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# 𝐽/𝜓 suppression in central Pb–Pb collisions

## 1 Introduction

The rate of $`J/\psi `$ production in $`p`$$`p`$, $`p`$$`A`$ and $`A`$$`B`$ collisions involving oxygen and sulphur projectiles is well understood in terms of a hard production of the $`c\overline{c}`$ pair followed by nuclear absorption . In Pb–Pb collisions, however, evidence for an additional suppression mechanism, the so-called anomalous suppression, has been obtained by the NA50 collaboration . Furthermore, in the recent NA50 data  a second drop in the pattern of the $`J/\psi `$ production occurs at high transverse energy ($`E_T`$), that is, for the most central collisions. The origin of this second drop is the focus of this contribution.

## 2 Improved geometrical model

It is possible to explain the anomalous $`J/\psi `$ suppression by using a scenario  which relates it to the local energy density $`ϵ`$. More precisely, we formulate a simple geometrical model in which final state interactions suppress all the $`J/\psi `$’s originating from $`c\overline{c}`$ pairs produced in a region where the local energy density $`ϵ`$ exceeds some critical threshold $`ϵ_c`$. We then assume that the local energy density is proportional to the density $`n_p`$ of participant nucleons per unit area (transverse to the collision axis) calculated in a Glauber model : the total transverse energy is then proportional to the number of participants, as observed experimentally. In such a model, the suppression criterion depends only on the impact parameter (through $`n_p`$), so that the $`J/\psi `$ suppression saturates at high $`E_T`$ where the impact parameter is essentially zero (see the short-dashed curve in Fig.1b). A clear deviation from this simple behavior is seen in the most recent NA50 data.

A better description is obtained by taking into account the fluctuations of $`E_T`$ for a given impact parameter $`b`$ . These fluctuations are an essential component of the tail of the $`E_T`$ distribution (see Fig.1a). As a simple ansatz, we take the distribution of $`E_T`$ at fixed $`b`$ to be a gaussian with mean value $`E_T(𝐛)=qN_p(𝐛)`$, where $`N_p(b)=\text{d}^2𝐬n_p(𝐬,𝐛)`$ is the total number of participants at impact parameter $`𝐛`$ and $`n_p(𝐬,𝐛)`$ the corresponding density per unit area at the transverse coordinate $`𝐬`$. The dispersion of the gaussian is given by $`\sigma _{E_T}^2=aq^2N_p(𝐛)`$, with $`a`$ a dimensionless parameter. The values of the fit parameters $`q=0.274`$ GeV and $`a=1.27`$ are those determined by the NA50 collaboration .

Part of the $`E_T`$ fluctuations is physical, part is due to the intrinsic resolution of the NA50 electromagnetic calorimeter. The latter is given by $`\sigma _{\mathrm{intrinsic}}(E_T)/E_T=\alpha /\sqrt{E_T}+\beta `$, with $`\alpha 0.2\mathrm{GeV}^{1/2}`$ and $`\beta 0.005`$ . The physical $`E_T`$ fluctuations $`\sigma _{\mathrm{phys}}=\sqrt{\sigma _{E_T}^2\sigma _{\mathrm{intrinsic}}^2}`$  thus differ only by 10% from the observed fluctuations $`\sigma _{E_T}`$ for central collisions ($`E_T100`$ GeV), so that we neglect the intrinsic resolution in what follows.

In order to take into account the $`E_T`$ fluctuations, we replace the previous estimate $`ϵn(𝐬,𝐛)`$ , with the more accurate $`ϵ(E_T/E_T(𝐛))n_p(𝐬,𝐛)`$ . Thus for a given impact parameter, the energy density is proportional to $`E_T`$ . With this prescription, the average energy density in the collision area $`S`$, defined by $`ϵ(1/S)_Sϵ(𝐬,𝐛)d^2𝐬`$, is proportional to $`E_T/S`$, in agreement with the traditional Bjorken estimate .

## 3 Comparison with NA50 data

It is easy to understand that this improvement leads to an increased suppression at high $`E_T`$. Indeed, at high $`E_T`$ where the geometry of the collision is essentially fixed at zero impact parameter, the local energy density $`ϵ`$ scales like $`E_T`$ and the region where it exceeds $`ϵ_c`$ becomes bigger and bigger as $`E_T`$ increases.

This model reproduces the main features of the $`J/\psi `$ production pattern observed by NA50; however, it does not provide a perfect fit to the data . A better description is obtained if we allow for two thresholds, in line with the idea of successive meltings of the $`\chi `$ and the $`J/\psi `$ (full curve in Fig.1b). However we should emphasize that an identically good fit is obtained for a gradual suppression above a single threshold. Therefore the structure in the pattern of $`J/\psi `$ suppression cannot be interpreted as a signal of the successive meltings of charmonium resonances. In any case, we stress that the convolution of the suppression factor with the impact parameter distribution (for a given $`E_T`$) and the energy density profile in the interaction region tends to smoothen any threshold, even that associated with the onset of the anomalous suppression at lower $`E_T`$.

Whatever the chosen scenario and/or the value of the thresholds, we always obtain a second drop starting around the knee of the $`E_T`$–distribution, which directly reflects the effect of $`E_T`$ fluctuations. Note that in order to account for the data, all the $`J/\psi `$’s must be suppressed at the highest energy densities.

We have estimated the average transverse momentum squared of the produced $`J/\psi `$’s as a function of $`E_T`$. Analogous computations have been done in  and we reproduce the behavior predicted there: at low $`E_T`$, $`p_T^2`$ increases rapidly due to initial state scattering of the $`c\overline{c}`$ pair ; this increase saturates when anomalous suppression sets in, and $`p_T^2`$ eventually decreases above the knee of the $`E_T`$ distribution. Compared to the calculation in , this decrease is amplified by $`E_T`$ fluctuations. This behavior is not compatible with the centrality dependence of $`p_T^2`$ recently measured by NA50 . Indeed the data show a monotonous increase with $`E_T`$. Note however that our suppression criterion is $`p_T`$-independent, while various arguments lead us to expect that a $`J/\psi `$ with a high $`p_T`$ is to be less suppressed. The implementation of such effects is under way .

## 4 Predictions for RHIC

The recent PHOBOS measurement  shows that the total multiplicity is larger by 70% at RHIC than at SPS in central collisions. We thus assume that the energy density is also increased by 70% at RHIC. The above model then yields a parameter free prediction for Au-Au collisions at RHIC, which is plotted as the long-dashed curve in Fig.1b. In order to compare RHIC and SPS results, we have rescaled the RHIC tranverse energy so that the knees of the two distributions coincide. In the Glauber model formulas, we use the value of the nucleon-nucleon inelastic cross section $`\sigma _{NN}=41`$ mb at RHIC energies, instead of $`\sigma _{NN}=32`$ mb at SPS energies.

We have assumed so far that the energy density scales with the density of participants, i.e. $`ϵn_p(𝐛,𝐬)E_T/E_T(𝐛)`$; this was a consequence of the observation that multiplicities and transverse energies approximately scale with the number of participants at SPS. But at RHIC energies, a so-called “hard” component appears which gives rise to an additional term, proportional to number of binary collisions . The density per unit transverse area of binary collisions is $`n_{\mathrm{bin}}(𝐛,𝐬)T_A(𝐬)T_B(𝐛𝐬)`$, where $`T_A(𝐬)`$ is the nucleus profile function, and this term must be taken into account in evaluating the energy density. We have checked numerically that this does not change qualitatively our predictions for $`J/\psi `$ suppression.

Since the energy density is significantly larger at RHIC than at SPS, the anomalous suppression sets in earlier. Around the knee, the suppression for Au–Au collisions is about 2.5 times greater than at SPS for Pb–Pb collisions, so that the effect of $`E_T`$ fluctuations, although still visible, is much reduced. In a smaller system, e.g. Ca–Ca, the $`J/\psi `$ suppression would be roughly the same at RHIC as the Pb–Pb system at SPS. Note, however, that the present model ignores the possibility that several $`c\overline{c}`$ pairs may be produced in the collision. As recently shown , this may lead to an enhancement of $`J/\psi `$ production at RHIC, and may mask the suppression mechanism discussed here.

Acknowledgments

We thank Bernard Chaurand for detailed explanations concerning the NA50 analysis.


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# Effective potential in Brane-World scenarios

## I Introduction

Recently, it has been suggested that theories with extra dimensions may provide a solution to the hierarchy problem . The idea is to introduce a $`d`$-dimensional internal space of large physical volume $`𝒱`$, so that the the effective lower dimensional Planck mass $`m_{pl}𝒱^{1/2}M^{(d+2)/2}`$ is much larger than $`MTeV`$\- the true fundamental scale of the theory. In the original scenarios, only gravity was allowed to propagate in the higher dimensional bulk, whereas all other matter fields were confined to live on a lower dimensional brane. Randall and Sundrum  (RS) introduced a particularly attractive model where the gravitational field created by the branes is taken into account. Their background solution consists of two parallel flat branes, one with positive tension and another one with negative tension embedded in a a five-dimensional Anti-de Sitter (AdS) bulk. In this model, the hierarchy problem is solved if the distance between branes is about $`37`$ times the AdS radius and we live on the negative tension brane. More recently, scenarios where additional fields propagate in the bulk have been considered .

In principle, the distance between branes is a massless degree of freedom, the radion field $`\varphi `$. However, in order to make the theory compatible with observations this radion must be stabilized . Clearly, all fields which propagate in the bulk will give Casimir-type contributions to the vacuum energy, and it seems natural to investigate whether these could provide the stabilizing force which is needed. Here, we shall calculate the radion one loop effective potential $`V_{\text{ eff }}(\varphi )`$ due to conformally coupled bulk scalar fields, although the result shares many features with other massless bulk fields, such as the graviton, which is addressed in . As we shall see, this effective potential has a rather non-trivial behaviour, which generically develops a local extremum. Depending on the detailed matter content, the extremum could be a maximum or a minimum, where the radion could sit. For the purposes of illustration, here we shall concentrate on the background geometry discussed by Randall and Sundrum, although our methods are also applicable to other geometries, such as the one introduced by Ovrut et al. in the context of eleven dimensional supergravity with one large extra dimension . This report is based on a work done in collaboration with Jaume Garriga and Takahiro Tanaka .

Related calculations of the Casimir interaction amongst branes have been presented in an interesting paper by Fabinger and Hořava . In the concluding section we shall comment on the differences between their results and ours.

## II The Randall-Sundrum model and the radion field

To be definite, we shall focus attention on the brane-world model introduced by Randall and Sundrum . In this model the metric in the bulk is anti-de Sitter space (AdS), whose (Euclidean) line element is given by

$$ds^2=a^2(z)\eta _{ab}dx^adx^b=a^2(z)\left[dz^2+d𝐱^2\right]=dy^2+a^2(z)d𝐱^2.$$
(1)
Here $`a(z)=\mathrm{}/z`$, where $`\mathrm{}`$ is the AdS radius. The branes are placed at arbitrary locations which we shall denote by $`z_+`$ and $`z_{}`$, where the positive and negative signs refer to the positive and negative tension branes respectively ($`z_+<z_{}`$). The “canonically normalized” radion modulus $`\varphi `$ \- whose kinetic term contribution to the dimensionally reduced action on the positive tension brane is given by

$$\frac{1}{2}d^4x\sqrt{g_+}g_+^{\mu \nu }_\mu \varphi _\nu \varphi ,$$
(2)
is related to the proper distance $`d=\mathrm{\Delta }y`$ between both branes in the following way

$$\varphi =(3M^3\mathrm{}/4\pi )^{1/2}e^{d/\mathrm{}}.$$

Here, $`MTeV`$ is the fundamental five-dimensional Planck mass. It is usually assumed that $`\mathrm{}M^1`$ . Let us introduce the dimensionless radion

$$\lambda \left(\frac{4\pi }{3M^3\mathrm{}}\right)^{1/2}\varphi =\frac{z_+}{z_{}}=e^{d/\mathrm{}},$$

which will also be refered to as the hierarchy. The effective four-dimensional Planck mass $`m_{pl}`$ from the point of view of the negative tension brane is given by $`m_{pl}^2=M^3\mathrm{}(\lambda ^21)`$. With $`d37\mathrm{}`$, $`\lambda `$ is the small number responsible for the discrepancy between $`m_{pl}`$ and $`M`$.

At the classical level, the radion is massless. However, as we shall see, bulk fields give rise to a Casimir energy which depends on the interbrane separation. This induces an effective potential $`V_{\text{ eff }}(\varphi )`$ which by convention we take to be the energy density per unit physical volume on the positive tension brane, as a function of $`\varphi `$. This potential must be added to the kinetic term (2) in order to obtain the effective action for the radion:

$$S_{\text{ eff }}[\varphi ]=d^4xa_+^4\left[\frac{1}{2}g_+^{\mu \nu }_\mu \varphi _\nu \varphi +V_{\text{ eff }}(\lambda (\varphi ))\right].$$
(3)
In the following Section, we calculate the contributions to $`V_{\text{ eff }}`$ from conformally invariant bulk fields.

## III Massless scalar bulk fields

The effective potential induced by scalar fields with arbitrary coupling to the curvature or bulk mass and boundary mass can be addressed. It reduces to a similar calculation to minimal the coupling massless field case, which is sovled in , and correponds to bulk gravitons. However, for the sake of simplicity, we shall only consider below the contribution to $`V_{\text{ eff }}(\varphi )`$ from conformally coupled massless bulk fields. Technically, this is much simpler than finding the contribution from bulk gravitons and the problem of backreaction of the Casimir energy onto the background can be taken into consideration in this case. Here we are considering generalizations of the original RS proposal  which allow several fields other than the graviton only (contributing as a minimally coupled scalar field).

A conformally coupled scalar $`\chi `$ obeys the equation of motion

$$\mathrm{}_g\chi +\frac{D2}{4(D1)}R\chi =0,$$
(4)
$$\mathrm{}^{(0)}\widehat{\chi }=0.$$
(5)
Here $`\mathrm{}^{(0)}`$ is the flat space d’Alembertian. It is customary to impose $`Z_2`$ symmetry on the bulk fields, with some parity given. If we choose even parity for $`\widehat{\chi }`$, this results in Neumann boundary conditions

$$_z\widehat{\chi }=0,$$

at $`z_+`$ and $`z_{}`$. The eigenvalues of the d’Alembertian subject to these conditions are given by

$$\lambda _{n,k}^2=\left(\frac{n\pi }{L}\right)^2+k^2,$$
(6)
where $`n`$ is a positive integer, $`L=z_{}z_+`$ is the coordinate distance between both branes and $`k`$ is the coordinate momentum parallel to the branes. ***If we considered an odd parity field, then we would impose Dirichlet boundary conditions, $`\widehat{\chi }(z_{})=\widehat{\chi }(z_+)=0`$, and the set of eigenvalues would be the same except for the zero mode, which only the even field has.

Similarly, we could consider the case of massless fermions in the RS background. The Dirac equation, Here, $`e_n^a`$ is the fünfbein, $`n,m,\mathrm{}`$ are flat indices, $`a,b,\mathrm{}`$ are “world” indices, and $`\gamma ^n`$ are the Dirac matrices. The covariant derivative can be expressed in terms of the spin connection $`\omega _{anm}`$ as $`_a=_a+\frac{1}{2}\omega _{anm}\mathrm{\Sigma }^{nm}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{nm}=\frac{1}{4}[\gamma ^n,\gamma ^m]`$ are the generators of the Lorentz transformations in spin $`1/2`$ representation.

$$\gamma ^ne_n^a_a\psi =0.$$

is conformally invariant , and the conformally rescaled components of the fermion obey the flat space equation (5) with Neumann boundary conditions. Thus, the spectrum (6) is also valid for massless fermions.

### A  Flat Spacetime

Let us now consider the Casimir energy density in the conformally related flat space problem. We shall first look at the effective potential per unit area on the brane, $`𝒜`$. For bosons, this is given

$$V_0^b=\frac{1}{2𝒜}\mathrm{Tr}\mathrm{ln}(\overline{\mathrm{}}^{(0)}/\mu ^2).$$
(7)
Here $`\mu `$ is an arbitrary renormalization scale. Using zeta function regularization (see e.g. ), it is straightforward to show that

$$V_0^b(L)=\frac{(1)^{\eta 1}}{(4\pi )^\eta \eta !}\left(\frac{\pi }{L}\right)^{D1}\zeta _R^{}(1D).$$
(8)
Here $`\eta =(D1)/2`$, and $`\zeta _R`$ is the standard Riemann’s zeta function. The contribution of a massless fermion is given by the same expression but with opposite sign:

$$V_0^f(L)=V_0^b(L).$$
(9)
The expectation value of the energy momentum tensor is traceless in flat space for conformally invariant fields. Moreover, because of the symmetries of our background, it must have the form

$$T_z^z_{flat}=(D1)\rho _0(z),T_j^i_{flat}=\rho _0(z)\delta _j^i.$$

By the conservation of energy-momentum, $`\rho _0`$ must be a constant, given by

$$\rho _0^{b,f}=\frac{V_0^{b,f}}{2L}=\frac{A}{2L^D},$$

where the minus and plus signs refer to bosons and fermions respectively and we have introduced

$$A\frac{(1)^\eta }{(4\pi )^\eta \eta !}\pi ^{D1}\zeta _R^{}(1D)>0.$$

This result , which is a simple generalization to codimension-1 branes embedded in higher dimensional spacetimes of the usual Casimir energy calculation, and it reproduces the same kind of behaviour: the effective potential depends on the interbrane distance monotonously. So, depending on $`D`$ and the field’s spin, it induces an atractive or repulsive force, describing correspondingly the collapse or the indefinite separation of the branes, just as happened in the Appelquist and Chodos calculation . In this case, then, the stabilization of the interbrane distance cannot be due to quantum fluctuations of fields propagationg into the bulk.

### B  AdS Spacetime

Now, let us consider the curved space case. Since the bulk dimension is odd, there is no conformal anomaly  and the energy momentum tensor is traceless in the curved case too.One can see that for the conformally coupled case and for the spacetime we are considering the anomaly vanishes even on the branes. Since the conformal anomally is given by the Seeley-de Witt coefficient $`a_{5/2}`$, and this is a conformal invariant quantity, in the conformally coupled case $`a_{5/2}`$ is the same as the flat spacetime related problem, which is zero in this case because the branes are flat. We can also use the expressions found for $`a_{5/2}`$ presented in Ref.  to show how in this case it vanishes. This tensor is related to the flat space one by (see e.g. )

$$<T_\nu ^\mu >_g=a^D<T_\nu ^\mu >_{flat}.$$

Hence, the energy density is given by

$$\rho =a^D\rho _0.$$
(10)
The effective potential per unit physical volume on the positive tension brane is thus given by

$$V_{\text{ eff }}(\lambda )=2a_+^{1D}a^D(z)\rho 𝑑z=\mathrm{}^{1D}\frac{A\lambda ^{D1}}{(1\lambda )^{D1}}.$$
(11)
Note that the background solution $`a(z)=\mathrm{}/z`$ has only been used in the very last step.

The previous expression for the effective potential takes into account the casimir energy of the bulk, but it is not complete because in general the effective potential receives additional contributions from both branes. We can always add to $`V_{\text{ eff }}`$ terms which correspond to finite renormalization of the tension on both branes. These are proportional to $`\lambda ^0`$ and $`\lambda ^{D1}`$. The coefficients in front of these two powers of $`\lambda `$ cannot be determined from our calculation and can only be fixed by imposing suitable renormalization conditions which relate them to observables. Adding those terms and particularizing to the case of $`D=5`$, we have

$$V_{\text{ eff }}(\lambda )=\mathrm{}^4\left[\frac{A\lambda ^4}{(1\lambda )^4}+\alpha +\beta \lambda ^4\right],$$
(12)
where $`A2.4610^3`$. The values $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ can be obtained from the observed value of the “hierarchy”, $`\lambda _{obs}`$, and the observed value of the effective four-dimensional cosmological constant, which we take to be zero. Thus, we take as our renormalization conditions

$$V_{\text{ eff }}(\lambda _{obs})=\frac{dV_{\text{ eff }}}{d\lambda }(\lambda _{obs})=0.$$
(13)
If there are other bulk fields, such as the graviton, which give additional classical or quantum mechanical contributions to the radion potential, then those should be included in $`V_{\text{ eff }}`$. From the renormalization conditions (13) the unknown coefficients $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ can be found, and then the mass of the radion is calculable. In Fig. 1 we plot (12) for a fermionic field and a chosen value of $`\lambda _{obs}`$.

From (13), we have

$$\beta =A(1\lambda _{obs})^5,\alpha =\beta \lambda _{obs}^5.$$
(14)
These values correspond to changes $`\delta \sigma _\pm `$ on the positive and negative brane tensions which are related by the equation

$$\delta \sigma _+=\lambda _{obs}^5\delta \sigma _{}.$$
(15)
As we shall see below, Eq. (15) is just what is needed in order to have a static solution according to the five dimensional equations of motion, once the casimir energy is included.

We can now calculate the mass of the radion field $`m_\varphi ^{()}`$ from the point of view of the negative tension brane. For $`\lambda _{obs}1`$ we have:

$$m_\varphi ^{2()}=\lambda _{obs}^2m_\varphi ^{2(+)}=\lambda _{obs}^2\frac{d^2V_{\text{ eff }}}{d\varphi ^2}\lambda _{obs}\left(\frac{5\pi ^3\zeta _R^{}(4)}{6M^3l^5}\right).$$
(16)
The contribution to the radion mass squared is negative for bosons and positive for fermions. Thus, depending on the matter content of the bulk, it is clear that the radion may be stabilized due to this effect.

Note, however, that if the “observed” interbrane separation is large, then the induced mass is small. So if we try to solve the hierarchy problem geometrically with a large internal volume, then $`\lambda _{obs}`$ is of order $`TeV/m_{pl}`$ and the mass (16) is much smaller than the $`TeV`$ scale. Such a light radion would seem to be in conflict with observations. In this case we must accept the existence of another stabilization mechanism (perhaps classical or nonperturbative) contributing a large mass to the radion. Of course, another possibility is to have $`\lambda _{obs}`$ of order one, with $`M`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$ of order $`m_{pl}`$, in which case the radion mass (16) would be very large, but then we must look for a different solution to the hierarchy problem.

### C  Casimir Energy Backreatcion

Due to conformal invariance, it is straightforward to take into account the backreaction of the Casimir energy on the geometry. First of all, we note that the metric (1) is analogous to a Friedmann-Robertson-Walker metric, where the nontrivial direction is space-like instead of timelike. The dependence of $`a`$ on the transverse direction can be found from the Friedmann equation

$$\left(\frac{a^{}}{a}\right)^2=\frac{16\pi G_5}{3}\rho \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{6}.$$
(17)
Here a prime indicates derivative with respect to the proper coordinate $`y`$ \[see Eq. (1)\], and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$ is the background cosmological constant. Combined with (10), which relates the energy density $`\rho `$ to the scale factor $`a`$, Eq. (17) becomes a first order ordinary differential equation for $`a`$. We should also take into account the matching conditions at the boundaries

$$\left(\frac{a^{}}{a}\right)_\pm =\frac{8\pi G_5}{6}\sigma _\pm .$$
(18)
A static solution of Eqs. (17) and (18) can be found by a suitable adjustment of the brane tensions. Indeed, since the branes are flat, the value of the scale factor on the positive tension brane is conventional and we may take $`a_+=1`$. Now, the tension $`\sigma _+`$ can be chosen quite arbitrarily. Once this is done, Eq. (18) determines the derivative $`a_+^{}`$, and Eq. (17) determines the value of $`\rho _0`$. In turn, $`\rho _0`$ determines the co-moving interbrane distance $`L`$, and hence the location of the second brane. Finally, integrating (17) up to the second brane, the tension $`\sigma _{}`$ must be adjusted so that the matching condition (18) is satisfied. Thus, as with other stabilization scenarios, a single fine-tuning is needed in order to obtain a vanishing four-dimensional cosmological constant.

This is in fact the dynamics underlying our choice of renormalization conditions (13) which we used in order to determine $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$. Indeed, let us write $`\sigma _+=\sigma _0+\delta \sigma _+`$ and $`\sigma _{}=\sigma _0+\delta \sigma _{}`$, where $`\sigma _0=(3/4\pi \mathrm{}G_5)`$ is the absolute value of the tension of the branes in the zeroth order background solution. Elliminating $`a^{}/a`$ from (18) and (17), we easily recover the relation (15), which had previously been obtained by extremizing the effective potential and imposing zero effective four-dimensional cosmological constant (here, $`\delta \sigma _\pm `$ is treated as a small parameter, so that extremization of the effective action coincides with extremization of the effective potential on the background solution.) In that picture, the necessity of a single fine tuning is seen as follows. The tension on one of the walls can be chosen quite arbitrarily. For instance, we may freely pick a value for $`\beta `$, which renormalizes the tension of the brane located at $`z_{}`$. Once this is given, the value of the interbrane distance $`\lambda _{obs}`$ is fixed by the first of Eqs. (14). Then, the value of $`\alpha `$, which renormalizes the tension of the brane at $`z_+`$, must be fine-tuned to satisfy the second of Eqs. (5.8).

Eqs. (17) and (18) can of course be solved nonperturbatively. We may consider, for instance, the situation where there is no background cosmological constant ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$). In this case we easily obtain

$$a^3(z)=\frac{6\pi GA}{(z_{}z_+)^5}(Cz)^2=\frac{3}{4}\pi ^3\zeta _R^{}(4)G_5\frac{(z_0z)^2}{(z_{}z_+)^5},$$
(19)
where the brane tensions are given by

$$2\pi G\sigma _\pm =\pm (Cz_\pm )^1$$

and $`C`$ is a constant. This is a self–consistent solution where the warp in the extra dimension is entirely due to the Casimir energy.

Of course, the conformal interbrane distance $`(z_{}z_+)`$ is different from the physical $`d`$, although they are related. For instance, imposing $`a(z_+)=1`$, which we can rewrite as

$$6\pi AG_5=\left(\frac{z_{}z_+}{z_0z_+}\right)^2(z_{}z_+)^3$$

and we get the relation

$$d=(z_{}z_+)\left[\frac{3}{5}\sqrt{\frac{(z_{}z_+)^3}{6\pi G_5A}}\left(1\left(1\sqrt{\frac{6\pi G_5A}{(z_{}z_+)^3}}\right)^{5/3}\right)\right].$$

Here we can see that the case of negligible Casimir energy, $`6\pi G_5A/(z_{}z_+)^31`$, indeed corresponds to the flat case, in which the conformal and the physical distances coincide.

We can also integrate Eq. (17) in the general case , and get

$$a(y)=\left(\frac{16\pi AM^3}{\mathrm{\Lambda }(z_{}z_+)^5}\right)^{1/5}\mathrm{sinh}^{2/5}\left(\frac{5}{2}\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }/6}(y_0y)\right),$$
(20)
with brane tensions given by

$$\sigma _\pm =\pm \frac{3}{4\pi }\frac{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }/6}}{G_5}\mathrm{coth}\left(\frac{5}{2}\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }/6}(y_0y_\pm )\right).$$

Here we are assuming $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$, and $`y_0`$ is an integration constant. Moreover we can explicitely check how this reduces to RS solution in the limit of small Casimir energy compared to the cosmological constant, i.e., when

$$\frac{16\pi G_5}{3}\rho _0\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{6}.$$

Again fixing $`a(z_+)=1`$ we find

$$y_0=\frac{2}{5}\sqrt{\frac{6}{\mathrm{\Lambda }}}\mathrm{arcsinh}\left(\left(\frac{32\pi \rho _0}{\mathrm{\Lambda }M^3}\right)^{1/2}\right)>>1$$

since $`(32\pi \rho _0/(\mathrm{\Lambda }M^3))<<1`$, so that we can write the warp factor as a power series in the parameter $`(32\pi \rho _0/(\mathrm{\Lambda }M^3))^{1/5}1`$:

$$a(y)e^{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }/6}y}\left(1\frac{1}{5}\left(\frac{128\pi \rho _0}{\mathrm{\Lambda }M^3}\right)^{2/5}e^{2\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }/6}y}+\mathrm{}\right).$$

## IV Conclusions and discussion

We have shown that in brane-world scenarios with a warped extra dimension, it is in principle possible to stabilize the radion $`\varphi `$ through the Casimir force induced by bulk fields. Specifically, conformally invariant fields induce an effective potential of the form (12) as measured from the positive tension brane. From the point of view of the negative tension brane, this corresponds to an energy density per unit physical volume of the order

$$V_{\text{ eff }}^{}m_{pl}^4\left[\frac{A\lambda ^4}{(1\lambda )^4}+\alpha +\beta \lambda ^4\right],$$

where $`A`$ is a calculable number (of order $`10^3`$ per degree of freedom), and $`\lambda \varphi /(M^3\mathrm{})^{1/2}`$ is the dimensionless radion. Here $`M`$ is the higher-dimensional Planck mass, and $`\mathrm{}`$ is the AdS radius, which are both assumed to be of the same order, whereas $`m_{pl}`$ is the lower-dimensional Planck mass. In the absence of any fine-tuning, the potential will have an extremum at $`\lambda 1`$, where the radion may be stabilized (at a mass of order $`m_{pl}`$). However, this stabilization scenario without fine-tuning would not explain the hierarchy between $`m_{pl}`$ and the $`TeV`$.

A hierarchy can be generated by adjusting $`\beta `$ according to (14), with $`\lambda _{obs}(TeV/m_{pl})10^{16}`$ (of course one must also adjust $`\alpha `$ in order to have vanishing four-dimensional cosmological constant). But with these adjustement, the mass of the radion would be very small, of order

$$m_\varphi ^{2()}\lambda _{obs}M^3\mathrm{}^5\lambda _{obs}(TeV)^2.$$
(21)
Therefore, in order to make the model compatible with observations, an alternative mechanism must be invoked in order to stabilize the radion, giving it a mass of order $`TeV`$.

Goldberger and Wise , for instance, introduced a field $`v`$ with suitable classical potential terms in the bulk and on the branes. In this model, the potential terms on the branes are chosen so that the v.e.v. of the field in the positive tension brane $`v_+`$ is different from the v.e.v. on the negative tension brane $`v_{}`$. Thus, there is a competition between the potential energy of the scalar field in the bulk and the gradient which is necessary to go from $`v_+`$ to $`v_{}`$. The radion sits at the value where the sum of gradient and potential energies is minimized. This mechanism is perhaps somewhat ad hoc, but it has the virtue that a large hierarchy and an acceptable radion mass can be achieved without much fine tuning. It is reassuring that in this case the Casimir contributions, given by (21), would be very small and would not spoil the model.

The graviton contribution to the radion effective potential can be computed as well. Each polarization of the gravitons contribute as minimally coupled massles bulk scalar field , so since gravitons are not conformally invariant, the calculation is considerably more involved, and a suitable method has been developed for this purpose . The result is that gravitons contribute a negative term to the radion mass squared, but this term is even smaller than (21), by an extra power of $`\lambda _{obs}`$. More over this method works also in AdS space for scalar fields of any kind (massive, nonminimally coupled …).

In an interesting recent paper , Fabinger and Hořrava have considered the Casimir force in a brane-world scenario similar to the one discussed here, where the internal space is topologically $`S^1/Z_2`$. In their case, however, the gravitational field of the branes is ignored and the extra dimension is not warped. As a result, their effective potential is monotonic and stabilization does not occur (at least in the regime where the one loop calculation is reliable, just like in the original Kaluza-Klein compactification on a circle ). The question of gravitational backreaction of the Casimir energy onto the background geometry is also discussed in . Again, since the gravitational field of the branes is not considered, they do not find static solutions. This is in contrast with our case, where static solutions can be found by suitable adjustment of the brane tensions.

Finally, it should be pointed out that the treatment of backreaction (here and in ) applies to conformally invariant fields but not to gravitons. Gravitons are similar to minimally coupled scalar fields, for which it is well known that the Casimir energy density diverges near the boundaries . Therefore, a physical cut-off related to the brane effective width seems to be needed so that the energy density remains finite everywhere. Presumably, our conclusions will be unchanged provided that this cut-off length is small compared with the interbrane separation, but further investigation of this issue would be interesting.

It seems also interesting to clarify whether the same stabilization mechanism works in other kind of warped compactified brane world models, such as some coming form M-theory . In this case the bulk instead of a slice of AdS (which is maximally symmetric), consists of a power-law warp factor, and consequently a less symmetric space. This complicates the calculation since, for instance, there are two 4-d massless moduli fields (apart from the 4-d gravitons) to stabilize.

After the work reported here  was complete, Ref.  appeared with some overlapping results, and also  with related topics.

## V Acknowledgements

I devote special thanks to Jaume Garriga and Takahiro Tanaka for the entire realization of this work. I would like to thank Enric Verdaguer and Edgar Gunzig for his kind hospitallity in the Peyresq-5 Meeting. I acknowledge support from CICYT, under grant AEN99-0766, and from grant 1998FI 00198.


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# charge fluctuations in YBa2Cu3O6+x superconductors

## Abstract

Striped phases in which spin and charge separate into different regions in the material have been proposed to account for the unusual properties of the high-$`T_c`$ cuprate superconductors. The driving force for a striped phase is the charge distribution, which self-organizes itself into linear regions. In the highest $`T_c`$ materials such regions are not static but fluctuate in time. Neutrons, having no charge, can not directly observe these fluctuations but they can be observed indirectly by their effect on the phonons. Neutron scattering measurements have been made using a specialized technique to study the phonon line shapes in four crystals with oxygen doping levels varying from highly underdoped to optimal doping. It is shown that fluctuating charge stripes exist over the whole doping range, and become visible below temperatures somewhat higher than the pseudogap temperature.

Striped phases are inhomogeneous distributions of charge and spin that have been suggested to account for many of the unusual properties of the high-$`T_c`$ cuprate superconductors . In the simplest picture the charge and spin can be thought to be confined to separate linear regions in the crystal and thus resemble stripes. We expect static striped-phases for the YBa2Cu3O6+x materials to not coexist with superconductivity except perhaps, for materials with low-oxygen contents and low values of $`T_c`$. However, neutron scattering measurements have shown results for both spin-  and charge- fluctuations  that suggest that dynamic striped phases play a role in YBa2Cu3O6+x superconductors.

Spin fluctuations are directly observable in neutron scattering experiments since the neutron has a magnetic moment that provides the interaction between the neutron and the unpaired electronic spins. The spin fluctuations now have been quite extensively mapped out in the YBa2Cu3O6+x superconductors  and while some features of the fluctuations appear to support the striped-phase picture, others do not. In particular, for the highest $`T_c`$ materials there is little evidence that spin fluctuations occur with spatial distributions that support the simple stripe picture where antiphase spin boundaries occur at the position of charge stripes. Nevertheless, the charge fluctuations themselves are interesting, and we concentrate on them in this paper. Important questions are whether there is evidence for fluctuating charge stripes at optimum doping levels, and if these stripes exist, what is their temperature-dependence.

The basis for the investigation in this paper is the observation by triple-axis spectrometry that phonon branches acquire sizable anomalies at the momentum positions that are appropriate for the charge stripes of a stripe-phase . The phonon investigated in  was the $`B_{2u}B_{3u}`$ mode that results from oxygen motions in the Cu-O plane and is particularly sensitive to charge fluctuations. Other phonons may also be affected by the charge fluctuations to some degree. The ideal measurement would be to determine the phonon branches for a number of YBa2Cu3O6+x materials of different oxygen doping levels and to measure the temperature dependence of any anomalies found. The low-temperature dispersion relation for the $`B_{2u}B_{3u}`$ planer oxygen mode has been determined by triple-axis spectrometry for the materials to be discussed in this paper . However, these measurements take considerable spectrometer time and it would be impossible to make temperature-dependent measurements with the standard triple-axis technique. An effective shortcut is the use the integration technique . This technique makes use of the fact that the scattering of interest can be added along the $`c^{}`$ positions in the reciprocal lattice.

Fig. 1 shows the reciprocal lattice for YBa2Cu3O6+x for the $`c^{}`$-$`a^{}(b^{})`$ plane used in the measurement. Since the crystals are twinned we cannot distinguish between the $`a^{}`$ or $`b^{}`$ directions. The scattering of interest occurs on rods of scattering that extend along the $`c^{}`$ axis as represented by the wavy lines in the figure. In reality, the phonon cross section is not uniform along the wavy line because different positions on the line sample different displacement patterns. This is not a problem as we are not necessarily trying to measure an individual phonon mode. In the integration technique the spectrometer is set up so the incident neutron wave vector $`k_i`$ lands on one of the wavy lines and the outgoing wave vector $`k_f`$ extends along the wavy line. No analyzer is used so that $`k_f`$ can be of any length, thus integrating the intensity along the line. A scan (such as SCAN 1 in Fig. 1) is made by changing the spectrometer angles so that $`k_f`$ is moved along the direction of interest, in this case $`a^{}(b^{})`$, while remaining parallel to the $`c^{}`$ axis. The technique is a powerful one and the incommensurate magnetic scattering in YBa2Cu3O6+x was originally found using this technique .

A dip or phonon anomaly will result in a peak in such a scan because of two effects. The phonon cross section varies inversely as the phonon energy, so the lower phonon energy results in a larger scattering. Secondly, the lower phonon energy means the energy transfer which is proportional to $`k_i^2k_f^2`$ is smaller. $`k_i`$ is kept fixed in length in the scan so that at lower phonon energies, $`k_f`$ is larger. This means the counting rate is increased as the resolution volume sampled by the spectrometer is proportional to $`k_f^3`$. Counting rates are high for this technique as many phonons are counted in the integration. This results in a large background, but a signal of interest large enough to be observed on top of this background is detected. The measured quantity is related to $`S(q)`$ which is given by the energy integral of the dynamic structure factor $`S(q,\omega )`$.

Fig. 2A and 2B show the results of measurements for YBa2Cu3O6.45 (YBCO6.45) and YBa2Cu3O6.6 (YBCO6.6). The measurements were made on the HB-1 and HB-2 triple-axis spectrometers at the HFIR reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. YBCO6.45 has a $`T_c`$ of 48K and elastic scattering shows charge ordering below 150 K at a wave vector of about 0.135 reciprocal lattice units (r.l.u.) along the  direction . The integration technique will show a signal from both the charge ordering and charge fluctuations. For this measurement a pyrolitic graphite monochromator was used with an incident neutron energy of 13.7 meV. Collimation was 48’-20’-20’ from before the monochromator until after the sample. The integration scans made are represented by SCAN 1 in Fig. 1 and show peaks at about q = 0.135 r.l.u away from the (1, 0, 0) position in agreement with the elastic scattering measurements. Since the incident energy is 13.7 meV, the charge fluctuaations occur at rather low energies. The peaks are observed up to 300 K, which is the highest temperature of the measurement. No broadening of the peaks is found so that the charge fluctuations are well defined at the highest temperature range of our measurement.

For YBCO6.6 ($`T_c=62.5`$ K), diffraction measurements show no static charge-order for temperatures as low as 10 K, and no charge fluctuations can be identified using an incident energy of 13.7 meV. However, we know from triple-axis spectrometry that the $`B_{2u}B_{3u}`$ oxygen mode that occurs in the 40 meV energy range has a distinct phonon anomaly . If we use the integration technique with an incident energy high enough to measure the 40 meV range, we also integrate over all the low-energy phonons. We know from the measurements using an incident energy of 13.7 meV that there are no low-energy phonon anomalies visible, so that the low-energy phonons only contribute to the background. The elastic spin and isotopic incoherent scattering also greatly increases the background. We can remove the low-energy phonons and the elastic scattering by placing a pyrolitic graphite filter in the scattered beam. The filter transmits essentially all the neutrons with energies less than 15 meV and removes higher energies to a greater or lesser extent dependent on the energy. An ideal incident energy is 54.8 meV, as the filter in the scattered beam is highly efficient at removing this energy so that elastic scattering processes can be avoided. In this case, since only neutrons with energies lower that 15 meV can be transmitted with very high-efficiency, the lowest energy sampled in the integration scan would be $`54.815=39.8`$ meV. We need to include energies somewhat lower than this for YBCO6.6 as the phonon anomaly which occurs at about q = 0.2 r.l.u extends below this energy range . We thus chose an incident neutron energy of 52.4 meV which covers the energy range of the phonon anomaly, but does not entirely exclude elastic scattering. In this case a Be monochromator was used with the (1, 0, 1) reflection in order to obatin better energy resolution. The spectrometer collimation was the same as for the 13.7 meV measurement. The plots in Fig. 2B for YBCO6.6 show the results of the measurement. The scan used is denoted SCAN 2 on Fig. 1 and the momentum transfer is referenced to the nearest Bragg reflection which is the (2, 0, 0). The signal-to-noise is not particularly good as we cannot eliminate the elastic scattering, but a peak is observed at about 1.8 r.l.u. showing the phonon anomaly at q = 0.2 r.l.u as observed earlier . Temperature-dependent measurements show that the peak seems to be present up to 300K. The triple-axis measurements showed some broadening of the anomaly at 300K. Because of the necessity to use a non-optimal incident energy, the integration measurements do not provide any improvement on the earlier triple-axis results.

We next extend our measurements to the compositions YBCO6.8 ($`T_c=82`$ K) and YBCO6.95 ($`T_c=92.5`$ K). For these materials, low-temperature triple-axis measurements  show that the phonon anomaly appears at slightly higher q-values where the phonon energy is higher. We can now cover the energy of the phonon anomaly using an incident energy of 54.4 meV and make temperature dependent measurements. For this energy the elastic scattering can be entirely eliminated by the filter and the integration technique becomes very effective. The measurements for YBCO6.8 are shown in Fig. 3A. The solid line is a fit to the data using a Gaussian distribution on a linearly sloping background. Peaks are observed at q = $`0.230\pm 0.007`$ r.l.u. at 10 K and 150 K, while only a broad distribution is found at 200 K. Thus, charge fluctuations are only observed below 200 K for YBCO6.8. Fig. 3B shows the results for YBCO6.95. Here peaks are observed at q = $`0.235\pm 0.0075`$ r.l.u for 10 K and 75 K, but at 100 K the peak is greatly broadened. At 150 K the peak is sufficiently broadened as to be invisible within the measurement error. Therefore, the influence of charge fluctuations is only distinctly observed below about 100 K in YBCO6.95.

We have found that peaks in the integrated scattering from lattice vibrations can be identified at oxygen concentrations over the range from low to optimum doping. We can directly connect the position of the peak for YBCO6.45 to the charge-ordering wavevector. The peak for YBCO6.6 corresponds to the previously observed anomaly in the $`B_{2u}B_{3u}`$ phonon stemming from the motions of the planer oxygen atoms . Measurements made for YBCO6.8 and YBCO6.95 occur at positions of phonon anomalies observed at low temperatures by triple-axis spectrometry . The present measurement confirms the triple-axis measurements and provides information at higher temperatures. The wavevector of the phonon anomalies for the lower doping compounds is twice that of the lowest energy magnetic scattering. This is consistent with the result expected for a striped phase with antiphase magnetic domain walls at the charge stripes. We cannot make the same identification for YBCO6.8 and YBCO6.9, as there is no prominent magnetic scattering at one-half the wavevector of the observed phonon anomalies. Thus, while our results are consistent with fluctuating charge-stripes there seems to be no matching set of magnetic stripes. It appears that we can consider a picture for the highly-doped compositions in which there are fluctuating linear regions of charge, but the spin distribution shows no distinct disruption at the charge boundary.

The charge fluctuations become visible at high temperatures for the lightly doped compounds, and for YBCO6.45 occur at temperatures higher than room temperature. The triple-axis measurements for YBCO6.6 showed some broadening at room temperature so that we can assume the charge fluctuations become visible in the neighborhood of 300 K. For YBCO6.8 and YBCO6.93, charge fluctuations are found below 200 K and 150 K, respectively.

Fig. 4 shows the results of the measurements in terms of the hole doping  for the compositions used. Fig. 4A shows that the wavevector of the phonon anomalies observed increases as the hole doping increases. Associating the phonon anomalies with charge fluctuations would imply that the charge stripes become closer together as more charge is added. Fig. 4B shows the temperatures where the phonon anomalies first appear. The temperatures appear to be somewhat above the pseudogap  temperature. Unfortunately, the information we can obtain on the charge fluctuations is rather limited as we can only observe them indirectly through their effect on the atoms in the crystal lattice. Nevertheless, the information we do have shows that a charge density wave or dynamic charge stripe exists in YBa2Cu3O6+x for oxygen contents up to optimal doping. The non-uniform charge distribution observed may play a role in the superconducting mechanism.

This work was supported by U.S. DOE under contract DE-AC05-00OR22725 with UT-Battelle, LLC.


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# HFB theory for nuclei near the drip-lines: continuum coupling

## I Introduction

Near the neutron or proton drip lines, large pairing correlations are expected which can no longer be described by a small residual interaction. Furthermore, the outermost nucleons are weakly bound (which implies a large spatial extent), and they are strongly coupled to the particle continuum. These features represent major challenges for the mean field theories. We solve the self-consistent mean field plus pairing (Hartree-Fock-Bogoliubov) equations for axially symmetric even-even nuclei on a two-dimensional lattice. We utilize the Skyrme M interaction, and pairing is described either by a pure delta force or by a density-dependent delta interaction (DDDI).

## II Numerical method and preliminary results

High numerical accuracy is achieved by representing the operators and wavefunctions in terms of Basis-Splines; a combination of the Galerkin and collocation method is utilized . Our work represents a natural extension of the 1-D calculations for spherical nuclei by Dobaczewski et al. .

We have successfully tested our numerical algorithm by solving the HFB equations for a constant pairing Hamiltonian in which case the problem becomes equivalent to HF + BCS. As an example, we show in Fig. 1 the quasiparticle energy spectrum of the normal and pairing density for 22Ne. The spectrum of the lattice HFB Hamiltonian is obtained by direct diagonalization with LAPACK. In this way, we obtain the whole quasiparticle energy spectrum at once, up to about $`E_n=2000`$ MeV. In calculating observables, we cut off this spectrum at an equivalent s.p. energy of about 60 MeV. A correct representation of high-energy continuum states is crucial for physics near the driplines.

We wish to emphasize that this numerical test is non-trivial because the HFB code solves a *quasiparticle* energy spectrum (upper and lower continuum, no lower bound) while the HF + BCS codes solve for the energy spectrum of *real particles* (one upper continuum only, lower bound).

In the following, we discuss preliminary results obtained with the full HFB code. All calculations are for 22Ne with the Skyrme M interaction in the p-h channel and a pure delta pairing interaction (strength $`V_0=173MeVfm^3`$, taken from ref. ). We utilized B-Spines of order $`M=7`$, a lattice size of 8 fm in radial direction, and a lattice spacing of about 1 fm.

Fig. 2 shows that both the normal density and the pairing density develop more structure in the quasiparticle energy spectrum, as compared to the BCS pairing case. This is in agreement with the results from 1-D calculations.

Fig. 3 demonstrates the convergence of the total nuclear binding energy as a function of the number of iterations. The three different curves correspond to lattice spacings of $`\mathrm{\Delta }x=1.33,1.14,1.00`$ fm.

Fig. 4 shows contour plots of the pairing density for protons and neutrons. The square of the pairing density describes the probability of finding a *correlated* nucleon pair with opposite spin directions at position $`𝐫`$ .

We are now in the process of adjusting the DI and DDDI pairing force parameters to the tin isotope chain and plan to do a detailed comparison for spherical nuclei with Dobaczewski’s 1-D HFB code . After these tests are finished, we will be in a position to address the new physics near the drip lines such as neutron halos and neutron skins, proton radioactivity etc. We are going to calculate binding energies, neutron and proton separation energies, pairing gaps, normal and pairing densities, rms radii, and electric or magnetic moments.

We have adopted the Skyrme force parameterization suggested in ref.. Currently, all of our HFB calculations are carried out with the SkM interaction. In the near future, we plan to investigate some of the more recent parameterizations, in particular SLy4 and to explore the sensitivity of observables to these forces. We will also add constraints ($`Q_{20},Q_{30},\omega j_x`$) to the HFB code in order to calculate potential energy surfaces for nuclei far from stability. Our long-range plan is to extend the current ground state theory to excited states, i.e. quasiparticle RPA on the lattice .

###### Acknowledgements.

This work was supported by the U. S. Department of Energy under contract DE-FG02-96ER40975 with Vanderbilt University. Some of the numerical calculations were carried out on CRAY-SV1 supercomputers at NERSC.


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# Generation of Continuous Variable Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Entanglement via the Kerr Nonlinearity in an Optical Fibre

## Abstract

We report on the generation of a continuous variable Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) entanglement using an optical fibre interferometer. The Kerr nonlinearity in the fibre is exploited for the generation of two independent squeezed beams. These interfere at a beam splitter and EPR entanglement is obtained between the output beams. The correlation of the amplitude (phase) quadratures are measured to be $`4.0\pm 0.2(4.0\pm 0.4)`$ dB below the quantum noise limit. The sum criterion for these squeezing variances $`0.80\pm 0.03<2`$ verifies the nonseparability of the state. The product of the inferred uncertainties for one beam $`(0.64\pm 0.08)`$ is well below the EPR limit of unity.

Since the original proposal of a Gedankenexperiment intending to show the incompleteness of quantum mechanics in 1935 , a number of schemes for generating the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) entanglement have been realized. The schemes range from the production of gamma-ray pairs from positron-electron annihilations , to proton pairs , to pairs of low-energy photons from atomic radiative cascade  and more recently to schemes involving optical parametric processes . Most of these initial experiments utilized the entanglement as originally intended: to test the validity of quantum mechanics via either the violation of Bell inequality  or the demonstration of the EPR paradox . Following the proposals of a myriad of quantum information schemes in recent years where entanglement is regarded as a basic requisite, the subject matter has experienced a resurgence of interest. The purposes of entanglement generation are now shifting to that of quantum information applications. Amongst these applications are the realization of quantum teleportation, the implementation of dense coding, quantum cryptography and other quantum communication schemes . In view of these changing needs, it is desirable to explore simpler and more reliable alternatives for the generation of EPR entanglement.

In this letter, we report on what is to our knowledge the first generation of EPR entanglement of photons that does not rely on any pair production process, such as those in the above-mentioned examples. Instead, the Kerr $`(\chi ^{(3)})`$ nonlinearity of an optical fibre is utilized to produce two amplitude squeezed beams, with the nonlinear interaction on each beam uncoupled to the other. To create the EPR entanglement, no additional nonlinear interaction is required. Instead, the amplitude squeezed beams are made to interfere at a 50/50 beam splitter . In this vein sum squeezing is obtained for the amplitude quadratures and difference squeezing for the phase quadratures. The signs of these correlations are interchanged compared to those achieved in other systems. This fact may be of importance in applications involving the opto-mechanical coupling of radiation pressure. Apart from the simplicity of our scheme, it also has the potential advantage of being integrable into existing fibre-optics communication networks.

Our experimental setup is as shown in Figure 1. A passively mode-locked $`\mathrm{Cr}^{4+}:\mathrm{YAG}`$ laser is used to produce optical pulses at a centre wavelength of 1505 nm with a repetition frequency of 163 MHz. The maximum average power of the laser is around 95 mW and the pulses have a bandwidth limited hyberbolic-secant shape with a FWHM of 130 fs. These pulses are injected into an asymmetric fibre Sagnac interferometer. The Sagnac loop consists of an 8 m long polarization maintaining fibre (FS-PM-7811 from 3M) and a beam splitter. The fibre has a birefringence, characterized by a beatlength of $`1.95`$ mm for 1505 nm light, that supports the s- and p- polarization states with negligible cross-talk. The beam splitter of the interferometer has 91% (90%) reflectivity and 9% (10%) transmittivity for the s- (p-) polarization states, respectively. This provides a strong and a weak counterpropagating pulse within the Sagnac loop for each polarization.

Because of the Kerr nonlinearity of the optical fibre, the strong pulses acquire an intensity dependent phase shift during propagation. This mechanism squeezes the circular shaped phase space uncertainty into an ellipse . However, the squeezed quadrature of the ellipse is not aligned with the amplitude quadrature and amplitude squeezing is not readily observed. In the asymmetric Sagnac interferometric arrangement, the weak and the strong counterpropagating pulses acquire different nonlinear phase shifts. When the pulses interfere at the beam splitter, this relative phase shift realigns the axes of the ellipse. For certain input energies, this realignment yields direct detectable amplitude squeezing .

In contrast to the setup reported by Schmitt et al. , however, we utilized the polarization maintaining characteristics of the fibre to simultaneously sustain two orthogonally polarized modes in the Sagnac loop by choosing an input polarization direction at around 45 relative to the fibre axes. Thus, two independently amplitude squeezed beams, labelled as $`\widehat{s}`$ and $`\widehat{p}`$ in Figure 1, are produced.

Owing to the birefrigence of the optical fibre, the $`\widehat{s}`$ and $`\widehat{p}`$ polarization modes of the same energy in general do not experience the same effective Kerr nonlinearity. This is because both the propagation time and the mode confinement for each polarization are different. Furthermore, the reflectivity of the Sagnac mirror is slightly different for the two polarizations. As a result, simultaneous squeezing of both modes is not always guaranteed. This imbalance can be compensated by careful adjustment of the energy splitting ratio between the two polarizations.

The photodetectors used are a pair of balanced windowless InGaAs detectors from Epitaxx (ETX-500). The detection efficiencies are measured to be around $`(92\pm 5)`$% and the detection frequency is at 10 MHz with a resolution bandwidth of 300 kHz. Our detectors have their 3 dB roll-off frequencies at around 20 MHz and a more than 40 dB attenuation at the repetition frequency and the harmonics of the mode-locked $`\mathrm{Cr}^{4+}:\mathrm{YAG}`$ laser. In order to obtain an EPR entanglement, the polarization of the $`\widehat{s}`$ beam and its path length are adjusted to interfere with the $`\widehat{p}`$ beam at a 50/50 beam splitter.

For two squeezed sources with identical squeezed quadrature and optical power, EPR entanglement is maximized when the interference phase is such that the two output beams have equal optical power . We can model this condition by assuming that both reflected beams have $`90^{}`$ phase shifts relative to their transmitted beams. In order to evaluate the noise variance expressions of the output beams, we express the annihilation operator of a field as $`\widehat{A}(t)=\alpha +\delta \widehat{A}(t)`$, with $`\alpha `$ being the classical steady state value, and $`\delta \widehat{A}(t)`$ the zero-mean operator which contains all the classical and quantum fluctuations. We denote the amplitude and phase quadratures with $`\widehat{X}^+(t)=\widehat{A}^{}(t)+\widehat{A}(t)`$ and $`\widehat{X}^{}(t)=i(\widehat{A}^{}(t)\widehat{A}(t))`$, respectively. Finally, via a Fourier transform, the spectral variances $`V(\widehat{X}_A^\pm )=V(\widehat{X}_A^\pm )(\omega )=|\delta \widehat{A}(\omega )\pm \delta \widehat{A}^{}(\omega )|^2`$ are calculated by only considering the first order contribution of the fluctuation terms. The noise variances of the output beams $`\widehat{a}`$ and $`\widehat{b}`$ are calculated to be

$`V(\widehat{X}_a^+)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}[V(\widehat{X}_s^+)+V(\widehat{X}_s^{})+V(\widehat{X}_p^+)+V(\widehat{X}_p^{})]`$ (1)
$`V(\widehat{X}_b^+)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}[V(\widehat{X}_s^+)+V(\widehat{X}_s^{})+V(\widehat{X}_p^+)+V(\widehat{X}_p^{})],`$ (2)
and the normalized sum and difference photo currents for both amplitude and phase quadratures are then given by

$`V_{\mathrm{sum}}^\pm ={\displaystyle \frac{V(\widehat{X}_a^\pm +\widehat{X}_b^\pm )}{V(\widehat{X}_{a,\mathrm{SN}}^\pm +\widehat{X}_{b,\mathrm{SN}}^\pm )}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}[V(\widehat{X}_s^\pm )+V(\widehat{X}_p^\pm )]`$ (3)
$`V_{\mathrm{diff}}^\pm ={\displaystyle \frac{V(\widehat{X}_a^\pm \widehat{X}_b^\pm )}{V(\widehat{X}_{a,\mathrm{SN}}^\pm \widehat{X}_{b,\mathrm{SN}}^\pm )}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}[V(\widehat{X}_s^{})+V(\widehat{X}_p^{})],`$ (4)
with the field modes denoted by the respective subscripts, and $`\mathrm{SN}`$ is used to denote the corresponding parameter for a shot noise limited beam. For amplitude squeezed input beams, we have $`V(\widehat{X}_{s,p}^+)<1<V(\widehat{X}_{s,p}^{})`$, thus giving sum squeezing for the amplitude quadrature, $`V_{\mathrm{sum}}^+<1`$, and difference squeezing for the phase, $`V_{\mathrm{diff}}^{}<1`$. Apart from these, we note that all other variances for the output beams are above the quantum noise limit.

Our initial experimental investigation is done by varying the input pulse energy continuously while measuring the $`\widehat{s}`$ and $`\widehat{p}`$ output beams individually using a balanced detection scheme. The results of these measurements are shown in Figure 2 (a) and (b). Traces 1 and 3 are the respective quantum noise limits and Traces 2 and 4, the amplitude noise variances. We observed that similar to , the amplitude noise power varies as a function of the input pulse energy giving rise to squeezing regions I and II. This is a consequence of the variation in the nonlinear phase shift experienced as a function of pulse energy. The noise power traces have a double-dip structure within a squeezing region due to the non-optimal reflectivity of the Sagnac beam splitter . We note that the squeezing regions of these two different polarization beams overlap almost completely. The maximum amplitude squeezing obtained in region I is $`4.1\pm 0.2`$ dB ($`3.9\pm 0.2`$ dB) for the p- (s-) polarization beam.

In our experiment the beam splitter transforms the two squeezed input beams into quantum entanglement between the output beams. The efficiency of this process relies on high interferometric visibility. For the input energies of region I a visibility of $`96\pm 1`$% was measured from a beam splitter with $`51.5\pm 1.0`$% reflectivity. After the interference the outputs are measured individually. In Figure 2 (c), Traces 5 and 6 show the amplitude noise variances of the $`\widehat{a}`$ and $`\widehat{b}`$ EPR beams, respectively. As predicted by Eqs. (1, 2), the noise variances of the indi-

vidual beams are far above the quantum noise limit since each of them contains the squeezed and the anti-squeezed noise variances of both the $`\widehat{s}`$ and $`\widehat{p}`$ beams. Trace 7 shows that the noise power obtained when both beams are detected and subtracted is 6 dB above that of the individual EPR beams (Traces 5 & 6). This is because it is measured at twice the optical power of an individual EPR beams (3 dB) and $`V_{\mathrm{diff}}^+2V(X_{a,b}^+)`$ (a further 3 dB).

The excess noise is present in the variances of each individual beam (Traces 5 & 6), but the variance of the sum photo currents (Trace 8) is observed to be below the quantum noise limit (Trace 9). The best result obtained in our setup is found at the input energy near 110 pJ with $`4.0\pm 0.2`$ dB of quantum correlation. Although there is squeezing of both input beams in region II, the sum variance of the amplitudes is above the quantum noise limit. This is attributed to the following reasons. Firstly there is a lack of cancellation from the balanced detector pair due to nonlinear responses at input energy beyond 130 pJ. Moreover, the interferometric visibility is only optimized for region I at the input energy of around 110 pJ. At higher input energies, stimulated Raman scattering begins to dominate, which leads to a decrease in the spectral overlap between the beams. Hence, EPR entanglement is present only in region I (see Fig. 2).

In order to directly measure the phase quadrature correlation of the output beams, optical local oscillators are required for homodyne measurements. In our experiment, this is not possible due to pump power limitation and detector saturation. Instead, an indirect interrogation of the phase quadrature correlation as shown in Figure 3 is devised. Let us assume that the experiment described thus far is a black box with two output beams of which the amplitude correlation has been established. We now let these beams interfere at yet another 50/50 beam splitter. The final output beams are now denoted by $`\widehat{c}`$ and $`\widehat{d}`$ and their variances are given by

$`V(\widehat{X}_{c,d}^+)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}(\delta \widehat{X}_a^++\delta \widehat{X}_b^++\delta \widehat{X}_a^{}\delta \widehat{X}_b^{})^2`$ (5)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\left[V(\widehat{X}_a^++\widehat{X}_b^+)+V(\widehat{X}_a^{}\widehat{X}_b^{})\right]`$ (8)
$`\pm \left(\delta \widehat{X}_a^+\delta \widehat{X}_a^{}\delta \widehat{X}_b^+\delta \widehat{X}_b^{}\right)`$
$`\pm \left(\delta \widehat{X}_b^+\delta \widehat{X}_a^{}\delta \widehat{X}_a^+\delta \widehat{X}_b^{}\right)`$
By argument of symmetry, we note that $`\widehat{a}`$ and $`\widehat{b}`$ are produced similarly and interchanging the indices should not give a different result. The terms within each bracket of the second and third lines of Eq. (8) therefore should cancel with each other. Hence measurements of the amplitude variances of $`\widehat{c}`$ and $`\widehat{d}`$ are equivalent to combined measurements of the amplitude sum variance, $`V(\widehat{X}_a^++\widehat{X}_b^+)`$, and the phase difference variance, $`V(\widehat{X}_a^{}\widehat{X}_b^{})`$. Since $`V(\widehat{X}_a^++\widehat{X}_b^+)`$ is known from earlier measurements, we can therefore deduce $`V(\widehat{X}_a^{}\widehat{X}_b^{})`$ without using a separate local oscillator. With this method we measured a best difference squeezing of $`V_{\mathrm{diff}}^{}=4.0\pm 0.4`$ dB for the phase quadratures at the input pulse energy of 110 pJ, in excellent agreement with the prediction of Eq. (4). The result of a typical scan of this second interferometer phase is shown in Fig. 3. The noise suppression predicted by Eq. (8) is only observed at the interferometer phase of $`\varphi =0`$, corresponding to $`\widehat{c}`$ and $`\widehat{d}`$ having equal power.

In the experiment the quantum correlations in the two non-commuting observables, amplitude and phase are

characterized by the sum $`V_{\mathrm{sum}}^+=0.40\pm 0.02`$ and difference $`V_{\mathrm{diff}}^{}=0.40\pm 0.04`$ squeezing of the entangled beams where the corresponding variances of the sum and difference photo currents are normalized to the shot noise level of both beams (Eqs. 3,4). With this normalization the Peres-Horodecki separability criterion for continuous variables  can be expressed as $`V_{\mathrm{sum}}^++V_{\mathrm{diff}}^{}<2`$. Thus the value of $`V_{\mathrm{sum}}^++V_{\mathrm{diff}}^{}=0.80\pm 0.03<2`$ shows the high nonseparability of the generated state. For many quantum information applications, this criterion also defines the boundary between the classical and the quantum regime. For example, the limit of the Peres-Horodecki criterion corresponds to a teleportation fidelity of $`F=\psi _{\mathrm{in}}|\rho _{out}|\psi _{\mathrm{in}}=0.5`$, which separates classical and quantum teleportation. Assuming our realistic EPR-source and ideal conditions for the teleportation, this would yield a fidelity of $`F=0.71\pm 0.02>\frac{2}{3}`$ (for criteria of quantum teleportation see , , ).

In terms of demonstrating the continuous variable EPR-Gedankenexperiment, one has to apply another criterion. The demonstration of the EPR-paradox requires the ability to infer “at a distance” both non-commuting observables with a precision below the quantum noise limit of one single beam . The symmetry between the beams in optical powers and quantum uncertainties allows us to renormalize to obtain the appropriate inferred variances for the amplitude and phase quadrature. These inferred variances for an optimum gain of unity are then the conditional variances . Their product $`V(\widehat{X}_{a,\mathrm{cond}}^+)V(\widehat{X}_{a,\mathrm{cond}}^{})=V(\widehat{X}_a^++\widehat{X}_b^+)V(\widehat{X}_a^{}\widehat{X}_b^{})=0.64\pm 0.08`$ is less than unity satisfying the condition for the demonstration of the EPR paradox .

In summary, we have presented a scheme for the generation of EPR entangled beams using the Kerr nonlinearity of an optical fibre. Apart from subtracting the electronic noise of the detectors, all results presented are observed quantities not corrected for linear losses such as detection efficiency. Moreover, the stability of the EPR entanglement is limited only by the stability of the pump laser. Since the fibre is the only nonlinear medium used, it has advantages over the existing methods of EPR entanglement generation in terms of its simplicity, cost and integrability into existing communication networks. There are two possible outlooks for this basic building block for quantum communication. Firstly, there is some prospect to further improve the quality of the entanglement, since more than 11 dB of amplitude squeezing was predicted even when realistic experimental parameters were considered with a 93/7 Sagnac beam splitter . Secondly, the lack of the phase measurement can be overcome by implementing an arm length unbalanced interferometer, which under appropriate conditions converts the phase quadrature variances into directly detectable amplitude variances without introducing additional noise. Then, due to its simplicity, multiple EPR entanglements can be built and other more sophisticated quantum communication schemes can be demonstrated in the future.

We gratefully acknowledge financial support of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft and of the EU grant under QIPC, project IST-1999-13071 (QUICOV). P. K. Lam is an Alexander von Humboldt fellow.


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# Bounds for FCNC and the Pseudoscalar Higgs mass in the General Two Higgs Doublet Model type III using 𝑔-2 muon factor

## Abstract

Current muon anomalous magnetic moment $`a_\mu `$ data have challenged Standard Model (SM) and seem to open a window for new physics. Since the difference between SM and experimental predictions is approximately $`2.6\sigma `$. In the framework of the General Two Higgs Doublet Model (2HDM), we calculate the muon anomalous magnetic moment to get lower and upper bounds for the Flavour Changing (FC) Yukawa couplings in the leptonic sector. We also obtain lower bounds for the mass of the Pseudoscalar Higgs ($`m_{A^0}`$) as a function of the parameters of the model.

Current muon anomalous magnetic moment $`a_\mu `$ data have challenged Standard Model (SM) and seem to open a window for new physics. Due to the

high precision in $`a_\mu `$ value, it gives very restrictive bounds on physics beyond the SM. Although $`a_e`$ measurement is about 350 more precise marciano , $`a_\mu `$is much more sensitive to New Physics since contributions to $`a_l`$are usually proportional to $`m_l^2`$.

The most accurate measurement of $`a_\mu `$hitherto, has been provided by the Brookhaven Alternating Gradient Syncrotron g2 positive . Their data have an error one third that of the combined previous data Caso , ref g2 positive  reports

$$a_{\mu ^+}=11659202\left(14\right)\left(6\right)\times 10^{10}.$$
(1)
On the other hand, SM predictions for $`a_\mu `$ has been estimated taking into account the contributions from QED, Hadronic loops and electroweak corrections. The final current result is marciano ; g2 positive

$$a_\mu ^{SM}=11659159.7\left(6.7\right)\times 10^{10}.$$
(2)
Taking into account (2) is obtained

$$\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{NP}=a_\mu ^{\mathrm{exp}}a_\mu ^{SM}=42.6\left(16.5\right)\times 10^{10},$$
(3)
where $`a_\mu ^{\mathrm{exp}}`$is the world average experimental value marciano . Consequently at $`90\%`$ C.L.

$$21.5\times 10^{10}\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{NP}63.7\times 10^{10}.$$
(4)
$`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{NP}`$gives the room available for New Physics, so $`a_\mu ^{exp}`$ differs from $`a_\mu ^{SM}`$ approximately in $`2.6\sigma `$. Therefore, physics beyond the SM is needed to achieve an acceptable theoretical experimental agreement. The most studied contributions to $`a_\mu `$has been carried out in the framework of radiative muon mass models as well as the Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM), E$`_6`$string-inspired models, and extensions of MSSM with an extra singlet estatus .

Moreover, a very interesting suggestion to conciliate the new experimental data with theoretical predictions is to consider models that includes FCNC at tree level. Interactions involving FCNC are forbidden at tree level in the SM, but could be present at one loop level as in the case of $`bs\gamma `$ bsg , $`K^0\mu ^+\mu ^{}`$ kmm , $`K^0\overline{K}^0`$ koko , $`tc\gamma `$ tcg  etc. Many extensions of the SM permit FCNC at tree level. For example, the introduction of new representations of fermions different from doublets produce them by means of the Z-coupling 2 . Additionally, they are generated at tree level by adding a second doublet to the SM wolf , such couplings can be gotten as well in SUSY theories without R-parity. Some other important new sources for FCNC might be provided by a muon collider, as the processes $`\mu \mu \mu \tau (e\tau )`$ mediated by Higgs exchange Workshop , SherCollider , which produce Lepton Flavor Violation (LFV).

However, there are several mechanisms to avoid FCNC at tree level. Glashow and Weinberg gw  proposed a discrete symmetry to supress them in the Two Higgs Doublet Model (2HDM) which is the simplest one that exhibits these rare processes at tree level. There are two kinds of models which are phenomenologically plausible with the discrete symmetry imposed. In the model type I, one Higgs Doublet provides masses to the up-type and down-type quarks, simultaneously. In the model type II, one Higgs doublet gives masses to the up-type quarks and the other one to the down-type quarks. But the discrete symmetry gw  is not compulsory and both doublets may generate the masses of the quarks of up-type and down-type simultaneously, in such case we are in the model type III III . It has been used to search for FCNC at tree level ARS , Sher91 .

Recently, the 2HDM type III has been discussed and classified us , depending on how the basis for the vacuum expectation values (VEV) are chosen and according to the way in which the flavor mixing matrices are rotated. In brief, the reference us  shows that there are two types of rotations which generate four different lagrangians in the quark sector and two different ones in the leptonic sector. The well known 2HDM types I and II, could be generated from them in the limit in which the FC vertices vanish. It has been pointed out that the phenomenology of the 2HDM type III is highly sensitive to the rotation used for the mixing matrices.

In this paper, we calculate the contributions to $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{NP}`$ coming from the 2HDM, which includes FCNC at tree level. We will constrain the FC vertex involving the second and third charged leptonic sector by using the result for $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{NP}`$, equation (4). Additionally, we get lower bounds on the Pseudoscalar Higgs mass by taking into account the lower experimental value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{NP}`$ at $`90\%`$ CL and making reasonable assumptions on the FC vertex.

The Yukawa’s Lagrangian for the 2HDM type III, is as follow

$`\mathrm{\pounds }_Y`$ $`=`$ $`\eta _{ij}^U\overline{Q}_{iL}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1U_{jR}+\eta _{ij}^D\overline{Q}_{iL}\mathrm{\Phi }_1D_{jR}+\eta _{ij}^E\overline{l}_{iL}\mathrm{\Phi }_1E_{jR}`$ (5)
$`+`$ $`\xi _{ij}^U\overline{Q}_{iL}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_2U_{jR}+\xi _{ij}^D\overline{Q}_{iL}\mathrm{\Phi }_2D_{jR}+\xi _{ij}^E\overline{l}_{iL}\mathrm{\Phi }_2E_{jR}+h.c.`$
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{1,2}`$are the Higgs doublets,$`\eta _{ij}`$and $`\xi _{ij}`$are non-diagonal $`3\times 3`$matrices and $`i`$, $`j`$ are family indices. In this work, we are interested only in neutral currents in the leptonic sector. We consider a CP-conserving model in which both Higgs doublets acquire a VEV,

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_1_0=\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ v_1/\sqrt{2}\end{array}\right),\mathrm{\Phi }_2_0=\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ v_2/\sqrt{2}\end{array}\right).$$

The neutral mass eigenstates are given by moda

$`\left(\begin{array}{c}G_Z^0\\ A^0\end{array}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{cos}\beta & \mathrm{sin}\beta \\ \mathrm{sin}\beta & \mathrm{cos}\beta \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\sqrt{2}Im\varphi _1^0\\ \sqrt{2}Im\varphi _2^0\end{array}\right),`$ (12)
$`\left(\begin{array}{c}H^0\\ h^0\end{array}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{cos}\alpha & \mathrm{sin}\alpha \\ \mathrm{sin}\alpha & \mathrm{cos}\alpha \end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}\sqrt{2}Re\varphi _1^0v_1\\ \sqrt{2}Re\varphi _2^0v_2\end{array}\right)`$ (19)
where $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =v_2/v_1`$and $`\alpha `$is the mixing angle of the CP-even neutral Higgs sector. $`G_Z`$is the would-be Goldstone boson of $`Z`$ and $`A^0`$is the CP-odd neutral Higgs.

Now, to convert the Lagrangian (5) into mass eigenstates we make the unitary transformations

$$E_{L,R}=\left(V_{L,R}\right)E_{L,R}^0$$
(20)
from which we obtain the mass matrix

$$M_E^{diag}=V_L\left[\frac{v_1}{\sqrt{2}}\eta ^{E,0}+\frac{v_2}{\sqrt{2}}\xi ^{E,0}\right]V_R^{},$$
(21)
where $`M_E^{diag}`$ is the diagonal mass matrix for the three lepton families. From (21) we can solve for $`\xi ^{E,0}`$obtaining

$$\xi ^{E,0}=\frac{\sqrt{2}}{v_2}V_L^{}M_E^{diag}V_R\frac{v_1}{v_2}\eta ^{E,0}$$
(22)
which we call a rotation of type I. Replacing it into (5), the expanded Lagrangian for the neutral leptonic sector is

$`\mathrm{\pounds }_{Y\left(E\right)}^{\left(I\right)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{g}{2M_W\mathrm{sin}\beta }}\overline{E}M_E^{diag}E\left(\mathrm{sin}\alpha H^0+\mathrm{cos}\alpha h^0\right)`$ (23)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{ig}{2M_W}}\overline{E}M_E^{diag}\gamma _5EG^0+{\displaystyle \frac{ig\mathrm{cot}\beta }{2M_W}}\overline{E}M_E^{diag}\gamma _5EA^0`$
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}\mathrm{sin}\beta }}\overline{E}\eta ^EE\left[\mathrm{sin}\left(\alpha \beta \right)H^0+\mathrm{cos}\left(\alpha \beta \right)h^0\right]`$
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{\sqrt{2}\mathrm{sin}\beta }}\overline{E}\eta ^E\gamma _5EA^0+h.c.`$
where the superindex $`(I)`$refers to the rotation type I. It is easy to check that Lagrangian (23) is just the one in the 2HDM type I moda , plus some FC interactions. Therefore, we obtain the Lagrangian of the 2HDM type I from eq (23) by setting $`\eta ^E=0.`$ In this case it is clear that when $`\mathrm{tan}\beta 0`$ then $`\eta ^E`$ should go to zero, in order to have a finite contribution for FCNC at tree level.

On the other hand, from (21) we can also solve for $`\eta ^{E,0}`$instead of $`\xi ^{E,0}`$, to get

$$\eta ^{E,0}=\frac{\sqrt{2}}{v_1}V_L^{}M_E^{diag}V_R\frac{v_2}{v_1}\xi ^{E,0}$$
(24)
which we call a rotation of type II. Replacing it into (5) the expanded Lagrangian for the neutral leptonic sector is

$`\mathrm{\pounds }_{Y(E)}^{(II)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{g}{2M_W\mathrm{cos}\beta }}\overline{E}M_E^{diag}E\left(\mathrm{cos}\alpha H^0\mathrm{sin}\alpha h^0\right)`$ (25)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{ig}{2M_W}}\overline{E}M_E^{diag}\gamma _5EG^0{\displaystyle \frac{ig\mathrm{tan}\beta }{2M_W}}\overline{E}M_E^{diag}\gamma _5EA^0`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}\mathrm{cos}\beta }}\overline{E}\xi ^EE\left[\mathrm{sin}\left(\alpha \beta \right)H^0+\mathrm{cos}\left(\alpha \beta \right)h^0\right]`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{\sqrt{2}\mathrm{cos}\beta }}\overline{E}\xi ^E\gamma _5EA^0+h.c.`$
The Lagrangian (25) coincides with the one of the 2HDM type II moda , plus some FC interactions. So, the Lagrangian of the 2HDM type II is obtained setting $`\xi ^E=0.`$ In this case it is clear that when $`\mathrm{tan}\beta \mathrm{}`$ then $`\xi ^E`$ should go to zero, in order to have a finite contribution for FCNC at tree level.

In the present report, we calculate $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{NP}`$ in the 2HDM with FC interactions. If we neglect the muon mass, the contribution at one loop from all Higgses is given by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{NP}=\frac{m_\mu m_l}{16\pi ^2}\underset{i}{}F(m_{H_i},m_l)a_i^2,$$
(26)
where

$$F(m_{H_i},m_l)=\frac{3+\widehat{m}_{H_i}^2\left(\widehat{m}_{H_i}^24\right)+2\mathrm{ln}\widehat{m}_{H_i}^2}{m_{H_i}^2\left(1\widehat{m}_{H_i}^2\right)^3}$$
(27)
with $`\widehat{m}_{H_i}=m_l/m_{H_i}`$ and $`m_l`$is the mass of the lepton running into the loop. The sum is over the index $`i=m_{h^0},m_{H^0},m_{A^0}`$. The coefficients $`a_i`$ are the Feynman rules for the FC couplings involved.

If we take into account the experimental data (4), we get some lower and upper bounds on the mixing vertex $`\eta \left(\xi \right)_{\mu \tau }`$for the rotations of type I (II). In figure 1, we display lower and upper bounds for the FC vertices as a function of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ for both types of rotations with $`m_{h^0}=m_{H^0}=150`$ GeV and $`m_{A^0}\mathrm{}`$. In the first case, rotation type I, the allowed region for $`\eta _{\mu \tau }`$ is $`0.07\eta _{\mu \tau }0.13`$ for large values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. Meanwhile, for rotation type II, the allowed region for small $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is the same. From Lagrangian (11), which describes rotation type I, we can see that when $`\mathrm{tan}\beta 0`$, $`\eta _{\mu \tau }`$ should go to zero as well to mantain a finite contribution to $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu `$. This behaviour can be seen from figure 1. For rotation type II occurs the same but in the limit $`\mathrm{tan}\beta \mathrm{}`$.

In figure 2, we show lower and upper bounds for the FC vertex as a function of $`m_{H^0}`$ for rotation of type II when $`m_{h^0}=m_{H^0}`$ and $`m_{A^0}\mathrm{}`$. We see that the larger value for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ the smaller value of $`\xi _{\mu \tau }`$ . We only consider the case of rotation type II because there is a complementary behaviour between both rotations as could be seen in figure 1. In particular, for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =1,`$ the behaviour of the bounds for both rotations is the same.

Observe that according to the Feynman rules from (23) and (25), the Scalar (Pseudoscalar) contribution to $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{NP}`$eq. (26,27) is positive (negative). Such fact permits us to impose lower bounds on the Pseudoscalar Higgs mass, by using the lower limit in eq. (4). According to this equation the room for new physics from $`g2`$ muon factor is positive definite, and it is a new feature from most updated results g2 positive .

Now, to take into account the experimental value (4), we should make a supposition about the value of the FC vertex. A reasonable assumption consists of taking the geometric average of the Yukawa couplings Cheng Sher  i.e. $`\eta \left(\xi \right)_{\mu \tau }2.5\times 10^3`$. Additionally, we shall use also the values $`\eta \left(\xi \right)_{\mu \tau }2.5\times 10^2`$ and$`\eta \left(\xi \right)_{\mu \tau }2.5\times 10^4`$which are one order of magnitude larger and smaller than the former. Using these suppositions and the experimental value (4) we get lower bounds for $`m_{A^0}`$ and they are plotted in figures (3)-(5).

Figure 3 displays $`m_{A^0}`$vs$`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$using rotation type II with the three values of $`\xi _{\mu \tau }`$mentioned above and setting $`m_{h^0}=m_{H^0}`$with $`m_{h^0}=110,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}300}`$ GeV. It could be seen that in the limit of large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta ,`$the lower limit reduces to$`m_{A^0}m_{h^0}`$. The same behavior can be seen in rotation type I but the bound $`m_{A^0}m_{h^0}`$ is gotten in the limit of small $`\mathrm{tan}\beta .`$ We also see that the smaller value of $`\xi _{\mu \tau }`$the stronger lower limit for $`m_{A^0}`$.

Figure 4 shows $`m_{A^0}`$vs$`m_{H^0}`$with $`\xi _{\mu \tau }=2.5\times 10^3,2.5\times 10^2`$and $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =1`$, using $`m_{h^0}=m_{H^0}`$and$`m_{h^0}=110`$ GeV. With this settings, the value $`\xi _{\mu \tau }=2.5\times 10^4`$ is excluded. Using such specific arrangements, the bounds are identical in both types of rotations.

In figure 5 we suppose that $`m_{h^0}=110`$ GeV,$`m_{H^0}=300`$ GeV. The figure above shows the sensitivity of lower bounds on $`m_{A^0}`$ with the mixing angle $`\alpha ,`$for rotation type II, taking $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =1`$. The value $`\xi _{\mu \tau }=2.5\times 10^4`$is excluded again. The constraints are very sensitive to the $`\alpha `$mixing angle for $`\xi _{\mu \tau }=2.5\times 10^3`$ but rather insensitive for $`\xi _{\mu \tau }=2.5\times 10^2`$. The figure below shows $`m_{A^0}`$vs $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$for $`m_{h^0}=110`$ GeV, $`m_{H^0}=300`$ GeV, $`\alpha =\pi /6,`$ for rotation type II and considering the same three values of $`\xi _{\mu \tau }.`$The $`m_{A^0}`$ lower asymptotic limit for large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$is approximately $`m_{h^0}`$.

In conclusion, we have found lower and upper bounds for the FC vertex $`\eta \left(\xi \right)_{\mu \tau }`$in the context of the general 2HDM by using the allowed range for $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{NP}`$ at $`90\%`$ CL and utilizing several sets of values for the parameters of the model. Additionally, in the limit $`m_{A^0}\mathrm{}`$, we get that for small (large) values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$the allowed range for the FC vertex $`\eta _{\mu \tau }\left(\xi _{\mu \tau }\right)`$becomes narrower, and both upper and lower bounds go to zero in the rotation of type I (II).

On the other hand, we have gotten lower bounds on the Pseudoscalar Higgs mass of the 2HDM coming from the $`g2`$muon factor, by using the experimental value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{NP}`$and making reasonable assumptions on the FC vertex $`\eta \left(\xi \right)_{\mu \tau }`$. Specifically, we have taken for $`\eta \left(\xi \right)_{\mu \tau }`$ the geometric average of the Yukawa couplings, and we also utilized values one order of magnitude larger and one order of magnitude smaller. Taking these three values for the FC vertex we find that the smaller value for $`\eta \left(\xi \right)_{\mu \tau }`$the more stringent lower bounds for $`m_{A^0}`$. Additionally, assuming $`m_{H^0}=m_{h^0},`$we show that in the limit of small (large) $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$the lower bound of $`m_{A^0}`$becomes merely $`m_{A^0}m_{h^0}`$for rotation of type I (II). In the case of different scalar masses, there is still a lower asymptotic limit for $`m_{A^0}`$. Notwithstanding, these lower constraints on $`m_{A^0}`$should be consider carefully, since for $`\eta \left(\xi \right)_{\mu \tau }`$we can only make reasonable estimations but they are unknown so far.

This work was supported by COLCIENCIAS, DIB and DINAIN.


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# Intrinsically frustrated superconducting array of SFS 𝜋-junctions

##

In recent years considerable attention has been given to realization of ’$`\pi `$-contacts’, i.e. weakly coupled junctions formed in superconducting structures which demonstrate $`\pi `$-shift of macroscopic phase difference in the ground state. Among such structures one should mention bicrystals  and ’$`s`$-$`d`$’ contacts  based on high-temperature superconductors with assumed ’nontrivial’ ($`d`$-wave) symmetry of the order parameter, mesoscopic superconductor-normal metal-superconductor (SNS) junctions controlled by current along the N-layer , and finally, recently observed superconductor-ferromagnet-superconductor (SFS) $`\pi `$-junctions . In the experiments  the phase $`\pi `$-shift manifested itself in reentrant superconducting behavior of the critical supercurrent temperature dependence, $`I_c(T)`$, of the Nb-Cu/Ni-Nb Josephson SFS junctions. In this work we present direct evidence of the phase $`\pi `$-shift which shows itself as a half-period shift of the external magnetic field dependence of the transport critical current in a triangular SFS junction array at the point of the junction crossover from a ’0’- to a ’$`\pi `$’- state. This shift is associated with the appearance of spontaneous supercurrents in the array in case of zero external field, with the ground state degenerated with respect to the two possible current flow directions. In conventional Josephson arrays this state can be observed only by imposing a frustrating external field equal to a half-integer number of magnetic quanta per cell. Self-frustrated superconducting networks with $`\pi `$-junctions are intended to be used for the realization of the superconducting quantum bit (qubit). Originally, the suggested superconducting ’phase’ qubits  were based on magnetic-frustrated superconducting networks. In this case it is necessary to imply half a quantum of the magnetic flux, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$, so as to create degenerated two-level coherent quantum system, requested for the realization of the qubit. This system is not isolated from interference with environment and is estimated to have shorter coherence time with respect to qubit using a $`\pi `$-junction. Another possible application of $`\pi `$-junctions is related to the development of superconducting digital ’complementary’ electronics where a $`\pi `$-junction is used as a superconducting phase inverter .

An origin of the $`\pi `$-state in a SFS junction is an oscillating and sign-reversal superconducting order parameter induced in the ferromagnet close to the SF-interface . It was shown in  that in the case of weak exchange energy $`E_{ex}k_BT`$, when the thermal and exchange energy make comparable contributions to the pair decay process, the general expression for the complex coherence length in the dirty ferromagnet is the following:

$$\xi _F=\left(\frac{\mathrm{}D}{2(\pi k_BT+iE_{ex})}\right)^{1/2},$$
(1)
where $`D`$ is the electron diffusion coefficient in the ferromagnet and $`k_B`$ is the Boltsman constant. The imaginary part

$$\xi _{F2}=\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{}D}{((\pi k_BT)^2+E_{ex}^2)^{1/2}\pi k_BT}}$$
(2)
defines the order parameter oscillation wavelength $`2\pi \xi _{F2}`$ that decreases with temperature. This allows observation of the crossover of the SFS junction to the $`\pi `$-state as temperature decreases down to $`T=T_{cr}`$, when the ferromagnetic interlayer thickness, $`d_F`$, becomes close to the half-wave of the oscillations, $`\pi \xi _{F2}`$. It was detected in  that the change of the state from the ordinary 0-phase state to the $`\pi `$-state leads to a zero-crossing of critical current temperature dependence, $`I_c(T)`$, or more truly to a sharp cusp with vanishing of the $`I_c`$ amplitude at $`T=T_{cr}`$, because only the absolute value of the critical current could be observed. Such reentrant temperature dependences of critical current were measured for $`NbCu/NiNb`$ Josephson sandwiches with ferromagnetic layers fabricated from Cu/Ni alloy with concentrations from 52 at.% Ni (with $`T_{Curie}`$ about 20 - 30 K) to 57 at.% Ni (where $`T_{Curie}`$ was above 100 K).

Several experimental phase-sensitive methods of direct detection of the $`\pi `$-state crossover were suggested. The original signature of the $`\pi `$-state is the appearance of a spontaneous magnetic flux equal to half of the flux quantum, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$, in a superconducting loop containing a $`\pi `$-contact. Josephson $`\pi `$-junction was first predicted in  and it was shown there that the state with a spontaneous flux could be realized in such a one-contact interferometer only if $`2\pi LI_c\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$, where $`L`$ is the loop inductance and $`I_c`$ is the contact critical current. The other limit, $`2\pi LI_c\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$, more convenient in our case, can be used to observe the shift of the external flux dependence of the transport critical current $`I_m(\mathrm{\Phi })`$ for a two-contact interferometer including Josephson $`0`$\- and $`\pi `$-contacts. However fabrication of $`0`$\- and $`\pi `$-junctions with close Josephson parameters in a two-junction SFS structure was a rather difficult technical problem, and therefore we used a periodical array with three identical SFS junctions per cell. We discuss the more descriptive case of the ’$`0`$-$`\pi `$-interferometer’ before consideration of the triangular array of the SFS junctions used in our experiment, because of close analogy of the $`0`$-$`\pi `$-interferometer and two-cell $`\pi `$-junction triangular array behavior. The presence of the phase difference of $`\pi `$ across the $`\pi `$-junction in the $`0`$-$`\pi `$-interferometer results in the circulating supercurrent close to the critical one and the extra phase shift of $`\pi /2`$ in both $`0`$\- and $`\pi `$-junctions, hence the necessary additional $`\pi `$ phase difference appears in the superconducting loop. So the critical transport current $`I_m`$ through this interferometer ($`0`$-$`\pi `$-SQUID) is equal to zero in the absence of any external magnetic flux and reaches the maximum $`I_m=2I_c`$ when the external magnetic flux $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is equal to $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$. In the latter case the magnetic flux induces the additional phase shift of $`2\pi (\mathrm{\Phi }/\mathrm{\Phi }_0)=\pi `$ which compensates the spontaneous $`\pi `$-shift over the $`\pi `$-junction. Thus the $`0\pi `$ interferometer initially is in a fully frustrated state.

The two-cell array, shown in Fig.1, is believed to be the most simple and plain structure to study the intrinsically frustrated networks. Details of the SFS junction fabrication are presented in . All five $`NbCu_{0.46}Ni_{0.54}Nb`$ junctions in the array had areas 10$`\times `$10 $`\mu `$m2, normal resistances 3$`\times `$ 10$`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and junction critical currents $`I_c`$=0.3 $`\mu `$A at $`T`$=4.2 K. The $`Cu_{0.46}Ni_{0.54}`$ alloy with $`T_{Curie}`$ about $`100`$ K was used as a F-interlayer in the SFS contacts. Details of the SFS junction fabrication were presented in . Because of the low array resistance and array critical current, $`I_m`$, the current-voltage and $`I_m(H)`$ characteristics (H is magnetic field applied normally to the array) were measured by a SQUID picovoltmeter with a sensitivity of 10-12 V in the temperature range of 1.2 K to 4.2 K. The SFS junctions with the F-layer thickness of $`d_F=19`$ nm show the crossover to the $`\pi `$-state at $`T_{cr}`$=2.2 K. Above this temperature ($`0`$\- state) the $`I_m(H)`$ pattern is the same as the one predicted in  for a two-cell interferometer (see Fig.2a). Periodical maximal peaks were observed at external fields corresponding to an integer number of the flux quanta per cell, i.e. integer frustration parameters $`f=\mathrm{\Phi }/\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$. The small peaks, which one can see at half-integer frustration parameters, correspond to quantization on the contour of the net structure which is twice the cell square. Below $`T_{cr}`$ (in the $`\pi `$-state) the $`I_m(H)`$ pattern was found to be shifted by exactly half a period (Fig.2b). Without considering the quantization process for the doubled cell square (that resulted in the appearance of the small peaks), the behaviour of this $`\pi `$-junction interferometer resembles that of the $`0`$-$`\pi `$-interferometer described above. At $`f=0`$ and other integer values of $`f`$ there is a current close to the junctions critical current, $`I_c`$, flowing in the outer double loop of the array. The current induces the extra phase shift $`2\times \pi /2`$ in each cell and compensates for the odd number of $`\pi `$-shifts in them. The maximal array transport supercurrent, $`I_m`$, is close to zero at $`H`$=0 because the array is initially in the spontaneous fully frustrated state. The external magnetic flux equal to half-integer quanta per cell produces the necessary phase shift of $`\pi `$ in each cell in the absence of any circular currents in the structure, therefore $`I_m`$ reaches maxima only at half-integer frustration parameters. Due to the quantization on the doubled cell contour of the net structure $`I_m(H=0)`$ is not zero in $`\pi `$-state but equal to amount of small peak, as it seen in Fig.2b. The $`I_m(T)`$ dependence at $`H=0`$, shown in Fig.3a, is similar to the $`I_c(T)`$ dependence for single junctions and demonstrates the sharp cusp at the temperature $`T_{cr}`$ of the SFS junctions crossover to the $`\pi `$-state. However, one should take into account that while the high-temperature branch corresponds to the temperature dependence of the doubled junction critical current, the low-temperature branch corresponds to the small peak amplitude dependence on temperature. Fig.3b shows the maximal peaks positions before and after the crossover and demonstrates how abrupt it is.

To check possible residual magnetic inductance effects at low temperatures we fabricated also a reference two-cell array with the $`NbCu_{0.46}Ni_{0.54}Nb`$ SFS junctions which do not exhibit a crossover to $`\pi `$-state in full experimental temperature ’window’ (from 1.2 to 4.2 K) due to smaller ferromagnetic interlayer thickness of 18 nm. After a proper careful cooldown (described in ) zero-field value was the maximal for $`I_m`$ because of formation of a small-scale magnetic domain structure in the F-layer with zero average net magnetization. The $`I_c(H)`$ pattern was not shifted in experimental temperature range, and it proves that the shift observed for the SFS junction array with $`d_F`$=19 nm is not associated with residual magnetic inductance changes. Thus at temperature lower than the temperature of the crossover of the SFS junctions in the triangular array to the $`\pi `$-state the self-frustrated state is observed at zero external magnetic field and it is similar to the state of a conventional array frustrated by imposing an external field equal to a half-integer number of magnetic quanta per cell.

The authors would like to thank J. Aarts, M. V. Feigel’man and A. A. Golubov for the helpful discussion and N. S. Stepakov for the technical assistance. The work was supported by the state program Mesoscopic Electron Systems, INTAS grant N 97-1940, and partially by Swiss National Research Foundation project NFSF N7SUPJ062253.00 and by a grant from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO).