its dependence on redshift and cosmological parameters. For an interferometric SZE survey, the relevant observable is the cluster visibility $`V`$, which is proportional to the total SZE flux decrement. The detection limit as a function of redshift and cosmology for this survey has been studied using mock observations of simulated galaxy clusters holder00 . In the X–ray survey, $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$ follows from the cluster X–ray luminosity – virial mass relation bryan98 . Illustrative examples of the mass limits in both surveys are shown in Figure 1, both for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$CDM and for a $`w=0.5`$ universe. The SZE mass limit is nearly independent of redshift, and changes little with cosmology. As a result, the cluster sample can extend to $`z3`$. In comparison, the X–ray mass limit is a stronger function of $`w`$, and it rises rapidly with redshift. For the X–ray survey considered here the number of detected clusters beyond $`z1`$ is negligible. The total number of clusters in the SZE survey is $`200`$, while in the X–ray survey, it is $`2,000`$.

## Results and Conclusions

Our results are summarized by the likelihood contours in the $`\mathrm{\Omega }_mw`$ plane, shown in Figures 2 and 3 for the SZE and X–ray surveys, respectively. Figure 2 shows three different cross–sections of constant total probability in the SZE survey, at fixed values of $`h`$ (0.55,0.65, and 0.80) in the investigated 3–dimensional $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m,w,h`$ parameter space. These diagrams demonstrate that the constraints on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ are at the $`10\%`$ level, while $`w`$ remains essentially unconstrained ($`w<0.2`$). Nevertheless, the narrowness of the contours in Figure 2 implies that the SZE survey can yield accurate constraints on $`w`$ if combined with other data. We find that the differences among cosmologies in the SZE survey are driven nearly entirely by the growth function $`D_z`$. This results from the cluster sample extending to high redshifts ($`z>1`$), where the growth functions in different cosmologies diverge rapidly. This makes the SZE sample especially useful. For comparison, galaxy counts at $`z1`$ probe mostly the cosmological volume, and constitute and independent test from clusters newman99 . Note that our constraints scale weakly with $`h`$: this arises from the weak dependence of the power spectrum on $`h`$.

Figure 3 shows constraints in the X–ray survey for a fixed $`h=0.65`$. The increased number of clusters translates to significantly narrower contours compared to the SZE survey. The orientation of the contours remains similar, but we find that the cosmological sensitivity arises nearly entirely from the mass limit $`M_{\mathrm{min}}`$. Indeed, the X–ray flux is more sensitive to cosmology than the SZE decrement (cf. Fig. 1), and the X–ray sample extends only out to $`z1`$, where the growth functions are less divergent. Also shown in Figure 3 are constraints expected from CMB anisotropies and from high–$`z`$ SNe. The dashed curves correspond to the CMB constraints (a $`\pm 1\%`$ determination of the position of the first Doppler peak); the dotted curves to the constraints from SNe (a $`\pm 1\%`$ determination of the luminosity distance to $`z=1`$). As these curves show, the constraints from the CMB and SNe data are complementary to the direction of the parameter degeneracy in cluster abundance studies, making the cluster surveys especially valuable.

Our findings suggest that cluster surveys will lead to tight constraints on a combination of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`w`$, especially valuable because of their high complementarity to constraints from CMB anisotropies, magnitudes of high–$`z`$ SNe, or counts of high–$`z`$ galaxies. In combination with either of these data, clusters can determine both $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ and $`w`$ to a few percent accuracy. We have focused primarily on the statistics of cluster surveys: further work is needed to clarify the role of systematic uncertainties, arising from the cosmology–scaling of the mass limits and the the cluster mass function, as well as our neglect of issues such as galaxy formation in the lowest mass clusters.

We thank J. Carlstrom and the COSMEX team for providing access to proposed instrument characteristics. ZH acknowledges support from a Hubble Fellowship.


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# ”de Gennes” narrowing in supercooled molecular liquids : Evidence for center–of–mass dominated slow dynamics

## Abstract

The density correlation function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t)`$ of the two similar substituted aromatic liquids, Toluene and m–Toluidine, is studied by coherent neutron spin-echo and time-of-flight scattering for wave vectors $`q`$ around the maximum $`q_{\mathrm{max}}`$ of the total static structure factor $`S_\mathrm{m}(q)`$ in the supercooled region. The wave-vector dependence of the mean structural $`\alpha `$-relaxation time $`\tau _q`$ shows in both liquids a very pronounced de Gennes-like narrowing centered around $`q_0<q_{\mathrm{max}}`$, where $`q_0`$ corresponds to the first maximum in the center–of–mass static structure factor $`S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)`$. We find that the narrowing can be described quantitatively by using $`S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)/q^2`$ instead of $`S_\mathrm{m}(q)/q^2`$ indicating that at the corresponding molecular length scales the relaxation of $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t)`$ is dominated by purely translational motion.

It is well known that the half width of the experimentally observed dynamic structure factor $`S(q,\omega )`$ (wave vector $`q`$ and frequency $`\omega `$) of classical dense monoatomic fluids in equilibrium shows a pronounced minimum at wave vectors $`qq_{\mathrm{max}}2\pi /\sigma `$ ($`\sigma `$ being the atomic diameter) where the static structure factor $`S(q)`$ has its first maximum. This effect, called “de Gennes narrowing” , was suggested by de Gennes in 1959 on the basis of sum-rule arguments. It implies that plane-wave density fluctuations with $`q`$ in the vicinity of $`q_{\mathrm{max}}`$ decay slower in time due to the strong spatial correlations that exist at these wave vectors. Experimentally, this effect has been observed by coherent quasielastic neutron scattering on simple atomic fluids like noble gases  and also on liquid metals . It has been confirmed by computer simulations on simple fluid models.

The extension of this simple concept to molecular liquids in the supercooled, i. e. high-density state, is difficult and far less investigated . Experimentally, only a few studies of the wave vector dependence of the $`\alpha `$–relaxation in supercooled liquids  indicate that a narrowing is present. The effect, however, was small and the analysis remained only qualitative. Moreover, in glass forming polymers no evidence for any clear modulation was reported in an extended analysis where all relaxation processes were taken into account . The difficulties mainly arise from the following reasons: (i) in the supercooled regime, the presence of memory effects leads to a structural $`\alpha `$–relaxation with a marked stretching of the correlation function; (ii) for molecular liquids the intermolecular structure factor $`S_\mathrm{m}(q)`$ is a linear combination of many partial atom-atom structure factors; (iii) the dynamical observables depend in general upon both translational and rotational degrees of freedom.

In this letter we present the first quantitative coherent neutron scattering study of two very similar substituted aromatic liquids Toluene and m–Toluidine. A large $`q`$-range was covered including the main peak of the static structure factor $`S_m(q)`$ whose maximum is at $`q_{\mathrm{max}}=1.8`$ Å-1.

In both liquids we find an extremely pronounced ”de Gennes narrowing”, not yet reported for the $`\alpha `$–relaxation of any glass forming liquid. It is centered around a wave vector $`q_0<q_{\mathrm{max}}`$, where $`q_0`$ is equal to the first maximum of the center–of–mass static structure factor $`S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)`$. Moreover, the wave-vector dependence of the mean structural relaxation time $`\tau _q`$ can be quantitatively described by $`\tau _qS_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)/q^2`$. This indicates that around these wave-vectors the translational motion dominates the relaxation of $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t)`$.

Fully deuterated Toluene (C7D8, Tg=117 K, Tm=178 K) was obtained from Euriso-top and sealed into quartz capillaries (Fa. Hilgenberg, Malzfeld). Optical inspection showed no signs of crystallization when cooling down to $`T_g`$. Fully deuterated m–Toluidine (C7D8ND2, $`T_g`$=183.5 K, $`T_m=243.9`$ K) was filled into a thin hollow aluminium cylinder. Note that for temperatures around the calorimetric glass transition the time scale of the methyl group rotation around their $`C_3`$–axis is several orders of magnitude faster than the relevant $`\alpha `$-relaxation . Moreover, the quasielastic contribution of the rotational motion is negligible . Both liquids are simple molecular glass formers and particularly interesting as they can be thus considered as rigid planar and small organic molecules. Their dynamic has already been studied by a large variety of experimental methods, e. g. viscosimetry, dielectric relaxation, nuclear magnetic resonance, light- and incoherent neutron scattering .

The main experiments were performed on the neutron spin echo spectrometer (NSE) IN11 of the Institut Laue Langevin in Grenoble, France. IN11 was operated in a double spin echo configuration with the new multidetector covering 30. Different mean incident wavelengths $`\overline{\lambda }_i`$ and scattering angles $`2\theta `$ were chosen to cover the $`q`$ region around the first diffraction peak . The polarization was measured for several temperatures. Normalization was achieved by division by the resolution function measured on a quartz rod of similar shape and by the polarization at $`t=0`$. We thus obtain the normalized density correlation function $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t)=S(q,t)/S(q,0)`$. Additional experiments have been performed for Toluene on the time-of-flight spectrometer (TOF) Mibémol of the Laboratoire Léon Brillouin in Saclay, France. The dynamic structure factor $`S(q,\omega )`$ was measured with an elastic energy resolution $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$=36 $`\mu `$eV giving access to a $`q`$ range for elastic scattering of $`0.2q_{\mathrm{el}}1.7`$ Å-1. After standard corrections the data were interpolated to constant $`q`$ with step $`\mathrm{\Delta }q=0.05`$ Å-1 to yield the dynamic structure factor $`S(q,\omega )`$.

Spin-echo data are interpreted by using the stretched exponential function of Kohlrausch

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t;T)=f_q\mathrm{exp}((t/\tau _q)^{\beta _q}),0<\beta _q<1$$
(1)
where in principle all parameters can be temperature and $`q`$ dependent. As $`\tau _q`$ and $`\beta _q`$ are strongly correlated, we use the mean $`\alpha `$-relaxation time $`\tau _q=_0^{\mathrm{}}dt\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t)/f_q=\beta _q^1\mathrm{\Gamma }(\beta _q^1)\tau _q`$ as a fitting parameter instead.

The individual correlation functions $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t;T)`$ shown in Fig. 1 indicate already without any fitting that the relaxation is slowed down by about a factor of ten around $`q1.3`$ Å-1 when compared to other $`q`$. Due to the stretched character and the strong $`q`$–dependence of $`\tau _q`$ a much larger dynamic time window would be needed in order to cover all $`q`$–dependent $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t;T)`$ at one given temperature. Although a time range of about 2.5 decades is covered our data do not really allow for reliable three parameter fits to the individual $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t;T)`$.

However, quantitative information and consistent results with acceptable error bars can be extracted by combining measurements at different temperatures. Without altering the interpretation of the underlying physics we apply the well-known time-temperature superposition principle which means that the correlation functions $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t;T)`$ can be superimposed simply by rescaling the time axis. Its operational validity at least in a narrow temperature range of about $`30`$ K in the time range of neutron scattering was demonstrated for a large number of glass forming substances . We use a compilation of $`\alpha `$-relaxation times $`\tau _\alpha `$ obtained by other spectroscopic techniques  to rescale the experimental times according to $`\widehat{t}=t\tau _\alpha (T_0)/\tau _\alpha (T)`$, with an arbitrary normalization at $`T_0=140`$ K and $`T_0=230`$ K for Toluene and m–Toluidine, respectively. Indeed, for both liquids all $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t;T)`$ collaps onto a temperature–independent master curve $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\widehat{t})`$ without any adjustment of $`f_q(T)`$ as illustrated in Fig. 2. The successful scaling implies that the microscopic relaxation time measured by neutron scattering is proportional to the ”macroscopic” relaxation time and that the exponents $`\beta _q`$ and the amplitudes $`f_q`$ cannot depend strongly on temperature.

¿From a fit with (1) to the master curves $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\widehat{t})`$ we obtain the relaxation time $`\tau _q(T_0)`$ which are displayed in Fig. 3 normalized to its maximum value at $`q_0`$. For both liquids, the relaxation time $`\tau _q`$ has an overall variation with $`q`$ (far from the hydrodynamic regime on the low-$`q`$ side and from the free-particle behavior on the high-$`q`$ side) of a factor of ten. It passes through a maximum as $`q`$ is varied from $`0.8`$ to $`2.0`$ Å-1. To our knowledge this variation is much stronger than that in any other liquid studied so far. More strikingly, the strength of the variation of $`\tau _q`$ with $`q`$ and the position of its maximum can quantitatively be described by $`\tau _qS_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)/q^2`$ where the center–of–mass static structure factor $`S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)`$ was obtained by Monte-Carlo simulations . It was not expected that de Gennes’s very general concept  would strickly apply to molecular liquids like Toluene or m–Toluidine. It is far from being trivial because the correlation functions are stretched and the relaxation times are long compared to those of atomic fluids. In fact, our findings indicate that in the $`q`$-range corresponding to molecular length scales (van der Waals radius) and in the $`\alpha `$–relaxation regime, neutron scattering mainly probes the motion of the centers of mass, i.e. mainly probes the translational motion of the molecules. This result is of fundamental importance for the interpretation of neutron scattering spectra in general. What we actually measure are, of course, atom-atom correlations involving the H,D and C nuclei. In addition to a translational component, these correlations also contain contributions involving the rotational motions. Our joint use of Monte–Carlo simulations and neutron scattering experiments indicates that at the $`q`$ values considered and for the $`\alpha `$–relaxation, these latter contributions are smallcompared to the translational one. This finding is also of particular interest for microscopic glass transition theories like the mode–coupling (MC) theory, either in its idealized form  or in the molecular version ; indeed in MC theory the static structure factor is the only major input that determines the slowing down of the $`\alpha `$–relaxationṪhe MC theory gives at least a qualitative description of the q-dependence of $`\tau _q`$ around the static structure factor maximum  and the importance of the center–of–mass slow dynamics in this framework is illustrated by the so-called semi schematic model .

To underline the robustness of our NSE results $`\tau _q`$ has been independently obtained for Toluene from Mibémol experiments by fitting (1) the $`S(q,\omega )`$ at 200 K in frequency space convoluted with the measured resolution function (see Fig. 3). The stretching $`\beta _q`$ was kept fixed to 0.5 close to the average value 0.48 obtained from our spin–echo experiment (see below). As can be judged from Fig. 3, excellent agreement within a few percent between NSE and TOF is found for the $`q`$–dependence of the relaxation time over a large $`q`$ range. To emphasis this good agreement even further we included in Fig. 2 $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\widehat{t})`$ obtained from Mibémol spectra $`S(q,\omega )`$ by Fourier deconvolution with the measured resolution function. Thus, an identical wave–vector dependence of $`\tau _q`$ is observed from the stable liquid state, where the typical relaxation times are of the order of picoseconds, to the supercooled state, with relaxation times of the order of nanoseconds. Such a behavior was also observed in orthoterphenyl (OTP) .

Another important output of our study is the $`q`$–dependence of the amplitude $`f_q`$ of the $`\alpha `$–relaxation. In Fig. 4, $`f_q`$ shows a maximum at $`q=1.4`$ Å-1 which is very close to the maximum of the center–of–mass static structure factor $`S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)`$, in agreement with the numerical solutions of mode–coupling equations . However, contrary to this latter, it does not oscillate in phase with $`S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)`$ (nor $`S_m(q)`$), and only a very smoothly decreasing behavior is observed at higher $`q`$ due to additional rotational contributions. We could not detect any systematic $`q`$–dependence of the stretching parameter $`\beta _q`$ which is at variance to theoretical predictions  and to the results in OTP . Note however, that in OTP no variation of $`\beta _q`$ with $`q`$ was detected at wave numbers corresponding to the center–of–mass correlations but at larger $`q`$ values. ¿From NSE we find an average $`\beta _q_q0.48\pm 0.02`$ for Toluene and $`\beta _q_q0.58\pm 0.02`$ for m–Toluidine. The conjecture of $`q`$ dependent oscillations of $`\beta _q`$ and $`\tau _q`$ indicates a systematic error source in NSE experiments: since we have used a wave vector band $`\mathrm{\Delta }q/q=\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda /\lambda 10`$ % which is nearly as broad as the diffraction peak itself  we have actually measured averages $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t;T)_q`$ of correlation functions with possibly different parameters $`\beta _q`$ and $`\tau _q`$. In practice, a sum of different stretched exponentials can again be fitted by a Kohlrausch with a smaller effective exponent $`\beta _{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and a different $`\tau _q_{\mathrm{eff}}`$. ¿From numerical examples using $`\tau _qq^2S_{\mathrm{COM}}`$ and $`0.4\beta _q0.5`$ as input we conclude that the difference between $`\tau _q_{\mathrm{eff}}`$ and $`\tau _q`$ is always less than 10 % and the difference in the line-shape is anything between 0.01 and 0.05 which is far less than our experimental accuracy i. e. our conclusion remain valid.

The main result of our communication concerns the wave vector dependence of the $`\alpha `$ relaxation time $`\tau _q`$. The maximum in $`\tau _q`$ at $`q_0<q_{\mathrm{max}}`$ can be interpreted as a de Gennes narrowing for molecular glass forming liquids resulting from the strong spatial correlations between the centers–of–mass of the molecules. The relaxation time characteristic is quantitatively described by $`\tau _qS_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)/q^2`$. $`S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)`$ is the spatial Fourier transform of the orientationally averaged pair correlation function. On molecular scales and microscopic times, the time evolution of density fluctuations of the glassforming Toluene and m–Toluidine is dominated by translational dynamics, i. e. the center–of–mass relaxational dynamics. Such a strong de Gennes narrowing effect has not yet been reported for the $`\alpha `$-relaxation of low molecular-weight glass-forming liquids. Whether $`S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)`$ is the right input for a sophisticated mode-coupling analysis in the supercooled high-density state can only be decided by further molecular dynamics simulations . Some fortuitous compensation effects in the orientational fluctuations can play an important role.

Despite the structural similarity of both molecules there is an important difference that might play an interesting role in the structural relaxation dynamics: the formation of hydrogen bonds in a system like m–Toluidine induces clustering of a few molecules whose signature is a well defined prepeak around $`q0.5`$ Å-1 in the static structure factor . Unfortunately, our experiments in this low $`q`$-range are of too low statistical qualitiy — NSE experiments outside the diffraction maximum are extremely difficult to perfom — to decide whether this static heterogeneity has a counterpart in the dynamics or not.

Figure captions

Figure 1:
Density correlation functions $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t)`$ at 160 K for Toluene at three different wave vectors $`q`$. Lines are fits with the Kohlrausch function (1). Note, at $`q_0=1.3`$ Å-1, close to the first maximum of the center–of–mass static structure factor $`S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)`$, the correlations decay much slower than for other wave vectors.

Figure 2:
Master curves $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\widehat{t})`$ at several $`q`$ for Toluene (a) and m–Toluidine (b) as obtained by rescaling times to $`\widehat{t}=t\tau _\alpha (T_0)/\tau _\alpha (T)`$. The data fall onto a temperature-independent master curve. The dense points at long times steem from Fourier deconvoluted Mibémol TOF spectra $`S(q,\omega )`$. For Toluene $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\widehat{t})`$ at 200 K for $`q=0.9`$ Å-1 and $`q=1.3`$ Å-1 is included (a). For m–Toluidine $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,\widehat{t})`$ for $`q=1.3`$ Å-1 from a fragmentary experiment on Mibémol at 273 K is included in (b). Note the excellent agreement between NSE and TOF.

Figure 3:
(a) Wave vector dependence of the structural relaxation time $`\tau _q(T)/\tau _{q_0}(T)`$ for Toluene obtained from fits with (1) to the neutron spin–echo master curves (cf. Fig. 2) (open symbols). Results from fits with the Fourier transformation of (1) to the dynamic structure factor $`S(q,\omega )`$ from Mibémol at $`200`$ K are included (closed symbols). The solid line is $`q^2S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)`$. obtained by Monte-Carlo simulations at 160 K. The dotted lines is the experimentally observed total $`q^2S_\mathrm{m}(q)`$ at 161 K . (b) The same for m–Toluidine with $`q^2S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)`$ at 260 K and $`q^2S_\mathrm{m}(q)`$ at 248 K.

Figure 4:
Wave vector dependences of the the prefactor $`f_q`$ obtained from fits of (1) to the master curves. Open squares: Toluene (NSE), open circles: m–Toluidine (NSE). The closed squares are plateau values from Mibémol TOF data obtained by time averaging $`\mathrm{\Phi }(q,t)`$ at 140 K in the range 3 psec $`t`$ 8 psec and multiplied by 1.1 to match NSE data. Solid line: $`S_{\mathrm{COM}}(q)`$, dotted line $`S_\mathrm{m}(q)`$ for Toluene as in Fig. 3.


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# Fourier decomposition and frequency analysis of the pulsating stars with 𝑃< 1 d in the OGLE database.

## 1 Introduction

The Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment (OGLE; Udalski et al. 1993) is a project whose main goal is a systematic search for microlensing events. As a valuable by–product, a large amount of photometric data was acquired on a variety of variable stars. As demonstrated by several studies, the light curves of pulsating stars depend on their physical parameters. Moreover, the observed light curves can be compared with those derived from hydrodynamic pulsational models. Therefore, once an observable quantity has been recognized as depending on stellar parameters, it is possible and useful to fix the relation between this quantity and the light curve. That can help us in obtaining stellar parameters for stars for which we have only light curves, i.e. the by-product of the microlensing projects.

The Fourier decomposition is a powerful method to describe in a synthetic and safe way the shape of a light curve. It consists in fitting the photometric measurements by means of the series

$$I(t)=A_o+\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}A_i\mathrm{cos}[2\pi i(tT_o)f+\varphi _i]$$
(1)
where $`I(t)`$ is the magnitude observed at time $`t`$, $`A_0`$ the mean magnitude, $`A_i`$ the amplitude of the $`i`$–component (the $`i1`$ harmonic), $`f`$ the frequency ($`f`$=1/$`P`$, where $`P`$ is the period of the light variation), $`\varphi _i`$ the phase of the $`i`$–component at $`t=T_o`$.

The Fourier parameters can be subdivided into two groups: the amplitude ratios $`R_{ij}=A_i/A_j`$ (i.e. $`R_{21}=A_2/A_1`$, $`R_{31}=A_3/A_1`$, $`R_{32}=A_3/A_2`$, …) and the phase differences $`\varphi _{ji}=i\varphi _jj\varphi _i`$ (i.e. $`\varphi _{21}`$=$`\varphi _22\varphi _1`$, $`\varphi _{31}`$=$`\varphi _33\varphi _1`$, $`\varphi _{32}=2\varphi _33\varphi _2`$, …). Note that the use of the sin term instead of the cos leads to results that are not directly comparable, owing to the $`\pi /2`$ shift of each component. Because it provides quantitative parameters to define the shape of the light curves, the Fourier decomposition is a suitable tool for classification purposes, once care is taken to avoid spurious results or misinterpretations of features of the light curves. Moreover, the plots of the Fourier parameters versus periods showed the presence of discontinuities in the progressions, which can be ascribed to resonances between different pulsational modes, as in the case of Classical Cepheids at P$``$10 d. These diagrams are therefore useful tools to perform asteroseismology in giant stars, as the Cepheids (Poretti 2000a), even if some caution is necessary to locate exactly the position of the resonances (see Kienzle et al. 1999 and Feuchtinger et al. 2000 for a discussion of the resonance between the fourth and first overtones in the case of $`s`$–Cepheids).

In this paper, we examine the Fourier plots of the pulsating stars with period less than 1 d contained in the OGLE database in order to emphasize their properties.

## 2 The OGLE database

We considered the 268 pulsating stars included in the 15 fields covered by the OGLE database. The number of stars is large enough to constitute a conspicuous sample, able to provide unambiguous characterizations of these variables, and small enough to allow a star-by-star analysis, thus avoiding the misinterpretations that could arise from automated analysis. Each light curve is suitable to be Fourier decomposed thanks to the high number of homogeneous measurements (with a few exceptions) and we expected a clear detection of features and peculiarities, both for individual stars and for classes of variables. The analysis consisted of the separate steps described in the next subsections.

### 2.1 The verification of previous results

The primitive idea was simply to investigate the Fourier plots obtained by Morgan et al. (1998a, 1998b, 1998c) to clarify some ambiguous patterns. In particular, the $`\varphi _{31}`$$`P`$ plot does not show any clear progression; the $`\varphi _{21}`$$`P`$ plot also shows a strange scatter at short periods. If these results were confirmed, they should be considered as a failure of the capabilities offered by the Fourier decomposition as a sharp tool to describe light curves.

A close examination of the coefficients of the least–squares fit reported by Morgan et al. (1998a, 1998b, 1998c) reveals that in many cases the small amplitude terms are not significant, the error bars being as large as the amplitudes themselves. In other cases, the presence of large–amplitude high–order harmonics (i.e. $`A_{i+1}/A_i1`$) implies a really odd fitting light curve with humps and bumps. In general, $`A_{i+1}/A_i<0.5`$ should be the rule far from resonances. Only the necessity of fitting the double maximum of RRc variables, the well–defined humps at minimum light of some RR Lyr variables or very asymmetrical curves should involve deviations from this rule, generating a few consecutive terms having similar amplitudes. Therefore, we matured the idea that a re–analysis of all the datasets was necessary to handle more reliable Fourier coefficients. At this point, we were forced to scrutinize each star again.

### 2.2 The fit of the OGLE light curves

We excluded 6 stars from the original sample (BW1\_V31, BW9\_V55, BWC\_V22, BWC\_V28, BWC\_V97 and BWC\_V56). For these stars, the number of measurements is less than 60 and the fit is quite uncertain, hampering a reliable determination of the Fourier parameters. In 8 other cases the measurements do not show significant deviations from a perfect sine–shaped light curve, probably owing to the small amplitude: BW1\_V90 (full–amplitude 0.08 mag), BW2\_V44 (0.10 mag), BW4\_V55 (0.04 mag), BW4\_V94 (0.06 mag), BW5\_V117 (0.10 mag), BW6\_V120 (0.10 mag), BW7\_V74 (0.05 mag) and MM5-B\_V141. It should be noted that 0.049 d$`<P<`$0.180 d for all these stars (and for 6 of them $`P<0.10`$ d): the shorter periods are compatible with the possibility that these stars are overtone pulsators. Figure 1 shows a light curve in which it was not possible to detect the amplitude and phase values of the first harmonic in a reliable way. Morgan et al. (1998c) considered four of these variables (BW1\_V90, BW4\_V94, BW6\_V120, BW7\_V74; see their Tab. 1) as unusual $`\delta `$ Sct. This misleading conclusion was due to the over–evaluation of the significance of their $`\varphi _{21}`$, $`\varphi _{31}`$, $`\varphi _{41}`$parameters.

In 8 more cases (BW1\_V7, BW4\_V132, BW5\_V135, BW5\_V174, BW9\_V35, BW10\_V39, BWC\_V65 and MM7-B\_V7) it was not possible to apply the Fourier decomposition: a high–order fit was requested to interpolate the measurements describing a very asymmetric shape, but the result is an improbable curve with evident bumps. In such cases the combination of the noise with the large number of free parameters is responsible for the unacceptable (from an astrophysical point of view) curve, even if the least–squares routine brings out figures. The frequency analysis did not reveal any second periodicity. Figure 2 shows an example.

Finally, we reduced to 246 the number of stars whose light curves were able to be decomposed. The 22 stars we rejected can be considered as partially responsible for the unclear Fourier plots obtained by Morgan et al. (1998a, 1998b, 1998c). In particular, this led us to a first specific result. We had already found that 4 of the stars described by Morgan et al. (1998c) as unusual $`\delta `$ Sct stars have a sine–shaped light curve. Proceeding further, we found that the curves of all the remaining “unusual” stars could be fitted by a $`M`$=2 Fourier series and hence the $`\varphi _{31}`$and $`\varphi _{41}`$values don’t have any significance. Since the $`\varphi _{21}`$parameters of these remaining stars assume quite normal values, the claimed subclass of unusual $`\delta `$ Sct stars previously reported doesn’t exist.

Moreover, we changed the decomposition order $`M`$ of about 70% of stars; in this way the Fourier plots involving high–order terms improved in clearness.

### 2.3 The period refinement

The Fourier decomposition of the light curves by a single frequency (plus harmonics) could not always give a satisfactory fit, sometimes leaving a high rms residual. In such cases, it is quite obvious to investigate the datasets searching for other periodicities; this examination had not been done in the previous analysis. In many cases our frequency analysis revealed the presence of other peaks in the power spectrum. Since most of these peaks are observed very close to the main one and since such periods are expected as signatures both of nonradial oscillations and of a Blazhko effect, we must be sure that the reported periods are accurate. If not, a wrong period can generate spurious alias peaks or change the observed value of the neighbouring real peaks.

Therefore, we decided to refine the periods of all the stars and then to re-analyze in frequency all the datasets. To this end, we considered as preliminary solutions the least–squares fit obtained by using the period values reported in the OGLE database and the order $`M`$ established in the previous step. This solution was given as input parameters to a code keeping locked the relations between the main frequency and the harmonic terms (MTRAP; Carpino et al. 1987); the best fit was searched for around the preliminary solution. Once the correct period was obtained, we re–examined in frequency all the datasets to detect secondary periodicities. No prewhitening was done: only the frequency values of the main term and its harmonics were considered as input values (known constituents), not their amplitude and phase. This approach is the same as the one used by Pardo & Poretti (1997) to detect the frequency content of double–mode Cepheids. The period refinement was marginal in most cases: for 73 stars (30% of the sample) it is smaller than $`110^6`$ d, for 168 stars (72% of the sample) is smaller than $`510^6`$ d. The mean error on the period is $`1.310^6`$ d and for about 100 stars out of 234 the refinement was made within this error bar. As a by-product, we made a further revision of the significance of the small amplitude terms. The main result of this search is described in the next subsection.

### 2.4 The different frequency content of pulsating variables

At the end of this step we separated the monoperiodic variables from the other stars. Of course, a second, small-amplitude term may always be hidden in the noise, even if the fit with a single–period looks satisfactory. However, after the further check we made, we can be confident that its effect on the main period should be negligible. As a result of the period refinement procedure and the subsequent frequency analysis, we evidenced 53 stars showing a well–established multimode behaviour:

1. double–mode stars pulsating in the fundamental radial mode and in another radial overtone (7 candidates), with a well–separated pair of frequencies;
2. stars showing one single peak close to the main frequency (30 candidates), with a ratio $`f_1`$/$`f_2`$$``$0.99 or $``$1.01;
3. stars showing two peaks symmetric with respect to the main frequency and, in some cases, to the harmonics (7 candidates);
4. stars showing a second peak very close to the main one (9 candidates), $`f_1`$/$`f_2`$$``$0.999 or $``$1.001, suggesting a period variation or an unresolved, very long Blazhko effect.

All these types of multimode variables will be discussed in forthcoming papers. Not considering the Pop. II Cepheid BWC\_V1 ($`P`$=1.74797 d), we got a reliable Fourier decomposition of 192 monoperiodic variables with $`P<`$1 d. In general, the fit is satisfactory even if some light curves appeared to be noisy. That can be ascribed both to difficult image reduction (close companion, nearby bright stars, …) or to slow instrumental drifts, which appear in the frequency analysis as peaks very close to 0.000 cd-1 or 1.000 cd-1. In 136 cases (i.e. the 71%) the least–squares fits have a standard deviation better than 0.03 mag (Fig. 3), a value quite acceptable for stars of $`I`$–magnitude 15–17 measured on a time baseline of three years.

We would like to emphasize the fact that all the work described above constitutes a complete independent re–analysis of the whole OGLE database. The new multiperiodic pulsators we found, the sharper revision of the light curve fits and the elimination of unclear subclasses of variables configure our Fourier analysis of the OGLE database as a very reliable tool to investigate the properties of the pulsating variables with $`P<1`$ d.

## 3 The Fourier diagrams: the separations between variable classes

We can finally handle the well–defined Fourier plots shown in Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7. Table 1 lists the averaged errors on the Fourier parameters for each class, as calculated from the errors on the least–squares fits.

Considering $`P<`$1 d, the pulsating stars should be subdivided into High–Amplitude $`\delta `$ Scuti (HADS), RRc and RRab stars. However, the continuity of the progressions of the phase parameters (Figs. 4, 5, 6) masks the separation between HADS and RRc stars. Such a subdivision is more appreciable in the $`R_{21}`$$`P`$ plot (Fig.7). As a first step, a close examination can help in separating variable classes more precisely. For the sake of clarity, the subdivisions are shown right away in Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7 by means of different symbols.

### 3.1 HADS or RRc ?

In the period range 0.15-0.25 d, separating an RRc variable from a HADS is not an easy task, since for example, the $`\varphi _{21}`$$`P`$ plot (Fig. 4) shows a merging of two families of points, without any apparent jump. However, the light curve of a star following the progression coming from the shortest period shows an asymmetrical light curve with a sharp maximum (BW6\_V30, $`P`$=0.18902 d; Fig. 8, top panel), while in the opposite direction we generally find more smoothed light curves with rounded maxima (BW9\_V114, $`P`$=0.20767 d, Fig. 8, bottom panel). If the difference is not quite evident in the $`\varphi _{21}`$$`P`$ and $`\varphi _{31}`$$`P`$ plots (Figs. 4 and 5), it can be better appreciated both in the $`\varphi _{41}`$$`P`$ plot (Fig. 6) and in the $`R_{21}`$$`P`$ one (Fig. 7).

We didn’t detect any $`A_4`$ term for stars in the 0.20 d$`<P<`$0.25 d interval, suggesting that the light curves are more sinusoidal: it looks natural to ascribe this feature to the rapid evolution of the light curves of RRc stars (see the steady slope of $`\varphi _{41}`$parameters for $`P>0.30`$ d). In the latter, a well defined dip is observed in the interval from 0.20 to 0.40 d, suggesting that all these stars belong to the same family. In particular, note the $`R_{21}`$$`>`$0.2 values for $`P<`$0.20 d and the $`R_{21}`$$`<`$0.15 for 0.20 d$`<P<`$0.25 d. We can conclude that the Fourier parameters of stars in the interval 0.20 d$`<P<`$0.25 d are naturally linked with the longer periods (i.e. RRc stars) rather than with the shorter ones (i.e. HADS stars).

Another way to separate HADS from RRc stars is to plot the $`A_1^2`$ term versus the $`A_2`$ one (Fig. 9, see also Antonello 2000). There is some crowding close to the origin, but the two classes are well separated in the critical range 0.15–0.25 d.

Therefore, we have demonstrated that when dealing with a well–defined sample of accurate light curves, it is possible to separate HADS from RRc stars not on the basis of a mere assumption (Antonello 2000), but by looking at the amplitude values. We shall find below a further confirmation of this separation.

The separation between HADS and RRc stars by using $`P`$=0.20 d as a clean cut cannot be considered as an inviolable rule; as an example, the symmetrical light curve of MM5-B\_V141 ($`P`$=0.181 d) suggests that this star belongs to RRc variables rather than to HADS. We also note that the presence of second overtone pulsators among RRc variables is always an open possibility; such pulsators should show more symmetrical light curves and the low $`R_{21}`$ values observed here can be a hint.

### 3.2 RRc or RRab ?

Looking at Fig. 4, RRc and RRab stars are clearly separated. In general, RRc stars have a period $`P<`$0.35 d and for this period $`\varphi _{21}`$$`>`$4.5 rad; RRab stars have a period $`P>`$0.42 d and for this period $`\varphi _{21}`$$`<`$4.0 rad. Similar separations can be found in all the phase and amplitude plots.

There are only a few exceptions, i.e. the presence of an isolated short–period RRab star, MM5-B\_V31 ($`P`$=0.36456 d) and of three long–period RRc stars, BW1\_V11 ($`P`$=0.38434 d), BWC\_V81 ($`P`$=0.38588 d) and BW2\_V8 ($`P`$=0.39402 d). However, the differences in the light curves are quite evident also in these intermediate cases (Fig. 10). The $`R_{21}P`$ plot provides the best separation between short–period RRab stars and long–period RRc stars (Fig. 7). While the RRab star displays normal values for its class, the three RRc stars display intermediate values, but always closer to RRc– than to the RRab–type (especially in the $`R_{21}`$$`P`$ plot). It should be noted that there are few stars in the period interval from 0.35 d to 0.40 d; therefore it is probable that these stars have some particularity.

## 4 The Fourier diagrams: insights into the different classes

The large number of stars forming each class allows us to discuss some aspects in detail.

### 4.1 HADS stars

The $`\varphi _{21}`$values are quite constant from 0.07 d to 0.20 d, but they show a slight trend to decrease toward shorter periods. For the 11 stars with $`P<`$0.07 d, we get $`\varphi _{21}`$=3.92$`\pm `$0.06 rad, while for the 28 stars with 0.07 d$`<P<`$0.20 d we get $`\varphi _{21}`$=4.23$`\pm `$0.04. This tendency was already noticed in the $`\omega `$ Cen stars (Poretti 1999), where the presence of stars with shorter period (down to 0.036 d) makes the trend more evident. When considering the variables with $`P<`$0.05 d, the slope of the $`\varphi _{21}`$$`P`$ progression is not only confirmed, but seems to become steeper again, suggesting a second break (see also Fig. 1 in Poretti 2000b). The change in the slope can also be seen in the $`\varphi _{31}`$$`P`$ and $`\varphi _{41}`$$`P`$ plots, but it is difficult to place it. The gap in the period between 0.080 d and 0.094 d is a further complication. It should be noted that such a gap is not filled by considering variables we excluded for some reason or other: the only star in this interval is the double–mode pulsator BW1\_V207.

In correspondence with the break in the $`\varphi _{21}`$$`P`$ progression, Antonello (2000) noted a saddle (centered at $`P`$=0.10 d and flanked by two maxima at 0.08 d and 0.14 d) in the amplitude plots. He correlated this feature with the stage of stellar contraction before the expansion of the envelope. As a matter of fact, the change of slope is unlikely to be due to a resonance effect or a different pulsation mode, which both should produce much more evident changes in the light curves. As regards the latter possibility, we remind the reader of the presence of perfectly sine–shaped light curves in this period range, which could be the signature of an overtone radial mode.

Another feature of interest is the bimodal distribution of the $`R_{21}`$values found by Antonello et al. (1986), questioned by Hintz & Joner (1997), re–confirmed by Musazzi et al. (1999), simultaneously weakened by Morgan et al. (1998c) and strengthened by Templeton et al. (1998), to be finally found unclear by Templeton (2000). When plotting the values obtained from the OGLE stars with $`P<`$0.30 d (as in the Antonello et al. paper), we observe a bimodal distribution (with different maxima). However, when considering the stars with $`P<`$0.20 d (i.e. the genuine HADS stars, as previously established), the distribution loses that characteristic, showing a single maximum toward high $`R_{21}`$ values (Fig. 11). Such high values are required to explain the strongly asymmetric light curves of HADS stars. Therefore, the bimodal distribution is generated by the low $`R_{21}`$values typical for RRc stars having short periods, as seen above. This is also confirmed by looking at the Tab. 2 reported by Antonello et al. (1986): the $`R_{21}`$$`<`$0.20 values are mostly found in stars with $`P>`$0.20 d. As an interesting feedback, this results strengthens our confidence in considering $`R_{21}`$=0.20 as the separation between HADS and RRc for periods around 0.20 d.

### 4.2 RRc stars

There are no peculiarities in the light curves of RRc stars. The only exceptions are the short– and long–period stars which are respectively close to HADS and RRab variables and whose parameters show intermediate values in some cases. The Fourier parameters are well confined in narrow loci in all the plots (Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7) and their progressions describe very well the main characteristic of these stars, i.e the slow but continuous change in the shape of the light maximum, which appears to be double or flat in most cases. When the light curves are more rounded, i.e. around 0.31–0.32 d, there is a corresponding dip in the $`R_{31}P`$ and $`R_{41}P`$ diagrams.

### 4.3 RRab stars

The RRab class is richer in particularities than the RRc one. In the phase diagrams there is an unique, narrow progression from 0.40 d to 0.55 d. After this uniform behaviour, we see the $`\varphi _{i1}`$ values diverge into three “tails”. The Fourier $`\varphi _{41}`$parameters provide the clearest separation among tails (Fig. 12). The separation is usually larger than 0.50 rad, while the fits of the light curves give a mean error on the $`\varphi _{41}`$parameter of 0.16, 0.14 and 0.08 rad for the upper, central and lower tails, respectively. In a few cases, looking at a particular $`\varphi _{ji}P`$ plot, it is not easy to decide which tail a star belongs to, owing to the error on the phase parameter we are examinating. However, this task can be done in a much more reliable way by considering all the $`\varphi _{j1}P`$ plots; in that way we take full advantage of the presence of the three tails in each plot. As proven by the three panels in Fig. 12, the same stars form the same type of tail, though with a different degree of clarity. The upper and central tails are merged together for $`P<`$0.55 d and cannot be separated; the lower tail originates at $`P`$0.50 d. Moreover, the OGLE sample does not contain many stars with $`P>0.65`$ d; therefore, this part is not well defined in each tail (see Sects. 5.1 and 5.2).

Once evidenced in the Fourier plots, the differences can be evaluated also by a direct examination of the light curves (Fig. 13):

1. The lower tail is formed by stars having the steepest rising branches and well defined bumps before them; the maxima are sharp and the descending branches are concave (Fig. 13, lower panels). Moreover, there are no great changes when the period increases (compare the light curve of BW11\_V3, $`P`$=0.596 d, with that of BW7\_V48, $`P`$=0.639 d). Stars belonging to this tail can be recovered down to $`P`$=0.523 d.
2. The light curves of the stars forming the central tail show a less steep ascending branch; the descending branch has a sort of corrugated shape (Fig. 13, middle panels; note that the points, not the fitting curve, are describing it) for shorter periods (BW9\_V14, $`P`$=0.607 d) and shows a tendency to become linear for longer periods (BW4\_V12, $`P`$=0.639 d). Moreover, the bump is wider and less marked than in the lower tail.
3. The upper tail is formed by light curves having the slowest rise to maximum (Fig. 13, upper panels). The bump at minimum light is visible at short periods (BW1\_V25, $`P`$=0.600 d), but disappears at longer ones (BW8\_V20, $`P`$=0.677 d); moreover, the descending branch looks convex. The amplitude is smaller than in the two previous cases and a 2nd–order fit is often sufficient. Consequently, the $`R_{21}P`$ plot clearly separates the stars belonging to this tail from other RRab variables; in Fig. 7 they originate the points below 0.4 after $`P`$=0.60 d.

As the general shape of the curves changes from one tail to another, all the phase parameters are sensitive to differences, particularly the higher–order ones, since they should fit the bump at minimum and the differences in skewness. This explains why the separation of the tails is more conspicuous in the $`\varphi _{41}`$$`P`$ and $`\varphi _{51}P`$ plots than in the $`\varphi _{21}`$$`P`$ and $`\varphi _{31}`$$`P`$ plots.

## 5 Discussion

The complete re–analysis of the OGLE database gave us the opportunity to demonstrate the non–existence of the unusual $`\delta `$ Scuti stars reported by Morgan et al. (1998c), to recognize the bimodal distribution of the $`R_{21}`$parameters in the HADS sample as a contamination effect, to separate in a better way the three classes of variable stars. Other aspects deserve further discussion, also considering both the inputs needed by theoretical work and the necessity of obtaining clear indications from monoperiodic stars in order to better understand multimode pulsators.

### 5.1 Features in the progressions

The Fourier parameters are confirmed to be a powerful discriminator between the first overtone mode of RRc stars and the fundamental mode of RRab stars. The same separation is discernible, though with more difficulty, between the RRc stars and the HADS stars, considered to be $`F`$ mode pulsators. These latter stars show a changing slope at $`P`$0.10 d; the possibility of a presence of 1$`O`$ pulsators among short–period HADS is suggested by some sine–shaped light curves and by a small group of stars having high values of $`\varphi _{21}`$(Poretti 1999).

None of these progressions shows a clear, abrupt change suggesting the presence of a resonance. We can speculate that the upper tail of the RRab changes at $`P=`$0.64 d (Fig.12), as there are two stars (MM5-B\_V20 and BW10\_V95) showing a $`R_{21}`$value and a shape typical of upper sequence stars, but a significantly lower $`\varphi _{41}`$value. Moreover, the $`\varphi _{51}`$ and $`\varphi _{61}`$ parameters show a regular progression, confirming that the two stars belong to the upper tail. It will be interesting to verify the hint of a resonance involving the 3rd overtone by means of a larger database.

### 5.2 The three tails of the RRab progression

Kovács & Jurcsik (1996, 1997) and Jurcsik (1998) have derived formulae that estimate the absolute magnitudes, metallicities, intrinsic colours and temperatures of RRab stars from the periods, amplitudes and phases. In particular, the \[Fe/H\] value is related to $`P`$ and $`\varphi _{31}`$. Therefore, the differences in the progression naturally transpose into a difference in metallicity. After transforming the phase differences values from $`I`$ to $`V`$ light using the equations provided by Morgan et al. (1998b), we indeed obtained a slightly different mean metallicity: the 20 stars of the upper sequence yield \[Fe/H\]=–0.96$`\pm `$0.04, the 17 stars of the central one –1.39$`\pm `$0.05 and the 9 stars of the lower one –1.50$`\pm `$0.08. We note that they are strictly monoperiodic pulsators, and the condition of regular light curves (Kovács & Kanbur 1998) is then largely satisfied.

To investigate in more detail the possible effect of the metallicity, we revisited the $`\varphi _{41}`$$`P`$ progression for the RR Lyr variables in NGC 6171 (Clement & Shelton 1997; we omitted two unclear cases), NGC 6362 (Olech et al. 2001), M3 and M9 (Clement & Shelton 1999), M55 (Olech et al. 1999), M5 (Kaluzny et al. 2000a) and NGC 6934 (Kaluzny et al. 2000b). We transformed the phase values obtained from a Fourier series in sin into phase values from a cos series. The parameters obtained in this way are plotted in Fig.14 using the same symbols as in Fig. 12 to indicate the different tails. Note the sharpness of the OGLE progressions compared with the progressions relative to cluster stars; observations carried out with different instruments and much more crowded fields can explain the larger scatter.

Most of these globular clusters show overlapping central tails (NGC 6362, M9, M5 and NGC 6934), despite a large spread in metallicities. However, looking at Table 2 we can see that the expected general distribution is respected: metal-rich globular clusters have some or most stars on the upper tail and none on the lower one, while the RR Lyr stars of the metal–poor clusters populate the lower tail. Note also that the two extreme cases (NGC 6171, metal–rich, and M55, metal–poor) describe the two progressions well above and below the central one, respectively.

However, all the stars of the same cluster should have the same metallicity and therefore the $`\varphi _{41}`$$`P`$ plot of each cluster should show a single tail, but in three cases we actually observe the co-existence of two kinds of tails (see also Tab. 1):

1. in M3 there is a tendency for long–period RRab stars to bend toward higher $`\varphi _{41}`$values and to merge in the upper tail (see Clement & Shelton 1999);
2. in NGC 6934, the RRab variables with 0.49 d$`<P<`$0.56 d seem to belong to the lower sequence and the others to the central one;
3. in NGC 6362 there are some RRab stars with $`P>`$ 0.60 d belonging to the upper tail and other RRab belonging to the central tail.

Therefore, it looks evident that only the general trend of a large sample can be considered the fingerprint of the metallicity of the cluster, not the Fourier parameters obtained from a few stars.

In the OGLE database the sample is three times more numerous and the separation between the tails looks better defined than in the Clement & Shelton (1999, their Fig. 8) sample. The RRab stars in $`\omega `$ Cen describe a sharp central tail (Poretti 2001, in preparation); a comparison with Fig. 12 supports the hypothesis that the three OGLE stars at $`P`$0.80 d belong to this tail.

The presence of the tails in the OGLE database indicates an additional influence apart from metallicity on the light curve shape. We can conjecture that the shapes of the light curves are related to something more general, such as the evolutionary phase, or a combination of different physical conditions, since no obvious metallicity–based segregation is expected for field RR Lyr stars.

### 5.3 RRc stars

The slope in the $`\varphi _{31}`$$`P`$ plot is steep. The relationships given by Simon & Clement (1993) allowed us to calculate some physical parameters. Morgan et al. (1998b) found a very homogeneous group, with a few stars showing unusual metallicity. We subdivided the RRc sample into two subsets, the first (21 stars) with 0.25$`<P<`$0.30 d and the second (17 stars) with 0.30$`<P<`$0.35 d. There is no difference in luminosity (log$`L`$= 1.65$`\pm `$0.01 and 1.67$`\pm `$0.01, respectively) and in the relative helium abundance ($`Y`$=0.29 everywhere) between the two subsets. On the other hand, the RRc stars with the shorter period seem more massive (mean mass 0.57$`\pm `$0.02$`M_{\mathrm{}}`$ vs. 0.50$`\pm `$0.02 $`M_{\mathrm{}}`$) and hotter (mean temperature $`T`$=7460$`\pm `$10 K vs. $`T`$=7380$`\pm `$10 K), but the differences can be considered marginal. However, this tendency is confirmed when comparing the two RRc variables having $`P<`$0.25 d (0.56 and 0.57 $`M_{\mathrm{}}`$, 7726 K and 7649 K) with the two RRc stars having $`P>`$0.35 d (0.58 and 0.78 $`M_{\mathrm{}}`$, 7177 K and 7047 K).

When considering different globular clusters we note that metallicity is driving the differences in the physical parameters (the mean masses and mean luminosities increase and the mean temperatures and helium abundances decrease with decreasing cluster metal abundance, Clement & Shelton 1997). In the OGLE database and in the same globular cluster (i.e. under the same metallicity), the RRc variables with shorter periods are the more massive and hotter stars (see V2 and V11 in M55, Olech et al. 1999, or V14 and V28 in NGC6362, Olech et. al. 2000)

This tendency needs to be better fixed by a more robust observational sample, which consider also RRc stars with $`P<0.25`$ d (i.e. the extension of the RRc class we introduced here) and RRc stars with $`P>0.35`$ d.

### 5.4 The comparison with the other field RR Lyr stars

Simon & Teays (1982) made the first Fourier decomposition of field RR Lyr stars, including both RRab– and RRc–types (70 stars). Subsequent papers did not further discuss their conclusions. As regards RRab stars, Simon & Teays claimed evidence for a trend, a sort of Cepheid–like progression, for $`P>`$ 0.55 d. This progression is masked by a large scatter, not observed in the OGLE sample. As a consequence, these authors missed the opportunity to note that the progression originated earlier, around $`P`$0.45 d and to note the different tails. The reason for such a scatter is unclear, since observational errors or uncertainties on the parameters are not able to explain it fully.

Simon & Teays also emphasized the unusual case constituted by XZ Cet ($`P`$=0.8231 d), by far their longest–period star (gap from 0.75 to 0.82 d). The OGLE sample fills such a gap only partially (four stars clustering around 0.77 d) and individuates a longer–period variable, MM7-B\_V12 ($`P`$=0.8812 d). Considering the whole sample of long–period RRab stars, the general pattern seems to be a continuous progression, not interrupted by any discontinuity, as suggested by Simon & Teays (1982). We also note that these long–period stars are not found in the globular clusters we considered above: in Fig.14 the longest period is 0.72 d. As a matter of fact, they seem to characterize metal–rich globular clusters, as NGC 6388 and NGC 6441 (Pritzl et al. 2000).

## 6 Conclusions

The Fourier coefficients with their error bars are reported in a machine readable form in Tab. 3 (HADS), Tab. 4 (RRc) and Tab. 5 (RRab). Moreover, an atlas of the light curves, least–squares fit and Fourier parameters is available as a ps-file from the author.

The step–by–step analysis we made allowed us to handle a sample characterized in an unambiguous way: no double–mode or Blazhko pulsator, no under– or over–evaluation of the significance of the Fourier components. Consequently, clear outputs have been obtained.

The utility of the Fourier decomposition as a classification tool is confirmed by the segregation of the phase and amplitude parameters in well–defined loci for each class of variables. The use of this technique as a link between observable quantities and stellar physical parameters is demonstrated by the enhanced separations within the same class, as examplified by the three tails in the RRab phase parameter plots. This way of performing the analysis when managing limited samples should give some warnings about the automated analysis of very large samples. A good trade–off could be the introduction of sophisticated checks at intermediate steps.

In a more general way, the exploitation of the large number of light curves supplied by the microlensing projects should be carried out in a careful way, since it can really provide us with the possibility to sound the stellar interiors.

###### Acknowledgements.

Useful comments on a first draft of the manuscript were made by Pawel Moskalik, Siobahn Morgan, Elio Antonello, Geza Kovacs, Christine M. Clement, Giuseppe Bono and the referee, Matthew Templeton. A part of this work was done during a stay at the Copernicus Astronomical Center in Warsaw and the author wishes to thank P. Moskalik and W. Dziembowski for their warm hospitality. An early short visit to Siobahn Morgan at University of Northern Iowa was very helpful in planning this work. The author wishes also to thank J. Vialle for checking English form.


text:
# Counting statistics of charge pumping in an open system

## I General approach

The distribution of transmitted charge is characterized by electron counting probabilities $`p_n`$, usually accumulated in one generating function $`\chi (\lambda )=e^{in\lambda }p_n`$. The function $`\chi (\lambda )`$ is given by Keldysh partition function, describing evolution in the presence of a counting field $`\lambda `$ which is an auxiliary gauge field having opposite signs on the forward and backward parts of Keldysh time contour. By a gauge transformation, the time-dependent scattering matrix becomes $`S_\lambda (t)=e^{i\frac{\lambda }{4}\sigma _3}S(t)e^{i\frac{\lambda }{4}\sigma _3}`$ for the forward time direction, and $`S_\lambda ^{}(t)=e^{i\frac{\lambda }{4}\sigma _3}S^{}(t)e^{i\frac{\lambda }{4}\sigma _3}`$ for the backward direction, where $`\sigma _3`$ is a diagonal matrix with eigenvalues $`1`$ and $`1`$ for the right and left channels. Then

$`\chi (\lambda )=\mathrm{det}\left(𝟙+𝕟(𝕥,𝕥^{})\left(\widehat{𝕋}_\lambda (𝕥)𝟙\right)\right)`$ (3)
$`\widehat{T}_\lambda (t)=S_\lambda ^{}(t)S_\lambda (t),n(t,t^{})={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2\pi (tt^{}+i\delta )}}`$ (4)
where $`\widehat{n}`$ is the density matrix of reservoirs at zero temperature. The determinant of an infinite matrix (3) requires proper understanding and definition.

There are two ways of handling the determinant (3). For periodic $`S(t)`$, one can use frequency representation in which $`\widehat{n}`$ is a diagonal operator, $`n(\omega )=\theta (\omega )`$. The operator $`S(t)`$ has off-diagonal matrix elements $`S_{\omega ^{},\omega }`$ with frequency change being a multiple of external (pumping) frequency, $`\omega ^{}\omega =n\mathrm{\Omega }=2\pi nf`$. In this method the energy axis is divided into intervals $`n\mathrm{\Omega }<\omega <(n+1)\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and each interval is treated as a separate conduction channel. In doing so it is convenient (and some times necessary) to assign separate counting field $`\lambda `$ to each frequency channel, so that the field $`\lambda `$ may acquire frequency channel index in addition to the usual conduction channel dependence given by $`\sigma _3`$ in (3). This procedure brings (3) to the form of a determinant of a matrix with an infinite number of rows and columns. This matrix is then truncated at very high and low frequencies, eliminating empty states and the states deep in the Fermi sea which do not contribute to noise.

This method was used in Ref. to study noise in a two channel problem described by a $`2\times 2`$ matrix

$$S(\tau )\left(\begin{array}{cc}r& t^{}\\ t& r^{}\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}B+be^{i\mathrm{\Omega }\tau }& \overline{A}+\overline{a}e^{i\mathrm{\Omega }\tau }\\ A+ae^{i\mathrm{\Omega }\tau }& \overline{B}\overline{b}e^{i\mathrm{\Omega }\tau }\end{array}\right)$$
(5)
which is unitary for $`|A|^2+|a|^2+|B|^2+|b|^2=1`$, $`A\overline{a}+B\overline{b}=0`$. Charge distribution for $`N`$ pumping cycles is

$$\chi (\lambda )=\left(1+p_1(e^{i\lambda }1)+p_2(e^{i\lambda }1)\right)^N$$
(6)
with $`p_1=|a|^4/(|a|^2+|b|^2)`$ and $`p_2=|b|^4/(|a|^2+|b|^2)`$.

Alternatively, the determinant in (3) can be analyzed in the time domain. This representation is beneficial when an orthogonal basis of functions can be found that provides a simple enough representation of (3). For dealing with periodically driven systems, it is convenient to close the time contour by imposing antiperiodic boundary conditions on the interval $`0<t<\tau _02\pi N/\mathrm{\Omega }`$, where $`N`$ is the number of pumping cycles. Upon doing this, the reservoir density matrix $`\widehat{n}`$ acquires the form

$$n(t,t^{})=\frac{i}{2\tau _0\mathrm{sin}\left(\pi (tt^{}+i\delta )/\tau _0\right)}$$
(7)
The reason for introducing periodicity (7) is that in this problem one deals with probability distributions which are stationary in time, so that $`\chi (\lambda )`$ is multiplicative, and $`\mathrm{ln}\chi (\lambda )N`$ at $`N1`$. Conveniently, the periodicity of (7) makes multiplicative character of $`\chi (\lambda )`$ an exact property, true even for $`N1`$.

One encounters a number of interesting cases which can be handled in the time domain in the problem of noise in voltage-driven systems. An external driving voltage $`V(t)`$ applied across the system can be incorporated in $`S`$ as a time-dependent forward scattering phase. This is achieved by a gauge transformation making the scattering matrix time-dependent:

$$S(t)=e^{\frac{i}{2}\phi (t)\sigma _3}Se^{\frac{i}{2}\phi (t)\sigma _3},\dot{\phi }(t)=\frac{e}{\mathrm{}}V(t).$$
(8)
The formula (8) defines a circular path in $`U(m)`$ of radius which depends on the system conductance. Full statistics have been studied for a large family of paths of the form (8). The statistics was found to be binomial for the DC voltage case as well as for the AC case with a particular time dependence $`V(t)`$ obtained from the criterion of minimal noise.

An attempt to adapt these results to the problem of pumping noise was made by Andreev and Kamenev. For several matrix paths $`S(t)SU(2)`$ obtained from (8) by exchanging incoming scattering channels, binomial charge distributions arise, not surprisingly, with transmission and reflection probabilities exchanged. Another matrix considered in Ref., $`r=r^{}=\mathrm{cos}\mathrm{\Omega }t`$, $`t=t^{}=\mathrm{sin}\mathrm{\Omega }t`$, is related to (5) by the transformation (2) with $`S_0=(\sigma _3+\sigma _2)/\sqrt{2}`$ and parameter values $`a,b=1/\sqrt{2}`$, $`A,B=0`$. The result (Eq.8 of Ref.) in this case agrees with (6), in full accord with the invariance property (2). However, in the context of the pumping problem, the paths $`S(t)`$ considered in Ref. appear to be less relevant than, say, the paths (8) in voltage-driven systems. In general, the dependence of the scattering matrix $`S(t)`$ on the parameters externally controlled in the pumping experiment is not known. Because of that, the results for particular paths $`S`$ are of less interest than the properties that hold for sufficiently general families of paths.

## II Calculation

For a weak pumping field we shall evaluate (3) in the time domain by expanding $`\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{det}(\mathrm{})`$ in powers of $`\delta S`$ and keeping non-vanishing terms of lowest order. In doing so, however, we preserve full functional dependence on $`\lambda `$ which gives all moments of counting statistics. We write $`S(t)=e^{A(t)}S^{(0)}`$ with antihermitian $`A(t)`$ representing small perturbation, $`\mathrm{tr}A^{}A1`$. Here $`S^{(0)}`$ is scattering matrix of the system in the absence of pumping. Substituting this into (4) one obtains

$$\widehat{T}_\lambda (t)\widehat{T}_\lambda ^{(0)}+\delta T_\lambda (t)=S_\lambda ^{(0)}e^{A_\lambda (t)}e^{A_\lambda (t)}S_\lambda ^{(0)}$$
(9)
with $`\widehat{T}_\lambda ^{(0)}=S_\lambda ^{(0)}S_\lambda ^{(0)}`$ and $`A_\lambda (t)=e^{i\frac{\lambda }{4}\sigma _3}A(t)e^{i\frac{\lambda }{4}\sigma _3}`$. Now, we expand (3):

$$\mathrm{ln}\chi (\lambda )=\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{det}Q_0+\mathrm{tr}R\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{tr}R^2+\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{tr}R^3\mathrm{}$$
(10)
where $`Q_0=1+\widehat{n}(\widehat{T}_\lambda ^{(0)}1)`$ and $`R=Q_0^1\widehat{n}\delta T_\lambda `$. At zero temperature, from $`\widehat{n}^2=\widehat{n}`$ it follows that $`\mathrm{det}Q_0=1`$ and $`R=S_\lambda ^{(0)1}\widehat{n}\left(e^{A_\lambda (t)}e^{A_\lambda (t)}1\right)S_\lambda ^{(0)}`$. Therefore,

$$\mathrm{ln}\chi (\lambda )=\mathrm{tr}\widehat{n}\widehat{M}\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{tr}(\widehat{n}\widehat{M})^2+\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{tr}(\widehat{n}\widehat{M})^3\mathrm{}$$
(11)
where $`\widehat{M}=e^{A_\lambda (t)}e^{A_\lambda (t)}1`$. Note that at this stage there is no dependence left on the constant matrix $`S^{(0)}`$, which proves invariance under the group shifts (2).

We need to expand (11) in powers of the pumping field, which amounts to taking the lowest order terms of the expansion in powers of the matrix $`A(t)`$. One can check that the two $`𝒪(A)`$ terms arising from the first term on the RHS of (11) vanish. The $`𝒪(A^2)`$ terms arise from the first and second term in (11) and have the form

$$\mathrm{ln}\chi =\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{tr}\left(\widehat{n}\left(A_\lambda ^2+A_\lambda ^22A_\lambda A_\lambda \right)\right)\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{tr}(\widehat{n}B_\lambda )^2$$
(12)
with $`B_\lambda (t)=A_\lambda (t)A_\lambda (t)`$. At zero temperature, by using $`\widehat{n}^2=\widehat{n}`$, one can bring (12) to the form

$$\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{tr}\left(\widehat{n}[A_\lambda ,A_\lambda ]\right)+\frac{1}{2}\left(\mathrm{tr}\left(\widehat{n}^2B_\lambda ^2\right)\mathrm{tr}(\widehat{n}B_\lambda )^2\right)$$
(13)
The first term of (13) has to be regularized in the Schwinger anomaly fashion, by splitting points, $`t^{},t^{\prime \prime }=t\pm ϵ/2`$, which gives

$$\frac{1}{2}n(t^{},t^{\prime \prime })\mathrm{tr}\left(A_\lambda (t^{\prime \prime })A_\lambda (t^{})A_\lambda (t^{\prime \prime })A_\lambda (t^{})\right)𝑑t$$
(14)
Averaging over small $`ϵ`$ can be achieved either by inserting in (14) additional integrals over $`t^{}`$, $`t^{\prime \prime }`$, or simply by replacing $`A_\lambda (t)\frac{1}{2}\left(A_\lambda (t)+A_\lambda (t^{})\right)`$, etc. After taking the limit $`ϵ0`$, Eq.(14) becomes

$$\frac{i}{8\pi }\mathrm{tr}\left(A_\lambda _tA_\lambda A_\lambda _tA_\lambda \right)𝑑t$$
(15)
The second term of (13) can be written as

$$\frac{1}{4(2\pi )^2}\frac{\mathrm{tr}\left(B_\lambda (t)B_\lambda (t^{})\right)^2}{(tt^{})^2}𝑑t𝑑t^{}$$
(16)
Now, we decompose $`A=a_0+z+z^{}`$, so that $`[\sigma _3,a_0]=0`$, $`[\sigma _3,z]=2z`$, $`[\sigma _3,z^{}]=2z^{}`$. Then

$`A_\lambda e^{i\frac{\lambda }{4}\sigma _3}Ae^{i\frac{\lambda }{4}\sigma _3}=a_0+e^{i\frac{\lambda }{2}}z^{}+e^{i\frac{\lambda }{2}}z`$ (17)
$`B_\lambda =\left(e^{i\frac{\lambda }{2}}e^{i\frac{\lambda }{2}}\right)W,Wz^{}z`$ (18)
Substituting this into (15) and (16) one finds that in terms of $`W(t)`$ these two expressions become

$$\frac{\mathrm{sin}\lambda }{8\pi }\mathrm{tr}\left([\sigma _3,W]_tW\right)𝑑t$$
(19)
and

$$\frac{\left(1\mathrm{cos}\lambda \right)}{2(2\pi )^2}\frac{\mathrm{tr}\left(W(t)W(t^{})\right)^2}{(tt^{})^2}𝑑t𝑑t^{}$$
(20)
Hence $`\mathrm{ln}\chi `$ indeed depends on $`\lambda `$ as $`u(e^{i\lambda }1)+v(e^{i\lambda }1)`$.

Eq.(19) is essentially identical to the result obtained by Brouwer for average pumped current. The integral in (19) is invariant under reparameterization, and thus has a purely geometric character determined by the contour $`S(t)`$ in $`U(m)`$. Eq.(20) represents a generalization of the expression for noise induced by time-dependent external field considered in Refs..

The parameters $`u`$ and $`v`$ in (1) can be expressed through $`z(t)`$ and $`z^{}(t)`$ in a simple way. Let us write $`z(t)`$ as $`z_+(t)+z_{}(t)`$, where $`z_+(t)`$ and $`z_{}(t)`$ contain only positive or negative Fourier harmonics, respectively. Then

$`u={\displaystyle \frac{i}{4\pi }}{\displaystyle \mathrm{tr}\left(z_{}^{}_tz_+z_+_tz_{}^{}\right)𝑑t}={\displaystyle \underset{\omega >0}{}}\omega \mathrm{tr}z_\omega ^{}z_\omega ,`$ (21)
$`v={\displaystyle \frac{i}{4\pi }}{\displaystyle \mathrm{tr}\left(z_{}_tz_+^{}z_+^{}_tz_{}\right)𝑑t}={\displaystyle \underset{\omega <0}{}}\omega \mathrm{tr}z_\omega ^{}z_\omega `$ (22)
Note that $`u0`$ and $`v0`$. It is straightforward to show that (19) equals $`i\mathrm{sin}\lambda (uv)`$, whereas (20) equals $`(\mathrm{cos}\lambda 1)(u+v)`$, which completes the proof of (1).

Now we consider a single channel pump, $`S(t)U(2)`$. In this case, $`z`$ and $`z^{}`$ are complex numbers. For harmonic driving signal, without loss of generality, one can write

$$z(t)=z_1V_1\mathrm{cos}(\mathrm{\Omega }t+\theta )+z_2V_2\mathrm{cos}(\mathrm{\Omega }t),$$
(23)
where $`V_{1,2}`$ are pumping signal amplitudes, and complex parameters $`z_{1,2}`$ depend on microscopic details. From (21) we find the Poisson rates

$$u=\frac{1}{4}\left|z_1V_1e^{i\theta }+z_2V_2\right|,v=\frac{1}{4}\left|z_1V_1e^{i\theta }+z_2V_2\right|$$
(24)
Note that $`u`$ and $`v`$ vanish at particular signal amplitudes ratio $`V_1/V_2`$ and phase $`\theta `$. Once the two Poisson processes (1) are reduced to one, the current to noise ratio gives elementary charge, $`I/J=\pm e^1`$. This happens at the extrema of $`I/J`$ as a function of $`w=(V_1/V_2)e^{i\theta }`$, for (24) reached at $`w=z_2/z_1,\overline{z}_2/\overline{z}_1`$. This behavior is illustrated in Fig.1, where $`z_2/z_1=0.4+0.8i`$ is used.

Reducing the counting statistics (1) to purely Poissonian by varying pumping signal parameters, in principle, is possible for any number of channels $`n`$. However, since the number of parameters to be tuned is $`2n^2`$, this method is practical perhaps in the single channel case only. Although the method is demonstrated for non-interacting fermions, we argue that it can be applied to interacting systems as well. Poisson distribution results from the absence of correlations of subsequently transmitted particles, which must be the case in any system at small pumping current. Using the dependence of Poisson rates $`u`$, $`v`$ on the driving signal to maximize $`I/J`$ allows to eliminate one of the two Poisson processes (1) and then obtain charge quantum in the standard way as $`e=J/I`$.

I am grateful to Dmitry Novikov for useful discussion. This work was supported by the MRSEC Program of the National Science Foundation under Grant No. DMR 98-08941