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# Raman Scattered He II Line in the Planetary Nebula M2-9 and the Symbiotic Stars RR Telescopii and He 2-106

## 1 Introduction

Schmid (1989) identified the broad emission features around 6830 Å and 7088 Å in symbiotic stars as the Raman scattered O VI $`\lambda \lambda `$ 1032, 1038 by atomic hydrogen, where the scattering hydrogen atom initially in the $`1s`$ state de-excites to the $`2s`$ state after scattering. Observational evidence for Raman scattering by atomic hydrogen includes strong polarization exhibited in the 6830 Å and 7088 Å features (Schmid & Schild 1994, Harries & Howarth 1996, 2000) and simultaneous detections of the features in the far UV and optical regions (Birriel, Espey & Schulte-Ladbeck 1998, 2000).

The proximity of the He II emission lines corresponding to the transitions between energy levels with even principal quantum numbers to the H I resonance transitions requires much less H I column density for Raman scattering than O VI 1032, 1038 lines. Therefore, we may expect that the Raman scattering of He II may be observed in broader classes of objects than symbiotic stars. Thus far, the Raman scattering processes by atomic hydrogen have been known to operate only in symbiotic stars with an exception of the planetary nebula NGC 7027, in which Péquignot et al. (1997) found the He II Raman-scattered feature around 4851 Å that is slightly blueward of H$`\beta `$.

The same He II Raman-scattered feature has been reported in the spectrum of the symbiotic nova RR Telescopii by van Groningen (1993). Therefore, it is also natural to expect that a stronger Raman-scattered He II line will be found around 6545 Å, blueward of H$`\alpha `$ in the same object and also probably in other symbiotic stars, as pointed out by Nussbaumer, Schmid & Vogel (1989). According to Hyung and the colleagues, a number of planetary nebulae show the emission feature around 6545 Å, for which no proper identification has been attempted (e.g. Hyung & Aller 1995, Aller & Hyung 1996, Hyung et al. 2000).

The planetary nebula M2-9 has been studied intensively especially regarding its beautiful butterfly nebular morphology. It has been suggested that the central object of M2-9 has a compact and hot source that may be necessary to drive fast bipolar outflows and excite O III lines (e.g. Schwarz et al. 1997). Balick (1989) presented a high resolution spectrum of M2-9 and reported that there exist very broad wings around H$`\alpha `$ with velocity width $`10^4\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. The spectroscopic characteristics of M2-9 including rich and prominent emission lines lead him to conclude that M2-9 resembles very much symbiotic novae such as RR Tel. Nussbaumer et al. (1989) pointed out that Raman scattering of Ly$`\beta `$ may give rise to broad wings around H$`\alpha `$, and according to Lee (2000) and Lee & Hyung(2000), the H$`\alpha `$ wings of the planetary nebula IC 4997 and many symbiotic stars are fitted very well with the template wing profiles obtained from Raman scattering of Ly$`\beta `$.

In this Letter, we present our high resolution spectra of M2-9 and the symbiotic stars RR Tel and He 2-106, and report the detection of Raman scattered 6545 Å feature in these objects.

## 2 Atomic Physics

The slight difference in the reduced mass for H I and He II leads to the higher energy associated with the $`2s2np`$ transition in He II than the energy for the $`1snp`$ transition in H I by an amount of $`\mathrm{\Delta }E_n\frac{3}{4}\frac{m_e}{m_p}E_{Ryd}(1n^2)`$ where $`E_{Ryd}`$ is the Rydberg energy for hydrogen. Therefore, for an incident line photon corresponding to the $`2s2np(n3)`$ transition in He II, the wavelength shift of the outgoing (Raman-scattered) photon from the Balmer series transition is given by

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda _o5.9\left[\frac{n^2(n^21)}{(n^24)^2}\right]\mathrm{\AA }.$$
(1)
Therefore, for $`n=3`$ we get $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda _o17`$ Å and $`\lambda _o6546`$ Å, which is slightly redward of \[N II\]$`\lambda `$ 6548. For $`n=4`$, we have $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda _o9.9`$ Å and the expected wavelength redward of H$`\beta `$ is $`\lambda _o4851`$ Å, at which the He II Raman scattered line was found in the spectra of the planetary nebula NGC 7027 (Péquignot et al. 1997) and the symbiotic star RR Tel (van Groningen 1993)

The more exact values of the wavelengths for the He II transitions between levels with $`n=2`$ and $`n=6`$ are found in Table 1, where we also show the scattering cross sections in units of the Thomson scattering cross section $`\sigma _T=0.66\times 10^{24}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. The dominant transitions are $`6p_{1/2,3/2}2s_{1/2}`$, for which the Raman-scattering lines are expected around 6545 Å and the Rayleigh and Raman scattering cross sections are $`7000\sigma _T`$ and $`1000\sigma _T`$ respectively (e.g. Lee & Lee 1997, Nussbaumer et al. 1989). The He II line photons with the final state $`2p_{3/2}`$ will have the Raman scattered wavelength around 6547.4 Å, which will make a minor contribution to the formation of the Raman scattered feature but will be blended with the forbidden line \[N II\]$`\lambda `$ 6548.

The total scattering cross section, which is the sum of the Raman and Rayleigh scattering cross sections for these photons, is found to be $`8000\sigma _T5\times 10^{21}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. Therefore, in the presence of a neutral component with the column density $`N_{HI}10^{20}\mathrm{cm}^2`$ around the He II emission region we may expect significant Raman scattering of He II line photons.

## 3 Observation

We observed during the nights of August 14-16, 2000 at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory using the Bench Mounted Echelle spectrograph installed on the 1.5 m telescope. The exposure time was 2400 seconds for RR Tel and 3600 seconds for M2-9 and He2-106 and the seeing was $`1^{^{\prime \prime }}`$. Standard reduction procedures have been performed using the echelle spectroscopic data reduction tasks included in the IRAF package.

In Fig. 1, we show the spectra around H$`\alpha `$ for RR Tel, M2-9 and He2-106. The vertical bars mark the emission features at $`\lambda =6527`$ Å and 6545 Å. All these objects show very broad wings around H$`\alpha `$, where the origin was proposed to be Raman scattering of Ly$`\beta `$ by Nussbaumer et al. (1989). The dashed lines represent the $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda ^2=(\lambda \lambda _{H\alpha })^2`$ profile, which is the Raman-scattered profile of the flat incident Ly$`\beta `$ profile (Lee 2000, Lee & Hyung 2000). However, we note that the wing formation mechanism is not a fully resolved matter and that the broad wings may also be explained by other mechanisms including electron scattering and fast outflows around the central star (e.g. Arrieta & Torres-Peimbert 2000, Schwank, Schmutz & Nussbaumer 1997, van de Steene, Wood, & van Hoof 2000).

RR Tel and He2-106 show strong He II$`\lambda `$ 6560 emission line in our spectra, whereas in M2-9 it appears absent. The H$`\alpha `$ emission line of RR Tel and He2-106 shows a single peak profile but M2-9 shows a clear double peak profile in H$`\alpha `$, which is prevalently seen in many other symbiotic stars (e.g. Ivison, Bode, & Meaburn 1994, van Winckel, Duerbeck, & Schwarz 1993). The double peak profile (or centrally reversed profile) of the H$`\alpha `$ in symbiotic stars and planetary nebulae is not completely understood (e.g. Schmutz et al. 1994, Robinson et al. 1994).

The emission line around 6527 Å in RR Tel and He2-106 corresponds to the transition between $`n=14`$ and $`n=5`$ states of He II and is marked by a vertical bar in Fig. 1. The same feature is absent in M2-9. From Gaussian fittings to the 6527 and 6560 features in RR Tel we obtain the full width at half maximum values of 1.4 Å for both features.

In order to separate the 6545 feature from the spectra, we use the fact that the \[N II\]$`\lambda `$ 6548 profile should be identical with that of the \[N II\]$`\lambda `$ 6584 feature, which is 3 times stronger due to the atomic structure (e.g. Osterbrock 1989, Storey & Zeippen 2000). In Fig. 2, based on our fitting of the H$`\alpha `$ wings we isolated the emission fluxes around 6548 Å and 6584 Å. Subsequently we subtracted the flux of the \[N II\]$`\lambda `$ 6584 multiplied by 1/3 (represented by red lines) from the flux around the 6545 and \[N II\]$`\lambda `$ 6548 features (represented by the black lines) to isolate the He II Raman-scattered feature. The result is shown by the blue lines, which clearly show the 6545 features in these objects. We also see an additional broad emission feature around 6581 Å, which causes a slight excess in the \[N II\]$`\lambda `$6584 feature.

It is apparent that the width of the 6545 Å feature is much wider than 1.4 Å of these direct He II emission lines, which is naturally explained by the enhancement of the Doppler width by a factor of $`6.4`$ attributed to the scattering incoherency. The 6545 feature in RR Tel appears to exhibit double or multiple peak profiles whereas single peak profiles are seen in the He II emission lines at 6527 Å and 6560 Å. Further investigation using larger telescopes will shed more light on this matter.

## 4 Discussion

Since many symbiotic stars exhibit bipolar nebular morphology and M2-9 is bipolar, it is highly plausible that the neutral hydrogen component responsible for Raman scattering is significantly aspherical. If this is the case, then the 6545 Å feature is expected to be polarized either parallel or perpendicular to the symmetry axis. Therefore, as in the case of the Raman-scattered O VI 6830 Å and 7088 Å features, spectropolarimetry using large telescopes will be important to verify the scattering nature of the 6545 Å feature.

The typical width $`20`$ Å of the Raman scattered O VI features around 6830 Å and 7088 Å in many symbiotic stars implies that the O VI emission region shows a velocity scale up to $`100\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$. However, the Raman scattered He II line features seem to show narrower widths ($`10`$ Å) than the above Raman scattered features. Because O VI 1032, 1038 lines have smaller scattering cross sections by two orders of magnitude than He II emission lines, it is expected that the 6545 Å feature is formed in a more extended region than 6830 Å and 7088 Å features, which may result in difference in the profiles. Dumm et al. (1999) presented a broad range of neutral hydrogen column densities $`10^{2125}\mathrm{cm}{}_{}{}^{}2`$ in the circumstellar region in the eclipsing symbiotic star SY Muscae. Various Raman scattering lines with a large range of cross sections will play an important role to diagnose the circumstellar region that is closely related with the mass loss process in the late stage of stellar evolution.

Selvelli et al. (2000) performed high resolution spectroscopy of RR Tel to reveal prominent emission lines and the broad H$`\alpha `$ wings, which are consistent with our observation. However, in their observation the H$`\alpha `$ red wing appears to extend up to 6300 Å. If electron scattering is the origin of these broad wings, then the scattering plasma is characterized by the electron temperature $`T_e10^6\mathrm{K}`$ and a high free electron column density $`N_e10^{23}\mathrm{cm}^2`$, which appears unnatural. Assuming that the Raman scattering of Ly$`\beta `$ is responsible for these wings, because the Ly$`\beta `$ line emission is not likely to show a flat profile with this huge width, it may be more plausible that the broad H$`\alpha `$ wings are formed from the Raman scattering of the continuum photons around Ly$`\beta `$. This hypothesis may explain the difference in the widths of the He II Raman scattered features and the O VI Raman features around 6830 Å and 7088 Å. We note that all three objects (M2-9, RR Tel, & He2-106) exhibit similar broad H$`\alpha `$ wings, which strengthens the hypothesis of the Raman scattering origin of the wings.

Due to the absence of He II emission lines, M2-9 has been classified into low excitation planetary nebula (e.g. Gurzadyan, 1997). The existence of the 6545 feature implies that the He II emission region is highly obscured from our line of sight whereas the scattering region is much more extended than the emission region. This is very plausible considering that the He II emission region is located near the central star responsible for the photoionization, which can be hidden by an optically thick component such as a molecular torus and is consistent with the IR observation of a disk-like structure across the core region in M2-9 by Aspin, Maclean & Smith (1988).

Hyung and his colleagues showed that a number of planetary nebulae exhibit the emission features around 6545 Å and also 6581 Å (e.g. NGC 7009 by Hyung & Aller 1995, NGC 6790 by Aller & Hyung 1996, and NGC 6543 by Hyung et al. 2000). These planetary nebulae also exhibit emission features around 4851 Å and 4332 Å, which they attributed to Mg II and O II. However, as in RR Tel, if the 6545 Å feature is the He II Raman scattered line, then the 4851 Å and 4332 Å features in these planetary nebulae may be more adequately interpreted to be the Raman scattered He II features. Higher quality spectroscopy using large telescopes is needed to obtain more reliable profiles of these features for comparison with other direct emission lines.

We thank the staff at CTIO for their support in telescope operation. We also thank Dr. Siek Hyung, who sent us his spectra secured from the Hamilton echelle spectrograph mounted at the Lick 3m telescope. This work was supported by Korea Research Foundation Grant KRF-1999-115-DP0441.


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# Singular sets and parameters of generalized triangle orbifolds

## 1.  Introduction

After the famous lectures of W. Thurston \[Thurston 80\], the study of $`3`$-dimensional manifolds was focused on geometric and, in particular, on hyperbolic manifolds and orbifolds. An orientable hyperbolic $`3`$-orbifold can be obtained as a quotient of the Lobachevsky space $`^3`$ by the action of a discrete subgroup of the group of orientation preserving isometries $`\mathrm{Isom}^+^3=\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$. This way hyperbolic $`3`$-orbifolds are related to the discrete subgroups of $`\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$ called the Kleinian groups. Since a subgroup of $`\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$ is discrete if and only if each of its $`2`$-generator subgroups is discrete (see e.g. \[Berdon 83\]), the class of the $`2`$-generator Kleinian groups gains a special significance. These groups and, in particular, arithmetic $`2`$-generator Kleinian groups were studied by F. Gehring, C. Maclachlan, G. Martin, J. Montesinos, A. Reid and others (see \[Brooks, Matelski 78, Conder et al. 02, Gehring, Martin 94, Gehring et al. 98, Gehring et al. 97, Hilden et al. 92, Jørgensen 76\], \[Maclachlan, Martin 99\] and the references therein). It appears that the underlying spaces and singular sets of the orbifolds corresponding to the $`2`$-generator Kleinian groups may have complicated structure. In a special case of the groups with real parameters the orbifolds were studied by J. Gilman (see \[Gehring et al. 01\]), E. Klimenko \[Klimenko 89, Klimenko 90\]; and have been later classified by E. Klimenko and N. Kopteva (see \[Klimenko, Kopteva 05\]).

In this article we consider the groups of hyperbolic isometries generated by three half-turns in $`^3`$. If the axes of the half-turns pairwise intersect then the group is isomorphic to a Fuchsian triangle group, so the groups generated by three half-turns can be considered as a generalization of the Fuchsian triangle groups. These generalized triangle groups are closely related to the arbitrary $`2`$-generator Kleinian groups (see Section 5) but have much more trackable geometric structure. Thus, since all the three generators have fixed points (axes) in $`^3`$, the fundamental groups of the underlying spaces of the corresponding $`3`$-orbifolds are always trivial, so the underlying space of such an orbifold is a $`3`$-sphere $`𝒮^3`$ by the Poincaré conjecture (now proved by Perelman).

Let us briefly describe the contents of the paper. In Section 2 we give a partially conjectural classification of the singular structures of generalized triangle orbifolds. Namely, we show (Theorem 2.2) that there are eight possible types of singularities and we conjecture that under some mild assumptions on the group there are no any other possibilities. The set of the generalized triangle groups can be parameterized by three complex numbers that correspond to the complex distances \[Fenchel 89\] between the axes of the generators. In Section 3 we use W. Fenchel’s technics to study this parameterization and its connection with the matrix representation of the group in $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$. Section 4 shows how to find the parameters of the group for the eight types of singularities from Theorem 2.2. This gives an algorithm which provides a system of three polynomial equations defining parameters. An explicit connection between generalized triangle groups and $`2`$-generator Kleinian groups with their usual parameterization is given in Section 5. In Section 6 we present examples of generalized triangle orbifolds with different types of singularities and in Section 7 we consider an exceptional example for which Property RE defined in Section 2 does not hold.

The results of this paper were previously available as a preprint \[Belolipetsky 01\], the current version contains only some changes in the exposition. While working on the paper I enjoyed the hospitality of MPIM in Bonn. I would like to thank Prof. Alexander D. Mednykh for suggesting this problem for my PhD thesis and for many helpful discussions.

The current version of the paper, except for the grammatical corrections and a few small comments, dates back to February of 2002. It was submitted for a publication in a journal but the referee did not find it sufficiently interesting. I also thought that the results were not sufficiently strong and decided not to resubmit the paper. The purpose of the present update is to improve the readability of the text.

## 2.  Structure of the singular sets

The underlying space of a generalized triangle orbifold is the $`3`$-sphere $`𝒮^3`$, so the singular sets of the orbifolds are knotted graphs in $`𝒮^3`$ with the orbifold fundamental groups generated by three involutions. While depicting the singular sets we follow a common notation and write the indexes of singularities near the corresponding components omitting the index $`2`$. We shall employ the Wirtinger presentation of the fundamental group of a knotted graph \[Fox 61\], adapted for the groups of the orbifolds as in \[Haefliger, Quach 84\], so the elementary arcs of the graph will correspond to the words in the group generators.

###### Definition 2.1.

We call by a generalized triangle group a discrete subgroup $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ of $`\mathrm{Isom}^+^3`$ generated by three involutions (half-turns). The corresponding quotient orbifold $`𝒪=\mathrm{Isom}^+^3/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is called a generalized triangle orbiford. We say that a generalized triangle orbifold (and group) has Property RE if the rank of the fundamental group of the complement of its singular set in $`𝒮^3`$ is equal to the rank of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

We shall mainly consider the groups with Property RE. In some situations this allows us to use the fundamental group of the complement of the singular set instead of the orbifold group and saves from certain difficulties which can arise while working with the groups that have many involutions. An example of an exceptional generalized triangle group that does not have Property RE will be given in the last section. It is easy to see that the class of groups with Property RE is closed with respect to the Reidemeister moves applied to the singular sets, hence we can safely work with the singular graphs remaining inside the class.

###### Theorem 2.2.

(The Classification Theorem) The singular sets in $`𝒮^3`$ that have a stratified structure determined by the signature $`S(l_1,m_1,n_1,l_2,`$ $`m_2,n_2,\mathrm{},l_k,m_k,n_k)`$ (Figure 1) together with the central part $`D_1`$ of one of the types $`A`$$`H`$ on Figure 2 correspond to generalized triangle orbifolds with Property RE.

The orbifolds obtained from the types $`A`$, $`B`$, $`C(`$with $`1/t_1+1/t_2+1/t_3>1)`$ and $`D(`$with $`1/t_1+1/t_2>1/2`$ and $`1/t_2+1/t_3>1/2)`$ are compact; while the orbifolds corresponding to the types $`C(`$with $`1/t_1+1/t_2+1/t_3=1)`$, $`D(`$with $`1/t_1+1/t_2=1/2`$ or $`1/t_2+1/t_3=1/2)`$, $`E`$, $`F`$, $`G`$ and $`H`$ are non-compact.

###### Proof.

The proof is straightforward. We can apply Wirtinger’s algorithm to see that in each of the cases the group has a presentation with the generators $`a,`$ $`b,`$ $`c`$ corresponding to the arcs labeled by the same symbols on Figure 1. Applying the same steps to the complement of the singular set in $`𝒮^3`$ we see that the fundamental group of the complement can be generated by the elements corresponding to the same arcs, so Property RE is satisfied automatically. To distinguish between the compact and non-compact cases for each of the vertices of the singular graph we can check whether the boundary of the neighborhood of the vertex is a sphere or a plane, depending on the corresponding subgroup of the monodromy group. ∎

###### Conjecture 2.3.

The classification theorem describes all possible singular sets of the hyperbolic generalized triangle orbifolds with Property RE.

In \[Belolipetsky 01\] this conjecture was a part of the classification theorem however the proof given there is incomplete and contains serious gaps. Let us briefly recall the argument since it still can be considered as a basis for Conjecture 2.3.

We begin with a singular graph of a generalized triangle orbifold with Property RE. Let us choose three arcs of the graph which correspond to the generators of the group. Using the Reidemeister moves we can push the arcs outside of the disc which contains the plane projection of the singular set. This is the first step to obtain the stratified structure. Then we can show that since we are not allowed to add more generators, the singular arcs can not be knotted with themselves, and we also can prove that by the Reidemeister moves it is possible to gather all the vertices of the singular graph in the central part of the diagram. This essentially leads to the stratified structure of the singular set depicted on Figure 1. It remains to prove that all the tangles on Figure 1 are integral or, equivalently, that the tangles of the form $`1/n,`$ $`n2`$ cannot arise. This may seem obvious from the first view but I do not know how to prove this fact. It may require a different approach. Finally, it remains to understand the possible singular structures in the center of the diagram and here Property RE is essential, as it is confirmed by the examples from Section 7.

Remark 1. Some relatively simple singular structures from Theorem 2.2 correspond to non-hyperbolic orbifolds (see Examples 6C, 6D). All such geometric orbifolds can be found in \[Dunbar 88\] and we shall mainly be interested in the hyperbolic case.

Remark 2. By the rigidity argument, a generalized triangle orbifold is uniquely determined by the signature and the central part from the classification theorem, however, different signatures may correspond to the isomorphic orbifolds.

## 3.  The matrix representation and the parameters

In order to obtain a matrix representation of a group generated by three half-turns one has to fix the axes of the generators, which can be done by means of the complex distances between the hyperbolic lines (see \[Fenchel 89, p. 67-70\]). We define the complex distance between two oriented hyperbolic lines as follows: its real part equals the length of the common perpendicular to the lines and the imaginary part is given by the angle between the lines, taken from the first to the second line respecting orientations.

We call three complex distances between the axes of the generators by the parameters of the group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=a,b,c`$ (this denotes a group generated by $`a,`$ $`b,`$ $`c`$ which has relations which are not specified). Let us note that starting from here by group $`a,b,c`$ we mean the group with the given generators taken in a fixed order, so we work with the marked groups generated by $`a,b,c`$.

We have:

$$par(a,b,c)=(\mu (a,b),\mu (a,c),\mu (c,b))=(\mu _0,\mu _1,\mu _2),$$

where $`\mu (,)=x+iy`$, $`x^+`$, $`y[0;2\pi )`$ denotes the complex distance between the oriented axes of the half-turns.

Remark. Since the directions of the axes of the half-turns are undefined, the parameters are defined up to a change of the orientation. We can canonically link the orientation of a hyperbolic line with the matrix of the half-turn in $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$ (see \[Fenchel 89, p. 63\]). This means that fixing the directions of the axes of generators is equivalent to choosing the inverse image of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }<\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$ under the canonical projection $`P:\mathrm{SL}(2,)\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$. Following a usual agreement we shall call this inverse image by a representation of our group in $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$.

###### Lemma 3.1.

The complex vector $`par(a,b,c)`$ determines the group $`a,b,c`$ uniquely up to a conjugation in $`\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$, i.e. if $`par(a,b,c)=par(a^{},b^{},c^{})`$, then there exists $`h\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$ such that $`a^{}=hah^1`$, $`b^{}=hbh^1`$, $`c^{}=hch^1`$.

###### Proof.

Consider the axes of the half-turns $`a,b,c`$ in $`^3`$. We endow the axes by the orientations and join them in couples by the common perpendiculars. The result is a hyperbolic right-angled hexagon (see Figure 3).

The vector $`par(a,b,c)`$ represents the three complex lengths of the sides of our hexagon which are common perpendiculars of the given axes. By a theorem from \[Fenchel 89, p. 94\] three pairwise non-adjacent sides define right-angled hexagon uniquely up to a simultaneous change of orientations of the other three sides. It means that any other hexagon defined by another group with the same parameters can be translated to the given one by a hyperbolic isometry. This isometry obviously defines the required conjugation $`h\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$.

It may seem that we have missed the possibility of changing the orientations of the axes but we have already noted that the orientations affect only representation of the group in $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$ but not the isometries themselves. So in this situation we can change the orientations as it is needed. ∎

The next step is to find some convenient representation of the group $`a,b,c`$ in $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$ and describe it in terms of $`par(a,b,c)`$. We denote the matrices corresponding to the half-turns about $`a`$, $`b`$, $`c`$ by the capitals $`A`$, $`B`$, $`C`$.

A half-turn about an oriented hyperbolic line $`m`$ is represented by the matrix $`M\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$ of the form $`(\begin{array}{cc}m_{11}& m_{12}\\ m_{21}& m_{11}\end{array})`$, which is characterized by $`M^2=I`$ or, equivalently, $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{M})=0`$. This matrix $`M`$ is called the normalized line-matrix of the line $`m`$. By extending the transformation $`M`$ to the boundary $`\overline{}=^3`$, it is easy to find the set of its fixed points $`\mathrm{𝑓𝑖𝑥}(M)\overline{}`$. Geometrically, the fixed points $`\{z_1,z_2\}=\mathrm{𝑓𝑖𝑥}(M)`$ are the ends of the arc orthogonal to $``$ which represents the line $`m`$ in the upper half-space model of $`^3`$.

After a suitable conjugation of the group $`A,B,C`$ in $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$ one can suppose that $`\mathrm{𝑓𝑖𝑥}(A)=\{\mathit{1}/\beta ;\mathit{1}/\beta \}`$ and $`\mathrm{𝑓𝑖𝑥}(B)=\{\beta ;\beta \}`$ with $`\beta `$, $`|\beta |1`$.

We have:

$$A=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& i/\beta \\ i\beta & 0\end{array}\right),B=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& i\beta \\ i/\beta & 0\end{array}\right),C=\left(\begin{array}{cc}c_{11}& c_{12}\\ c_{21}& c_{11}\end{array}\right),$$

where $`c_{11}^2+c_{12}c_{21}=1`$.

To find $`\beta `$ and $`c_{ij}`$ in terms of $`par(a,b,c)`$ we use the following basic formula allowing us to express the complex distance between the hyperbolic lines $`m_1`$, $`m_2`$ in terms of the matrices $`M_1`$, $`M_2`$ of the lines (see \[Fenchel 89, p. 68\]):

$$\mathrm{cosh}(\mu (m_1,m_2))=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{M}_1\mathrm{M}_2).$$

Denote $`\rho _k=2\mathrm{cosh}(\mu _k)`$, $`k=0`$, $`1`$, $`2`$. We have

$$\rho _0=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB})=\mathrm{tr}\left(\begin{array}{cc}1/\beta ^2& 0\\ 0& \beta ^2\end{array}\right);$$

$$\rho _1=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC})=\mathrm{tr}\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{ic}_{21}/\beta & \mathrm{ic}_{11}/\beta \\ \mathrm{ic}_{11}\beta & \mathrm{ic}_{12}\beta \end{array}\right);$$

$$\rho _2=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})=\mathrm{tr}\left(\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{ic}_{21}\beta & \mathrm{ic}_{11}\beta \\ \mathrm{ic}_{11}/\beta & \mathrm{ic}_{12}/\beta \end{array}\right).$$

Hence we obtain a system of equations on $`\beta `$ and $`c_{ij}`$:

$$\{\begin{array}{c}1/\beta ^2\beta ^2=\rho _0;\hfill \\ ic_{21}/\beta +ic_{12}\beta =\rho _1;\hfill \\ ic_{21}\beta +ic_{12}/\beta =\rho _2;\hfill \\ c_{11}=i\sqrt{c_{12}c_{21}+1}.\hfill \end{array}$$

Solving these equations we can find all the parameters in our representation. Let us note that non-uniqueness of the solution of the system in general does not preoccupy us because different solutions will give different representations of the group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=a,b,c`$ which are conjugate in $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$. The latter statement is a direct consequence of Lemma 3.1, since by the construction different solutions correspond to the same $`par(\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. For the sake of concreteness we can always fix the analytic branches of the square roots in the following formulas.

We now can write down the representation of $`a,b,c`$ in $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$:

$$A=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& i/\beta \\ i\beta & 0\end{array}\right),B=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& i\beta \\ i/\beta & 0\end{array}\right),C=\left(\begin{array}{cc}c_{11}& c_{12}\\ c_{21}& c_{11}\end{array}\right);$$

(1)
$$\begin{array}{cc}& \beta =\sqrt{\frac{\rho _0+\sqrt{\rho _0^24}}{2}},\hfill \\ & c_{21}=\frac{\rho _1/\beta \rho _2\beta }{i/\beta ^2i\beta ^2},c_{12}=\frac{\rho _1\beta +\rho _2/\beta }{i/\beta ^2i\beta ^2},c_{11}=i\sqrt{c_{12}c_{21}+1};\hfill \\ & \rho _k=2\mathrm{cosh}(\mu _k)\mathrm{for}k=0,1,2.\hfill \end{array}$$

To obtain the representation of $`a,b,c`$ in $`\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$ one has to consider the image of the $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$-representation under the canonical projection $`P:\mathrm{SL}(2,)\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$.

## 4.  Deducing parameters from the singular structure

Knowing the structure of the singular set of a generalized triangle orbifold we can obtain a presentation of its fundamental group and a representation of the group in $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$. This representation is defined by three complex parameters $`\rho _0`$, $`\rho _1`$ and $`\rho _2`$, so it is possible to find the parameters corresponding to a given singular structure. In this section and in Section 6 we shall show how this can be carried out for the generalized triangle groups with Property RE.

Suppose we are given a singular set of a generalized triangle orbifold corresponding to one of the cases of Theorem 2.2. Using Wirtinger’s algorithm we can start from the given three arcs $`a`$, $`b`$, $`c`$ and passing through the tangles obtain words in $`a`$, $`b`$, $`c`$ corresponding to all the other arcs. It is clear that until we reach the central part of the diagram we do not obtain any equations on the generators, so all the words in the presentation of the group come from the central part of the diagram. Equations defining parameters are then obtained by taking traces of corresponding elements in $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$. With the help of the well known formulas

(2)
$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2)=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_2\mathrm{W}_1),\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2\mathrm{W}_1^1)=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_2),\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2)=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1)\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_2)\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1^1\mathrm{W}_2),\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{H}^1)=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{H})\mathrm{if}\mathrm{H}\mathrm{is}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{matrix}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{a}\mathrm{half}\mathrm{turn},\hfill \end{array}$$

the traces of the expressions in $`A`$, $`B`$, $`C`$ and their inverses can be written in terms of $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB})=\rho _0`$, $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC})=\rho _1`$, $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})=\rho _2`$ and $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{ABC})`$ (an explicit expression for $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{ABC})`$ in terms of $`\rho _i`$ can be obtained using (1)). Since we have three complex parameters, we require three independent equations to define them. In the remaining part of this section we shall give the presentations of the groups and corresponding equations for each of the types $`A`$$`H`$ from Theorem 2.2.

Group:

$`a,b,ca^2,b^2,c^2,w_1w_2,w_3w_4,`$

equations:

$`\{\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2)=2,\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_3\mathrm{W}_4)=2,\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_5\mathrm{W}_6)=2\hfill \end{array}`$

(We denote by $`w_i`$ the words in $`a`$, $`b`$, $`c`$ and by $`W_i`$ — corresponding products in $`\mathrm{SL}(2,)`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},6.`$ )

It follows from \[Fox 61\] that one of the equations $`w_1w_2`$, $`w_3w_4`$, $`w_5w_6`$ in the fundamental group is always a corollary of the two others. However, by the rigidity argument in the matrix group all the three words are independent and give three independent equations on the parameters (see Example 6A for an illustration).

Group:

$`a,b,ca^2,b^2,c^2,w_1w_2,(w_3w_4)^t,(w_5w_6)^t,`$

equations:

$`\{\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2)=2,\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_3\mathrm{W}_4)=2\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}(\pi /\mathrm{t}),\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_5\mathrm{W}_6)=2\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}(\pi /\mathrm{t}).\hfill \end{array}`$

Group:

$`a,b,ca^2,b^2,c^2,(w_1w_2)^{t_1},(w_3w_4)^{t_2},(w_5w_6)^{t_3},`$

equations:

$`\{\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2)=2\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}(\pi /\mathrm{t}_1),\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_3\mathrm{W}_4)=2\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}(\pi /\mathrm{t}_2),\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_5\mathrm{W}_6)=2\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}(\pi /\mathrm{t}_3).\hfill \end{array}`$

Group:

$`a,b,ca^2,b^2,c^2,(w_1w_2)^{t_1},(w_5w_6)^{t_2},(w_1w_2w_3)^{t_3},`$

equations:

$`\{\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2)=2\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}(\pi /\mathrm{t}_1),\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_5\mathrm{W}_6)=2\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}(\pi /\mathrm{t}_3),\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2\mathrm{W}_3)=2\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}(\pi /\mathrm{t}_2).\hfill \end{array}`$

It can be seen that the word $`W_1W_2W_3`$ has an odd length, which implies that in this case we require the expression for $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{ABC})`$. In fact, this is the only type for which we may need this expression.

Group:

$`a,b,ca^2,b^2,c^2,(w_1w_2)^2,(w_5w_6)^2,`$

equations:

$`\{\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2)=0,\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_5\mathrm{W}_6)=0,\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_3\mathrm{W}_4)=2.\hfill \end{array}`$

The third equation follows from the fact that the multiple of two half-turns with parallel axes is a parabolic isometry, so $`W_3W_4`$ is a parabolic corresponding to the cusp. We choose the sign $`{}_{}{}^{}_{}^{}`$ for the trace of the parabolic element because the axes of the half-turns have the same directions.

Group:

$`a,b,ca^2,b^2,c^2,w_1w_2,`$

equations:

$`\{\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2)=2,\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_3\mathrm{W}_4)=2,\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_5\mathrm{W}_6)=2.\hfill \end{array}`$

Group:

$`a,b,ca^2,b^2,c^2,(w_3w_4w_5)^2,`$

equations:

$`\{\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_3\mathrm{W}_4\mathrm{W}_5)=0,\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2)=2,\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_3\mathrm{W}_4)=2.\hfill \end{array}`$

Here, as in the case $`D`$, we again have a word $`W_3W_4W_5`$ of an odd length, but since $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_3\mathrm{W}_4\mathrm{W}_5)=0`$, in this case we can easily avoid using the explicit expression for $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{ABC})`$. Indeed, using formulas $`(2)`$ we can present $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_3\mathrm{W}_4\mathrm{W}_5)`$ as $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{ABC})\mathrm{P}[\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB}),\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC}),\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})]`$, where $`\mathrm{P}[\mathrm{}]`$ denotes a polynomial, and since $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{ABC})0`$ we obtain the equation $`\mathrm{P}[\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB}),\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC}),\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})]=0`$. The same procedure can be applied for the type $`H`$ as well.

Group:

$`a,b,ca^2,b^2,c^2,(w_1w_2)^t,(w_1w_2w_3)^2,`$

equations:

$`\{\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2)=2\mathrm{c}\mathrm{o}\mathrm{s}(\pi /\mathrm{t}),\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_5\mathrm{W}_6)=2,\hfill \\ \mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{W}_1\mathrm{W}_2\mathrm{W}_3)=0.\hfill \end{array}`$

## 5.  Relation to the two-generator Kleinian groups

Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0=f,g`$ be a discrete subgroup of $`\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$. There is a natural way to associate to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ a generalized triangle group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ which is equal to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ or contains it as a subgroup of index $`2`$. The latter is controlled by the first homology group of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ having rank $`2`$ or $`3`$, and it can be seen that both cases are possible. It follows that such properties as discreteness and arithmeticity of two-generator subgroups of $`\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$ can be studied using the generalized triangle groups.

The group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is constructed as follows (cf. \[Gilman 97\]): If neither $`f`$ nor $`g`$ are parabolic then let $`N`$ be a common perpendicular to the axes of $`f`$ and $`g`$. In the case of a parabolic generator, the corresponding end of the line $`N`$ is the fixed point of the parabolic. Clearly, this construction uniquely determines the line $`N`$ for any two-generator Kleinian group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0=f,g`$. Let $`c`$ be the half-turn about $`N`$. Then there exist such half-turns $`a`$ and $`b`$ that $`f=ac`$ and $`g=cb`$ (by \[Fenchel 89, p. 47\]). Therefore, we obtain a group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=a,b,c`$ which contains $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ as a subgroup of index at most $`2`$.

Reciprocally, starting with the group $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ generated by three half-turns $`a`$, $`b`$ and $`c`$ one can easily obtain its two generator subgroup $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0=ab,ac`$. Since $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_0a\mathrm{\Gamma }_0(a^2=id)`$, the index of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is equal to $`2`$ or $`1`$ depending on whether or not the element $`a`$ is contained in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$.

The set of two-generator Kleinian groups is usually parameterized by three complex numbers \[Gehring, Martin 94\]:

$$\beta (f)=\mathrm{tr}^2(\mathrm{f})4,\beta (\mathrm{g})=\mathrm{tr}^2(\mathrm{g})4,\gamma (\mathrm{f},\mathrm{g})=\mathrm{tr}([\mathrm{f},\mathrm{g}])2.$$

A standard computation with traces shows that this parameters are related to our parameterization for the corresponding generalized triangle group by the following formulas:

$$\beta (f)=\rho _1^24,\beta (g)=\rho _2^24,\gamma (f,g)=\rho _0^2+\rho _1^2+\rho _2^2+\rho _0\rho _1\rho _24.$$

Since we have described the singular sets of the generalized triangle orbifolds, we can at least in theory present an algorithm which using equations from the previous section enumerates the parameters corresponding to the generalized triangle groups and discrete two-generator subgroups of $`\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$. The main practical difficulty is that the complexity of the equations grows as the singular structures become more complicated. The other difficulty is that we have to cast away the redundant solutions of the equations which correspond to non-discrete subgroups of $`\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$. In the next section we shall see how this can be done for the examples considered there. In general, if an orbifold is arithmetic the equations always have only one complex solution (up to a conjugation) and it defines the parameters, but in the non-arithmetic case there is no any general method to choose the right complex place.

Let us also note that the suggested algorithm shows only that our set of parameters is *semi-recursive*: we can enumerate the parameters of the discrete generalized triangle groups with Property RE, but there is no known procedure to decide in a finite number of steps whether or not a given triple of complex numbers defines such a group.

## 6.  Examples of the generalized triangle orbifolds.

We now consider examples for different types of singularities from Theorem 2.2 and find the parameters defining corresponding generalized triangle groups. We shall try to choose the examples which may deserve a particular interest or previously appeared in a different context. Some othere examples of generalized triangle orbifolds can be found in \[Belolipetsky 97\] and \[Belolipetsky 99\].

$`\begin{array}{c}a_1=cac^1\hfill \\ b_1=aba^1\hfill \\ c_1=bcb^1\hfill \\ a_1=b_1^1ab_1\hfill \\ b_1=c_1^1bc_1\hfill \\ b_2=b_1^1b_1b_1\hfill \\ a_1^1b_2=ca^1c^1ab^1a^1bc^1bcb^1aba^1\hfill \end{array}`$

Matrix group:

$`A,B,CA^2,B^2,C^2,CA^1C^1AB^1A^1BC^1BCB^1ABA^1,AB^1A^1BC^1B^1CA^1CAC^1BCA^1,BC^1B^1CA^1C^1AB^1ABA^1CAB^1`$

Let $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB})=\mathrm{t}_0`$, $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC})=\mathrm{t}_1`$, $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})=\mathrm{t}_2`$.

By taking traces of the relations we obtain a system of equations on $`t_0`$, $`t_1`$ and $`t_2`$<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1We used the computer program $`<`$tracer$`>`$(C++, 242 lines) to calculate the trace polynomials for the generalized triangle groups.:

$$\{\begin{array}{c}3t_0t_0^32t_0t_1^2+t_0^3t_1^2+2t_0^2t_1t_2t_0^2t_1^3t_22t_0t_2^2+t_0^3t_2^2t_0^3t_1^2t_2^2t_0^2t_1t_2^3=2,\hfill \\ 3t_2t_2^32t_2t_0^2+t_2^3t_0^2+2t_2^2t_0t_1t_2^2t_0^3t_12t_2t_1^2+t_2^3t_1^2t_2^3t_0^2t_1^2t_2^2t_0t_1^3=2,\hfill \\ 3t_1t_1^32t_1t_2^2+t_1^3t_2^2+2t_1^2t_2t_0t_1^2t_2^3t_02t_1t_0^2+t_1^3t_0^2t_1^3t_2^2t_0^2t_1^2t_2t_0^3=2.\hfill \end{array}$$

We are interested only in complex solutions of this system and by the symmetry of the singular graph all the three roots should be equal. The only such solutions are (approximately):

$$(t_0,t_1,t_2)=(0.662359\pm 0.56228i,0.662359\pm 0.56228i,0.662359\pm 0.56228i).$$

So we have $`\rho _0=\rho _1=\rho _2=0.662359\mathrm{}\pm 0.56228\mathrm{}i`$. The signs of the imaginary parts correspond to the orientations of the generating arcs and do not affect the presentation of the group in $`\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$.

The primitive polynomial of the root is $`t^3t+1`$. Using the arithmeticity test for generalized triangle groups from \[Belolipetsky 99\] it can be easily verified that the orbifold is arithmetic. It is also interesting to note (see \[Mednykh, Vesnin 98\]) that the two-fold covering of this orbifold is the Weeks-Mateveev-Fomenko manifold — the hyperbolic $`3`$-manifold of the smallest volume.

(Here we could also have used the symmetry of the singular graph from the beginning by initially assuming that $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB})=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC})=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})`$. This would considerably simplify the calculations but we are mainly interested in demonstrating the general method.)

$`\begin{array}{c}a_1=bab^1\hfill \\ b_1=cbc^1\hfill \\ c_1=aca^1\hfill \\ a_1=c_1^1ac_1\hfill \\ b_1=a_1^1ba_1\hfill \\ \\ a_1^1a_1=ac^1a^1ca^1bab^1\hfill \\ b_1^1c^1=ba^1b^1ab^1c^1\hfill \\ b_1c_1=cbc^1aca^1\hfill \end{array}`$

Equations on $`t_0=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB})`$, $`t_1=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC})`$, $`t_2=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})`$:

$$\{\begin{array}{c}t_0^2t_1^2+t_0t_1t_2t_0^2t_1^2+2=2,\hfill \\ t_0^2t_2+t_0t_1t_2=2\mathrm{cos}(\pi /n),\hfill \\ t_1^2t_2+t_0t_1t_2=2\mathrm{cos}(\pi /n).\hfill \end{array}$$

We shall consider only $`n=3`$. Up to the symmetry and change of orientations, the system has only one complex solution which defines the complex place of the orbifold group:

$$\rho _0=\frac{i+\sqrt{3}}{2},\rho _1=\frac{i\sqrt{3}}{2},\rho _2=0.$$

The squares of $`\rho _0`$, $`\rho _1`$ are algebraic integers and by the arithmeticity test \[Belolipetsky 99\] the group is arithmetic and defined over the field $`[\sqrt{3}]`$.

(For $`n=2`$ and $`n=\mathrm{}`$ the group has no any complex places and the orbifold is not hyperbolic. For large values of $`n`$ the group has more than one complex place induced by the Galois automorphisms $`\mathrm{cos}(\pi /n)\mathrm{cos}(k\pi /n)`$, $`(k,n)=1`$, and so it is not arithmetic.)

$`\begin{array}{c}b_2=b^1aba^1b\hfill \\ b_1=aba^1\hfill \\ b_1=b_2bb_2^1\hfill \\ b_2=cb_1c^1\hfill \\ a_1=b_1^1ab_1\hfill \\ c_1=aca^1\hfill \\ \\ c_1a_1=acb^1aba^1\hfill \\ b_2^1c^1=b^1ab^1a^1bc^1\hfill \\ b_2a^1=\hfill \\ cb^1aba^1bab^1a^1bc^1a^1\hfill \end{array}`$

Equations on $`t_0=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB})`$, $`t_1=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC})`$, $`t_2=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})`$:

$$\{\begin{array}{c}t_0t_2+t_1=0,\hfill \\ t_0^2t_2+t_0t_1t_2=2\mathrm{cos}(\pi /n),\hfill \\ (t_0^33t_0)(t_0t_1t_2+t_1^2+t_0^22)+t_0t_1^2+t_1t_2t_0=0.\hfill \end{array}$$

The complex solution ($`n>3`$):

$$\begin{array}{c}\rho _0^2=\frac{1}{2}(1+4\mathrm{sin}^2(\pi /n))\left(1\pm \sqrt{1\frac{4}{1+4\mathrm{sin}^2(\pi /n)}}\right),\hfill \\ \rho _1=2\mathrm{cos}(\pi /n)\rho _0,\hfill \\ \rho _2=2\mathrm{cos}(\pi /n).\hfill \end{array}$$

(Here $`\rho _2`$ is always a real number; for $`n=2,3`$, $`\rho _0`$ and $`\rho _1`$ are also real, so the corresponding orbifolds are not hyperbolic. According to \[Dunbar 88\], for $`n=2`$ the orbifold admits the spherical structure and for $`n=3`$ it is Euclidean.)

As it was shown in \[Rasskazov, Vesnin 99\], the orbifolds considered here can be obtained as the quotient orbifolds of the Fibonacci manifolds $`F(2n,n)`$ by their full groups of isometries. Hence using the arithmeticity test from \[Belolipetsky 99\] we can now easily find all arithmetic Fibonacci manifolds (see also \[Hilden et al. 90\]). The field of definition of the orbifold group is $`[\rho _0^2,\mathrm{cos}^2(\pi /n)]`$. It has exactly one complex place only if $`n=4`$, $`5`$, $`6`$, $`8`$ $`12`$, $`\mathrm{}`$; and it is a matter of a direct verification that these cases satisfy the remaining conditions of the arithmeticity test. Thus, the orbifolds and corresponding Fibonacci manifolds are arithmetic for $`n=4`$, $`5`$, $`6`$, $`8`$, $`12`$, $`\mathrm{}`$.

$`\begin{array}{c}c_2=ac_1a^1\hfill \\ c_1=b^1cb\hfill \\ b_1=c_2^1bc_2\hfill \\ a_1=c_2^1ac_2\hfill \\ b_1=cbc^1\hfill \\ c_1=b_1cb_1^1\hfill \\ \\ a_1b_1^1=ab^1c^1ab^1cba^1\hfill \\ c_2^1c_1=ab^1c^1ba^1cbcb^1c^1\hfill \\ a^1a_1b_1^1=b^1c^1ab^1cba^1\hfill \end{array}`$

Equations on $`t_0=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB})`$, $`t_1=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC})`$, $`t_2=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})`$:

$$\{\begin{array}{c}t_0=0,\hfill \\ 4t_2^2t_1^2t_2^2t_2^4+t_1^22=0,\hfill \\ 4t_1^2t_1^2t_2^2t_1^4=4cos^2(\pi /n).\hfill \end{array}$$

The equation $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB})=0`$ geometrically means that the axes of the half-turns $`a`$ and $`b`$ intersect orthogonaly in $`^3`$.

The system has exactly one pair of complex-conjugate roots for any $`n>2`$ (for $`n=2`$ the orbifold is Euclidean), these roots give the values of the parameters $`\rho _0(=0),`$ $`\rho _1,`$ $`\rho _2`$ defining the orbifold group. Since the analytic formulas for the solutions are rather complicated we do not present them here. One can see that the field of definition $`[\rho _1^2,\rho _2^2]`$ of the group has exactly one complex place iff $`n=3`$, $`4`$, $`6`$, and it is easy to check the other conditions of the arithmeticity test \[Belolipetsky 99\] for these values of $`n`$. So we obtain that the orbifolds are arithmetic for $`n=3`$, $`4`$, $`6`$.

These groups and orbifolds first appeared in \[Helling et al. 95\] as an infinite one-parameter family extending one of the three regular tessellations of $`^3`$. It is interesting to note that the corresponding family for the one of the two remaining regular tessellations is also well known \[Helling et al. 98\] and consists of the Fibonacci manifolds considered in the previous example. For the third tessellation the question of constructing such a family is still open.

$`\begin{array}{c}a_1=bab^1\hfill \\ b_1=a_1ba_1^1\hfill \\ c_1=aca^1\hfill \\ a_2=ca_1c^1\hfill \\ \\ c_1b^1=aca^1b^1\hfill \\ a_2a^1=cbab^1c^1a^1\hfill \\ b_1c^1=baba^1b^1c^1\hfill \end{array}`$

Equations on $`t_0=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB})`$, $`t_1=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC})`$, $`t_2=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})`$:

$$\{\begin{array}{c}t_0t_1+t_2=0,\hfill \\ t_0t_1t_2+t_0^2+t_1^22=0,\hfill \\ t_0^2t_2t_0t_1+t_2=2.\hfill \end{array}$$

The solution:

$$\rho _0^2=\rho _1^2=1+i,\rho _2^2=2i.$$

This orbifold first appeared in \[Adams 90\] as the third hyperbolic $`3`$-orbifold with a non-rigid cusp. We see that the orbifold is arithmetic with the field of definition $`[i]`$ and so its group is commensurable in $`\mathrm{PSL}(2,)`$ with the Picard group $`\mathrm{PSL}(2,[\mathrm{i}])`$.

$`\begin{array}{c}a_1=bab^1\hfill \\ a_2=ca_1c^1\hfill \\ b_1=cbc^1\hfill \\ b_2=a_2b_1a_2^1\hfill \\ b_3=b^1b_2b\hfill \\ c_1=b^1cb\hfill \\ c_2=b_3^1c_1b_3\hfill \\ b_1=a_2^1ba_2\hfill \\ \\ c_2^1a_2=\hfill \\ b^1cbab^1a^1b^1c^1baba^1b^1c^1bcbab^1c^1\hfill \\ b_1^1c=cba^1b^1c^1b^1cbab^1\hfill \\ a^1b_3=a^1b^1cbaba^1b^1c^1b\hfill \end{array}`$

Equations on $`t_0=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB})`$, $`t_1=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC})`$, $`t_2=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})`$:

$$\{\begin{array}{c}t_0^2t_1^3t_2^2+t_0t_1^2t_2(22t_2^2+t_0^2(2+3t_2^2))+t_0t_2(54t_2^2+t_2^4+t_0^4(1+t_2^2)^2+\hfill \\ +t_0^2(4+5t_2^22t_2^4))+t_1(13t_2^2+t_2^4+t_0^2(3+7t_2^24t_2^4)+t_0^4(14t_2^2+3t_2^4))=2,\hfill \\ t_2+(t_1+t_0t_2)(t_0t_1t_2t_0t_2^2)=2,\hfill \\ t_0+(t_1+t_2t_0)(t_2t_1t_0t_2t_0^2)=2.\hfill \end{array}$$

The complex solution:

$$\rho _1=2,\rho _0=\rho _2=\frac{1\pm \sqrt{3}}{2}.$$

This example previously appeared as an orbifold which has the sister of the figure-eight knot as a two-fold cover. As we see, the orbifold is arithmetic with the field of definition $`[\sqrt{3}]`$ (again by the arithmeticity test from \[Belolipetsky 99\]).

$`\begin{array}{c}a_1=bab^1\hfill \\ b_1=cbc^1\hfill \\ c_1=aca^1\hfill \\ a_1=c_1^1ac_1\hfill \\ c_1=a_1ca_1^1\hfill \\ \\ a_1b_1c_1=bab^1cbc^1aca^1\hfill \\ b^1c_1^1=ab^1c^1ba^1b^1\hfill \\ a_1b_1=bab^1cbc^1\hfill \end{array}`$

In our usual notation $`t_0=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AB})`$, $`t_1=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{AC})`$, $`t_2=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{BC})`$ we obtain

$$\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{A}_1\mathrm{B}_1\mathrm{C}_1)=\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{ABC})(\mathrm{t}_0\mathrm{t}_1\mathrm{t}_2+1)=0.$$

Since $`\mathrm{tr}(\mathrm{ABC})0`$, it gives $`t_0t_1t_2+1=0,`$ and so we have the following system of equations on the parameters:

$$\{\begin{array}{c}t_0t_1t_2=1,\hfill \\ t_0t_2^2+t_1t_2t_0=2,\hfill \\ t_0^2t_2+t_1t_0t_2=2.\hfill \end{array}$$

The complex solution:

$$\rho _0=\rho _1=\rho _2=\frac{1\pm \sqrt{3}}{2}.$$

Since $`\rho _0=\rho _1=\rho _2`$, the orbifold has an order $`3`$ symmetry which cyclically permutes the generators of the group. This symmetry can be easily seen on the spatial representation of the singular graph but it is lost on the plane projection. According to \[Belolipetsky 99\], this orbifold is one of the three arithmetic non-compact generalized triangle orbifolds with equal parameters (the remaining two orbifolds correspond to Type C).

H. We have tried more than 20 different structures for this case but did not succeed in finding any arithmetic examples. The central part structure implies rather strong restrictions on the orbifold: it should be non-compact and it is essentially asymmetric. Let us leave as an open problem to find an arithmetic example for Type $`H`$ or to prove that there do not exist such examples.

## 7.  Examples of generalized triangle orbifolds without Property RE.

Here we shall consider examples of generalized triangle orbifolds whose singular sets do not correspond to any of the eight types of singularities from Theorem 2.2.

Our basic example is well known, it is the Picard orbifold. It was first shown in \[Brunner 92\] that the Picard group can be generated by only two elements or by three involutions. Let us recall this presentation.

The singular set of the Picard orbifold is:

$`\begin{array}{c}b_1=cbc^1\hfill \\ b_1=aba^1\hfill \end{array}`$

We shall not write down a matrix representation of the Picard group because it is well known and can be easily obtained similarly to the examples considered in the previous section. Our goal is only to show that this group can be generated by three involutions, so we shall make all the calculations in the group.

We have:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=<a,b,c,xa^2,b^2,c^2,x^2,(xac)^2,(xabc)^3,(bax)^3,(abax)^2>.$$

$`(xac)^2=1`$ implies $`acx=xca`$;

$`(abax)^2=1`$ implies $`xaba=abax`$.

Now consider the word $`(xabc)^3=1`$:

$$(xabc)^3=xabcxabcxabc=xabcxabaacxabc=xabcabaxxcaabc=xabcabacbc;$$

$`x=abcabacbc.`$

So $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=<a,b,ca^2,b^2,c^2,(abcabacbc)^2,(abcabacbcac)^2,(abacb)^3,(acabacbc)^2>.`$

Let $`\stackrel{~}{X}`$ be a $`3`$-manifold obtained as a complement to the singular set of the Picard orbifold in $`𝒮^3`$. We have $`H_1(\stackrel{~}{X})^4`$, so the rank of $`\pi _1(\stackrel{~}{X})`$ is greater than 3, and hence the Picard group does not have Property RE.

The Picard orbifold $`𝒪`$ is a non-compact orbifold with a non-rigid cusp. It follows that we can obtain an infinite series of compact generalized triangle orbifolds without Property RE by $`(n,0)`$-Dehn fillings on the cusp of $`𝒪`$.

In \[Belolipetsky 01\] the generalized triangle orbifolds without Property RE were called “exceptional”. In fact, the examples considered here have a very special structure and we expect that there are either no any or very few other examples of generalized triangle groups without Property RE.