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# Multiple noncommutative tori and Hopf algebras

## 1. Introduction

Noncommutative geometry is a rich area of research, which extends the classical notions of topology, differential geometry and group theory to noncommutative objects and their symmetries.

The latter topic, which includes the theory of Hopf algebras, Hopf groupoids etc., has been extensively studied in the recent years both in the direction of Lie-type objects as well as finite dimensional objects. One of the ambitious tasks, comparable with the classification of finite groups might be the classification of finite-dimensional semisimple Hopf star algebras. Only partial results for low dimensions and special cases are know so far (see  for a review).

One of best-known examples of semisimple finite Hopf algebras is the Kac-Paljutkin algebra, especially its lowest dimensional selfdual example $`A_8`$ .

In this paper we shall demonstrate that they arise from the exact sequences of Hopf algebras built using the double noncommutative torus . We shall generalize this construction and provide other examples.

The paper is organized as follows, first, we briefly review the construction of the double torus and its dual, then we construct Kac-Paljutkin algebras through exact sequences (for the deformations at roots of unity) and in the second part of the paper we generalize the construction and discuss new examples.

## 2. The quantum double torus

The noncommutative torus, although it has the same symmetries as the commutative one, is no longer a Hopf algebra. However, it appears that an interesting Hopf algebra structure exists on the direct sum of the deformed and nondeformed torus.

The detailed construction is based on the cocycle deformation of the tensor product of $`C(Z_2)C(T^2)`$ , however, here, for simplicity, we shall use a straightforward description with generators.

###### Definition 2.1.

Let $`DT_q`$ be an unital algebra generated by two unitaries $`U,V`$ and two selfadjoint projectors $`P_+,P_{}`$, satisfying the relations:

(1)
$$\begin{array}{c}P_++P_{}=1,\hfill \\ P_+U=UP_+,\hfill \\ P_+V=VP_+,\hfill \\ VU=P_+UV+qP_{}UV,\hfill \end{array}$$

where $`|q|=1`$.

In fact, the introduction of $`P_\pm `$ as generators is not necessary, as we may use the following relations:

(2) $`VUV^1U^11=(q1)P_{},`$
(3) $`VUV^1U^1q=(1q)P_+.`$
###### Proposition 2.2 (see ).

The algebra $`DT_q`$ is a Hopf algebra with the following coproduct, counit and antipode:

(4)
$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{\Delta }U=UUP_++VUP_{},\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }V=VVP_++UVP_{},\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }P_+=P_+P_++P_{}P_{},\hfill \\ ϵ(V)=1,\hfill \\ ϵ(U)=1,\hfill \\ ϵ(P_+)=1,\hfill \\ SU=U^1P_++V^1P_{},\hfill \\ SV=V^1P_++U^1P_{},\hfill \\ SP_+=P_+.\hfill \end{array}$$

Verification of all Hopf algebra properties is left to the reader, equivalently one may use  and the identification of the generators $`U,V,P_\pm `$ with the generators of the tensor algebra $`T(_2)`$111Note that the parameter $`q`$ used here corresponds to $`q^2`$ of ..

###### Observation 2.3.

$`DT_q`$ is a $``$-Hopf algebra.

Indeed, another simple exercise verifies that for the generators we have:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(a^{})=a_{(1)}^{}a_{(2)}^{}.$$

In fact, using the operator $`U_\pm =UP_\pm `$ and $`V_\pm =VP_\pm `$ we may see that the $`C^{}`$ algebra generated by $`DT_q`$ is a compact matrix quantum group (compact matrix pseudogroup) in the sense of Woronowicz:

(5)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }\left(\begin{array}{cc}U_+& V_{}\\ U_{}& V_+\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}U_+& V_{}\\ U_{}& V_+\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}U_+& V_{}\\ U_{}& V_+\end{array}\right).$$

We leave the verification of the remaining necessary conditions (see ) to the reader.

The theory of unitary representations has been discussed in :

###### Proposition 2.4.

The representation of the algebra $`DT_q`$ on the Hilbert space $`=l_2(^2)l_2(^2)`$ is given by:

$$\begin{array}{c}U|n,m,\pm =|n+1,m,\pm ,\hfill \\ V|n,m,+=|n,m+1,+,\hfill \\ V|n,m,=q^n|n,m+1,.\hfill \end{array}$$

Of course, the operators $`P_\pm `$ act as projections on $`_\pm `$.

## 3. The dual Hopf algebra of the quantum double torus.

To construct the dual Hopf algebra we have to choose the appropriate mathematical setup. Although it is not a problem to define linear functionals on $`DT_q`$ and their algebraic structure, the notion of the coproduct requires caution. It seems to us that the definition of multiplier Hopf algebras  is best suited for the example. We shall recall the necessary definitions when necessary.

First, let us introduce the basis of the dual algebra generators $`c_{}^{mn},c_+^{mn}`$ defined as linear functionals:

(6)
$$\begin{array}{cc}c_+^{mn}(U_+^kV_+^l)=\delta ^{mk}\delta ^{nl},\hfill & c_+^{mn}(U_{}^kV_{}^l)=0,\hfill \\ c_{}^{mn}(U_+^kV_+^l)=0,\hfill & c_{}^{mn}(U_{}^kV_{}^l)=q^{\frac{1}{2}mn}\delta ^{mk}\delta ^{nl}.\hfill \end{array}$$

We have chosen here a nontrivial factor in the duality relation, which corresponds to the rescaling of the generators in order to obtain simpler algebraic relations. Indeed, we could translate the multiplication and comultiplication rules to the dual algebra and obtain:

(7)
$$\begin{array}{c}c_+^{kl}c_+^{mn}=\delta ^{km}\delta ^{ln}c_+^{mn},\hfill \\ c_+^{kl}c_{}^{mn}=\delta ^{kn}\delta ^{lm}c_{}^{mn},\hfill \\ c_{}^{kl}c_+^{mn}=\delta ^{km}\delta ^{ln}c_{}^{mn},\hfill \\ c_{}^{kl}c_{}^{mn}=\delta ^{kn}\delta ^{lm}c_+^{mn}.\hfill \end{array}$$

Then we define the dual algebra $`(DT_q)^{}`$ as an algebra spanned by linear combinations of finitely many generators $`c_\pm ^{ij}`$. In fact the algebra (7) might be identified with the crossed-product algebra of the group $`_2`$ by the algebra of functions of compact support on $`^2`$.

Let us recall a definition of comultiplication for the multiplier Hopf algebra $`A`$:

###### Definition 3.1 (see ).

A comultiplication is a $``$-homomorphism $`\mathrm{\Delta }:AM(AA)`$ so that $`\mathrm{\Delta }(a)(1b)`$ and $`(a1)\mathrm{\Delta }(b)`$ are in $`AA`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is coassociative in the sense that for every $`a,b,cA`$

$$(a11)(\mathrm{\Delta }\text{id})(\mathrm{\Delta }(b)(1c)=(\text{id}\mathrm{\Delta })((a1)\mathrm{\Delta }(b))(11c).$$

For the algebra $`(DT_q)^{}`$ we have:

###### Definition 3.2.

The coproduct is as follows:

(8) $`\mathrm{\Delta }c_+^{mn}`$ $`={\displaystyle \underset{i+k=m}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{j+l=n}{}}c_+^{ij}c_+^{kl},`$
$`\mathrm{\Delta }c_{}^{mn}`$ $`={\displaystyle \underset{i+k=m}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{j+l=n}{}}q^{\frac{1}{2}(jkil)}c_{}^{ij}c_{}^{kl},`$
then the antipode and counit are:

(9) $`ϵ(c_\pm ^{ij})=\delta _{i0}\delta _{j0},`$
(10) $`S(c_+^{ij})=c_+^{(i)(j)},`$
(11) $`S(c_{}^{ij})=c_{}^{(j)(i)},`$
Finally, the star structure:

(12) $`\left(c_+^{ij}\right)^{}=c_+^{ij},`$
(13) $`\left(c_{}^{ij}\right)^{}=c_{}^{ji}.`$
Clearly the target space of the comultiplication is contained within the multiplier algebra of $`(DT_q)^{}(DT_q)^{}`$, it is also easy to verify that the other conditions are satisfied, for example, we shall demonstrate here that $`\mathrm{\Delta }(c_+^{ij})(1c_{}^{kl})`$ is in $`(DT_q)^{}(DT_q)^{}`$:

$`\mathrm{\Delta }(c_+^{ij})(1c_{}^{kl})={\displaystyle \underset{r+s=i}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{t+w=j}{}}(c_+^{rt}c_+^{sw})(1c_{}^{kl})=`$
$`=c_+^{(il)(jk)}c_{}^{kl}.`$
In fact, one can easily verify that $`(DT_q)^{}`$ is a discrete quantum group in the sense of Van Daele’s definition , as it is a direct sum of full matrix algebras with a multiplier Hopf algebra structure.

Since the algebra is contained in its multiplier we might try to extend the definition of the comultiplication to $`M((DT_q)^{})`$. Let us define three elements $`e_1,e_2`$ and $`\sigma `$ from $`M((DT_q)^{})`$:

(14) $`e_1={\displaystyle \underset{n,m}{}}nc_+^{nm},e_2={\displaystyle \underset{n,m}{}}mc_+^{nm},`$
(15) $`\sigma ={\displaystyle \underset{n,m}{}}c_{}^{nm}.`$
These elements must be understood as belonging to $`M(DT_q)^{}`$, i.e. through their multiplication on the elements of $`(DT_q)^{}`$. Notice that $`\sigma ^2`$ is the identity in $`M(DT_q)^{}`$ and all elements $`c_{}^{mn}`$ could be expressed as a product of $`\sigma `$ and $`e_+^{mn}`$:

(16)
$$\begin{array}{cc}\sigma c_+^{mn}=c_{}^{mn},\hfill & c_+^{mn}\sigma =c_{}^{nm}.\hfill \end{array}$$

Let us examine the algebra generated by $`e_1,e_2`$ and $`\sigma `$ and the extension of the comultiplication on them:

(17)
$$\begin{array}{c}[e_1,e_2]=0,\hfill \\ e_1\sigma =\sigma e_2,\hfill \\ \sigma ^2=1,\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }e_i=e_i1+1e_i,\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }\sigma =(\sigma \sigma )(q^{\frac{1}{2}(e_2e_1e_1e_2)}).\hfill \end{array}$$

Note that the expression $`q^{\frac{1}{2}(e_2e_1e_1e_1)}`$ makes sense as an element of the multiplier algebra of the tensor product, indeed, taking the example $`c_+^{ij}c_+^{kl}`$, for instance, we have:

$$q^{\frac{1}{2}(e_2e_1e_1e_1)}c_+^{ij}c_+^{kl}=q^{\frac{1}{2}(jkil)}c_+^{ij}c_+^{kl}(DT_q)^{}(DT_q)^{}.$$

The elements $`e_1,e_2`$ are self-adjoint. Out of the above relations we might immediately obtain:

###### Proposition 3.3.

The algebra defined above is a twist of the cocommutative crossed product of $`u(1)\times u(1)`$ with $`_2`$ by the Cartan element $`q^{\frac{1}{2}(e_1e_2)}`$.

Proof:  Indeed, using (17) we have:

$$q^{\frac{1}{2}(e_1e_2)}(\sigma \sigma )=(\sigma \sigma )q^{\frac{1}{2}(e_2e_1)},$$

so:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\sigma =(\sigma \sigma )\left(q^{\frac{1}{2}(e_2e_1e_1e_2)}\right)=q^{\frac{1}{2}(e_1e_2)}(\sigma \sigma )q^{\frac{1}{2}(e_1e_2)}.$$

Since $`e_1`$ and $`e_2`$ commute with each other their coproduct does not change.

### 3.1. The action of the dual on the quantum torus

Similarly as in the classical case of the Lie group of the torus we might interpret the dual algebra (and its multiplier) as the symmetry algebra of the $`DT_q`$, in terms of the action of the Hopf algebra on the algebra of the double quantum torus:

(18)
$$\begin{array}{cc}e_1U_\pm =U_\pm ,\hfill & e_1V_\pm =0,\hfill \\ e_2U_\pm =0,\hfill & e_2V_\pm =V_\pm ,\hfill \\ \sigma U_\pm =V_{},\hfill & \sigma V_\pm =U_{}.\hfill \end{array}$$

## 4. Finite extensions of the torus.

So far, we have been treating $`q`$ as a generic parameter, $`|q|=1`$. An interesting situation occurs, however, when $`q`$ is a root of unity. In fact, when $`q=1`$, $`DT_q`$ is a commutative algebra, which is the algebra of functions on the twisted double torus:

###### Observation 4.1.

Let $`G`$ be the crossproduct group $`T^2_2`$ with the nontrivial action of $`_2`$ on $`T^2`$ by the flip:

$$\sigma \left(\begin{array}{c}z\\ w\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}w\\ z\end{array}\right),$$

if $`\sigma `$ is the generator of $`_2`$.

With the multiplication on $`G`$

$$(\left(\begin{array}{c}z\\ w\end{array}\right),\sigma )(\left(\begin{array}{c}z^{}\\ w^{}\end{array}\right),\sigma ^{})=(\left(\begin{array}{c}z\\ w\end{array}\right)\sigma \left(\begin{array}{c}z^{}\\ w^{}\end{array}\right),\sigma \sigma ^{}),$$

we have a group structure on the space, which topologically is a disjoint sum of two tori. The algebra of continuous functions on $`G`$ is a Hopf algebra and it is identified with the $`C^{}`$ algebra $`DT_{q=1}`$.

The proof of both group structure and the identification of the obtained Hopf algebra is an easy exercise and is left to the reader.

If $`q`$ is a primitive nontrivial root of unity so that $`q^N=1`$, $`N2`$ we have the following:

###### Proposition 4.2.

Let $`j`$ be a map $`j:DT_qDT_q`$ defined as identity on polynomials of order less than $`N`$ in $`U`$ and $`V`$, and $`j(U^N)=1`$ and $`j(V^N)=1`$, and extended as the algebra homomorphism on the entire $`DT_q`$. Then, if $`q^N=1`$, $`j`$ is an Hopf algebra homomorphism.

Proof:  First, we check that the definition is correct - indeed, since $`U^N`$ and $`V^N`$ are invertible elements from the center we might map it to the unit of the algebra. Next, we verify:

$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{\Delta }1=11=j(U^N)j(U^N)P_++\hfill \\ +j(V^N)j(U^N)P_{}=\mathrm{\Delta }j(U^N),\hfill \end{array}$$

and, similarly, one can prove the relation for $`V^N`$.

###### Corollary 4.3.

The image $`j(DT_q)`$ is an Hopf algebra $`T_q^f`$.

Using the map $`j`$ we might construct the exact sequences of Hopf algebras:

(19)
$$DT_q^N\stackrel{i}{}DT_q\stackrel{j}{}T_q^f,$$

where $`DT_q^N`$ denotes the subalgebra generated by $`U^N`$ and $`V^N`$ (it is easy to demonstrate that it is a sub-Hopf algebra), $`i`$ is the inclusion and $`j`$ the above mentioned surjection. All maps are, of course, Hopf algebra homomorphisms and the composition $`ji`$ gives the counit:

(20)
$$ji(a)=1ϵ(a),1T_q^f,aDT_q^N,$$

What remains to prove is that the kernel of $`j`$ is exactly the Hopf ideal of the form $`DT_qi(DT_q^N)^+DT_q`$, where $`(DT_q^N)^+`$ is the kernel of the counit map on $`DT_q^N`$.

The inclusion is obvious by construction, so let us assume that $`aDT_q`$ is such that $`j(a)=0`$. We shall restrict ourselves in the proof to the case when $`a`$ is a polynomial in $`U,V`$, in fact, it would be easier to use $`U_+,U_{},V_+,V_{}`$, for which the map $`j`$ is given as:

$$j(U_+^N)=P_+,j(U_{}^N)=P_{},j(V_+^N)=P_+,j(V_{}^N)=P_{}.$$

Since $`P_+`$ and $`P_{}`$ are projections commuting with the entire algebra we consider them and the corresponding subalgebras separately for a while (the kernel of $`j`$ splits as well). For $`P_+`$ we have a completely commutative situation and the kernel of $`j`$ (restricted to $`P_+DT_q`$) is characterized by the condition that a polynomial of two variables $`x,y`$ vanishes for every pair of $`N`$-th roots of unity $`x,y,x^N=y^N=1`$. Clearly, it must be of the form:

$$(x^N1)p(x,y)+(y^N1)r(x,y),$$

and thus it is an element of the ideal generated by $`i(U^N)1`$ and $`i(V^N)1`$.

For the $`P_{}`$ part we have a noncommutative situation. Take a polynomial $`p(U_{},V_{})`$ and assume that $`j(p)=0`$. If $`p=a_{nm}U_{}^nV_{}^m`$ then it means that for every $`0i,j<N`$ we have:

$$\underset{r,s}{}a_{(i+rN)(j+sN)}=0.$$

Let us fix $`i,j`$. Since only a finite number of $`a_{(i+rN)(j+sN)}`$ is different from zero the corresponding part of the polynomial $`p(U_{},V_{})`$ could be written as:

$$\left(\underset{r,s}{}a_{(i+rN)(j+sN)}U_{}^{rN}V_{}^{sN}\right)U_{}^iV_{}^j,$$

where we have used the fact that $`q^N=1`$ and therefore $`U_{}^N`$ and $`V_{}^N`$ commute with all elements. Note that we have again reduced our problem to the commutative one: we have a polynomial in $`U_{}^N,V_{}^N`$ such that the sum of its all coefficients vanishes. We leave to the reader the verification that it could be written as:

$$(U_{}^N1)p_1(U_{}^N,V_{}^N)+(V_{}^N1)p_2(U_{}^N,V_{}^N),$$

for some polynomials $`p_1,p_2`$, and this clearly belongs to the ideal generated by $`i(U^N)1`$ and $`i(V^N)1`$.

Since we can view the algebra $`DT_q^N`$ as an algebra of functions on the torus (commutative algebra generated by two unitaries), the finite Hopf algebra $`T_q^f`$ could be interpreted as functions on the noncommutative ”fibre”, which extends the classical torus to the quantum double torus at roots of unity.

###### Proposition 4.4.

The algebra $`T_q^f`$ is a finite dimensional semisimple $`C^{}`$ algebra, and as an algebra over $``$ is isomorphic to $`M_N()^{N^2}`$.

Proof:  The algebra is described through the relations (1) with the additional constraints $`U^N=V^N=1`$. Clearly, the projections $`P_+`$ and $`P_{}`$ define two ideals, a commutative and a noncommutative one. When we restrict ourselves to the algebra of the noncommutative ideal, then $`P_{}`$ becomes a unit and the algebra of this ideal is generated by two $`q`$-commuting, $`q^N=1`$, unitaries, hence it is a complex matrix algebra of dimension $`N`$.

###### Proposition 4.5 (see ,).

The algebra $`T_q^f`$ for $`q^N=1`$ is isomorphic to the Kac-Paljutkin finite Hopf algebra of rank $`2N^2`$.

For the case of the dual Hopf algebra of the quantum double torus we find as well an embedded Hopf subalgebra (since we work with infinite sums the result makes sense only as a multiplier algebra):

###### Proposition 4.6.

Let $`w_\pm ^{ij}`$, $`0i,j<N`$, be the elements defined as formal series:

$$w_\pm ^{ij}=\underset{r,s}{}c_\pm ^{(i+Nr),(j+sN)},$$

Then the subalgebra $`𝒲`$ generated by $`w_\pm ^{ij}`$ is a Hopf subalgebra.

Proof:  First, let us notice that the commutation relations will be identical as for $`c_\pm ^{ij}`$:

(21)
$$\begin{array}{c}w_+^{kl}w_+^{mn}=\delta ^{km}\delta ^{ln}w_+^{mn}\hfill \\ w_+^{kl}w_{}^{mn}=\delta ^{kn}\delta ^{lm}w_{}^{mn}\hfill \\ w_{}^{kl}w_+^{mn}=\delta ^{km}\delta ^{ln}w_{}^{mn}\hfill \\ w_{}^{kl}w_{}^{mn}=\delta ^{kn}\delta ^{lm}w_+^{mn},\hfill \\ \left(w_+^{ij}\right)^{}=w_+^{ij}\hfill \\ \left(w_{}^{ij}\right)^{}=w_{}^{ji}.\hfill \end{array}$$

It only remains to prove whether the coproduct closes within $`𝒲𝒲`$(we use the formal expressions within the multiplier of the tensor product):

$`\mathrm{\Delta }w_+^{mn}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{r,s}{}}\mathrm{\Delta }c_+^{(m+Nr),(n+sN)}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{r,s}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{i+k=m+Nr}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{j+l=n+sN}{}}c_+^{ij}c_+^{kl}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{r,s}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{i,j}{}}c_+^{ij}c_+^{(m+Nri)(n+sNj)}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i,j}{}}c_+^{ij}w_+^{([mi])([nj])}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{0i,j<N}{}}w_+^{[i][j]}w_+^{([mi])([nj])}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{[i^{}+k^{}]=m}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{[j^{}+l^{}]=n}{}}w_+^{i^{}j^{}}w_+^{k^{}l^{}},`$
where we use $`[x]`$ to denote the operation modulo $`N`$ and the last sum is over indices $`i^{},j^{},l^{},k^{}`$, which run from $`0`$ to $`N1`$. Of course, a similar calculation could be done for $`w_{}^{ij}`$.

The algebra has $`2N^2`$ generators and the following proposition shows its structure:

###### Proposition 4.7.

For fixed $`ij`$, the linear span of generators $`w_\pm ^{ij},w_\pm ^{ji}`$ forms a maximal ideal within $`𝒲`$, and the $``$-representation of these generators on $`^2`$ is:

$`w_+^{ij}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 0\end{array}\right),`$ $`w_+^{ji}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right),`$
$`w_{}^{ij}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 0\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right),`$ $`w_{}^{ji}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 0& 0\end{array}\right).`$
###### Proposition 4.8.

For $`i=j`$, the linear span of $`w_\pm ^{ii}`$ generates a commutative subalgebra, with the following representation:

$`w_+^{ii}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right),`$ $`w_{}^{ii}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right).`$
The proof of both lemmas is straightforward and therefore we skip it.

###### Observation 4.9.

As an algebra, $`𝒲`$ is isomorphic to:

$$M_2()\mathrm{}M_2()\mathrm{},$$

with $`\frac{1}{2}N(N1)`$ copies of $`M_2()`$ and $`2N`$ copies of $``$.

###### Corollary 4.10 (see again ).

The finite-dimensional Hopf algebra $`𝒲`$ is the dual to the Kac-Paljutkin algebra.

## 5. The multidimensional generalization

Let $`G`$ be a finite group, which we treat as a subgroup of a permutation group, so for $`hG`$ and $`i^n`$222Note that in this section $`i,j,k,\mathrm{}`$ will be multiindices unless stated otherwise, and not integers as in previous section. $`h(i)`$ will denote the permutation of the multiindex $`i`$. Let $`C_g^i`$, $`gG`$ $`i^n`$ be the generators of the associative algebra $`𝒯_G`$:

(25)
$$C_g^iC_h^j=\delta ^{i,h(j)}C_{(gh)}^j,$$

Now, we can introduce a nontrivial coproduct structure on the algebra (again, valued in the multiplier of the tensor product of $`𝒯_G`$) :

(26)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }C_g^k=\underset{i+j=k}{}\alpha _g^{ij}C_g^iC_g^j,$$

where the complex valued coefficients $`\alpha _g^{ij}`$ must satisfy:

(27) $`\alpha _g^{ij}\alpha _g^{(i+j)k}=\alpha _g^{i(j+k)}\alpha _g^{jk}`$
(28) $`\alpha _{gh}^{ij}=\alpha _h^{ij}\alpha _g^{h(i)h(j)}.`$
Then (27) guarantees that the coproduct is coassociative (in the sense of definition 3.1) and (28) that it is an algebra homomorphism.

The first condition can be solved immediately using a bilinear form on the $`^n`$. If we assume:

(29)
$$\alpha _g^{kl}=e^{2\pi i\theta _g(k,l)},$$

where $`\theta _g`$ is a bilinear form then (27) is satisfied automatically and (28) leads to:

(30)
$$\theta _{gh}(m,n)=\theta _h(m,n)+\theta _g(h(m),h(n)),$$

for all $`g,hG`$ and $`m,n^n`$. Clearly, for the neutral element $`eG`$ we have $`\theta _e0`$.

Note that the condition (30) is a cocycle condition valued in the bilinear forms. For simplicity we shall denote the latter space by $``$. Consider for a given $`k`$ all maps from $`G^k`$ to $``$, this forms a linear space $`𝒞^k`$ and let us define a linear map $`\delta :𝒞^k𝒞^{k+1}:`$

(31) $`\delta \varphi (g_1,\mathrm{},g_{k+1})=`$ $`\varphi (g_2,\mathrm{}g_{k+1})+`$
$`{\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}}(1)^i\varphi (g_1,\mathrm{},g_ig_{i+1},\mathrm{},g_{k+1})+`$
$`(1)^{k+1}g_{k+1}\varphi (g_1,\mathrm{},g_k).`$
where $`g\varphi `$ denotes the left action of $`G`$ on $``$. This defines a group cohomology (as $`\delta ^20`$) with values in the group module $``$ with the trivial right module multiplication and the left multiplication (action) defined by the representation (permutation) of the group $`G`$.

Thus our condition (30) is nothing but a cocycle condition, for $`\theta `$ understood as a map $`G`$:

$$\delta \theta =0,$$

so we can immediately provide at least trivial solutions $`\theta =\delta \varphi `$, where $`\varphi `$ is an element of $``$.

To restrict the freedom depending on the choice of the basis we observe:

###### Proposition 5.1.

The map:

$$C_g^je^{\pi i\theta _g(j,j)}C_g^j=\stackrel{~}{C_g^j},$$

is an algebra automorphisms, which changes the coalgebra structure so that:

(32)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{~}{C}_g^k=\underset{i+j=k}{}\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_g^{ij}\stackrel{~}{C}_g^i\stackrel{~}{C}_g^j,$$

where

$$\stackrel{~}{\alpha }_g^{ij}=e^{\pi i(\theta _g(i,j)\theta _g(j,i))},$$

so $`\stackrel{~}{\theta _g^{ij}}`$ is then antisymmetric for every $`g`$.

Hence, without loosing any information, we can always restrict ourselves to antisymmetric cocycles $`\theta _g`$ and from now on we shall use the notation without tilde keeping in mind that this is already a basis in which $`\theta `$-s are antisymmetric.

Further, having produced a coproduct we shall demonstrate the existence of the counit and the antipode.

###### Proposition 5.2.

With the above coproduct, counit:

(33)
$$ϵ(C_g^i)=\delta ^{i,0},$$

and the antipode:

(34)
$$SC_g^k=C_{g^1}^{g(k)},$$

as well as with the star structure:

(35)
$$(C_g^i)^{}=C_{g^1}^{g(i)},$$

it is a $``$-Hopf algebra provided that

(36)
$$\theta _g(i,j)^{}=\theta _{g^1}(g(i),g(j)),$$

however, one can easily notice that this is guaranteed by (30) if the forms $`\theta `$ are real.

The algebra $`𝒯_G`$ is a $``$-Hopf algebra (in the sense of multiplier Hopf algebras) and - similarly as for the dual of the double torus - it is an example of a discrete quantum group .

###### Observation 5.3.

For $`_N`$ the structure of the coproduct is set by a single bilinear antisymmetric form (matrix) $`\mathrm{\Theta }=\theta _1`$. Its matrix elements have to satisfy (addition is mod $`N`$):

(37)
$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{N1}{}}\mathrm{\Theta }_{i+k,j+k}=0.$$

for every $`0i,j<N`$. This follows directly from (30).

###### Example 5.4.

For the group $`_2`$ the relations for the matrix $`\mathrm{\Theta }=\theta _1`$ are:

(38)
$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{\Theta }_{12}+\mathrm{\Theta }_{21}=0,\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Theta }_{11}+\mathrm{\Theta }_{22}=0.\hfill \end{array}$$

and they are automatically satisfied for any antisymmetric matrix:

(39)
$$\mathrm{\Theta }=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& \theta \\ \theta & 0\end{array}\right),$$

The solution (39) is a trivial cocycle, it is easy to see that it is $`\delta `$ of a constant bilinear form and the algebra is the dual of the double torus as described by (7).

###### Example 5.5.

Let us consider the simplest nontrivial example – apart from the known $`_2`$ case - for the group $`_3`$. As we have observed in (5.3) we are left with the following restriction for the matrix elements of $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ (we have already used its antisymmetry):

(40)
$$\mathrm{\Theta }_{01}+\mathrm{\Theta }_{12}+\mathrm{\Theta }_{20}=0,$$

and the solution is given by:

(41)
$$\mathrm{\Theta }=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& \theta & \rho \\ \theta & 0& (\theta +\rho )\\ \rho & (\theta +\rho )& 0\end{array}\right)$$

### 5.1. The Lie algebra picture

Let us define, similarly as for the double torus case (14) a formal construction of the convenient generators within the multiplier algebra:

(42)
$$e_j=\underset{i^n}{}i_jC_e^i,j=1,2,\mathrm{},n.$$

and the elements $`\stackrel{~}{g}`$, labelled by the elements of the group $`G`$:

(43)
$$\stackrel{~}{g}=\underset{i^n}{}C_g^i.$$

Using the relations (25) we verify the algebra structure:

(44)
$$\begin{array}{c}[e_i,e_j]=0\hfill \\ \stackrel{~}{g}\stackrel{~}{h}=\stackrel{~}{(gh)}\hfill \\ \stackrel{~}{g}e_i=e_{g(i)}\stackrel{~}{g}\hfill \end{array}$$

However, the structure of the coproduct is more complicated:

(45)
$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{\Delta }e_i=e_i1+1e_i\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{~}{g}=e^{2\pi i\mathrm{\Theta }_{kl}e_ke_l}\stackrel{~}{g}\stackrel{~}{g},\hfill \end{array}$$

where $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ is the matrix of the antisymmetric form $`\theta `$. The formula (45) can arise from a twist only if $`\theta =\delta \varphi `$, so $`\theta `$ is a trivial cocycle. Then:

(46)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{~}{g}=e^{2\pi i\varphi _{kl}e_ke_l}\stackrel{~}{g}\stackrel{~}{g}e^{2\pi i\varphi _{kl}e_ke_l},$$

We can summarize that for the trivial cocycle the presented deformation is a twist of the cross-product of multiple dual tori Hopf algebras by a finite group.

### 5.2. The dual algebra

Similarly as in the original $`_2`$-case we might construct the dual Hopf algebra. We introduce the algebra elements $`U_g^i`$, $`gG`$, $`i^n`$ and by duality:

$$C_g^i,U_h^j=\delta _{gh}\delta ^{ij},$$

we obtain from (25) and (26) both the algebra and the coalgebra structure. Again, we restrict ourselves only to the case of the antisymmetric matrix $`\theta _g`$:

(47) $`U_g^iU_h^j=\delta _{gh}e^{2\pi i\theta _g(i,j)}U_g^{i+j},`$
$`\mathrm{\Delta }U_f^i={\displaystyle \underset{gh=f}{}}U_g^{h(i)}U_h^i.`$
The counit, antipode and the star structure are, respectively, given by:

(48)
$$\begin{array}{c}ϵ(U_g^j)=\delta _{ge},\hfill \\ S(U_g^j)=U_{g^1}^{g(j)},\hfill \\ (U_g^j)^{}=U_g^j.\hfill \end{array}$$

where $`eG`$ is the neutral element of the group and we have, of course, identified $`_{gG}U_g^0`$ with the unity in the algebra. Of course, each $`U_g^0`$ is a central, self-adjoint projector in the algebra.

###### Observation 5.6.

The algebra spanned by $`U_g^i`$ could be also viewed as generated by unitaries. If $`v_1,\mathrm{},v_n`$ are the basis of $`^n`$ then:

$$U^{v_i}=\underset{gG}{}U_g^{v_i},$$

are unitary elements of the algebra, and:

$$(U^{v_m})^{}(U^{v_n})^{}U^{v_m}U^{v_n}=\underset{g}{}e^{4\pi i\theta _g(v_m,v_n)}U_g^0.$$

## 6. Finite subalgebras

Similarly as in the $`_2`$ case, where for $`q`$ being a simple root of unity we have constructed a finite dimensional Hopf subalgebra, we might attempt to repeat the procedure here.

Let us assume that the matrices $`\theta `$ are in $`M_n()`$ and $`L`$ be a lattice in $`^n`$, such that for every $`gG`$ and every $`iL`$ and arbitrary $`j^n`$ we have:

$$\theta _g(i,j).$$

Clearly, $`L`$ must be a subring of $`^n`$, which is invariant by the action of $`G`$. Then we have:

###### Proposition 6.1.

Let $``$ be the quotient $`=^n/L`$. Then we might define a Hopf algebra by the following relations:

$$w_g^{[i]}=\underset{pL}{}C_g^{i+p},[i].$$

It is an easy exercise to prove that this is a sub algebra of $`𝒯_G`$:

(49)
$$\begin{array}{c}w_g^{[i]}w_h^{[j]}=_{p,sL}C_g^{i+p}C_h^{j+s}=\hfill \\ =_{p,sL}\delta _{(i+p),h(j+s)}C_{(gh)}^{j+s}=_{sL}\delta _{[i],[h(j)+h(s)]}C_{(gh)}^{j+s}=\hfill \\ =\delta _{[i],h([j])}w_{(gh)}^{[j]}.\hfill \end{array}$$

For the coaction we have:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }w_g^{[i]}=\underset{sL}{}\underset{k+l=i+s}{}e^{2\pi i\theta _g(k,l)}C_g^kC_g^l=\mathrm{}$$

now, since we know that $`\theta _g(k,l)`$ is integer for every $`kL`$ and arbitrary $`l`$ the factor in front of the tensor product depends only on the class of $`k`$ and \[l\] in the quotient, $`[k],[l]`$. Therefore:

$$\mathrm{}=\underset{sL}{}\underset{tL}{}\underset{k}{}e^{2\pi i\theta _g([k],[i+skt])}C_g^{k+t}C_g^{i+skt}=\mathrm{}$$

summing up over $`s`$ and $`t`$ and keeping in mind that $`[i+skt]=[i][k]`$ we finally obtain:

$$\mathrm{}=\underset{[k]+[l]=[i]}{}e^{2\pi i\theta _g([k],[l])}C_g^{[k]}C_g^{[l]},$$

where the sum is over $`[k],[l]`$.

As for the dual case, the arguments follow the line of construction in Proposition 4.2. We notice that the elements $`U^{v_i}`$, for $`v_iL`$ form a commutative subalgebra and, since $`L`$ is invariant with respect to the action of the group $`G`$, it is a Hopf-subalgebra $`𝒯_G^L𝒯_G`$.

Then we can construct (similarly as in the Proposition 4.2) an exact sequence of Hopf algebras:

(50)
$$𝒯_G^L\stackrel{i}{}𝒯_G\stackrel{j}{}_G^L,$$

where $`_G^L`$ is a finite Hopf algebra, which could be constructed as an image of the map $`\stackrel{~}{j}:𝒯_G𝒯_G`$ ($`j`$ is $`\stackrel{~}{j}`$ with target space restricted to the image $`\stackrel{~}{j}(𝒯_G)`$):

$$\stackrel{~}{j}(U_g^i)=U_g^{[i]},$$

where $`[i]^n/L`$, so in particular for every $`kL`$:

$$\stackrel{~}{j}(U_g^k)=U_g^0,$$

and

$$\stackrel{~}{j}(U^k)=1,$$

where $`U^k`$ denotes $`_gU_g^k`$.

It is easy to verify that $`\stackrel{~}{j}`$ is an Hopf algebra homomorphism, so its image is a Hopf algebra. It only remains an easy exercise to verify that the sequence (50) is exact.

### 6.1. The example of $`_3`$.

We shall present here the application of the results obtained earlier for the case of the group $`G=Z_3`$ acting by cyclic permutation.

As we have already demonstrated in (38) the structure of the Hopf algebra is set by an antisymmetric matrix with two arbitrary parameters $`\theta `$ and $`\rho `$ (41).

We shall assume now that both $`N\theta `$ and $`N\rho `$ are integer for some $`N`$ (we take, of course the smallest possible $`N`$). Define the lattice $`L`$ as $`N^3`$, i.e., all integer multiindices, such that every component is divisible by $`N`$.

Let us denote the generators of our finite Hopf-algebra by $`U_0^v`$, $`U_1^v`$ and $`U_2^v`$, the indices corresponding to the elements of the group $`_3`$ and $`v`$ taking values in the three standard basis vectors of $`^3`$, for simplicity we shall abbreviate the notation and denote $`U_i^{e_k}`$ as $`U_i^k`$. We shall also use the projectors on each of the component denoted respectively $`P_i`$.

Clearly, according to (47) $`U_j^vU_k^w=0`$ if $`jk`$, so we shall have a direct sum of three subalgebras,

The commutation relations within each of them are as follows:

* $`g=0`$

$$U_0^iU_0^j=U_0^jU_0^i,(U_0^i)^N=P_0.$$
* $`g=1`$

$`U_1^1U_1^2=q^aU_1^2U_1^1,`$
$`U_1^1U_1^3=q^bU_1^3U_1^1,`$
$`U_1^2U_1^3=q^{ba}U_1^3U_1^2,`$
$`(U_1^j)^N=P_1,`$
where $`q^N=1`$, $`a=N\theta `$, $`b=N\rho `$.
* $`g=2`$

$`U_2^1U_2^2=q^bU_2^2U_2^1,`$
$`U_2^1U_2^3=q^{ba}U_2^3U_2^1,`$
$`U_2^2U_2^3=q^aU_2^3U_2^2,`$
$`(U_2^j)^N=P_2.`$

The first component of the algebra is commutative and is simply isomorphic to $`^{(N^3)}`$. As for the second and the third let us notice that the relations strongly depend on $`N`$ as well as $`a`$ and $`b`$.

To provide an explicit simplest but new example, which extends the results of the double torus and the Kac-Paljutkin algebras, we shall focus our attention on the cases $`N=2`$ and $`N=3`$.

#### 6.1.1. $`N=2`$ case

In this case $`q=1`$ and $`a,b`$ are either $`0`$ or $`1`$. Note that the second and the third component of the algebra ($`g=2`$) are noncommutative (apart from the $`a=b=0`$ trivial case) and, for each of the possible situations ($`a=1,b=0`$; $`a=0,b=1`$; $`a=b=1`$) we obtain the algebra $`M_2()`$ for. Therefore the algebraic structure of the full algebra is $`M_2()^4^8`$.

#### 6.1.2. $`N=3`$ case

In this situation, $`q^3=1`$ and we have, in principle, 9 possibilities for the $`g=1`$ (as well as $`g=2`$) components of the algebra. Let us analyze the center of the subalgebra in question. Taking a monomial $`(U_1^1)^\alpha (U_1^2)^\beta (U_1^3)^\gamma `$, we verify that it is in the center if:

(51) $`\beta a+\gamma b=0(\text{mod }3),`$
(52) $`\alpha a+\gamma (ba)=0(\text{mod }3),`$
(53) $`\alpha b\beta (ba)=0(\text{mod }3).`$
Out of this system of linear equations we immediately get that either $`a=b=0`$ or $`\alpha +\beta +\gamma `$ must be $`0`$ modulo $`3`$. Since we are interested only in the nontrivial case we assume the latter identity. In addition, we have to take one of the equations, for instance $`a\beta +b\gamma =0\text{mod }3`$.

It appears that independently of the values of $`a`$ and $`b`$ (apart from the $`a=b=0`$ trivial case) the center of the subalgebra is isomorphic to $`^3`$ and, furthermore, the structure of the algebra is $`M_3()M_3()M_3()`$.

Since for the third component $`g=2`$ we have almost the same system of equations, with the only exception that $`a,b`$ are replaced by $`b,ba`$ (modulo $`3`$). Therefore the same result applies in this case and finally we could summarize that for the $`N=3`$ finite fibration of the ”triple tori” we obtain a Hopf algebra structure for the algebra $`^{27}M_3()^6`$.

## 7. Final remarks

We have presented in this paper the method of construction of finite semisimple Hopf algebras through the finite fibrations of the double torus, then extending the results to the generalizations - ”quantum multiple tori”.

We have related the construction with the cohomology of finite groups, showing that the Hopf algebra structure is a twist of the crossproduct of the group by the dual tori only if the cocycle defining the deformation is trivial. It would be an interesting task to provide an explicit example of such deformation and study its finite fibrations.


text:
# limit-from{𝑝_𝑇}-fluctuations in high-energy p-p and A-A collisions

## I Introduction

The transverse momentum fluctuations in proton-proton and central Pb-Pb collisions at 158 GeV per nucleon have been recently measured  on event-by-event basis. To eliminate trivial ‘geometrical’ fluctuations due to the impact parameter variation the so-called $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$measure  has been used. $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is constructed is such a way that it is exactly the same for nucleon-nucleon (N-N) and nucleus-nucleus (A-A) collisions if the A-A collision is a simple superposition of N-N interactions. Consequently, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is independent of the centrality of A-A collision in such a case. On the other hand, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ equals zero when the inter-particle correlations are entirely absent. The critical analysis of the $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$measure can be found in . For the central Pb-Pb collisions, the value of $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ measured in the laboratory rapidity window (4.0, 5.5) equals $`4.6\pm 1.5`$ MeV . The preliminary result for proton-proton interactions in the same acceptance is $`5\pm 1`$ MeV . Although the two values are close to each other the mechanisms behind them seem to be very different. It has been shown  that the correlations, which are of the short range in the momentum space as those due to the Bose-Einstein statistics, are responsible for the positive value of $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ in the central Pb-Pb collisions. When the short range correlations are excluded $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ is reduced to $`0.6\pm 1`$ MeV  Our calculations have indeed demonstrated  that the effect of Bose statistics of pions modified by the hadron resonances fully explains the observed $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ in the central Pb-Pb collisions. On the other hand, the short range correlations have been experimentally shown  to provide a negligible contribution to the $`p_T`$fluctuations in the p-p interactions. Thus, the data suggest that the dynamical long range correlations are reduced in the central Pb-Pb collisions (when compared to p-p) with the short range due to the Bose statistics being amplified. The former feature is a natural consequence of the system evolution towards the thermodynamic equilibrium. The amplification of the quantum statistics effect results from the increased particle population in the final state phase-space. Since various dynamical correlations contribute to $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ the question emerges what is the dynamical correlation in the nucleon-nucleon interactions which appear to be washed out in the central nucleus-nucleus collisions. The aim of this paper is to discuss the question.

The average transverse momentum $`p_T`$, which is measured at a given multiplicity $`N`$, is known to depend on $`N`$ in proton-proton collisions . The correlation is negative for the collision energies below, say, $`\sqrt{s}=50`$ GeV and positive for the higher energies. At the beam energy of 205 GeV ($`\sqrt{s}=19.7`$ GeV), which is very close to that of the NA49 measurement , $`p_T`$ significantly decreases with $`N`$ . The data are shown in Fig. 1, where we have merged the results for positive and negative particles. As already discussed in , the correlation which couples $`p_T`$ to $`N`$ leads to $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)>0`$. Here, we compute $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ as a function of the correlation strength. Analytical and numerical results are presented. The effect of the finite acceptance is studied and comparison with the experimental data is performed.

## II Analytical calculation

Let us first introduce the $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$measure. One defines the single-particle variable $`z\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}\mathrm{x}\overline{\mathrm{x}}`$ with the overline denoting averaging over a single particle inclusive distribution. Here, we identify $`x`$ with the particle transverse momentum. The event variable $`Z`$, which is a multiparticle analog of $`z`$, is defined as $`Z\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}_{\mathrm{i}=1}^\mathrm{N}(\mathrm{x}_\mathrm{i}\overline{\mathrm{x}})`$, where the summation runs over particles from a given event. By construction, $`Z=0`$ where $`\mathrm{}`$ represents averaging over events. Finally, the $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$measure is defined in the following way

$$\mathrm{\Phi }\stackrel{\mathrm{def}}{=}\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{Z}^2}{\mathrm{N}}}\sqrt{\overline{\mathrm{z}^2}}.$$

The correlation $`p_T`$ vs. $`N`$ is introduced to our model calculations through the multiplicity dependent temperature or slope parameter of $`p_T`$distribution. Specifically, the single particle transverse momentum distribution in the events of multiplicity $`N`$ is chosen in the form suggested by the thermal model i.e.

$$P_{(N)}(p_T)p_T\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{\sqrt{m^2+p_T^2}}{T_N}\right],$$
(1)
where $`m`$ is the particle mass while $`T_N`$ is the multiplicity dependent temperature defined as

$$T_N=T+\mathrm{\Delta }T(NN)$$

with $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ controlling the correlation strength. For $`N=N`$ one gets $`T_N=T`$. The inclusive transverse momentum distribution, which determines $`\overline{z^2}=\overline{p_T^2}\overline{p_T}^2`$, reads

$$P_{\mathrm{incl}}(p_T)=\frac{1}{N}\underset{N}{}𝒫_NNP_{(N)}(p_T),$$

where $`𝒫_N`$ is the multiplicity distribution.

The $`N`$particle transverse momentum distribution in the events of multiplicity $`N`$ is assumed to be the $`N`$product of $`P_{(N)}(p_T)`$. Therefore, all inter-particle correlations different than $`p_T`$ vs. $`N`$ are entirely neglected. Then, one easily finds

$`Z^2={\displaystyle \underset{N}{}}𝒫_N{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}dp_T^1...{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}dp_T^N(p_T^1+...+p_T^NN\overline{p_T})^2P_{(N)}(p_T^1)...P_{(N)}(p_T^N).`$
Assuming that the particles are massless and the correlation is weak i.e. $`T\mathrm{\Delta }T(N^2N^2)^{1/2}`$ the calculation of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ can be performed analytically. The results read:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{Z^2}{N}}`$ $`=`$ $`2T^24{\displaystyle \frac{T\mathrm{\Delta }T}{N}}\left(N^2N^2\right)`$ (3)
$`+2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T^2}{N^3}}\left(2N^4N^24N^3N^2N+N^3N^22N^2N^3+2N^2^3+N^5\right),`$
$`\overline{z^2}`$ $`=`$ $`2T^24{\displaystyle \frac{T\mathrm{\Delta }T}{N}}\left(N^2N^2\right)`$ (5)
$`+2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T^2}{N^2}}\left(3N^3N2N^2N^2+N^42N^2^2\right),`$
$`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T^2}{TN^3}}\left(N^4N^22N^3N^2NN^3N^2+N^2^3+N^2^2N\right),`$ (6)
where terms of the third and higher powers of $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ have been neglected. One observes that the lowest non-vanishing contribution to $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is of the second order in $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$. The above formulas are much simplified for the Poisson multiplicity distribution. Then, one finds

$`{\displaystyle \frac{Z^2}{N}}`$ $`=`$ $`2T^24T\mathrm{\Delta }T+2\mathrm{\Delta }T^2\left(2N^2+5N+1\right),`$
$`\overline{z^2}`$ $`=`$ $`2T^24T\mathrm{\Delta }T+2\mathrm{\Delta }T^2\left(3N+1\right),`$
$`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T^2}{T}}\left(N^2+N\right).`$
The multiplicity distribution of charged particles produced in high energy proton-proton collisions is, of course, not poissonian. First of all, the number of charged particles is always even due to the charge conservation. The multiplicity distribution of positive (or negative) particles is also not poissonian - the dispersion does not grow as $`\sqrt{N}`$ but it follows the so-called Wróblewski formula  i.e. the dispersion is the linear function of $`N`$. However, for the average multiplicities as low as those discussed here the Poisson distribution provides a reasonable approximation. Therefore, the multiplicity distribution, which is further used in our calculation, is poissonian for negative pions with the number of positive pions being exactly equal to that of negative charge. Thus, the charge conservation is satisfied in every event. For such a multiplicity distribution $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$, which is given by approximate Eq. (3), reads

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)=2\sqrt{2}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }T^2}{T}\left(N^2+3N\right).$$
(7)
## III Numerical simulation

The results from the previous section are instructive but the adopted approximations are very rough. So, let us present more realistic Monte Carlo calculations which can be confronted with the experimental data . The proton-proton collisions are simulated event by event in the following way. For every event we first generate the multiplicity of negative particles from the Poisson distribution and then add the equal number of positive particles. The average multiplicity of negative particles has been taken as $`N^{}=3.28`$ which is the experimentally observed negative multiplicity in non-diffractive proton-proton interactions at 205 GeV . This is the collision energy corresponding to the data from Fig. 1. Further, we attribute the transverse momentum from the distribution (1) to each particle assuming that all particles are pions. The numerical values of the temperature and correlation strength have been found fitting the data  shown in Fig. 1. We have got $`T=167\pm 1.5`$ MeV and $`\mathrm{\Delta }T=1.25\pm 0.25`$ for charged particle multiplicity $`N=2N^{}=6.56`$.

Due to the particle registration inefficiency and finite detector coverage of the final state phase-space, only a fraction of particles produced in high-energy collisions is usually observed the experimental studies. As an input to our model calculations we have taken the $`p_TN`$ correlation observed in the full phase-space. The rapidity, which determines the acceptance domain, is not considered at all. Therefore, there is no difference whether a particle is lost due to the limited acceptance or due to the tracking inefficiency. Our Monte Carlo simulation takes into account the two effects in such a way that each generated particle - positive or negative pion - is registered with the probability $`p`$ and rejected with $`(1p)`$. Below, we further discuss the procedure in the context of NA49 data . The results of our simulation are collected in Fig. 2 where $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ as a function of $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ for several values of $`p`$ is shown. We have checked that our simulation fully reproduces the results from , where only negative particles in the full acceptance have been studied.

As seen in Fig. 2, $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ grows quadratically with $`\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ in agreement with the approximate equation (7). The increase of $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ with $`p`$ also follows from Eq. (7). Indeed, when a particle is detected with the probability $`p`$ the temperature dispersion effectively decreases and the multiplicity $`N`$ should be replaced by $`pN`$ in (7). Consequently, $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ grows quadratically with the observed particle multiplicity and the correlation, which is easily observable in the full phase-space, is hardly seen in the acceptance as small as 20%. This behavior is very different than that found in Refs.  where $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ due to the Bose-Einstein correlations has been computed. Then, $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ is independent of the particle multiplicity.

The NA49 measurement of $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ in proton-proton collisions has been performed in the transverse momentum and pion rapidity intervals (0.005, 1.5) GeV and (4.0, 5.5), respectively . Only about 20% of all produced particles have been observed. Our simulation gives $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)=0.41\pm 0.07`$ MeV for the values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }T=1.25`$ MeV and $`p=0.2`$ which are adequate for the NA49 measurement. Thus, the theoretical result significantly underestimates the preliminary experimental one which is, as already noted, $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)=5\pm 1`$ MeV .

One wonders whether the discrepancy is not caused by our highly simplified procedure of taking into account the effect of finite acceptance. We first note that the rapidity coverage of the NA49 measurement which is (4.0, 5.5) in the laboratory translates into (1.1, 2.6) in the center of mass frame. Therefore, the observed pions are not far the very central rapidity region. Since most of pions originates from the domain the average characteristics of all pions and that of the central ones are expected to be similar to each other. Indeed, the data from  show that $`p_T`$ for all pions and those from the central region are essentially the same. Therefore, the correlation strength parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }T=1.25`$ MeV, which corresponds to the $`p_TN`$ correlation averaged over full phase-space, seem to be applicable not only to all pions but to the central ones as well. One further notes that $`p_T`$ shown in  changes with the rapidity similarly for different $`N`$. Consequently, the correlation $`p_T`$ vs. $`N`$ only weakly varies with $`y`$ and it is hard to expect that the correlation strength observed in the NA49 acceptance domain is significantly larger than that averaged over the whole phase-space. The data  suggests rather the opposite effect. Therefore, we conclude that our simplified procedure cannot distort the results dramatically and that the correlation $`p_T`$ vs. $`N`$ does not explain the NA49 p-p preliminary data.

As already mentioned, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is constructed is such a way that it is exactly the same for nucleon-nucleon and nucleus-nucleus collisions if the latter is a simple superposition of former ones. Therefore, $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ shown in Fig. 2 holds for nucleus-nucleus when all secondary interactions are neglected. Since our model neglects the Bose-Einstein correlations it can be compared with the NA49 data for the central Pb-Pb collisions when the short range correlations are excluded. In such a case, our result $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)=0.41\pm 0.07`$ MeV for $`\mathrm{\Delta }T=1.25`$ MeV and $`p=0.2`$ appears to be compatible with the experimental value $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)=0.6\pm 1`$ MeV . The smallness of $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ reported by NA49 collaboration is then not surprising at all. As follows from Fig. 2 it is caused by the limited acceptance. However, it is premature to draw a conclusion about $`p_T`$correlations in Pb-Pb collisions until the origin of $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ p-p interactions is not explained.

## IV Concluding remarks

We have studied how the correlation, which couples the average $`p_T`$ to the event multiplicity, influences the transverse momentum fluctuations observed by means of the $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$measure. The approximate analytical formula has been derived and then the numerical simulation has been performed. The effect of the finite detector acceptance has been taken into account. The procedure is highly simplified but it seems to be adequate for the NA49 data. It has been shown that the effect of the correlation $`p_T`$ vs. $`N`$ is very weak if the particles from the small acceptance region are studied. Consequently, the correlation is far too weak to explain the preliminary experimental value of $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ in proton-proton collisions . If the preliminary data is confirmed by the final analysis one should look for other sources of dynamical $`p_T`$fluctuations. The effect of the conservation laws presumably plays no role in the acceptance as small as 20%. The decays of hadron resonances which strongly correlate the momenta of decay products might be important. However, the hadron resonances are present in proton-proton and nucleus-nucleus collisions as well. Consequently, the reported reduction of long range dynamical correlations in the central Pb-Pb collisions when compared to p-p  remains unexplained. The situation is much simpler if preliminary data on $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ in proton-proton collision  overestimates the real value. Then, $`\mathrm{\Phi }(p_T)`$ from p-p and central Pb-Pb are close to each other. There is also no conflict between our calculations and the experimental data. However, one cannot conclude that the long range correlations present in the proton-proton interactions are washed out in the central heavy-ion collisions The problem obviously needs further experimental and theoretical studies. In particular, the data on proton-proton and nucleus-nucleus collisions from the enlarged acceptance are needed.

###### Acknowledgements.

We are very grateful to Marek Gaździcki, Katarzyna Perl, Waldemar Retyk, and Ewa Skrzypczak for fruitful discussions and stimulating criticism.


text:
# AMS : A PARTICLE OBSERVATORY IN SPACE

## 1 Introduction

The AMS spectrometer will be implemented on the International Space Station at the end of 2003 (or beginning of 2004). The instrument will be made of a superconducting magnet which inner volume will be mapped with a tracker consisting of 8 planes of silicon microstrips surrounded by several sub-detectors: a time-of-flight (TOF), a ring imaging Cherenkov (RICH), an electromagnetic calorimeter (ECAL), a transition radiation detector (TRD) and, possibly, a synchrotron radiation detector (SRD). The expected performances will be reviewed together with the physics goals : high statistics study of cosmic rays in a wide range of energies, search for primordial antimatter, search for non-baryonic dark matter and, to some extent, gamma-ray astrophysics.

A simplified version of the spectrometer has already been flown during a precursor flight (june 2-12, 1998) on the Space Shuttle Discovery. The technical success together with the first physics results and their interpretation will be briefly reviewed.

## 2 The spectrometer

The AMS spectrometer Fig.1 will be based on a superconducting magnet which maximum field should be of the order of 1 Tesla, perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. Its inner volume will be filled with 8 layers of double sided silicon tracker measuring the trajectory of the charged particles and, therefore, their rigidity (from around 300 MV up to 3 TV). The time of flight system has its planes at each end of the magnet, covering the outer tracker layers. It provides information on the particles transit time and will be used both as a trigger for the whole experiment and as a measurement of the velocity for low energy events. The transition radiation detector will be useful to improve the lepton/hadron discrimination up to the proton threshold around 300 GeV. A three-dimensional sampling electromagnetic calorimeter will measure $`\gamma `$, $`e^+`$ and $`e^{}`$ energies and increase the lepton/hadron rejection factor to $`10^3`$ (on a limited fraction on the acceptance). Finally, the ring imaging Cherenkov detector will allow precise measurements of the velocity $`\mathrm{\Delta }\beta /\beta 10^3`$ together with a charge determination up to $`Z20`$.

## 3 Cosmic-ray astrophysics

Cosmic rays are a part of the galactic components which reflects the dynamical equilibrium of the physical system they belong to, carrying out very important informations on the galactic medium, its population, structure, and history. In particular, it has been recently shown $`^\mathrm{?}`$ that measurements of cosmic nuclei give strong constraints on the diffusion parameters and rule out some models (e.g. those without convection or reacceleration and Kolmogorov spectra for the diffusion coefficient).

The AMS experiment will dramatically improve the situation, allowing a high statistics study of many cosmic ray species including $`e^+`$, $`e^{}`$, $`p`$, $`\overline{p}`$, and the lightest ions $`d,t,^{3,4}`$He. Heavier light ions will also be studied with mass identification up to A$`20`$, and elements up to Z$`20`$ depending on the final performances of the instrumentation of the spectrometer (RICH in particular). Unstable ions like 10Be, and 26Al are of particular interest since they provide a measurement of the time of confinement of charged particles in the galaxy (galactic chronometers) $`^\mathrm{?}`$. The corresponding antimatter nuclei will be searched with equivalent instrumental performances in identification and kinematic range. The metrological perspectives are summarized in table 1 borrowed from Buenerd, 2001 $`^\mathrm{?}`$.

Basically the spectrometer will be able to accumulate statistics larger by 3 to 4 orders of magnitude than those measured so far by other space-borne experiments, for all the species studied. Figure 2 gives the expected statistics for the 10Be isotope for 6 weeks of counting from a simulation using the RICH of AMS and the previous measurements (points of the lower left edge of the plot) $`^\mathrm{?}`$.

## 4 Search for dark-matter and ”new-physics”

It is now well known that stars are less than 1% of the mass-energy content of the Universe. Baryons, whose density can be inferred from deuterium abundance measurements in high-redshift hydrogen clouds within the Big-Bang nucleosynthesis model, should contribute around 5% (this value is in agreement with several other independent estimates). Non-baryonic dark matter can be measured in rich clusters, comparing the total mass (given by the motion of galaxies or by weak lensing) with the gas mass (given by X-ray flux or by Sunyaev-Zel’dovich CMB distortion). The resulting density is around 40% (which is consistent with a variety of other methods involving different physics). As a conclusion, the non-baryonic content of the Universe seems to be much more important than the baryonic one $`^\mathrm{?}`$. One of the best candidates for this unknown component would be long-lived, weak-interacting massive particles : exactly what could be expected from relic neutralinos if R-parity is conserved. AMS will look for dark matter through the annihilation of neutralinos, expected to ”enrich” the $`\overline{p}`$ and e+ spectra. Recent studies have shown that the $`\overline{p}`$ flux should, unfortunately, not be substancially distorted by this source-term, due to non-annihilating inelastic scattering of secondary antiprotons and to nuclei-induced antiproton creation $`^\mathrm{?}`$ $`^\mathrm{?}`$. On the other hand, the secondary-antiproton spectrum is now computed with great accuracy $`^\mathrm{?}`$, allowing a good sensitivity to the absolute normalisation of the spectrum and not only to its shape. Stringent upper limits on some supersymmetric models (if not a positive detection) could, this way, be derived with AMS-data. Furthermore, antideuterons $`^\mathrm{?}`$ have also been shown to be a powerful tool to study neutralinos annihilation (due to a tiny secondary cosmic background, mostly for kinematical reasons) if the instrumental background (due do mis-reconstructed deuterons and anti-protons events) can be lowered enough. This latter point is quite unlikely. Finally some ”exotic” astrophysical objects, like primordial black holes $`^\mathrm{?}`$, can be very efficiently looked for through the antiprotons emission $`^\mathrm{?}`$.

From a technical point of view, it will also be extremely useful to have the same detector measuring, for the first time, both the cosmic nuclei (to constrain the diffusion model) and the antiproton spectra.

## 5 Search for primordial antimatter

The laws of fundamental physics being nearly the same for matter and antimatter, the picture of a symmetric Universe made of a ”patchwork” of regions of both types is very tempting. Theoretical works $`^\mathrm{?}`$ have shown that, in such a model, gamma-rays induced by annihilation after recombination would exceed the observational limits. On the other hand, direct measurements cannot exclude the presence of antimatter on scales larger than the typical size of galactic clusters, around 20 Mpc. By trying to measure directly anti-nuclei in cosmic rays, AMS will be in position to strongly confirm the standard prediction or, possibly, to point out some unknown phenomena. Nevertheless, whereas a positive detection (Z$`>`$2) would be clearly conclusive, an upper limit on the amount of anti-nuclei in cosmic rays would be difficult to be turned out into a lower limit on the domain size because of large uncertainties on the structure and intensity of extragalactic magnetic fields.

Anyway, it should be noted that the experiment will also be very sensitive to potential anti-globular clusters within our Galaxy $`^\mathrm{?}`$.

## 6 Gamma-ray astrophysics

Gamma-rays are not only interesting for astrophysical purposes (pulsars, SNRs, AGNs, GRBs, CIB constraints, etc…) but also for the previously quoted search for neutralinos annihilations $`^\mathrm{?}`$.

The AMS detector was not designed for gamma-ray astrophysics. In particular, it cannot be pointed toward the sources. Nevertheless, together with AGILE and waiting for GLAST, it could feature some interesting gamma-ray capabilities $`^\mathrm{?}`$. Between 0.3 and 50 GeV, the angular resolution would be around $`0.8^o(E/1GeV)^{0.96}`$ with a peak effective area of 1500 cm2 and a flux sensitivity of the order of 0.5$`10^8`$ cm-2 s-1 GeV-1 (at 1 GeV). The calorimeter could also be very usefully used for gamma-ray astronomy if it can be self-triggered.

## 7 AMS-I preliminary flight results

Together with excellent technical results, accurate measurements of particles flux close to Earth have been performed by the AMS experiment, bringing a body of excellent new data on the particle populations in the low altitude terrestrial environment $`^\mathrm{?}`$ $`^\mathrm{?}`$ $`^\mathrm{?}`$ $`^\mathrm{?}`$ $`^\mathrm{?}`$ $`^\mathrm{?}`$. Most of those measurements were quite surprising (high sub-geomagnetic cutoff population, $`e^+/e^{}`$ ratio, 3He nuclei, etc…) and are now being interpreted $`^\mathrm{?}`$ $`^\mathrm{?}`$. They show that the detector worked very well and open a new era of cosmic-ray physics.

## References


text:
# Algebraic entropy and the space of initial values for discrete dynamical systems

## 1 Introduction

The notion of algebraic entropy was introduced by Hietarinta and Viallet  in order to test the degree of complexity of successive iterations of a rational mapping. The algebraic entropy is defined as $`s:=lim_n\mathrm{}\mathrm{log}(d_n)/n`$ where $`d_n`$ is the degree of the $`n`$th iterate. This notion is linked to Arnold’s complexity since the degree of a mapping gives the intersection number of the image of a line and a hyperplane. While the degree grows exponentially for a generic mapping, it was shown that it only grows polynomially for a large class of integrable mappings . Especially the case of some discrete Painlevè equations are studied by Ohta et. al. .

Let $`\phi _i`$ be a birational mapping of $`^2`$ or $`^1\times ^1`$. A sequence of rational surfaces $`X_i`$ is (or $`X_i`$ themselves are) called the space of initial values for the sequence of $`\phi _i`$ if each $`\phi _i`$ is lifted to an isomorphism, i.e. bi-holomorphic mapping, from $`X_i`$ to $`X_{i+1}`$ . Here, the mapping $`\phi ^{}`$ is called a mapping lifted from the mapping $`\phi `$ if $`\phi ^{}`$ coincides with $`\phi `$ on any point where $`\phi `$ is defined. Such a mapping induces an action on the Picard group of its space of initial values. Here, the Picard group of a rational surface $`X`$ is the group of isomorphism classes of invertible sheaves on $`X`$ and it is isomorphic to the group of linear equivalent classes of divisors on $`X`$.

In this paper we present a method to calculate the degree of the $`n`$th iterate of the sequence of mappings which has the space of initial values. We also show an example of calculation and simplify the method by considering invariant sublattices. We apply our method to the discrete Painlveé equations in Sakai’s list  and show that for all of them the degrees grow at most in the order $`n^2`$.

The discrete Painlevé equations were found by many authors  and have been extensively studied. Recently it was shown by Sakai  that all of (from the point of view of symmetries) these are obtained by studying rational surfaces in connection with the extended affine Weyl groups.

Surfaces obtained by successive blow-ups  of $`^2`$ or $`^1\times ^1`$ have been studied by several authors by means of connections between the Weyl groups and the groups of Cremona isometries on the Picard group of the surfaces . Here, a Cremona isometry is an isomorphism of the Picard group such that a) it preserves the intersection number of any pair of divisors, b) it preserves the canonical divisor $`K_X`$ and c) it leaves the set of effective classes of divisors invariant. In the case where $`9`$ points (in the case of $`^2`$, $`8`$ points in the case of $`^1\times ^1`$) are blown up, if the points are in general position the group of Cremona isometries becomes isomorphic with an extension of the Weyl group of type $`E_8^{(1)}`$. In case the $`9`$ points are not in general position, the classification of connections between the group of Cremona isometries and the extended affine Weyl groups was first studied by Looijenga  and more generally by Sakai. Birational (bi-meromorphic) mappings on $`^2`$ (or $`^1\times ^1`$) are obtained by interchanging the procedure of blow downs. Discrete Painlevé equations are recovered as the birational mappings corresponding to the translations of the affine Weyl groups.

In Section 2, we show a method to calculate the degree of the $`n`$th iterate. Considering the intersection numbers of divisors it is shown that the degree is given by the $`n`$th power of a matrix given by the action of the mapping on the Picard group.

In Section 3, we present an example of calculation. We apply our method to the mapping which was found by Hietarinta and Viallet  and whose space of initial values are obtained by $`14`$ blow-ups from $`^1\times ^1`$ . We simplify calculation using the root systems associated with the symmetries of their space of initial values.

In Section 4, applying our method for discrete Painlevé equations, we show the degrees of $`n`$th iterate are at most $`O(n^2)`$.

## 2 Algebraic entropy and intersection numbers

We define the degree of polynomial on $`^1(=^1()):`$ $`f(t)=_ma_tt^m`$ as

$$\mathrm{deg}_t(f(t))=\mathrm{max}\{m;a_m0\},$$

where $`t`$ is a coordinate of $`^1=\{\mathrm{}\}`$. Similarly we define the degree of a polynomial on $`^1\times ^1:`$ $`f(x,y)=_{m,n}a_{m,n}x^my^n`$ as

$$\mathrm{deg}(f(x,y))=\mathrm{max}\{m+n;a_{m,n}0\}.$$

The degree of an irreducible rational function $`P(x,y)=f(x,y)/g(x,y)`$, where $`f(x,y)`$ and $`g(x,y)`$ are polynomials, is defined by

$$\mathrm{deg}(P)=\mathrm{max}\{\mathrm{deg}f(x,y),\mathrm{deg}g(x,y)\}.$$

The degree of a mapping $`\phi :^1\times ^1^1\times ^1`$, $`(x,y)(P(x,y),Q(x,y))`$, where $`P(x,y)`$ and $`Q(x,y)`$ are rational functions, is defined by

$$\mathrm{deg}(\phi )=\mathrm{max}\{\mathrm{deg}P(x,y),\mathrm{deg}Q(x,y)\}$$

and similarly $`\mathrm{deg}_t(\phi )`$ is defined by the degree about $`t`$.

The algebraic entropy $`h(\phi )`$, where $`\phi `$ is a mapping from $`^1\times ^1`$ to itself, is defined by

$$h(\phi )=\underset{n\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{1}{n}\mathrm{log}\mathrm{deg}(\phi ^n)$$

if the limit exists.

Remark. If one would prefer to discuss the mapping in $`^2`$ instead of $`^1\times ^1`$, it is sufficient to note that we can relate a mapping $`\phi ^{}`$: $`(X,Y,Z)^2(\overline{X},\overline{Y},\overline{Z})^2`$ with a mapping $`\phi `$: $`(x,y)^1\times ^1(\overline{x},\overline{y})^1\times ^1`$ by using the relations $`x=X/Z,y=Y/Z`$ and $`\overline{x}=\overline{X}/\overline{Z},\overline{y}=\overline{Y}/\overline{Z}`$ and by reducing to a common denominator. We denote the $`n`$th iterate of $`\phi ^{}`$ by $`(f_n(X,Y,Z),g_n(X,Y,Z),h_n(X,Y,Z))`$ where $`f_n,g_n,h_n`$ are polynomials with the same degree and should be simplified if possible. The algebraic entropy $`h(\phi )`$ then coincides with $`h(\phi ^{})`$, where $`h(\phi ^{})`$ is defined by $`\mathrm{deg}(\phi ^n)=\mathrm{deg}f_n(=\mathrm{deg}g_n=\mathrm{deg}h_n)`$ and $`lim_n\mathrm{}\mathrm{deg}(\phi ^{})`$.

We show that we can calculate the degree of the $`n`$th iterate and thus the entropy of mapping by using the theory of intersection numbers.

Let $`\{X_i\}`$ be a sequence of rational surfaces obtained by successive $`m`$ blow-ups from $`^1\times ^1`$ and let $`\phi _i(x,y)`$ be an isomorphism from $`X_{i1}`$ to $`X_i`$. We write the action of

$$\phi _n\phi _{n1}\mathrm{}\phi _1$$

on $`^1\times ^1`$ as $`(P_n(x,y),Q_n(x,y))`$.

We denote the linear equivalent classes of total transform of $`x=\mathrm{constant},`$ (or $`y=\mathrm{constant}`$) on $`X`$ by $`H_0`$ (or $`H_1`$ respectively) and the linear equivalent classes of total transform of the point of the $`i`$-th blow-up by $`E_i`$. From  we know that the Picard group of $`X`$, Pic($`X`$), is

$$\mathrm{Pic}(X)=H_0+H_1+E_1+\mathrm{}+E_m$$

and the intersection form, i.e. the intersection numbers of pairs of base elements, is

$`H_iH_j=1\delta _{i,j},E_kE_l=\delta _{k,l},H_iE_k=0`$ (1)
where $`\delta _{i,j}`$ is $`1`$ if $`i=j`$ and $`0`$ if $`ij,`$ and the intersection numbers of any pairs of divisors are given by their linear combinations.

Remark. Let $`X`$ be a rational surface. It is known that Pic($`X`$), the group of isomorphism classes of invertible sheaves of $`X`$, is isomorphic to the following groups.
i)The group of linear equivalent classes of divisors on $`X`$.
ii)The group of numerically equivalent classes of divisors on $`X`$, where divisors $`D`$ and $`D^{}`$ on $`X`$ are numerically equivalent if and only if for any divisors $`D^{\prime \prime }`$ on $`X`$, $`DD^{\prime \prime }=D^{}D^{\prime \prime }`$ holds.
Hence we identify them in this paper.

Let us define the curve $`L`$ in $`X_0`$ as $`y=c_1x+c_2`$ where $`c_1,c_2`$ are nonzero constants. Notice that

$`\mathrm{deg}_t(P_n(t,c_1t+c_2))=\mathrm{deg}(P_n(x,y))`$ (2)
holds for generic $`c_1`$ and $`c_2`$.

By the fundamental theorem of algebra, $`\mathrm{deg}_t(P_n(t,c_1t+c_2))`$ coincides with the intersection number of the curve $`(x,y)=(P_n(t,c_1t+c_2),Q_n(t,c_1t+c_2)`$ and the curve $`x=d`$ in $`^1\times ^1`$, where $`d`$ is a constant. The class of the curve $`x=d`$ is expressed as $`H_0`$ in $`\mathrm{Pic}(\mathrm{X})`$ and hence from (1) this intersection number coincides with the coefficient of $`H_1`$ of the class of the curve $`\phi ^n(L)`$ for nonzero constants $`c_1`$ and $`c_2`$. Analogously, the intersection number of the curve $`(x,y)=(P_n(t,c_1t+c_2),Q_n(t,c_1t+c_2)`$ and the curve $`y=d`$ coincides with the coefficient of $`H_0`$ of the class of the curve $`\phi ^n(L)`$ for any nonzero constants $`c_1`$ and $`c_2`$.

Notice that for any isomorphism $`\theta `$ from the rational surface $`X`$ to the rational surface $`X^{}`$ and any divisor $`D`$, the relation

$$[\theta (D)]=\theta ([D])$$

holds, where $`[]`$ means the class of $``$ and in the right hand side $`\theta `$ is the linear operator on Pic($`X`$) ($`=`$ Pic($`X^{}`$)) which is induced by the isomorphism $`\theta `$.

In our case, we have

$`[\phi _n\mathrm{}\phi _1(L)]=\phi _n\mathrm{}\phi _1([L])`$
and therefore writing the coefficients of $`H_0`$ and $`H_1`$ of $`\phi _n\mathrm{}\phi _1([L])`$ as $`h_n^0,h_n^1`$, we have the relation

$`\mathrm{deg}_t(P_n(t,c_1t+c_2))=h_n^1`$ $`\mathrm{deg}_t(Q_n(t,c_1t+c_2))=h_n^0`$
for any nonzero constants $`c_1,c_2`$. On the other hand it can be seen that the relation (2) holds for $`(c_1,c_2)=(c_1^0,c_2^0)`$ such that $`[L]`$ is invariant under infinitesimal change of $`(c_1,c_2)`$ around $`(c_1^0,c_2^0)`$, i.e. $`[L]`$ is generic at the point $`(c_1,c_2)=(c_1^0,c_2^0)`$ for the parameter $`(c_1,c_2)`$. (Suppose that $`P_n(t,c_1t+c_2)`$ would suddenly be simplified at this point and that $`[L]`$ is invariant under infinitesimal change of $`(c_1,c_2)`$ around $`(c_1^0,c_2^0)`$. The intersection number of the curve $`x=P_n(t,c_1t+c_2)`$ and the curve $`x=d`$ would then change but $`\phi ([L])`$ itself would still be invariant, which leads to a contradiction. Similarly for the case of $`Q_n(t,c_1t+c_2)`$.)

Consequently we have the following theorem.

###### THEOREM 2.1

Let $`\{X_i\}`$ be a sequence of rational surfaces obtained by blow ups from $`^1\times ^1`$ and let $`\phi _i(x,y)`$ be an isomorphism from $`X_{i1}`$ to $`X_i`$. We denote the action of $`\phi _n\mathrm{}\phi _1`$ on $`^1\times ^1`$ by $`(P_n(x,y),Q_n(x,y))`$. Let $`[L]`$ be the class of curve $`y=c_1x+c_2`$ in $`X_0`$ such that $`[L]`$ is generic and let $`h_n^0,h_n^1`$ be the coefficients of $`H_0`$ and $`H_1`$ of $`\phi _n\mathrm{}\phi _1([L])`$. The formula

$`\mathrm{deg}(P_n(x,y))=h_n^1`$ $`\mathrm{deg}(Q_n(x,y))=h_n^0.`$
then holds.

Remark. As before if $`\{X_i^{}\}`$ is a sequence of rational surfaces obtained by blow ups from $`^2`$ (instead of $`^1\times ^1`$) and $`\phi _i(x,y)`$ is an isomorphism from $`X_{i1}^{}`$ to $`X_i^{}`$, we can consider the degree of the mapping

$$\phi _n^{}\mathrm{}\phi _1^{}:^2^2.$$

We denote the class of a curve $`aX+bY+cZ=0`$ in $`^2`$ by $``$. Notice that $``$ is always generic for parameters $`a,b,c`$ in the rational surface $`X_0`$. The intersection form is $`=1,E_iE_j=\delta _{i,j},E_i=0`$. Similar to the case of $`^1\times ^1`$, we have the fact that the degree of $`\phi _n^{}\mathrm{}\phi _1^{}`$ coincides with the coefficient of $``$ of $`\phi _n^{}\mathrm{}\phi _1^{}()`$.

## 3 An example and simplification

We consider the following equation found by Hietarinta and Viallet  (we denote it as the HV eq. in this paper):

$`\phi :`$ $`^1\times ^1`$ $`^1\times ^1`$ (9)
$`\left(\begin{array}{c}x_n\\ y_n\end{array}\right)`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{c}x_{n+1}\\ y_{n+1}\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{c}y_n\\ x_n+y_n+a/y_n^2\end{array}\right)`$
where $`a`$ is a nonzero constant. It is known that the algebraic entropy of the HV eq. $`\phi `$ is equal to $`\mathrm{log}(3+\sqrt{5})/2`$. Here we shall recover the algebraic entropy of the HV eq. by using the theory of intersection numbers.

The HV eq. can be lifted to an automorphism of a rational surfaces $`X`$ obtained by successive $`14`$ blow-ups from $`^1\times ^1`$ . Hence its Picard group is

$$\mathrm{Pic}(X)=H_0+H_1+E_1+\mathrm{}+E_{14},$$

where total transforms of the points of blow-ups as follows:

$`E_1:(1/x,y)=(0,0)`$ $`E_2:({\displaystyle \frac{1}{xy}},y)=(0,0)`$
$`E_3:({\displaystyle \frac{1}{xy}},xy^2)=(0,a)`$ $`E_4:({\displaystyle \frac{1}{xy}},xy\left(xy^2a\right))=(0,0)`$
$`E_5:(x,1/y)=(0,0)`$ $`E_6:(x,{\displaystyle \frac{1}{xy}})=(0,0)`$
$`E_7:(x^2y,{\displaystyle \frac{1}{xy}})=(a,0)`$ $`E_8:(xy\left(x^2ya\right),{\displaystyle \frac{1}{xy}})=(0,0)`$
$`E_9:(1/x,1/y)=(0,0)`$ $`E_{10}:({\displaystyle \frac{1}{x}},{\displaystyle \frac{x}{y}})=(0,1)`$
$`E_{11}:({\displaystyle \frac{1}{x}},x\left({\displaystyle \frac{x}{y}}1\right))=(0,0)`$ $`E_{12}:({\displaystyle \frac{1}{x^2\left(x/y1\right)}},x\left({\displaystyle \frac{x}{y}}1\right))=(0,0)`$
$`E_{13}:({\displaystyle \frac{1}{x^2\left(x/y1\right)}},x^3\left({\displaystyle \frac{x}{y}}1\right)^2)=(0,a)`$ $`E_{14}:({\displaystyle \frac{1}{x^2\left(x/y1\right)}},x^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{x}{y}}1\right)\left(x^3\left({\displaystyle \frac{x}{y}}1\right)^2a\right))=(0,0).`$
Its action on the Picard group is

$`\left(\begin{array}{c}H_0\\ H_1,E_1,E_2\\ E_3,E_4,E_5,E_6\\ E_7,E_8,E_9,E_{10}\\ E_{11},E_{12},E_{13},E_{14}\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}3H_0+H_1E_5E_6E_7E_8E_9E_{10}\\ H_0,H_0E_8,H_0E_7\\ H_0E_6,H_0E_5,E_{11},E_{12}\\ E_{13},E_{14},H_0E_{10},H_0E_9\\ E_1,E_2,E_3,E_4\end{array}\right)`$ (20)
(this table means $`\overline{H_0}=3H_0+H_1E_5E_6E_7E_8E_9E_{10},`$ $`\overline{H_1}=H_0,`$ $`\overline{E_1}=H_0E_8`$ and so on) and their linear combinations.

Notice that (20) means a change of bases. Actually by fixing the basis of Pic($`X`$) as $`\{H_0,H_1,E_1,E_2,\mathrm{},E_{14}\}`$, this table can be expressed by the following matrix as the action from the left hand side on the space of coefficients of basis.

$`\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccccccccc}3& 1& 1& 1& 1& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1\\ 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right)`$ (37)
The curve $`L:x=c_1y+c_2`$, where $`c_1,c_2`$ are nonzero constants,is expressed by $`H_0+H_1E_9`$ in Pic($`X`$) if $`c_11`$. This fact is easily calculated from the fact that $`L`$ has intersections only with $`H_0,H_1`$ and $`E_9`$ at one time.

The action of $`\phi `$ on Pic($`X`$) is given by (20) or (37). Hence the algebraic entropy of the HV eq., $`lim_n\mathrm{}\frac{1}{n}\mathrm{log}\mathrm{max}\{h_n^0,h_n^1\}`$, can be shown to be equal to (by diagonalization of the matrix (37)):

$`\mathrm{log}\mathrm{max}\{|\text{ eigenvalues of }(\text{37})|\}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{log}{\displaystyle \frac{3+\sqrt{5}}{2}}.`$
On the level of the mapping itself, the degrees can be calculated as follows:

$`(x,y)`$ $`\stackrel{\phi }{}`$ $`(y,{\displaystyle \frac{xy^2+y^3+a}{y^2}})\stackrel{\phi }{}(\mathrm{deg}3,\mathrm{deg}9)`$ (38)
$`\stackrel{\phi }{}`$ $`(\mathrm{deg}9,\mathrm{deg}25)\stackrel{\phi }{}(\mathrm{deg}25,\mathrm{deg}67)\stackrel{\phi }{}\mathrm{}.`$
On the other hand, the intersection numbers can be calculated by (20) or (37) as follows:

$`H_0+H_1E_9`$ $`\stackrel{\phi }{}`$ $`3H_0+H_1E_5E_6E_7E_8E_9`$
$`\stackrel{\phi }{}`$ $`9H_0+3H_1+\mathrm{}+(3)E_9+\mathrm{}`$
$`\stackrel{\phi }{}`$ $`25H_0+9H_1+\mathrm{}+(7)E_9+\mathrm{}`$
$`\stackrel{\phi }{}`$ $`67H_0+25H_1+\mathrm{}+(19)E_9+\mathrm{}`$
$`\stackrel{\phi }{}`$ $`\mathrm{}`$
which actually coincides with (38).

By the corresponding mapping in $`^2`$, the degrees are

$`(X,Y,Z)`$ $`\stackrel{\phi ^{}}{}`$ $`(Y^3,XY^2+Y^3+aZ^3,Y^2Z)\stackrel{\phi ^{}}{}\mathrm{deg}9`$ (39)
$`\stackrel{\phi ^{}}{}`$ $`\mathrm{deg}27\stackrel{\phi ^{}}{}\mathrm{deg}73\stackrel{\phi ^{}}{}\mathrm{}.`$
Using the correspondence $`=H_0+H_1E_9`$ (it is shown that $`:aX+bY+cZ=0`$ actually has this correspondence in appendix A), we have that the curve has the property

$`\phi ^n()`$ $`=`$ $`\phi ^n(H_0+H_1E_9)(H_0+H_1E_9)`$
$`=`$ $`(h_0H_0+h_1H_1+e_1E_1+\mathrm{}+e_{14}E_{14})(H_0+H_1E_9)`$
$`=`$ $`h_0+h_1+e_9,`$
where $`e_i`$ is the coefficient of $`E_i`$. Hence we have the sequence of the coefficients of $``$ as

$`1\stackrel{\phi ^{}}{}3\stackrel{\phi ^{}}{}9\stackrel{\phi ^{}}{}27\stackrel{\phi ^{}}{}73\stackrel{\phi ^{}}{}\mathrm{},`$
which coincides with (39).

Next we consider simplification of our method. The anti-canonical divisor $`K_X`$ can be reduced uniquely  to prime divisors as

$`D_0+2D_1+D_2+D_3+2D_4+D_5+3D_6+D_7+2D_8+D_9+2D_{10}+2D_{11}+2D_{12}`$ (40)
where

$$D_0=E_1E_2D_1=E_2E_3D_2=E_3E_4D_3=E_5E_6D_4=E_6E_7$$

$$D_5=E_7E_8D_6=E_9E_{10}D_7=E_{11}E_{12}D_8=E_{12}E_{13}D_9=E_{13}E_{14}$$

$$D_{10}=H_0E_1E_2E_9D_{11}=H_1E_5E_6E_9D_{12}=E_{10}E_{11}E_{12}.$$

We denote sub-lattice of the Picard group $`_{i=0}^{12}D_i`$ as $`<D_i>`$. Let $`<\alpha _i>`$ be orthogonal complement of $`<D_i>`$ and let $`\{\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3\}`$ be its basis. Notice that $`\phi `$ preserves $`<D_i>`$ and $`<\alpha _i>`$ because its action on the Picard group is a Cremona isometry.

The matrix (37) is an expression of the action $`\phi `$ on Pic($`X`$) by the basis
$`\{H_0,H_1,E_1,\mathrm{},E_{14}\}`$. But $`\{D_0,D_1,\mathrm{},D_{12},\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3\}`$ is a better basis for calculation of the degree of $`\phi _n`$ (we may consider $`\mathrm{Pic}(\mathrm{X})`$ to be a vector space on $``$ instead of $``$ module for this purpose). The reason is that $`<D_i>`$ and $`<\alpha _i>`$ are eigenspaces of $`\phi `$ and compliment each other and moreover the action of $`\phi `$ on $`<D_i>`$ is just a permutation. Hence it is enough to investigate the action on $`<\alpha _i>`$ in order to know the level of growth of $`\mathrm{deg}(\phi _n)`$.

Actually, by taking a basis of $`<\alpha _i>`$ as

$`\alpha _1`$ $`=`$ $`2H_1E_1E_2E_3E_4,`$
$`\alpha _2`$ $`=`$ $`2H_0E_5E_6E_7E_8,`$
$`\alpha _3`$ $`=`$ $`2H_0+2H_12E_92E_{10}E_{11}E_{12}E_{13}E_{14}`$
(the fact is, this basis is the basis of root system by regarding the $`<\alpha _i>`$ and intersection form as the root lattice and the bilinear form respectively) and writing an element of $`<\alpha _i>`$ as $`r_1\alpha _1+r_2\alpha _2+r_3\alpha _3`$, the action of $`\phi `$ on $`<\alpha _i>`$ is expressed as

$`\left(\begin{array}{c}\overline{r_1}\\ \overline{r_2}\\ \overline{r_2}\end{array}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 0& 1\\ 1& 2& 2\\ 0& 1& 0\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}r_1\\ r_2\\ r_2\end{array}\right)`$ (50)
and the absolute values of its eigenvalues are $`1,(3\pm \sqrt{5})/2`$.

Remark. The non-autonomous version is as follows:

$`\phi `$ $`:(x,y;a_1,a_2,a_3,a_4,a_5,a_6,a_7)`$
$``$ $`(y,x+y+a_5+{\displaystyle \frac{a_1}{y^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{a_2}{a_1y}};`$
$`a_6,a_7+2a_5^2a_6+{\displaystyle \frac{2a_2a_6}{a_1}},a_1,a_2,a_5,a_3,a_4+2a_3a_5^2{\displaystyle \frac{2a_2a_3}{a_1}}),`$
where $`a_i`$ and $`a_1,a_3,a_6`$ are nonzero and an over-line means the value of the image by the mapping. In this case the coefficients of $`H_i`$ and $`E_i`$ do not change and therefore the degrees and the algebraic entropy do not change, since its action on the Picard group is identical with the action of the original autonomous version.

## 4 The growth of degree of discrete Painlevé equations

It is shown by Sakai  that the discrete Painlevé equations can be obtained by the following method.

Let $`X`$ be a rational surface obtained by blow-ups from $`^2`$ such that its anti-canonical divisor $`K_X`$ ($`=3E_1\mathrm{}E_9`$) is uniquely decomposed in prime divisors as $`K_X=_{i=1}^Im_iD_i`$ and satisfies $`K_XD_i=0`$ for all $`i`$. This implies that $`K_XK_X=0`$ and therefore $`X`$ is obtained by $`9`$ points blow-ups from $`^2`$ and hence $`\mathrm{rankPic}(\mathrm{X})=10`$. One can classify such surfaces according to the type (denoted by $`R`$) of Dynkin diagram formed by the $`D_i`$ (the lattice of $`R`$ is a sub-lattice of the lattice of $`E_8^{(1)}`$).

The Cremona isometries of $`X`$ preserve the sub-lattice $`<D_i>`$ and its orthogonal sub-lattice with respect to the intersection form. By taking a suitable basis of the orthogonal lattice, $`\{\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\mathrm{},\alpha _J\}`$, and by regarding $`<\alpha _j>`$ and the intersection form as the root lattice and the bilinear form respectively, it becomes the basis of an extended affine Weyl group and moreover $`\alpha _j\alpha _j`$ does not depend on $`j`$. All the actions of these extended affine Weyl groups on $`<\alpha _j>`$ are uniquely extended to the actions on $`\mathrm{Pic}(\mathrm{X})`$ as Cremona isometries. Notice that the intersection number of $`\alpha _j`$ and $`K_X`$ is zero, since $`\alpha _jK_X`$ $`=\alpha _jm_iD_i=0`$. Similar to the case of the HV eq., every discrete Painlevé equation acts on $`\{D_i\}`$ just as a permutation (this fact follows from the uniqueness of decomposition of the anti-canonical divisor and the definition of Cremona isometry).

The group of Cremona isometries of $`X`$ is isomorphic to the extended affine Weyl group and each element can be realized as a Cremona transformation, i.e. birational mapping, on $`^2`$. Each of the discrete Painlevé equations corresponds to a translation of extended affine Weyl group.

The Cartan matrixes of these affine Weyl groups are symmetric and $`K_X`$ becomes the canonical central element (and also becomes $`\delta `$, see § 6.2 § 6.4 in ). Hence the action of Painlevé equation on the orthogonal lattice $`<\alpha _j>`$ is expressed as

$`(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\mathrm{},\alpha _J)(\alpha _1+k_1K_X,\alpha _2+k_2K_X,\mathrm{},\alpha _J+k_JK_X)`$ (52)
where $`k_j`$ and $`k_j=0`$.

###### LEMMA 4.1

Let $`X`$, $`D_i`$ and $`\alpha _j`$ be as mentioned above. The following formula with respect to the rank:

$$\mathrm{rank}<\mathrm{D}_1,\mathrm{},\mathrm{D}_\mathrm{I},\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _\mathrm{J}>=9$$

holds.

Proof. Notice that $`\{D_1,\mathrm{},D_I\}`$ or $`\{\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _J\}`$ are linearly independent. Suppose $`d_iD_i+r_j\alpha _j=0`$, where $`d_i,r_j`$. We have $`F:=d_iD_i=r_j\alpha _j<D_i><\alpha _j>`$. Since $`F`$ is an element of $`<D_i>`$, $`\alpha _i(r_j\alpha _j)=0`$ holds for all $`1iJ`$. Here the Cartan matrix of the Weyl group is $`C:=(c_{i,j})_{1i,jJ}`$:

$$c_{i,j}=\frac{2\alpha _i\alpha _j}{\alpha _i\alpha _i}$$

and $`\alpha _i\alpha _i`$ does not depend on $`i`$. Hence it implies

$`C𝐫=0,`$ (53)
where $`𝐫=(r_1,\mathrm{},r_J)`$. The corank of Cartan matrix of affine type is $`1`$. Hence we obtain $`FK_X`$. It implies the fact that the corank of $`<D_1,\mathrm{},D_I,\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _J>`$ is $`1`$.

Let $`E_9`$ be an exceptional curve, where “$`9`$” means the last blow-up.

###### LEMMA 4.2

$$\{D_1,\mathrm{},D_I,\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _J,K_X,E_9\}$$

is a basis of Pic($`X`$).

Of course these elements are not independent.

Proof. Suppose $`E_9=d_iD_i+r_j\alpha _j`$, where $`d_i,r_j`$. Multiplying this equation by $`K_X`$, we find $`1=0`$. The claim of lemma follows from Lemma 4.1.

Let $`T`$ be a discrete Painlevé equation. Since $`T`$ acts on $`\{D_i\}`$ just as a permutation, there exists $`l`$ such that $`T^l`$ acts on $`\{D_i\}`$ as the identity.

###### LEMMA 4.3

There exist integers $`z_1,z_2,\mathrm{},z_J`$ such that

$`T^l(E_9)=E_9+{\displaystyle z_j\alpha _j}`$
holds.

Proof. Notice that $`E_9`$ has an intersection with only one of $`\{D_i\}`$ and without loss of generality we can assume $`E_9D_1=1`$. The system of equations $`T^l(E_9)D_1=1`$, $`T^l(E_9)D_i=0(i=2,\mathrm{}I)`$ is linear. Hence the solutions of this system are $`T^l(E_9)=E_9+\alpha _j`$. Of course $`T^l(E_9)`$ must be an element of Pic($`X`$) and therefore the coefficients must be integers.

By (52), Lemma 4.2 and Lemma 4.3 the action of $`T^l`$ on Pic($`X`$) is expressed as

$`d_1D_1+\mathrm{}+d_ID_I+r_1\alpha _1+\mathrm{}+r_J\alpha _J+kK_X+eE_9`$
$``$ $`d_1D_1+\mathrm{}+d_ID_I+(r_1+ez_1)\alpha _1+\mathrm{}+(r_J+ez_J)\alpha _J`$
$`+(k+lr_1k_1+\mathrm{}+lr_Jk_J)K_X+eE_9`$
where $`d_i,r_j,k,e`$. This action is written by the matrix

$`A`$ $`:=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{cccccccc}1& & & & & & & \\ & \mathrm{}& & & & & & \\ 0& & 1& & & & & \\ & & \multicolumn{-1}{c}{}& & & & & \\ & & & 1& & & & z_1\\ & & & & \mathrm{}& & & \mathrm{}\\ & & & & & 1& & z_J\\ & & \multicolumn{-1}{c}{}& & & & & \\ & & & lk_1& \mathrm{}& lk_J& 1& \\ & & \multicolumn{-1}{c}{}& & & & & \\ & & & & & & & 1\end{array}\right],`$ (62)
where a blank means $`0`$.

The matrix $`A^s`$, where $`s`$ is

$`A^s`$ $`:=`$ $`\left[\begin{array}{cccccccc}1& & & & & & & \\ & \mathrm{}& & & & & & \\ 0& & 1& & & & & \\ & & \multicolumn{-1}{c}{}& & & & & \\ & & & 1& & & & sz_1\\ & & & & \mathrm{}& & & \mathrm{}\\ & & & & & 1& & sz_J\\ & & \multicolumn{-1}{c}{}& & & & & \\ & & & slk_1& \mathrm{}& slk_J& 1& _s\\ & & \multicolumn{-1}{c}{}& & & & & \\ & & & & & & & 1\end{array}\right],`$ (71)
where $`_s=\frac{1}{2}s(s1)lk_jz_j`$.

Let us start with $`\mathrm{Pic}(X)`$ and let $`d_1D_1+\mathrm{}+d_ID_I+r_1\alpha _1+\mathrm{}+r_J\alpha _J+kK_X+eE_9`$ be an expression of $``$. We obtain the following theorem.

###### THEOREM 4.4

For all discrete Painlevé equations the order of degree of the $`n`$th iterate is at most $`O(n^2)`$.

Proof. The degree of the Painlevé equation $`T`$ as a birational mapping of $`^2`$ coincides with the coefficient of $``$ in $`T^n()`$ as an action on Pic($`X`$). Because the coefficients of

$`T^{sl}()`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}d_iD_i+{\displaystyle \underset{j}{}}(r_j+sz_je)\alpha _j++(sl{\displaystyle \underset{j}{}}k_jr_j+k+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}s(s1)le{\displaystyle \underset{j}{}}k_jz_j)K_X+E_9,`$
where $`n=sl`$, increase at most with the order $`s^2`$, the coefficient of $``$ also increases at most $`O(n^2)`$.

Acknowledgment. The author would like to thank H. Sakai, J. Satsuma, T. Tokihiro, K.Okamoto, R. Willox, A. Nobe, T. Tsuda and M. Eguchi for discussions and advice.

## Appendix A The space of initial values constructed by blowing up $`^2`$

We consider the construction of the space of initial values for the HV eq. $`\phi :^2^2`$

$$\phi :(X,Y,Z)(Y^3,XY^2+Y^3+aZ^3,Y^2Z).$$

This mapping is reduced from (9) by the change of variables $`x=X/Z,y=Y/Z`$.

The space of initial values $`X^{}`$ becomes isomorphic to $`X`$ where $`X`$ is the space of initial values in the case of $`^1\times ^1`$. Denoting a class of the curve $`aX+bY+cZ=0`$ by $``$, where $`a,b,c`$ ($`a`$ bears no relation with $`a`$ in $`\phi `$), we have a correspondence between the bases of their Picard groups as follows

$$\mathrm{Pic}(X^{})=𝐙+𝐙E_p^{}+𝐙E_q^{}+𝐙E_1^{}+\mathrm{}+𝐙E_8^{}+𝐙E_{10}^{}+𝐙E_{11}^{}+𝐙E_{14}^{}$$

$`=H_0+H_1E_9,E_p^{}=H_0E_9,E_q^{}=H_1E_9,`$
$`E_i^{}=E_i\text{for }i=1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12,13,14.`$
The intersection form is

$$=1,E_i^{}E_j^{}=\delta _{i,j},E_i^{}=0$$

for all $`i,j\{p,q,1,2,\mathrm{},\stackrel{ˇ}{9},\mathrm{},14\}`$.
The irreducible components of the anti-canonical divisor are

$`E_1^{}E_2^{},E_2^{}E_3^{},E_3^{}E_4^{},E_5^{}E_6^{},E_6^{}E_7^{},E_7^{}E_8^{},`$
$`E_p^{}E_q^{}E_{10}^{},E_{11}^{}E_{12}^{},E_{12}^{}E_{13}^{},E_{13}^{}E_{14}^{}`$
$`E_p^{}E_1^{}E_2^{},E_q^{}E_5^{}E_6^{},E_{10}^{}E_{11}^{}E_{12}^{}`$
and the root basis is

$`\alpha _1`$ $`=`$ $`22E_p^{}E_1^{}E_2^{}E_3^{}E_4^{},`$
$`\alpha _2`$ $`=`$ $`22E_q^{}E_5^{}E_6^{}E_7^{}E_8^{},`$
$`\alpha _3`$ $`=`$ $`22E_{10}^{}E_{11}^{}E_{12}^{}E_{13}^{}E_{14}^{}.`$