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# Triplets and Symmetries of Arithmetic mod 𝑝^𝑘

## Introduction

The commutative semigroup $`Z_k`$(.) of multiplication mod $`p^k`$ (prime $`p>`$2) has for all $`k>`$0 just two idempotents: $`1^21`$ and $`0^20`$, and is the disjoint union of the corresponding maximal subsemigroups ( Archimedian components ,  ). Namely the group $`G_k`$ of units ($`n^i1`$ mod $`p^k`$ for some $`i>`$0) which are all relative prime to $`p`$, and maximal ideal $`N_k`$ as nilpotent subsemigroup of all $`p^{k1}`$ multiples of $`p`$ ($`n^i0`$ mod $`p^k`$ for some $`i>`$0). Order $`|G_k|=(p1)p^{k1}`$ has two coprime factors, sothat $`G_kA_kB_k`$, with ’core’ $`|A_k|=p1`$ and ’extension group’ $`|B_k|=p^{k1}`$. Residues of $`n^p`$ form a subgroup $`F_kG_k`$ of order $`|F_k|=|G_k|/p`$, to be analysed for its additive structure. Each $`n`$ in core $`A_k`$ satisfies $`n^pn`$ mod $`p^k`$, a generalization of Fermat’s Small Theorem ($`FST`$) for $`k>1`$, denoted as $`FST_k`$.

Base $`p`$ number representation is used, which notation is useful for computer experiments, as reported in tables 1,2. This models residue arithmetic mod $`p^k`$ by considering only the $`k`$ less significant digits, and ignoring the more significant digits. Congruence class \[$`n`$\] mod $`p^k`$ is represented by natural number $`n<p^k`$, encoded in $`k`$ digits (base $`p`$). Class \[$`n`$\] consists of all integers with the same least significant $`k`$ digits as $`n`$.

Define the 0-extension of residue $`n`$ mod $`p^k`$ as the natural number $`n<p^k`$ with the same $`k`$-digit representation (base $`p`$), and all more significant digits (at $`p^m,mk)`$ set to 0.

Signed residue $`n`$ is only a convenient notation for the complement $`p^kn`$ of $`n`$, which are both positive. $`C[n]`$ or $`C_n`$ is a cyclic group of order $`n`$, such as $`Z_k(+)C[p^k]`$. The units mod $`p`$ form a cyclic group $`G_1=C_{p1}`$, and $`G_k`$ of order $`(p1).p^{k1}`$ is also cyclic for $`k>`$1 . Finite semigroup structure is applied, and digit analysis of prime-base residue arithmetic, to study the combination of (+) and (.) mod $`p^k`$, especially the additive properties of multiplicative subgroups of ring $`Z_k(+,.)`$.

Only elementary residue arithmetic, cyclic groups, and (associative) function composition are used (thm3.2), to begin with the known cyclic (one generator) nature of group $`G_k`$ of units mod $`p^k`$ . Lemma 1.1 on the direct product structure of $`G_k`$, and cor1.2 on all $`p`$-th power residues mod $`p^k`$ as all extensions of those mod $`p^2`$, are known in some form but are derived for completeness. Lemma 1.4 on $`B_k=(p+1)^{}`$, and further results are believed to be new.

The two symmetries of residue arithmetic mod $`p^k`$, defined as automorphisms of order 2, are complement $`n`$ under (+) with factor $`1`$, and inverse $`n^1`$ under (.) with exponent $`1`$.
Their essential role in the triplet- structure (thm3.1) of this finite ring is emphasized throughout.
The main emphasis is on additive analysis of multiplicative semigroup $`Z`$(.) mod $`p^k`$.
Concatenation will be used to indicate multiplication.

| Symbols | and Definitions ( odd prime $`p`$ ) |
| --- | --- |
| $`Z_k`$(+, .) | the finite ring of residue arithmetic mod $`p^k`$ |
| $`M_k`$ | multiplication $`Z_k`$(.) mod $`p^k`$, semigroup ($`k`$-digit arithmetic base $`p`$) |
| $`N_k`$ | maximal ideal of $`M_k:n^i0`$ mod $`p^k`$ (some $`i>`$0), $`|N_k|=p^{k1}`$ |
| $`nM_k`$ | unique product $`n=g^i.p^{kj}`$ mod $`p^k`$ ($`g^iG_j`$ coprime to $`p`$) |
| 0-extension X | of residue $`x`$ mod $`p^k`$: the smallest non-negative integer $`Xx`$ mod $`p^k`$ |
| (finite) extension $`U`$ | of $`x`$ mod $`p^k`$: any integer $`Ux`$ mod $`p^k`$ |
| $`C_m`$ or $`C[m]`$ | cyclic group of order $`m`$: e.g. $`Z_k(+)C[p^k]`$ |
| $`G_kA_k.B_k`$ | group of units: all $`n^i1`$ mod $`p^k`$ (some $`i>`$0), $`|G_k|(p1)p^{k1}`$ |
| $`A_k`$ | core of $`G_k`$, $`|A_k|=p1(n^p`$=$`n`$ mod $`p^k`$ for $`nA_k`$) |
| $`B_k(p+1)^{}`$ | extension group of all $`n1`$ mod $`p`$ , $`|B_k|=p^{k1}`$ |
| $`F_k`$ | subgroup of all $`p`$-th power residues in $`G_k`$ , $`|F_k|=|G_k|/p`$ |
| $`A_kF_kG_k`$ | proper inclusions only for $`k3(A_2F_2G_2)`$ |
| $`d(n)`$ | core increment $`A(n+1)A(n)`$ of core func’n $`A(n)n^q,q=|B_k|`$ |
| $`FST_k`$ | core $`A_k`$ extends $`FST(n^pn`$ mod $`p`$) to mod $`p^{k>1}`$ for $`p1`$ residues |
| solution in core | $`x^p+y^pz^p`$ mod $`p^k`$ with $`x,y,z`$ in core $`A_k`$. |
| period of $`nG_k`$ | order $`|n^{}|`$ of subgroup generated by $`n`$ in $`G_k(.)`$ |
| normation | divide $`x^p+y^pz^p`$ mod $`p^k`$ by one term (in $`F_k`$), yielding one term $`\pm 1`$ |
| complement $`n`$ | unique in $`Z_k`$(+) : $`n+n0`$ mod $`p^k`$ |
| inverse $`n^1`$ | unique in $`G_k`$(.) : $`n^1.n1`$ mod $`p^k`$ |
| 1-complement $`n\mathrm{"}`$ | unique in $`Z_k`$(+) : $`n\mathrm{"}+n1`$ mod $`p^k`$ |
| inverse-pair | pair ($`a,a^1`$) of inverses in $`G_k`$ |
| triplet | 3 inv.pairs: $`a+b^1b+c^1c+a^11,(abc1`$ mod $`p^k`$) |
| tripletp | a triplet of three $`p`$-th power residues in subgroup $`F_k`$ (thm3.1) |
| tripletp equiv’ce | one of the three equivalences of a tripletp |
| symmetry mod $`p^k`$ | $`n`$ and $`n^1`$: order 2 automorphism of $`Z_k(+)`$ resp. $`G_k(.)`$ |
| $`EDS`$ property | Exponent Distributes over a Sum: $`(a+b)^pa^p+b^p`$ mod $`p^k`$ |

## 1  Structure of the group $`G_k`$ of units

###### Lemma 1.1

$`G_kA_k^{}\times B_k^{}C[p1].C[p^{k1}]`$

and $`M_k`$ (mod $`p^k`$) has a sub-semigroup isomorphic to $`M_1`$ (mod $`p`$).

* Cyclic group $`G_k`$ of units $`n`$ ($`n^i1`$ for some $`i>0`$) has order $`(p1)p^{k1}`$, namely $`p^k`$ minus $`p^{k1}`$ multiples of $`p`$. Then $`G_k=A_k^{}\times B_k^{}`$, the direct product of two relative prime cycles, with corresponding subgroups $`A_k`$ and $`B_k`$, sothat $`G_kA_k.B_k`$ where
extension group $`B_k=C[p^{k1}]`$ consists of all $`p^{k1}`$ residues mod $`p^k`$ that are 1 mod $`p`$,
and core $`A_k=C[p1]`$, so $`M_k`$ contains sub-semigroup $`A_k0M_1`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

Core $`A_k`$, as $`p1`$ cycle mod $`p^k`$, is Fermat’s Small Theorem $`n^pn`$ mod $`p`$ extended to $`k>`$1 for $`p`$ residues (including 0), to be denoted as $`FST_k`$.
Recall that $`n^{p1}1`$ mod $`p`$ for $`n/`$0 mod $`p`$ ($`FST`$), then lem1.1 implies:

###### Corollary 1.1

With $`|B|=p^{k1}=q`$ and $`|A|=p1`$:
Core $`A_k=\{n^q\}`$ mod $`p^k(n=1..p`$-1) extends $`FST`$ for $`k>`$1, and:
$`B_k=\{n^{p1}\}`$ mod $`p^k`$ consists of all $`p^{k1}`$ residues 1 mod $`p`$ in $`G_k`$.

Subgroup $`F_k\{n^p\}`$ mod $`p^k`$ of all $`p`$-th power residues in $`G_k`$, with $`F_kA_k`$ (only $`F_2A_2`$) and order $`|F_k|=|G_k|/p=(p1)p^{k2}`$, consists of all $`p^{k2}`$ extensions mod $`p^k`$ of the $`p1`$ $`p`$-th power residues in $`G_2`$, which has order $`(p1)p`$. Consequently we have:

###### Corollary 1.2

Each extension of $`n^p`$ mod $`p^2`$ (in $`F_2`$) is a $`p`$-th power residue (in $`F_k`$)

Core generation: The $`p1`$ residues $`n^q`$ mod $`p^k(q=p^{k1})`$ define core $`A_k`$ for 0$`<n<p`$.
Cores $`A_k`$ for successive $`k`$ are produced as the $`p`$-th power of each $`n_0<p`$ recursively:
$`(n_0)^pn_1,(n_1)^pn_2,(n_2)^pn_3`$, etc., where $`n_i`$ has $`i`$+1 digits. In more detail:

###### Lemma 1.2

.
The $`p1`$ values $`a_0<p`$ define core $`A_k`$ by $`(a_0)^{p^{k1}}=a_0+_{i=1}^{k1}a_ip^i`$ (digits $`a_i<p`$).

* Let $`a=a_0+mp<p^2`$ be in core $`A_2`$, so $`a^pa`$ mod $`p^2`$. Then $`a^p=(a_0+mp)^p=a_0^p+p.a_0^{p1}.mpa_0^p+mp^2`$ mod $`p^3`$, using $`FST`$. Clearly the second core digit, of weight $`p`$, is not found this way as function of $`a_0`$, but requires actual computation (unless $`ap\pm 1`$ as in lem1.3-4). It depends on the $`carries`$ produced in computing the $`p`$-th power of $`a_0`$. Recursively, each next core digit can be found by computing the $`p`$-th power of a core $`A_k`$ residue with $`k`$+1 digit precision; here core $`A_k`$ remains fixed since $`a^pa`$ mod $`p^k`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

Notice $`(p^2\pm 1)^pp^3\pm 1`$ mod $`p^5`$. Moreover, initial $`(p+1)^pp^2+1`$ mod $`p^3`$ yields in general for $`(p\pm 1)^{p^m}`$ the next property:

###### Lemma 1.3

$`(p+1)^{p^m}p^{m+1}+1`$  mod $`p^{m+2}`$
and: $`(p1)^{p^m}p^{m+1}1`$  mod $`p^{m+2}`$

###### Lemma 1.4

Extension group $`B_k`$ is generated by $`p`$+1 (mod $`p^k`$), with $`|B_k|=p^{k1}`$,
and each subgroup $`SB_k`$, $`|S|=|B_k|/p^s`$ has sum $`S|S|`$  mod $`p^k`$.

* The period of $`p+1`$, which is the smallest $`x`$ with $`(p+1)^x1`$ mod $`p^k`$, implies $`m+1=k`$ (re lemma 1.3). So $`m=k1`$, yielding period $`p^{k1}`$. No smaller exponent generates 1 mod $`p^k`$ since $`|B_k|`$ has only divisors $`p^s`$.

$`B_k`$ consists of all $`p^{k1}`$ residues which are 1 mod $`p`$. The order of each subgroup $`SB_k`$ must divide $`|B_k|`$, sothat $`|S|=|B_k|/p^s`$ ($`0s<k`$) and $`S=\{1+m.p^{s+1}\}(m=0..|S|1)`$.

Then $`S=|S|+p^{s+1}.|S|(|S|1)/2`$ mod $`p^k`$, where $`p^{s+1}.|S|=p.|B_k|=p^k`$,

sothat $`S=|S|=p^{k1s}`$ mod $`p^k`$. Hence no subgroup of $`B_k`$ sums to 0 mod $`p^k`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

###### Corollary 1.3

For core $`A_kg^{}`$: each unit $`nG_kA_kB_k`$ has the form:
$`ng^i(p+1)^j`$ mod $`p^k`$ for a unique pair of non-neg. exponents $`i<|A_k|`$ and $`j<|B_k|`$.

Pair $`(i,j)`$ are the exponents in the core- and extension- component of unit $`n`$.

###### Theorem 1.1

Each subgroup $`S1`$ of core $`A_k`$ sums to 0  mod $`p^k(k>`$0).

* For even $`|S|`$: $`1`$ in $`S`$ implies pairwise zero-sums. In general: $`c.S=S`$ for all $`c`$ in $`S`$, and $`cS=S`$, so $`S.x=x`$, writing $`x`$ for $`S`$. Now for any $`g`$ in $`G_k`$: $`|S.g|=|S|`$ sothat $`|S.x|`$=1 implies $`x`$ not in $`G_k`$, hence $`x=g.p^e`$ for some $`g`$ in $`G_k`$ and $`0<e<k`$ or $`x=0(e=k)`$. Then:

$`S.x=S(g.p^e)=(S.g)p^e`$ with $`|S.g|=|S|`$ if $`e<k`$. So $`|S.x|`$=1 yields $`e`$=$`k`$ and $`x=S`$=0. $`\mathrm{}`$

Consider the normation of an additive equivalence $`a+bc`$ mod $`p^k`$ in units group $`G_k`$, by multiplying all terms with the inverse of one of these terms, for instance to yield rhs $`1`$:

(1) 1-complement form: $`a+b1`$ mod $`p^k`$ in $`G_k`$ (digitwise sum $`p1`$, no carry).

For instance the well known $`p`$-th power residue equivalence: $`x^p+y^pz^p`$ in $`F_k`$ yields:
(2) normal form: $`a^p+b^p1`$ mod $`p^k`$ in $`G_k`$,

with a special case (in core $`A_k`$) considered next.

## 2 The cubic root solution in core, and core symmetries

###### Lemma 2.1

The cubic roots of 1 mod $`p^k`$ ($`p1`$ mod 6) are $`p`$-th power residues in core $`A_k`$,
and for $`a^31(a/1):a+a^11`$ mod $`p^{k>1}`$ has no 0-extension to integers.

* If $`p1`$ mod 6 then $`3|(p1)`$ implies a core-subgroup $`S=\{a^2,a,1\}`$ of three $`p`$-th powers: the cubic roots of 1 ($`a^31`$) in $`G_k`$ that sum to 0 mod $`p^k`$ (thm1.1). Now $`a^31=(a1)(a^2+a+1)`$, so if $`a/1`$ then $`a^2+a+10`$, hence $`a+a^11`$ solves (1): a root-pair of inverses, with $`a^2a^1`$. $`S`$ in core consists of $`p`$-th power residues with $`n^pn`$ mod $`p^k`$. Write $`b`$ for $`a^1`$, then $`a^p+b^p1`$ and $`a+b1`$, sothat $`a^p+b^p(a+b)^p`$ mod $`p^k`$. Notice the Exponent Distributes over a Sum ($`EDS`$), implying inequality $`A^p+B^p<(A+B)^p`$ for the corresponding 0-extensions $`A,B,A+B`$ of core residues $`a,b,a+b`$ mod $`p^k`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

1. Display $`G_kg^{}`$ by equidistant points on a unit circle in the plane, with 1 and $`1`$ on the horizontal axis (fig1, 2). The successive powers $`g^i`$ of generator $`g`$ produce $`\left|G_k\right|`$ points ($`k`$-digit residues) counter- clockwise. In this circle each inverse pair $`(a,a^1)`$ is connected $`vertically`$, complements $`(a,a)diagonally`$, and pairs $`(a,a^1)horizontally`$, representing functions $`I,C`$ and $`IC=CI`$ resp. (thm3.2). Figures 1, 2 depict for $`p`$=7, 5 these symmetries of residue arithmetic.
2. Scaling any equation, such as $`a+1b^1`$, by a factor $`sg^iG_kg^{}`$, yields $`s\left(a+1\right)s/b`$ mod $`p^k`$, represented by a rotation counter clockwise over $`i`$ positions.

### 2.1 Core increment symmetry at double precision, and asymmetry beyond

Consider core function $`A_k(n)=n^{|B_k|}(|B_k|=p^{k1}cor1.1)`$ as integer polynomial of odd degree, and core increment function $`d_k(n)=A_k(n+1)A_k(n)`$ of even degree one less than $`A_k(n)`$. Computing $`A_k(n)`$ upto precision $`2k+1`$ (base $`p`$) shows $`d_k(n)`$ mod $`p^{2k+1}`$ to have a ’double precision’ symmetry for 1-complements $`m+n=p1`$. Only $`n<p`$ need be considered due to periodicity $`p`$.
This naturally reflects in the additive properties of core $`A_k`$, as in table 1 for $`p`$=7 and $`k`$=1, with $`n<p`$ in $`A_1`$ by $`FST`$: symmetry of core increment $`d_1(n)`$ mod $`p^3`$ but not so mod $`p^4`$. Due to $`A_k(n)n`$ mod $`p(FST)`$ we have $`d_k(n)1`$ mod $`p`$, so $`d_k(n)`$ is referred to as core ’increment’, although in general $`d_k(n)/1`$ mod $`p^{k>1}`$.

###### Lemma 2.2

( Core increment at double precision ) For $`q=|B_k|=p^{k1}`$ and $`k>0`$:
(a) Core function $`A_k(n)n^q`$ mod $`p^k`$ and increment $`d_k(n)A_k(n+1)A_k(n)`$ have period $`p`$
(b) for $`m+n=p:A_k(m)A_k(n)`$ mod $`p^k`$  (odd symmetry)
(c) for $`m+n=p1:d_k(m)d_k(n)`$ mod $`p^{2k+1}`$ and $`/`$ mod $`p^{2(k+1)}`$
(’double precision’ even symmetry and -inequivalence respectively).

* (a) Core function $`A_K(n)n^q`$ mod $`p^k(q=p^{k1},n/`$ 0 mod $`p`$) has just $`p1`$ distinct residues with $`(n^q)^pn^q`$ mod $`p^k`$, and $`A_k(n)n`$ mod $`p`$ ($`FST`$). Including (non-core) $`A_k(0)0`$ makes $`A_k(n)`$ mod $`p^k`$ periodic in $`n`$ with period $`p`$ : $`A_k(n+p)A_k(n)`$ mod $`p^k`$, so $`n<p`$ suffices for core analysis. Increment $`d_k(n)`$, as difference of two functions of period $`p`$, also has period $`p`$.

(b) $`A_k(n)`$ is a polynomial of odd degree with odd symmetry $`A_k(n)(n)^qn^qA_k(n)`$.

(c) Difference polynomial $`d_k(n)`$ is of even degree $`q1`$ with leading term $`q.n^{q1}`$, and residues 1 mod $`p`$ in extension group $`B_k`$. The even degree of $`d_k(n)`$ results in even symmetry, because
$`d_k(n1)=n^q(n1)^q=(n)^q+(n+1)^q=d_k(n)`$.

Denote $`q=p^{k1}`$, then for $`m+n=p1`$ follows: $`d_k(m)=A_k(m+1)A_k(m)=(pn)^qm^q`$ and $`d_k(n)=A_k(n+1)A_k(n)=(pm)^qn^q`$, yielding: $`d_k(m)d_k(n)=[(pn)^q+n^q][(pm)^q+m^q]`$. By binomial expansion and $`n^{q1}m^{q1}1`$ mod $`p^k`$ in core $`A_k`$$`d_k(m)d_k(n)0`$ mod $`p^{2k+1}`$. With $`n/m`$ mod $`p`$$`m^{q2}m^1/n^1n^{q2}`$ mod $`p`$, causing $`d_k(m)/d_k(n)`$ mod $`p^{2k+2}`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

Table 1 ($`p`$=7) shows, for $`\{n,m\}`$ in core $`A_1(FST)`$ with $`n+m1`$ mod $`p`$, the core increment symmetry mod $`p^3`$ and difference mod $`p^4(k`$=1). While $`024^7024`$ in $`A_3(k`$=3) has core increment 1 mod $`p^7`$, but not 1 mod $`p^8`$, and similarly at 1-complementary cubic root $`642^7642`$.

### 2.2  Another derivation of the cubic root of 1 mod $`p^k`$

The cubic root solution was derived, for 3 dividing $`p1`$, via subgroup $`SA_k`$ of order 3 (thm1.1). For completeness a derivation using elementary arithmetic follows.

Notice $`a+b1`$ to yield $`a^2+b^2(a+b)^22ab12ab`$, and:
$`a^3+b^3(a+b)^33(a+b)ab1+3ab`$. The combined sum is $`ab1`$:
$`_{i=1}^3(a^i+b^i)_{i=1}^3a^i+_{i=1}^3b^iab1`$ mod $`p^k`$. Find $`a,b`$ for $`ab1`$ mod$`p^k`$.

Since $`n^2+n+1=(n^31)/(n1)`$=0 for $`n^31(n1`$), we have $`ab1`$ mod$`p^{k>0}`$ if $`a^3b^31`$ mod $`p^k`$, with 3 dividing $`p1(p1`$ mod 6). Cubic roots $`a^31`$ mod $`p^k`$ exist for any prime $`p1`$ mod 6 at any precision $`k>0`$.

In the next section other solutions of $`_{i=1}^3a^i+_{i=1}^3b^i0`$ mod $`p^k`$ will be shown, depending not only on $`p`$ but also on $`k`$, with $`ab1`$ mod $`p^2`$ but $`ab/1`$ mod $`p^3`$, for some primes $`p59`$.

## 3 Triplets, and the Core

Any solution of (2): $`a^p+b^p=1`$ mod $`p^k`$ has at least one term ($`1`$) in core, and at most all three terms in core $`A_k`$. To characterize such solution by the number of terms in core $`A_k`$, quadratic analysis (mod $`p^3`$) is essential since proper inclusion $`A_kF_k`$ requires $`k3`$. The cubic root solution, with one inverse pair (lem2.1), has all three terms in core $`A_{k>1}`$. However, a computer search (table 2) does reveal another type of solution of (2) mod $`p^2`$ for some $`p59`$: three inverse pairs of $`p`$-th power residues, denoted tripletp, in core $`A_2`$.

###### Theorem 3.1

A tripletp of three inverse-pairs of $`p`$-th power residues in $`F_k`$ satifies :
(3a) $`a+b^11`$ (mod $`p^k`$)
(3b) $`b+c^11`$ ,,
(3c) $`c+a^11`$ ,, with $`abc1`$ mod $`p^k`$.

* Multiplying by $`b,c,a`$ resp. maps (3a) to (3b) if $`abc^1`$, and (3b) to (3c) if $`bca^1`$, and (3c) to (3a) if $`acb^1`$. All three conditions imply $`abc1`$ mod $`p^k`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

Table 2 shows all normed solutions of (2) mod $`p^2`$ for $`p<200`$, with triplets at $`p`$= 59, 79, 83, 179, 193. The cubic roots, indicated by $`C_3`$, occur only at $`p1`$ mod 6, while a tripletp can occur for either prime type $`\pm 1`$ mod 6. More than one tripletp can occur per prime (two at $`p`$=59, three at 1093, four at 36847: each first occurrance of such multiple tripletp). There are primes for which both rootforms occur, e.g. $`p=79`$ has a cubic root solution as well as a tripletp.

The question is if such loop structure of inverse-pairs can have a length beyond 3. Consider the successor $`S(n)=n`$+1 and the two arithmetic symmetries, complement $`C(n)=n`$ and inverse $`I(n)=n^1`$, as functions, which compose associatively.
Then looplength $`>`$3 is impossible in arithmetic ring $`Z_k(+,.)`$ mod $`p^k`$, seen as follows.

###### Theorem 3.2

.. (two basic solution types)
Each normed solution of (2) is (an extension of) a tripletp or an inverse- pair.

* Assume $`r`$ equations $`1n_i^1n_{i+1}`$ form a loop of length $`r`$ (indices mod $`r`$). Consider function $`ICS(n)1n^1`$, composed of the three elementary functions: Inverse, Complement and Successor, in that sequence. Let $`E(n)n`$ be the identity function, and $`n0,1,1`$ to prevent division by zero, then under function composition the third iteration $`[ICS]^3=E`$, since $`[ICS]^2(n)1/(n1)[ICS]^3(n)n`$ (repeat substituting $`1n^1`$ for $`n`$). Since $`C`$ and $`I`$ commute, $`IC`$=$`CI`$, the 3! = 6 permutations of {$`I,C,S`$} yield only four distinct dual-folded-successor ”dfs” functions:

$`ICS(n)=n^1,SCI(n)=(1+n)^1,CSI(n)=(1n)^1,ISC(n)=(1+n^1)`$.

By inspection each of these has $`[dfs]^3=E`$, referred to as loop length 3. For a cubic rootpair dfs=E, and 2-loops do not occur since there are no duplets (next note 3.2). Hence solutions of (2) have only dfs function loops of length 1 and 3: inverse pair and triplet. $`\mathrm{}`$

A special triplet occurs if one of $`a,b,c`$ equals 1, say $`a1`$. Then $`bc1`$ since $`abc1`$, while (3a) and (3c) yield $`b^1c2`$, so $`bc^12^1`$. Although triplet $`(a,b,c)(1,2,2^1)`$ satisfies conditions (3), 2 is not in core $`A_{k>2}`$, and by symmetry $`a,b,c/1`$ for any tripletp of form (3). If $`2^p/2`$ mod $`p^2`$ then 2 is not a $`p`$-th power residue, so triplet $`(1,2,2^1)`$ is not a tripletp for such primes (all upto at least $`10^9`$ except 1093, 3511).

### 3.1  A triplet for each $`n`$ in $`G_k`$

Notice the proof of thm3.2 does not require $`p`$-th power residues. So any $`nG_k`$ generates a triplet by iteration of one of the four dfs functions (thm3.2), yielding the main triplet structure of $`G_k`$ :

###### Corollary 3.1

Each $`n`$ in $`G_k(k>`$0) generates a triplet of three inverse pairs,
except if $`n^31`$ and $`n/1`$ mod $`p^k(p1`$ mod 6), which involves one inverse pair.

Starting at $`n_0G_k`$ six triplet residues are generated upon iteration of e.g. $`SCI(n)`$: $`n_{i+1}(n_i+1)^1`$ (indices mod 3), or another dfs function to prevent a non-invertable residue. Less than 6 residues are involved if 3 or 4 divides $`p1`$:

If $`3|(p1)`$ then a cubic root of 1 ($`a^31,a/1`$) generates just 3 residues: $`a+1a^1`$;
— together with its complement this yields a subgroup $`(a+1)^{}C_6`$ (fig.1, $`p`$=7)
If 4 divides $`p1`$ then an $`x`$ on the vertical axis has $`x^21`$ so $`xx^1`$,
— so the 3 inverse pairs involve then only five residues (fig.2: $`p`$=5).

1. It is no coincidence that the period 3 of each dfs composition \[ of $`n,n^1,n`$+1;
e.g: $`CIS\left(n\right)1n^1`$ \] exceeds the number of symmetries of finite ring $`Z_k(+,.)`$ by one.
2. No duplet occurs: multiply $`a+b^11,b+a^11`$ by $`b`$ resp. $`a`$ then $`ab+1b`$ and $`ab+1a`$, sothat $`ba`$ and $`ab`$.
3. Basic triplet mod $`3^2:G_22^{}\{2,4,8,7,5,1\}`$ is a 6-cycle of residues mod 9. Iteration: $`SCI\left(1\right)^{}:\left(1+1\right)^14,\left(4+1\right)^17,\left(7+1\right)^11`$, and $`abc\mathrm{1.4.7}1`$ mod 9.

### 3.2  The $`EDS`$ argument extended to non-core triplets

The $`EDS`$ argument for the cubic root solution $`CR`$ (lem2.1), with all three terms in core, also holds for any tripletp mod $`p^2`$. Because $`A_2F_2`$ mod $`p^2`$, so all three terms are in core for some linear transform (5). Then for each of the three equivalences (3a-c) holds the $`EDS`$ property: $`(x+y)^px^p+y^p`$, and thus no finite (equality preserving) extension exists, yielding inequality for the corresponding integers for all $`k>`$1, to be shown next. A cubic root solution is a special tripletp for $`p1`$ mod 6, with $`abc`$ in (3a-c).

Denote the $`p1`$ core elements as residues of integer function $`A(n)=n^{|B|},(0<n<p)`$, then by freedom of $`p`$-th power extension beyond mod $`p^2`$ (cor1.4) choose, for any $`k>2`$ :

(4) Core increment form: $`A(n+1)A(n)(r_n)^p`$ mod $`p^k`$,

with $`(r_n)^pr_n.p^2+1(r_n>`$0), hence $`(r_n)^p1`$ mod $`p^2`$, but $`/1`$ mod $`p^3`$ in general.

This rootform of triplets, with two terms in core, is useful for the additive analysis of subgroup $`F_k`$ of $`p`$-th power residues mod $`p^k`$ (re: the known Fermat’s Last Theorem $`FLT`$ case1: residues coprime to $`p`$ \- to be detailed in the next section).

Any assumed $`FLTcase_1`$ solution (5) can be transformed into form (4) in two steps that preserve the assumed $`FLT`$ equality for integers $`<p^{kp}`$ in full $`p`$-th power precision $`kp`$ where $`x,y<p^k`$ , or $`(k+1)p`$ in case $`p^k<x+y<p^{k+1}`$ (one carry).
Namely first $`scaling`$ by an integer $`p`$-th power factor $`s^p`$ that is 1 mod $`p^2`$ (so $`s1`$ mod $`p`$), to yield as one lefthand term the core residue $`A(n+1)`$ mod $`p^k`$. And secondly a $`translation`$ by an additive integer term $`t`$ which is 0 mod $`p^2`$ applied to both sides, resulting in the other lefthand term $`A(n)`$ mod $`p^k`$, preserving the assumed integer equality (unit $`x^p`$ has inverse $`x^p`$ in $`G_k`$). Without loss assume the normed form with $`z^p1`$ mod $`p^2`$, then such linear transformation ($`s,t`$) yields:

(5) $`x^p+y^p=z^p(sx)^p+(sy)^p+t=(sz)^p+t`$ \[ integers \],

with $`s^pA(n+1)/x^p,(sy)^p+tA(n)`$ mod $`p^k`$, so:

(5’) $`A(n+1)A(n)(sz)^p+t`$ mod $`p^k`$.

With $`s^pz^p1`$ and $`t0`$ mod $`p^2`$ this yields an equivalence which is 1 mod $`p^2`$, hence a $`p`$-th power residue, with two of the three terms in core. Such core increment form (4),(5’) will be shown to have no (equality preserving) finite extension, of all residues involved, to $`p`$-th power integers, so the assumed integer $`FLTcase_1`$ equality cannot exist.

###### Lemma 3.1

$`p`$-th powers of a 0-extended tripletp equivalence (mod $`p^{k>1}`$) yield integer inequality.

* In a triplet for some prime $`p>2`$ the core increment form (4) holds for three distinct values of $`n<p`$, where scaling by respective factors $`(r_n)^p`$ in $`G_k`$ mod $`p^k`$ returns 1-complement form (2). Consider each triplet equivalence separately, and for a simple notation let $`r`$ be any of the three $`r_n`$, with successive core residues $`A(n+1)x^px,A(n)y^py`$ mod $`p^k`$. Then $`x^p+y^px+yr^p`$ mod $`p^k`$, where $`r^p1`$ mod $`p^2`$, has both summands in core, but right hand side $`r^p/1`$ mod $`p^{k>2}`$ is not in core, with deviation $`drr^p/0`$ mod $`p^k`$.
Hence $`rr^p+d(x+y)+d`$ mod $`p^k`$ (with $`d0`$ mod $`p^k`$ in the cubic root case), and $`x^p+y^p(x+y+d)^p`$ mod $`p^k`$. This equivalence has no finite (equality preserving) 0-extension to integer $`p`$-th powers since $`X^p+Y^p<(X+Y+D)^p`$, so the assumed $`FLT`$ case1 solution cannot exist. $`\mathrm{}`$

For $`p`$=7 the cubic roots are $`\{42,24,01\}`$ mod $`7^2`$ (base 7). In full 14 digits: $`42^7+24^7=01424062500666`$ while $`66^7=60262046400666`$, which are equivalent mod $`7^5`$ but differ mod $`7^6`$.

More specifically, linear transform (5) adjoins to a $`FLT`$ case1 solution mod $`p^2`$ a solution with two adjacent core residues mod $`p^k`$ (5’) for any precision $`k>1`$, while preserving the assumed integer $`FLT`$ case1 equality. Without loss one can assume scalefactor $`s<p^k`$ and shift term $`t<p^{2k}`$, yielding double precision integer operands $`\{sx,sy,sz\}<p^{2k}`$, with an (assumed) $`p`$-th power equality of terms $`<p^{2kp}`$. Although equivalence mod $`p^{2k+1}`$ can hold by proper choice of linear transform $`(s,t)`$, $`inequivalence`$ at base $`p`$ triple precision $`3k+1`$ follows by:

###### Lemma 3.2

( triple precision inequality ):
Any extension $`(X,Y,Z)`$ of $`(x,y,z)`$ in $`x^p+y^pz^p`$ mod $`p^{k>1}`$ ($`FLT_k`$ case1) yields an integer $`p`$-th power inequality (of terms $`<p^{pk}`$), with in fact inequivalence $`X^p+Y^p/Z^p`$ mod $`p^{3k+1}`$.

* Let $`X=up^k+x,Y=vp^k+y,Z=wp^k+z`$ extend the residues $`x,y,z<p^k`$, such that $`X,Y`$ mod $`p^{k+1}`$ are not both in core $`A_{k+1}`$. So the extensions do not extend core precision $`k`$, and without loss take $`u,v,w<p^k`$, due to a scalefactor $`s<p^k`$ in (5). Write $`h=(p1)/2`$, then binomial expansion upto quadratic terms yields:

$`X^pu^2x^{p2}hp^{2k+1}+ux^{p1}p^{k+1}+x^p`$ mod $`p^{3k+1}`$, and similarly:

$`Y^pv^2y^{p2}hp^{2k+1}+vy^{p1}p^{k+1}+y^p`$ mod $`p^{3k+1}`$, and:

$`Z^pw^2z^{p2}hp^{2k+1}+wz^{p1}p^{k+1}+z^p`$ mod $`p^{3k+1}`$,

where: $`x^p+y^px+yz^p`$ mod $`p^k`$, and $`x^{p1}y^{p1}1`$ mod $`p^k`$, but not so mod $`p^{k+1}`$:
$`u,v`$ are such that not both $`X,Y`$ are in core $`A_{k+1}`$, hence core precision $`k`$ is not increased.

By lemma 3.1 the 0-extension of $`x,y,z`$ (so $`u=v=w=0`$) does not yield the required equality $`X^p+Y^p=Z^p`$. To find for which maximum precision equivalence $`can`$ hold, choose $`u,v,w`$ sothat:

$`(u+v)p^{k+1}+x^p+y^pwz^{p1}p^{k+1}+z^p`$ mod $`p^{2k+1}`$ …\[\*\].. yielding $`X^p+Y^pZ^p`$ mod $`p^{2k+1}`$.

A cubic root solution has also $`z^pz`$ in core $`A_k`$, so $`z^{p1}1`$ mod $`p^k`$, then $`w=u+v`$ with $`w^2>u^2+v^2`$ would require $`x^p+y^pz^p`$ mod $`p^{2k+1}`$, readily verified for $`k`$=2 and any prime $`p>2`$.
Such extension \[\*\] implies inequivalence $`X^p+Y^p/Z^p`$ mod $`p^{3k+1}`$ for non-zero extensions $`u,v,w`$. Because $`u+v=w`$ together with $`u^2+v^2=w^2=(u+v)^2`$ yields $`uv=0`$. So any (zero- or nonzero-) extension yields inequivalence mod $`p^{3k+1}`$. $`\mathrm{}`$

## 4 Residue triplets and Fermat’s integer powersum inequality

Core $`A_k`$ as $`FST`$ extension, the additive zero-sum property of its subgroups (thm1.1), and the triplet structure of units group $`G_k`$, allow a direct approach to Fermat’s Last Theorem:

(6) $`x^p+y^p=z^p`$ (prime $`p>2`$) has no solution for positive integers $`x,y,z`$
with case1 : $`xyz/0`$ mod $`p`$, and case2 : $`p`$ divides one of $`x,y,z`$.

Usually (6) mentions exponent $`n>2`$, but it suffices to show inequality for primes $`p>2`$, because for composite exponent $`m=p.q`$ holds $`a^{pq}=(a^p)^q=(a^q)^p`$. If $`p`$ divides two terms then it also divides the third, and all terms can be divided by $`p^p`$. So in $`case`$ 2: $`p`$ divides just one term.

A finite integer $`FLT`$ solution of (6) has three $`p`$-th powers $`<p^k`$ for some finite fixed $`k`$, so occurs in $`Z_k`$, yet with no $`carry`$ beyond $`p^{k1}`$, and (6) is the 0-extension of this solution mod $`p^k`$. Each residue $`n`$ mod $`p^k`$ is represented uniquely by $`k`$ digits, and is the product of a $`j`$-digit number as ’mantissa’ relative prime to $`p`$, and $`p^{kj}`$ represented by $`kj`$ trailing zero’s (cor1.3).

Normation (2) to $`rhs=1`$ simplifies the analysis, and maps residues ($`k`$ digits) to residues, keeping the problem finite. Inverse normation back to (6) mod $`p^k`$ is in case 1 always possible, using an inverse scale factor in group $`F_k`$. So normation does not map to the reals or rationals.

The present approach needs only a simple form of Hensel’s lemma  (in the general $`p`$-adic number theory), which is a direct consequence of cor1.2 : extend digit-wise the 1-complement form such that the $`i`$-th digit of weight $`p^i`$ in $`a^p`$ and $`b^p`$ sum to $`p1`$ (all $`i0`$), with $`p`$ choices per extra digit. Thus to each normed solution of (2) mod $`p^2`$ correspond $`p^{k2}`$ solutions mod $`p^k`$:

###### Corollary 4.1

(1-cmpl extension) A normed $`FLT_k`$ root is an extended $`FLT_2`$ root.

### 4.1 Proof of the FLT inequality

Regarding $`FLT`$ case1, an inverse-pair and tripletp are the only (normed) $`FLT_k`$ roots (thm3.2). As shown (lem3.1), any assumed integer case1 solution has a corresponding equivalent core increment form (4) with two terms in core, having no integer extension, against the assumption.

###### Theorem 4.1

($`FLT`$ Case 1). For prime $`p>`$2 and integers $`x,y,z>0`$ coprime to $`p`$ :
$`x^p+y^p=z^p`$ has no solution.

* An $`FLT_{k>1}`$ solution is a linear transformed extension of an $`FLT_2`$ root in core $`A_2=F_2`$ (cor4.1). By lemmas 2.2c and 3.1 it has no finite $`p`$-th power extension, yielding the theorem. $`\mathrm{}`$

In $`FLT`$ case2 just one of $`x,y,z`$ is a multiple of $`p`$, hence $`p^p`$ divides one of the three $`p`$-th powers in $`x^p+y^p=z^p`$. Again, any assumed case2 equality can be scaled and translated to yield an equivalence mod $`p^p`$ with two terms in core $`A_p`$, having no integer extension, contra the assumption.

###### Theorem 4.2

($`FLT`$ case2) For prime $`p>`$2 and positive integers $`x,y,z`$ :
if $`p`$ divides just one of $`x,y,z`$ then $`x^p+y^p=z^p`$ has no solution.

* In a case2 solution $`p`$ divides a lefthand term, $`x=cp`$ or $`y=cp(c>`$0), or the right hand side $`z=cp`$. Bring the multiple of $`p`$ to the right hand side, for instance if $`y=cp`$ we have $`z^px^p=(cp)^p`$, while otherwise $`x^p+y^p=(cp)^p`$. So the sum or difference of two $`p`$-th powers coprime to $`p`$ must be shown not to yield a $`p`$-th power $`(cp)^p`$ for any $`c>0`$:

(7) $`x^p\pm y^p=(cp)^p`$ has no solution for integers $`x,y,c>0`$.

Notice that core increment form (4) does not apply here. However, by $`FST`$ the two lefthand terms, coprime to $`p`$, are either complementary or equivalent mod $`p`$, depending on their sum or difference being $`(cp)^p`$. Scaling by $`s^p`$ for some $`s1`$ mod $`p`$, so $`s^p1`$ mod $`p^2`$, transforms one lefthand term into a core residue $`A(n)`$ mod $`p^p`$, with $`nx`$ mod $`p`$. And translation by adding $`t0`$ mod $`p^2`$ yields the other term $`A(n)`$ or $`A(n)`$ mod $`p^p`$ respectively. The right hand side then becomes $`s^p(cp)^p+t`$, equivalent to $`t`$ mod $`p^p`$. So an assumed equality (7) yields, by two equality preserving tansformations, the next equivalence (8), where $`A(n)uu^p`$ mod $`p^p`$ ($`u`$ in core $`A=A_p`$ for $`0<n<p`$ with $`nxu`$ mod $`p`$) and $`s1,t0`$ mod $`p^2`$:

(8) $`u^p\pm u^pu\pm ut`$ mod $`p^p(uA_p)`$, where $`u(sx)^p`$$`\pm u\pm (sy)^p+t`$ mod $`p^p`$.

Equivalence (8) does not extend to integers, because $`U^p+U^p>U+U`$, and $`U^pU^p=0T`$, where $`U,T`$ are the 0-extensions of $`u,t`$ mod $`p^p`$ respectively. But this contradicts assumed equalities (7), which consequently must be false. $`\mathrm{}`$

Remark:  From a practical point of view the $`FLT`$ integer inequality of a 0-extended $`FLT_k`$ root (case1) is caused by the carries beyond $`p^{k1}`$, amounting to a multiple of the modulus, produced in the arithmetic (base $`p`$). In the expansion of $`(a+b)^p`$, the mixed terms $`can`$ vanish mod $`p^k`$ for some $`a,b,p`$. Ignoring the carries yields $`(a+b)^pa^p+b^p`$ mod $`p^k`$, and the $`EDS`$’ property is as it were the $`syntactical`$ expression of ignoring the carry ($`overflow`$) in residue arithmetic. In other words, in terms of $`p`$-adic number theory, this means ’breaking the Hensel lift’: the residue equivalence of an $`FLT_k`$ root mod $`p^k`$, although it holds for all $`k>`$0, $`does`$ imply inequality for integers due to its special triplet structure, where exponent $`p`$ distributes over a sum.

## Conclusions

1. Symmetries $`n,n^1`$ determine $`FLT_k`$ roots but do not exist for positive integers.
2. Another proof of $`FLT`$ case1 might use product 1 mod $`p^k`$ of $`FLT_k`$ root terms: $`ab1`$ or $`abc1`$, which is impossible for integers $`>1`$. The product of $`m`$ (=2, 3, $`p`$) $`k`$-digit integers has $`mk`$ digits. Arithmetic mod $`p^k`$ ignores carries of weight $`p^k`$ and beyond. Removal of the mod $`p^k`$ condition from a particular $`FLT_k`$ root equivalence 0-extends its terms, and the ignored carries imply inequality for integers.
3. Core $`A_kG_k`$ as extension of $`FST`$ to mod $`p^{k>1}`$, and the zero-sum of its subgroups (thm1.1) yielding the cubic $`FLT`$ root (lem2.1), started this work. The triplets were found by analysing a computer listing (tab.2) of the $`FLT`$ roots mod $`p^2`$ for $`p<200`$.
4. Linear analysis (mod $`p^2`$) suffices for root existence (Hensel, cor4.1), but quadratic analysis (mod $`p^3`$) is necessary to derive tripletp core-increment form (4) (5,5’) with maximally two terms in core $`A_3`$.
5. $`FLT`$ eqn(1) has no finite solution” and ”$`[ICS]^3`$ has no finite fixed point”
are equivalent (thm3.2), yet each $`nG_k`$ is a fixed point of $`[ICS]^3`$ mod $`p^k`$
(re: $`FLT_2`$ roots imply all roots for $`k>`$2, yet no 0-extension to integers).
6. Crucial in finding the arithmetic triplet structure, and the double precision core-increment symmetry and inequivalence (lem2.2c) were extensive computer experiments, and the application of associative function composition, the essence of semi-groups, to the three elementary functions (thm3.2):
successor $`S(n)=n`$+1, complement $`C(n)=n`$ and inverse $`I(n)=n^1`$,
with period 3 for $`SCI(n)=(n+1)^1`$ and the other three such compositions. In this sense $`FLT`$ is not a purely arithmetic problem, but essentially requires non-commutative and associative function composition for its proof.

## Acknowledgements

The opportunity given me by the program committee in Prague , to present this simple application of finite semigroup structure to arithmetic, is remarkable and greatly appreciated. Also, the feedback from several correspondents is gratefully acknowledged.

## References

1. T.Apostol: Introduction to Analytical Number Theory (thm 10.4-6), Springer Verlag, 1976.
2. N.F.Benschop: ”The semigroup of multiplication mod $`p^k`$, an extension of Fermat’s Small Theorem, and its additive structure”,
International conference Semigroups and their Applications (Digest p7) Prague, July 1996.
3. A.Clifford, G.Preston: The Algebraic Theory of Semigroups
Vol 1 (p130-135), AMS survey #7, 1961.
4. S.Schwarz: ”The Role of Semigroups in the Elementary Theory of Numbers”,
Math.Slovaca V31, N4, p369-395, 1981.
5. G.Hardy, E.Wright: An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers
(Chap 8.3, Thm 123), Oxford-Univ. Press 1979.

—–///—–

```

  n.   n     F= n^7      F’= PDo        PD1         PD2       p=7
  0.  0000   000000000   000000001   010000000   000000000  7-ary code
  1.  0001   000000001   000000241   023553100   050301000  9 digits
  2.  0002   000000242   000006001 < 055440100   446621000
  3.  0003   000006243   000056251   150660100   401161000   ’<’ :
  4.  0004   000065524   000345001 < 324333100   302541000  Cubic roots
  5.  0005   000443525   001500241   612621100   545561000 (n+1)^p - n^p
  6.  0006   002244066   004422601   355655100   233411000  = 1 mod p^3
         x          xx         ^^^sym
  7.  0010   010000000   013553101   410000000   000000000
  8.  0011   023553101   031554241   116312100   062461000
  9.  0012   055440342   062226001 < 351003100   534051000
 10.  0013   150666343   143432251   630552100   600521000
 11.  0014   324431624   255633001 < 455101100   160521000
 12.  0015   613364625   444534241   156135100   242641000
 13.  0016   361232166   025434501   110316100   223621000

 14.  0020   420000000   423165201   010000000   000000000
 15.  0021   143165201   263245241   402261100   313151000
 16.  0022   436443442   342105001 < 502606100   060611000
 17.  0023   111551443   000651251   326354100   541031000
 18.  .024   112533024 ! 660000001 < 036146100   035011000 (n+1)^p - n^p
 19.  .025   102533025 ! 366015241   612322100   531201000  = 1 mod p^7
 20.  0026   501551266   625115401   332500100   600441000
--------&c
Table 1:  Periodic Difference of i-th digit:  PDi(n) = F(n+p^i) - F(n)

```

```

Find a+b = -1 mod p^2 (in A=F < G): Core A={n^p=n}, F={n^p} =A if k=2.
 G(p^2)=g*, log-code: log(a)=i, log(b)=j;  a.b=1 --> i+j=0 (mod p-1)

TRIPLET^p: a+ 1/b= b+ 1/c= c+ 1/a=-1; a.b.c=1; (p= 59 79 83 179 193 ...
^^^^^^^
Root-Pair:  a+ 1/a=-1; a^3=1 (’C3’) <--> p=6m+1 (Cubic rootpair of 1)
^^^^^^^^^
p:6m+-1 g=generator;   p < 2000:  two  triplets at p= 59, 701, 1811
  5:-   2                        three triplets at p= 1093
  7:+   3  C3    11:-  2
 13:+   2  C3    17:-  3
 19:+   2  C3    23:-  5   29:-   2
 31:+   3  C3
 37:+   2  C3    41:-  6
 43:+   3  C3    47:-  5
 53:-   2                   log    lin mod p^2
 59:-   2                 ------  ------------
   -2,-25( 40 15, 18 43)  25, 23( 35 11, 23 47) -23,  2( 53 54,  5  4)
              --     --              --     --              --     --
   27, 19( 18 44, 40 14) -19,  8( 13 38, 45 20)  -8,-27(  5  3, 53 55)
 61:+   2  C3
 67:+   2  C3    71:-  7
 73:+   5  C3
 79:+   3  C3
   30, 20( 40 46, 38 32) -20, 10( 36 42, 42 36) -10,-30( 77 11,  1 67)
 83:-   2
   21,  3(  9 74, 73  8)  -3, 18( 54 52, 28 30) -18,-21( 13 36, 69 46)
 89:-   3
 97:+   5  C3   101:-  2
103:+   5  C3   107:-  2
109:+   6  C3   113:-  3
127:+   3  C3   131:-  2   137:-  3
139:+   2  C3   149:-  2
151:+   6  C3
157:+   5  C3
163:+   2  C3   167:-  5   173:-  2
179:-   2
 19,  1( 78 176,100  2)  -1, 18( 64 90,114 88) -18,-19( 88 59, 90 119)
181:+   2  C3   191:- 19
193:+   5  C3
 -81, 58( 64 106,128 86) -58, 53( 4 101,188 91) -53, 81(188 70, 4 122)
197:-   2
199:+   3  C3
-------       -------------------------------------
Table 2:      FLT_2 root: inv-pair (C3) & triplet^p   (for p < 200)

```


format: text

text:
# Relativistic large scale jets and minimum power requirements

## 1 Introduction

Most of the radiation observed from blazars (BL Lac objects and flat spectrum radio quasars) originates in relativistic jets, in which the emitting plasma flows with a bulk Lorentz factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }10`$ at small viewing angles $`\theta `$. Since the observed radiation is beamed in the direction of motion the large apparent luminosities are much reduced in the comoving frame, by a factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^4`$ (if $`\theta 1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) in the case of a moving blob. On the other hand, the most important power content of the jet is not in the form of internal random particle energy giving rise to radiation, but in the form of electromagnetic and kinetic powers associated with the bulk motion. This is indicated also by the power budget of the extended radio structures and radio lobes, which require an average supply which is greater than the luminosity generated by the jet at all scales. However, the jet does not need to remain relativistic for all its length, and indeed it was believed that it slows down, without losing much of its bulk kinetic energy content. In fact the detection of large–scale, symmetric jets has been considered as an indication that on such scales the plasma is moving at most with mildly relativistic velocities in low power FR 1 sources (Fanaroff & Riley 1974), while the jet to counterjet flux ratio requires $`\beta c`$0.6–0.8 in FR II large–scale jets (e.g. Laing 1993; Bridle et al. 1994; Wardle & Aaron 1997; Hardcastle et al. 1999). However, as these authors (and Laing et al. 1999) pointed out, there is the possibility of a velocity structure across the jet, whose plasma could move highly relativistically close to the axis (“spine”) and mildly relativistic at the border (“slow layer”). As found by Chiaberge et al. (2000), Celotti et al. (2001), such a velocity structure can also help to unify radio–galaxies seen at large viewing angles and blazars.

Observations of large scale jets emitting copious amounts of X–rays also suggest that jets might maintain ultra–relativistic speed up to the largest scales. We consider as a specific case that of the source PKS 0637–752, observed by Chandra, for which observational information is available on both large and small scales. Chandra observations reveal relatively intense X–ray emission quite far from the nucleus (Chartas et al. 2000). The spatially resolved X–ray images show knots of emission similar to those seen in radio maps (Tingay et al. 1998) and optical images (HST; Schwartz et al. 2000). VSOP observations detected superluminal motion in the jet associated with the source (Lovell 2000), setting a lower limit on the (inner, i.e. pc scale) bulk Lorentz factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>17.5`$ and an upper limit on the viewing angle $`\theta <6.4`$ degrees (assuming $`H_0=50`$ km $`s^1`$ Mpc-1 and $`q_0=0`$). Furthermore the small scale jet appears to be well aligned with the kpc scale one: by de–projecting the X–ray map using an angle of 6 degrees the observed X–ray emission extends up to $``$1 Mpc from the nucleus.

As discussed by Chartas et al. and Schwartz et al., on large scales the radio spectrum can be explained as synchrotron emission, as also supported by the detection of strong linear radio polarization, while the X–ray emission exceeds by a large factor ($``$ 2 orders of magnitude) the extrapolation from the radio–optical spectrum. If the X–ray flux is synchrotron self–Compton (SSC) radiation from plasma moving at most at mildly relativistic speed, then large deviations from equipartition between magnetic field and particle energy density and/or large inhomogeneities have to be invoked in the emitting region. On the other hand thermal emission by e.g. shocked plasma also appears to be unlikely, as it would imply high particle density and thus unobserved large rotation measures. On the other hand the X–ray flux can be satisfactorily interpreted as scattered Cosmic Microwave Background radiation (CMB) by relativistic plasma moving with a bulk Lorentz factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$10–15 (Ghisellini 2000; Celotti, Ghisellini & Chiaberge 2001; Tavecchio et al. 2000). These observations then suggest that the jet, or some part of it, can indeed maintain highly (bulk) relativistic speeds from milli– to megaparsec.

Here we introduce another argument in support of large bulk Lorentz factors along the entire jet extension. This is based on minimizing the power required to produce the radiation we observe, once we consider not only the dissipated radiative luminosity, but also the Poynting flux and the particle bulk kinetic power of the jet. Note that, as the power in bulk motion dominates over the internal particle energy, the minimum power criterion does not coincide with the equipartition argument usually applied to radio lobes (Burbidge 1959). We show that the behaviourof the total power as function of the bulk Lorentz factor depends on the dominant emission process (chosen to reproduce the intrinsic quantities) and has a minimum for a certain value of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

In the following we first explicitly derive the condition for the minimum total power requirement (Section 2). This is applied to the X–ray extended emitting knot and small scale jet of PKS 0637–752 in Section 3. The implications for the energy transport in jets and some observational predictions are discussed in Section 4.

## 2 The minimum total power

The spectral energy distribution (SED) of blazars and more generally the emission by non–thermal plasma in relativistic jets can usually be represented by one or two broad components. These are commonly interpreted as synchrotron (the low energy one) and possibly inverse Compton emission (the high energy one, if present) from a population of relativistic leptons. The seed photon population for the inverse–Compton scattering may be the synchrotron photons themselves (synchrotron self–Compton, SSC) or photons produced externally to the emitting plasma.

Let us assume the simplest scenario and approximate the emitting region as a spherical ‘blob’ of plasma of size $`R`$, in bulk motion with Lorentz factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ at an angle $`\theta `$ with respect to the line of sight. This produces an intrinsic power $`L_\mathrm{s}^{}`$ in synchrotron radiation, and $`L_\mathrm{c}^{}`$ in inverse Compton radiation. These are the luminosities as measured in the comoving frame. The corresponding dissipated luminosities (i.e. the power received by a detector completely surrounding the source and which sees it moving with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) are enhanced by the factor $`(4/3)\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$. Instead the ‘observed’ luminosities $`L_\mathrm{s}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{c}`$, estimated by multiplying the received flux by $`4\pi d_L^2`$ ($`d_L`$ is the luminosity distance), are a factor $`\delta ^4`$ greater then the intrinsic ones. Here $`\delta =[\mathrm{\Gamma }(1\beta \mathrm{cos}\theta )]^1`$ is the Doppler factor and $`\beta c`$ the blob bulk velocity.

The plasma comprises leptons (protons) of comoving density $`n_\mathrm{e}`$ ($`n_\mathrm{p}`$), embedded in a magnetic field of strength $`B`$ perpendicular to the direction of motion. The power carried as Poynting flux and the kinetic powers corresponding to the bulk motion of leptons and protons are respectively given by:

$`L_\mathrm{B}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8}}R^2\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\beta cB^2,`$
$`L_\mathrm{e}`$ $`=`$ $`\pi R^2\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\beta cn_\mathrm{e}\gamma m_\mathrm{e}c^2,`$
$`L_\mathrm{p}`$ $`=`$ $`\pi R^2\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\beta cn_\mathrm{p}m_\mathrm{p}c^2.`$ (1)
Here $`\gamma `$ is the average random Lorentz factor of the relativistic leptons, measured in the comoving frame, and $`m_\mathrm{p}`$, $`m_\mathrm{e}`$ are the proton and electron rest masses, respectively. Protons are assumed to be cold in the comoving frame.

We can estimate these quantities from the observed radiation. A lower limit on $`n_\mathrm{e}`$ can be inferred from the synchrotron emission $`L_\mathrm{s}`$ of the plasma. In fact the number density of leptons producing the observed radiation is:

$$n_\mathrm{e}=\frac{9}{2\sigma _\mathrm{T}c}\frac{L_\mathrm{s}}{\gamma ^2\delta ^4R^3B^2},$$
(2)
where $`\gamma ^2`$ is averaged over the relativistic electron distribution and $`\sigma _\mathrm{T}`$ is the Thomson scattering cross section. The particle bulk kinetic powers can then be expressed as

$`L_\mathrm{e}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{9\pi \gamma m_\mathrm{e}c^2}{2\sigma _\mathrm{T}\gamma ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\beta }{\delta ^4}}{\displaystyle \frac{L_\mathrm{s}}{RB^2}},`$
$`L_\mathrm{p}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{9\pi m_\mathrm{p}c^2}{2\sigma _\mathrm{T}\gamma ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{n_\mathrm{p}}{n_\mathrm{e}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\beta }{\delta ^4}}{\displaystyle \frac{L_\mathrm{s}}{RB^2}}.`$ (3)
This implies that for a given size of the emitting region, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, $`\theta `$, observed synchrotron luminosity and spectrum (which determines $`\gamma `$ and $`\gamma ^2`$), the total power $`L_\mathrm{B}+L_\mathrm{e}+L_\mathrm{p}`$ must have a minimum for some value of $`B`$.

A similar approach has been adopted for the case of the galactic superluminal source GRS 1915$`+`$105, for which $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\theta `$ are known, by Gliozzi, Bodo & Ghisellini (1999). In the case of blazars the viewing angle is constrained by selection effects to be close to $`\theta =1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, since the flux is strongly dimmed for larger viewing angles, while the solid angle becomes too small for $`\theta <1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Under this further condition, the total power depends only on the product $`\mathrm{\Gamma }B`$. In fact in this case $`\delta \mathrm{\Gamma }`$, and then $`L_\mathrm{B}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{e}+L_\mathrm{p}`$ behave in opposite ways with respect to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }B`$. The value corresponding to the minimum total power can be easily determined by setting $`/(B\mathrm{\Gamma })(L_\mathrm{e}+L_\mathrm{p}+L_\mathrm{B})0`$, to derive $`(B\mathrm{\Gamma })_{\mathrm{min}}`$:

$$(B\mathrm{\Gamma })_{\mathrm{min}}=\left[\frac{36\pi L_\mathrm{s}m_\mathrm{e}c^2}{\sigma _\mathrm{T}c\gamma ^2R^3}\left(\gamma +\frac{n_\mathrm{p}m_\mathrm{p}}{n_\mathrm{e}m_\mathrm{e}}\right)\right]^{1/4};\delta =\mathrm{\Gamma }.$$
(4)
The behaviours of the different powers and the resulting minimum of the total one are illustrated, as an example, in Fig. 1. Here we represent their values as a function of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }B`$ in the case of “normal” electron–proton ($`e`$$`p`$) plasma and pure electron–positron ($`e^\pm `$) pair plasma.

Interestingly a second observational constraint allows us to decouple $`B`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. In fact the ratio of the luminosity in the inverse Compton component to that in the synchrotron component (hereafter the Compton dominance) is proportional to the ratio of the relevant energy densities, in radiation and magnetic field.

Consider first the case of inverse Compton on photons produced externally to the jet. The ratio between the Compton and synchrotron luminosities can be expressed as

$$\frac{L_\mathrm{c}}{L_\mathrm{s}}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}8}\pi U_{\mathrm{ext}}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }^2}{B^2}$$
(5)
where the radiation energy density $`U_{\mathrm{ext}}^{}`$ ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }^2U_{\mathrm{ext}}`$ for viewing angles close to $`1/\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ as in our case; see Dermer 1995), in the comoving frame of a source at redshift $`z`$ includes e.g. the CMB radiation field for large scale structures $`U_{\mathrm{CMB}}^{}=aT^4(1+z)^4\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$ ($`T=2.7`$K is the temperature we observe now), and/or the photons of the Broad Line Region on sub-pc scales $`U_{\mathrm{BLR}}^{}`$, etc. Thus the magnetic field required to give the observed $`L_\mathrm{c}/L_\mathrm{s}`$ ratio is simply

$$B=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}5}U_{\mathrm{ext}}^{1/2}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }}{(L_\mathrm{c}/L_\mathrm{s})^{1/2}}\mathrm{G}.$$
(6)
Using Eqs. 3 and 6 we can then constrain the values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`B`$ which minimize the total bulk power and at the same time ensure the required Compton over synchrotron luminosity ratio. Note that $`L_\mathrm{B}\mathrm{\Gamma }^4`$ while $`L_{\mathrm{p},\mathrm{e}}\delta ^4`$.

On the other hand, the Compton scattered radiation field can be dominated by synchrotron photons. Clearly, this would be favoured (for a given $`B`$) at low values of the bulk speed, such that the role of the external photons (i.e. their comoving energy density) is diminished in favour of the synchrotron ones (Sikora, Begelman & Rees 1994). In such situation the Compton dominance is given by

$`{\displaystyle \frac{L_\mathrm{c}}{L_\mathrm{s}}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{cR^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{L_\mathrm{s}}{\delta ^4B^2}},`$ (7)
which leads to a value for the magnetic field

$$B=8.2\times 10^6\frac{L_\mathrm{s}^{1/2}}{(L_\mathrm{c}/L_\mathrm{s})^{1/2}R\delta ^2}\mathrm{G},$$
(8)
resulting in $`L_\mathrm{B}\mathrm{\Gamma }^2\delta ^4`$ and $`L_{\mathrm{p},\mathrm{e}}\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$.

Note that the dependence of $`L_{\mathrm{p},\mathrm{e}}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{B}`$ with respect to the bulk Lorentz factor is radically different for these two possible origins of the high energy component. In the following we derive the minimum total power self–consistently, by taking into account which radiative process dominates for different values of $`B`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$.

## 3 Application to PKS 0637–752

Consider the specific case of PKS 0637–752, for which we have information on both the sub-pc and the extended jet.

In Celotti et al. (2001) the spectrum of the X–ray knot WK7.8 was successfully fitted by adopting a one zone, homogeneous synchrotron and inverse Compton model and assuming relativistic bulk motion. As mentioned in the introduction, this was the key to explaining the strong X–ray emission (because the CMB is seen in the comoving frame boosted by the factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$ and thus dominates over the locally produced synchrotron energy density, in turn enhancing the resulting X–ray emission). If the knot were not moving relativistically, many more leptons would be required to produced the observed X–rays, since in this case: i) the flux would not be beamed and the intrinsic emitted luminosity would be larger; ii) the CMB would not be seen boosted and the inverse Compton process on external photons would be less favoured.

Specifically, the model parameters adopted by Celotti et al. (2001) for the knot emission of this source assumed a bulk Lorentz factor $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=14`$, a viewing angle $`\theta =5^{}`$ and a source dimension $`R=10^{22}`$cm. Note that the emitting region is resolved in the X–ray images and thus $`R`$ is not a free parameter. Also the viewing angle is limited by the VSOP observation of superluminal motion, but only to be $`\theta <6^{}`$ at the pc scale; as radio maps do not show any bending of the jet between the pc and $`>100`$ kpc scales, we assume the large scale jet to be at a similar viewing angle.

The average $`\gamma `$, $`\gamma ^2`$ derived by the spectral fitting are reasonably well constrained by the spectral slope and by interpreting the optical flux as due to synchrotron (this limits the maximum lepton energy $`\gamma _{\mathrm{max}}`$) and the X–rays as due to inverse Compton off the CMB. This latter constraint limits the minimum Lorentz factor of the distribution, $`\gamma _{\mathrm{min}}`$, to values smaller than $``$30, thus reducing the (usually large) uncertainty on the total power associated with this parameter. Note that although the particle distribution is also a function of the assumed $`B`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, this dependence has an almost negligible effect on the power estimates In constructing Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, we have however taken into account the dependence of $`\gamma ^2`$ on $`B`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ by appropriately scaling in order to have the correct observed synchrotron peak frequency.

From all the above parameters we estimated the powers discussed in the previous section for the knot WK7.8 of PKS 0637–752. The main point to be stressed is that the total power (dominated by $`L_\mathrm{p}`$) has a minimum for values of the Lorentz factor extremely close to that determined by the spectral fit ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }=11`$ vs $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=14`$).

This applies of course for an ordinary e–p plasma as $`L_\mathrm{p}`$ is calculated assuming an equal number of protons and emitting electrons. At this minimum the contribution of the Poynting flux is smaller (by a factor $``$10) than $`L_\mathrm{p}`$ and close to equipartition with the kinetic power associated with the emitting particles. Indeed in the case of an e± plasma, the total minimum is reached for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }10`$ at the equipartition between $`L_\mathrm{B}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{e}`$.

Given the relative freedom on the viewing angle and the fact that a decrease in $`\theta `$ leads to a lowering of the total required power, we tried to find independent estimates of $`L_{\mathrm{tot}}`$. In particular we considered the correlation found by Rawlings & Saunders (1991) between the luminosity in the narrow line emission and the power required for jets to supply the extended lobe energy in their lifetime. From the luminosity in $`[OIII]`$ (Tadhunter et al. 1993) we were able to estimate – following Rawlings & Saunders’ prescription – the total luminosity in narrow lines $`L_{\mathrm{NLR}}5\times 10^{44}`$ erg s-1. According to the above correlation this corresponds to $`L_{\mathrm{tot}}10^{47}`$ erg s-1, although the correlation has (large!) uncertainties, and no energy other than that associated with the relativistic emitting particles in the radio lobes is assumed.

Consequently we explored the possibility of a viewing angle smaller than $`5^{}`$. In particular we report here the case of $`\theta =3^{}`$, which roughly corresponds to a minimum power similar to that determined from the lobe energy content and line luminosity. The results are graphically displayed in Fig. 2. Similarly to the case already discussed the minimum value of the total power is reached for a bulk Lorentz factor extremely close to that inferred independently from the spectral fit (which required $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=15`$ and therefore almost the same $`B`$–field as before but a smaller intrinsic luminosity). In this case $`L_\mathrm{p}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{B}`$ are closer to equipartition and about a factor 8 lower than for $`\theta =5^{}`$.

We also considered analogous estimates for the core (blazar) component of PKS 0637–752, assuming $`\theta =3^{}`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=18`$, $`R=2.5\times 10^{16}`$ cm, $`L_{\mathrm{BLR}}=10^{45}`$ erg s-1, $`R_{\mathrm{BLR}}`$ 1 pc, $`B=2.2`$ G, resulting in $`U_{\mathrm{ext}}0.1`$ and $`U_\mathrm{B}0.2`$ erg cm-3. Results are shown in Fig. 3. No consistent solution can be found at low $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, where the dissipated power exceeds the total power carried by the jet. In addition, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$$`\stackrel{>}{}`$18 is implied by the observed superluminal motion. Close to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }18`$, the total power (once again dominated by $`L_\mathrm{p}`$) presents a flattening (not really a minimum) at a value similar to that on extended scales and again for a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ close to that inferred from the spectral fit ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }=18`$), and not far from equipartition of the magnetic field and lepton components.

The two figures (2 and 3) also show in the upper panels the corresponding mass fluxes $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{p}`$, estimated assuming one proton per lepton, and the Doppler factors. Again on both scales a minimum in $`\dot{M}_\mathrm{p}`$ is reached close to the minimum power condition and corresponds to values $`0.10.2M_{}`$ yr-1. This can be compared with the accreting mass flux (note that at small scales entrainment is not likely to be substantial). If we consider a covering factor $`0.01`$ of the narrow line emitting gas, the corresponding ionizing (disc) emission requires an accretion flow of $`10M_{}\eta _{0.1}^1`$ yr-1 for a radiative efficiency of $`\eta =0.1`$: only about 1 per cent of the mass would need to be channeled and accelerated in jets to ultra–relativistic speeds.

## 4 Discussion

We have considered the implications of observed spectral quantities, namely the synchrotron (low energy) and inverse Compton (high energy) components which dominate the emission of extragalactic jets. Besides the total radiated luminosity, these quantities allow to estimate the corresponding bulk kinetic and magnetic powers as functions of the assumed bulk Lorentz factor.

In particular it is possible to perform such estimates also for large scales jets which has been seen by $`Chandra`$. We have therefore analysed the case of PKS 0637–752, for which broad band emission has been observed from both the blazar (sub-pc) and the extended jet.

For the range of observing angles consistent with superluminal constraints we find that: a) the total power is minimized for relativistic bulk Lorentz factor larger than 10; b) the ‘fitting’ of the observed spectral energy distribution implies physical parameters which lie close to this minimum in the total power. These findings somehow lend support to the hypothesis of highly relativistic motion on the hundred–kiloparsec scale in jets, given the already high values of the estimated powers, which appear to be close to the limits of the proposed power production mechanisms in AGN. Note that the possible range of total power spans about three and the ratio $`L_\mathrm{p}/L_\mathrm{B}`$ about eight orders of magnitude. Furthermore even the minimum power inferred (referring only to the non–thermal emitting jet plasma) is of order 1047 erg s-1, pushing (once again) the requirement for any powering mechanism.

Within the acceptable range of viewing angles, a specific choice of $`\theta 3^{}`$ provides absolute values for the total power which well agree with both $`L_{\mathrm{tot}}`$ derived on sub–pc scale and the jet power estimated from the lobe energy content (but note that this ‘solution’ implies to double the already large linear dimension of the jet).

In other words it appears that jets are in the most energetically economic conditions for the given emitted radiation and spectrum, i.e. that there is a close link between the total power, the dimension, the particle distribution and the intensity of the field. Despite of this the inferred radiative efficiency turns out to be only of the order $`3\times 10^3`$$`10^4`$, for the nuclear and extended regions, respectively. It is worthwhile to point out that such low radiative efficiencies in the kpc–scale jet, and their higher values on smaller scales, may be a natural outcome of the internal–shock blazars scenario (e.g. Ghisellini 2000; Spada et al. 2001).

In these conditions the mass flux in the jet corresponds to about one per cent of the mass flux accreting on the central source (for $`\eta 0.1`$), as deduced from the luminosity of the narrow lines.

It is relevant to comment on the possibility of an e± dominated jet. Solutions close to the minimum total power for ultra–relativistic large (and small) scale jets can also be obtained. Furthermore such solutions appear to be intriguingly close to equipartition values of $`L_\mathrm{e}`$ and $`L_\mathrm{B}`$. However, if the emission line luminosity is a measure of the lobe energetics, then $`L_\mathrm{e}+L_\mathrm{B}`$ is too small to power the radio lobe, implying a contribution from the proton component, thus limiting the maximum pair content to 5–6 pairs per proton.

On large scales the minimum power condition also corresponds to a situation of quasi–equipartition between the magnetic and kinetic power transported in the jet. It is therefore interesting to ask whether there is a simple and robust way for the particle bulk motion and the magnetic field components to reach it. Theoretical studies of relativistic hydromagnetic flows (e.g. Li, Chiueh & Begelman 1992; Begelman & Li 1994 and references therein) have shown that rough equipartition between particle (kinetic) and Poynting flux is indeed a quite natural outcome for reasonable assumptions for the boundary conditions, with Poynting flux gradually accelerating matter.

Clearly, various types of blazars present different spectral characteristics and radiated luminosities. We are already considering the implications for the total power involved obtained in the different cases (Ghisellini & Celotti 2001, in prep). A further analysis we intend to perform is on data relative to the extended emission from radio galaxies, in particular to estimate the energetics which might be associated with a slower moving (external) layer. A final point to be stressed concerning the recent and future $`Chandra`$ observations is that although the procedure for the determination of powers is similar for the small– and large–scale jets, the large–scale powers are much better determined because the energy density of the external radiation field is well known.

## 5 Acknowledgments

We thank the anonymous referee for useful comments which helped clarifying the paper. The Italian MURST is acknowledged for financial support (AC).

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text:
# DECIPHERING THE FOLDING KINETICS OF TRANSMEMBRANE HELICAL PROTEINS

## I Methods

We represent the residues of the membrane protein as single beads centered in their $`C_\alpha `$ positions. Adjacent beads are tethered together into a polymer chain by a harmonic potential with the average $`C_\alpha C_\alpha `$ distance along the chain equal to $`3.8\AA `$. The membrane is described simply by a slab of width $`w=z_{\mathrm{max}}z_{\mathrm{min}}=26\AA `$. Two non-bonded residues $`(i,j)`$ form a contact if their distance is less then $`6.5\AA `$. In the study of globular proteins, the topology of the native state is encoded in the contact map giving the pairs $`(i,j)`$ of non-bonded residues that are in contact. Here, in addition, the locations of such pairs with respect to the membrane becomes crucial. The contacts are divided into three classes: membrane contacts where both $`i`$ and $`j`$ residues are inside the membrane, interface contacts with $`i`$ and $`j`$ in the interface region  outside the membrane and surface contacts with one residue inside the membrane and the other outside. Thus a given protein conformation can have a native contact but improperly placed with respect to the membrane (misplaced native contact). The crucial interaction potential between non-bonded residues $`(i,j)`$ is taken to be a modified Lennard-Jones 12-10 potential:

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(i,j)\left[5\left(\frac{d_{ij}}{r_{ij}}\right)^{12}6\left(\frac{d_{ij}}{r_{ij}}\right)^{10}\right]+5\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(i,j)\left(\frac{d_{ij}}{r_{ij}}\right)^{12}.$$
(1)
The matrices $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(i,j)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(i,j)`$ encode the topology of the TMP in the following way: if $`(i,j)`$ is not a contact in the native state $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(i,j)=0,\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(i,j)=1`$; if $`(i,j)`$ is a contact in the native state but not at the proper location (i.e. a misplaced contact) $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(i,j)=ϵ_1,\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(i,j)=0`$; if $`(i,j)`$ is a native state contact in the proper region $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(i,j)=ϵ,\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(i,j)=0`$. This model is intended to describe the folding process in the interface and in the membrane region. Our interaction potential (similar in spirit to a well known model for globular proteins (see also other approaches that model helix formation )) assigns two values to the energy associated with the formation of a native contact, $`ϵ`$ and $`ϵ_1`$.

The model captures the tendency to form native contacts. In addition, in order to account for the effective interactions between the membrane and the protein, the model assigns a lower energy, $`ϵ`$, to the contact which occurs in the same region as in the native state structure compared to $`ϵ_1`$ when the contact is formed but in the wrong region of space. This feature proves to be crucial in determining the mechanism of insertion of the protein across the membrane in order to place all native contacts in the same regions as in the native state. Even though the interaction potential is simple and intuitively appealing, it is not possible to simply guess (without detailed calculations) the folding mechanism and quantitatively determine the probability of occurrence of the various folding pathways.

When $`ϵ=ϵ_1`$, the protein does not recognize the presence of the interface-membrane region and the full rotational symmetry is restored (the system behaves like a globular protein). The difference in the parameters ($`ϵϵ_1`$) controls the amount of tertiary structure formation outside the membrane. When the difference is small, the protein assembles almost completely outside the membrane and the insertion process would be diffusion limited. Our results are independent of the precise values of the energy parameters $`ϵ`$ and $`ϵ_1`$ ($`ϵ>ϵ_1`$) as long as they are not too close to each other.

We report here the results of simulations with $`ϵ_1=0.1`$ and $`ϵ=1`$. $`r_{ij}`$ and $`d_{ij}`$ are the distance between the two residues $`(i,j)`$ and their distance in the native configuration, respectively. In order to account for the chirality of the TMP, a potential for the pseudodihedral angle $`\alpha _i`$ between the $`C_\alpha `$ atoms in a helix corresponding to four successive locations is added which biases the helices to be in their native state structure.

The thermodynamics and the kinetics of the model were studied by a Monte Carlo method for polymer chains allowing for local deformations. The efficiency of the program (usually low for continuum calculations) has been increased by full use of the link cell technique  and by the multiple Markov chain method, a new sampling scheme, which has been proven to be particulary efficient in exploring the low temperature phase diagram for polymers . In our simulation $`20`$ different temperatures ranging from $`T=2`$ to $`T=0.17`$ have been studied. The free energy is calculated by reweighting the different temperatures with the Ferrenberg-Swendsen  algorithm.

The free energy difference $`_B_A`$ between two states A and B has been estimated as the reversible work that has to be done in order to go from A to B. Hence, denoting by $`𝐱\left(\lambda \right)`$ a reaction coordinate connecting A and B (for $`\lambda =0`$ and $`\lambda =1`$ the system is in A and B respectively), and by $`_\lambda =\delta (𝐱𝐱\left(\lambda \right))`$, the canonical average at fixed reaction coordinate,

$$_B_A=_0^1𝑑\lambda 𝐅_\lambda \frac{d𝐱\left(\lambda \right)}{d\lambda }\underset{i}{}𝐅_\lambda \frac{d𝐱\left(\lambda \right)}{d\lambda }|_{\lambda =\frac{\lambda _i+\lambda _{i+1}}{2}}\left(\lambda _{i+1}\lambda _i\right)$$
(2)
where $`𝐅`$ is the force and $`\left\{\lambda _i,i=1,\mathrm{}\right\}`$ is a suitably dense partition of the interval $`(0,1)`$. The average value $`𝐅_{\lambda _i}`$ at each $`\lambda _i`$ is computed by a long (more than 5000 steps) Monte Carlo run performed with dynamics satisfying the constraint $`𝐱=𝐱\left(\lambda _i\right)`$ . The free energy differences obtained with this method are accurate to within $``$ 0.1$`T_C`$ for the various states whereas the free energy barriers are accurate within $``$ 0.5$`T_C`$ . This error takes into account possible hysteresis effects due to the finite simulation time.

Acknowldgements

We thank Cristian Micheletti for fruitful discussions and Steve White for a critical reading of the manuscript and for many enlightening suggestions. This work was supported by INFM (PAIS project), MURST-COFIN99, NASA and the Donors of The Petroleum Research Fund administered by The American Physical Society.

## II Figure legends

Figure 1: Structure and thermodynamics of the helical transmembrane protein.
a) Ribbon representation of the two-helix fragment of bacteriorhodopsin formed by the first $`66`$ amino-acids. The part inside the membrane (determined by using the neural network learning algorithm available at http://www.embl-heidelberg.de/Services/sander/predictprotein/) is shown in red, the part above (below) the membrane in blue (green). b) Average equilibrium fraction of native contacts outside, $`q_b`$ ($``$), inside, $`q_m`$ ($`\mathrm{}`$), and across, $`q_s`$ ($`\mathrm{}`$), the membrane as a function of the temperature $`T`$. All these quantities are expressed in energy unit of $`ϵ`$ (see Methods). The folding transition temperature $`T_C`$ when all the curves cross the value $`1/2`$ is around 0.6. This value is in accord with the temperature of the heat capacity maxima.

Figure 2: Schematic representation of states encountered by non-constitutive proteins during the folding process.
In a) the red cylinders denote $`\alpha `$-helices that reside within the membrane in the native state. The region inside the membrane is in turquoise whereas the rest represents the interface region  in which the folding process starts. State $`U`$ denotes the denatured state of the protein, $`HO`$ is a state in which the helices have been formed but are not yet inside the membrane whereas $`HI`$ corresponds to a similar state but with the helices completely embedded in the membrane without any inter-helical contacts. Usually the helices form and enter into the membrane separately. $`HV`$ denotes an obligatory intermediate and $`N`$ depicts the native state. The state $`\{I\}`$ represents an ensemble of long lived conformations in which helices are formed inside the membrane with several inter-helical contacts, but with the two $`\alpha `$-helices still incorrectly positioned. This conformations differ in term of packing efficiency of the helices. The state $`\{I\}`$ is not obligatory for the folding kinetics. In b) the schematic pathways to the native state are shown. In the most directed path, the entropy decreases on going from $`U`$ to $`N`$. From $`HI`$ to $`HV`$ the entropy loss of one helix is not compensated by a corresponding energy gain until both helices become vertical. This is the principal origin of the high free energy barrier between the state $`HI`$ and the native state.

Figure 3: Typical time dependence of different parameters as a function of the Monte-Carlo steps for the pathway $`UHIHVN`$. Fraction of native contacts inside the membrane (a), normalized z-coordinate of the center of mass of the protein (with respect to that of the native state conformation) (b) and overall fraction of native helical contacts (c). Each Monte-Carlo step corresponds to 50000 attempted local deformations. The transition from state $`HI`$ to state $`HV`$ is signalled by a sharp jump of the position of the center of mass. Note that there is no perceptible sign of this transition in terms of newly formed native contacts. Most of the helical contacts are formed in the early stages of the folding. This fraction does not significantly increase until helices correctly assemble and the inter-helical contacts are formed. The $`HVN`$ transition is reached by a progressive zippering of the horizontal and vertical helices. This zippering is usually very quick (few MC steps) and is only slightly slowed down (see the plateau corresponding to $`q_m0.9`$ in a) when the trajectory passes through somewhat deformed conformations. (d) Protein conformations at different times during the folding. The colours red, green and blue have the same significance as in Figure 1a with the grey bonds being ones crossing the membrane.

Figure 4: Distribution of the fraction of native contacts inside the membrane
(a) and of the normalized $`z`$-coordinate of the center of mass ($`Rz=\frac{z^{cm}}{z_{nat}^{cm}}`$) (b). The data were obtained using 40 independent kinetic simulations with pathway $`UHIHVN`$. The grey scale distribution indicates the probabilities at given times: darker points denote higher probability.

Figure 5: Free energy profiles along three reaction coordinates at T=0.85 TC. The continuous lines are spline fits to the free energy data (crosses) . To obtain free energy differences between two states we estimate the reversible work that has be done to go from one state to the other. For this purpose, we fix the z coordinate of a specific residue in order to compute the canonical average of the force and then apply eq. (2) (See Methods). The free energy of the native state is defined to be equal to 0. (a) Free energy as a function of the $`z`$-coordinate of the 58-th residue ($`z=0`$ corresponds to the middle of the membrane) starting from HV; this forces the second helix to cross the membrane as the protein goes from HV to N; the local minimum at z$``$20 corresponds to a state topologically equivalent to HV, with the helix containing the 58-th residue fully formed on the membrane interface but without any contact with the first helix (in HV some of the inter-helices contacts are already formed); (b) the 5-th residue is translocated across the membrane with the protein starting from state HI and proceeding to HV; (c) the same as in (b), but the initial state is I (see Fig. 2-a)


text:
# I Introduction

## I Introduction

The cosmological constant has evoked much controversy in both astronomy and particle physics communities. Recent observations of high-redshift supernovae seem to suggest that the global geometry of the universe may be affected by a positive cosmological constant. And all kinds of cosmological observations, such as Cosmic Microwave Background radiation, redshifts of the supernovae and quasars, give a very tiny vacuum energy density as $`10^{48}\mathrm{GeV}^4`$ .

In particle physics, the vacuum is used to mean the ground state of quantum fields. A relativistic field may be thought of as a collection of harmonic oscillators of all possible frequencies, and each possible mode devotes $`\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{}\omega `$ energy to the vacuum. In this way, particle physicists get a huge vacuum energy density as $`2\times 10^{71}\mathrm{GeV}^4`$, which is over $`120`$ orders of magnitude in excess of the value allowed by cosmological observations. It is a more challenging problem to explain why the cosmological constant is so small but non-zero, than to build theoretical models where it exactly vanishes.

About twenty years ago, a number of authors discovered that Anti-de Sitter (AdS) spacetime generically arose as ground state in supergravity theory, which at the time was considered to be among the most promising candidates for quantum gravity. The interest on AdS spacetime was revived by a conjectured duality between string theory in the bulk of AdS and conformally invariant field theory (CFT) living on the boundary of AdS. The AdS/CFT correspondence gives an explicit relation between Yang-Mills theory and string theory. More recently, there has been a renewed interest in AdS spacetime since progresses in theories of extra dimensions present us with the enticing possibility to explain some long-standing particle physics problem by geometrical means.

The theoretical approaches to the cosmological constant problem can briefly be classified into three categories: (1)anthropic principle, (2)the “quintessence”, (3)fundamental partical physics and basic spacetime topology. In many scenarios, the mean value of the vacuum energy is positive, and the vacuum energy is related to the gravitational potential, or the fluctuation of the vacuum, or the wormholes which are described by string quantum cosmology.

It is no doubt that these studies are fruitful and helpful to make more progress in understanding the cosmological constant problem. However, it seems far away from achieving a natural and self-consistent explanation, which can be checked directly by the update astronomical observations.

In this Letter, we calculate the energy density of vacuum by taking account of different massive scalar fields in AdS spacetime. It is found that the mass spectrum of a scalar field in AdS spacetime is discrete because of a natural boundary condition. The results match well with the observed cosmological constant.

## II Equations of motion

AdS spacetime can be described as a submanifold of a pseudo-Euclidean five-dimensional embedding space with Cartesian coordinates $`\xi ^a`$ and metric $`g_{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{diag}(1,1,1,1,1)`$,

$`(\xi ^0)^2(\xi ^1)^2(\xi ^2)^2(\xi ^3)^2+(\xi ^5)^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\lambda }},`$ (1)
$`ds^2=(d\xi ^0)^2(d\xi ^1)^2(d\xi ^2)^2(d\xi ^3)^2`$ $`+`$ $`(d\xi ^5)^2,`$ (2)
where $`\lambda `$ is a constant ($`\lambda <0`$). It is obvious that the symmetry group of AdS is the conformal group $`SO(3,2)`$. Hence, we can define the 5-dimensional angular momentum of a free particle in AdS,

$$\begin{array}{c}L^{\mu \nu }=m_0\left(\xi ^\mu \frac{d\xi ^\nu }{ds}\xi ^\nu \frac{d\xi ^\mu }{ds}\right),\hfill \end{array}$$
(3)
the commutation relations satisfied by the ten infinitesimal generators are

$`[L_{\alpha \beta },L_{\mu \nu }]=i(g_{\alpha \mu }L_{\beta \nu }+g_{\beta \nu }L_{\alpha \mu }g_{\alpha \nu }L_{\beta \mu }g_{\beta \mu }L_{\alpha \nu })`$ , (4)
$`\alpha ,\beta ,\mu ,\nu =0,1,2,3,5`$ . (5)
It is convenient to introduce the Beltrami coordinates $`\{x^i\}(i=0,1,2,3)`$ as

$`\sqrt{\lambda }x^i`$ $`=`$ $`(\xi ^5)^1\xi ^i.`$ (6)
In terms of the Beltrami coordinates, AdS is of the form

$`\sigma (x)=1\lambda \eta _{ij}x^ix^j>0,\eta _{ij}=\mathrm{diag}(1,1,1,1).`$ (7)
The Beltrami metric can be deduced directly

$`ds^2`$ $`=`$ $`(\eta _{ij}\sigma ^1+\lambda \eta _{ir}\eta _{js}x^rx^s\sigma ^2)dx^idx^j.`$ (8)
In this coordinates, ten group generators $`L_{\mu \nu }`$ are simply classified into two categories, $`L_{ij}`$ correspond to the generators of the rotation group $`SO(3)`$, $`P_k`$ generate parallel displacements. Thus, $`L_{ij}`$ and $`P_k`$ can be respectively defined as the angular momentum and the momentum 4-vector in the Beltrami coordinates

$$\begin{array}{c}P^k=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\lambda }}L^{5k}=m_0\sigma ^1\frac{dx^i}{ds},\hfill \\ L^{ij}=m_0\left(x^iP^jx^jP^i\right)=m_0\sigma ^1\left(x^i\frac{dx^j}{ds}x^j\frac{dx^i}{ds}\right).\hfill \end{array}$$
(9)
Einstein’s mass formula in AdS is of the form (with $`\mathrm{}=c=1`$)

$`m_0^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{|\lambda |}{2}}L^{\mu \nu }L_{\mu \nu }=E^2\stackrel{}{P}^2+\lambda \stackrel{}{L}^2,`$ (10)
$`E`$ $`=`$ $`P^0,\stackrel{}{P}=(P^1,P^2,P^3),`$ (11)
The Beltrami metric is invariant under the coordinate transformations

$`x^i\overline{x}^i=\sigma ^{1/2}(a)(1\lambda \eta _{rs}a^rx^s)^1(x^ja^j)D_j^i,`$ (12)
$`D_j^i=L_j^i+\lambda \eta _{kl}a^la^i\left[\sigma (a)+\sigma ^{1/2}(a)\right]^1L_j^k,`$ (13)
$`(L_j^i)_{i,j=0,1,2,3}SO(3,1),a^i\mathrm{are}\mathrm{constants}.`$ (14)
In the coordinate $`(\xi ^0,x^\alpha )`$, the $`SO(3,2)`$ invariant metric can be written as

$$ds^2=\frac{1}{1+\lambda \xi ^0\xi ^0}d\xi ^0d\xi ^0(1+\lambda \xi ^0\xi ^0)\frac{d𝐱(I+\lambda 𝐱^{}𝐱)^1d𝐱^{}}{1+\lambda \mathrm{𝐱𝐱}^{}},$$
(15)
where the vector $`𝐱`$ denotes $`(x^1,x^2,x^3)`$ and $`𝐱^{}`$ the transpose of the vector $`𝐱`$.
In the spherical coordinate $`(x^1,x^2,x^3)(\rho ,\theta ,\varphi )`$, the $`SO(3,2)`$ invariant metric (15) is of the form

$$ds^2=\frac{1}{1+\lambda \xi ^0\xi ^0}d\xi ^0d\xi ^0(1+\lambda \xi ^0\xi ^0)\left[\frac{d\rho ^2}{(1+\lambda \rho ^2)^2}+\frac{\rho ^2}{(1+\lambda \rho ^2)}\left(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\varphi ^2\right)\right].$$
(16)
The Penrose diagram of AdS shows that there is a horizon in the coordinate $`(\xi ^0,𝐱)`$. We limit us in the region of $`|\xi ^0|<\frac{1}{\sqrt{\lambda }}`$. In this region of AdS, we can introduce a timelike variable $`\tau `$ as

$$\sqrt{\lambda }\xi ^0\mathrm{sin}(\sqrt{\lambda }\tau ).$$
(17)
Then we have a Robertson-Walker-like metric

$`ds^2=d\tau ^2R^2(\tau )[(1+\lambda \rho ^2)^2d\rho ^2+(1+\lambda \rho ^2)^1\rho ^2(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\varphi ^2)],`$ (18)
where we have used the notation $`R(\tau )=\mathrm{cos}(\sqrt{\lambda }\tau )`$.
The equation of motion for a massive scalar field in AdS spacetime is of the form

$$\begin{array}{c}[\frac{1}{R^3}\frac{}{\tau }\left(R^3\frac{}{\tau }\right)\frac{(1+\lambda \rho ^2)^2}{R^2\rho ^2}\frac{}{\rho }\left(\rho ^2\frac{}{\rho }\right)\hfill \\ \frac{1+\lambda \rho ^2}{R^2\rho ^2}(\frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}\theta }\frac{}{\theta }\left(\mathrm{sin}\theta \frac{}{\theta }\right)\frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }\frac{^2}{\varphi ^2})+m_0^2]\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau ;\rho ,\theta ,\varphi )=0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(19)
## III  Discrete mass spectrum

We can solve the equation of motion, which was obtained in the last section, for a massive scalar field by writing

$`\mathrm{\Phi }(\tau ;\rho ,\theta ,\varphi )`$ $`=`$ $`T(\tau )U(\rho )Y_{lm}(\theta ,\varphi ).`$ (20)
The reduced equations of motion in terms of $`T(\tau )`$, $`U(\rho )`$ and $`Y_{lm}(\theta ,\varphi )`$ are of the form

$`{\displaystyle \frac{^2U}{\rho ^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\rho }}{\displaystyle \frac{U}{\rho }}+{\displaystyle \frac{k^2}{(1+\lambda \rho ^2)^2}}U{\displaystyle \frac{l(l+1)}{\rho ^2(1+\lambda \rho ^2)}}U=0,`$ (21)
$`R^2{\displaystyle \frac{d^2T}{d\tau ^2}}+3R{\displaystyle \frac{dR}{d\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{dT}{d\tau }}+(m_0^2R^2+k^2)T=0,`$ (22)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{^2Y_{lm}}{\theta ^2}}+\mathrm{ctg}\theta {\displaystyle \frac{Y_{lm}}{\theta }}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }}{\displaystyle \frac{^2Y_{lm}}{\varphi ^2}}+l(l+1)Y_{lm}=0.`$ (23)
It is obvious that the solutions of the angular part of equation of motion are the spherical harmonic functions $`Y_{lm}(\theta ,\varphi )`$.

The radial function determines the evolution of the model universe. For convenience, setting $`\lambda =a^2`$ and $`\varrho =a^1\rho `$, we can rewrite the radial equation as

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^2U(\varrho )}{d\varrho ^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\varrho }}{\displaystyle \frac{dU(\varrho )}{d\varrho }}+\left[{\displaystyle \frac{k^2a^2}{(1\varrho ^2)^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{l(l+1)}{\varrho ^2(1\varrho ^2)}}\right]U(\varrho )`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (24)
It is obvious that, at $`\varrho =0,\pm 1`$, the radial function is singular. One can set $`U(\varrho )`$ as following

$`U(\varrho )`$ $`=`$ $`\varrho ^l(1\varrho ^2)^{\mu /2}F(\varrho ),`$ (25)
where $`\mu `$ is a solution of the index equation $`\mu (\mu 2)+k^2a^2=0`$. $`F(\varrho )`$ is a solution of the hypergeometric equation

$`(1\varrho ^2){\displaystyle \frac{d^2F}{d\varrho ^2}}+\left[{\displaystyle \frac{2(l+1)}{\varrho }}2(l+\mu +1)\varrho \right]{\displaystyle \frac{dF}{d\varrho }}+\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}\left(\mu +l+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\right)^2\right]F=0.`$ (26)
Therefore, we get the radial function of the form

$`U(\rho )=`$ $`C`$ $`({\displaystyle \frac{\rho }{a}})^l\left(1{\displaystyle \frac{\rho ^2}{a^2}}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{1k^2a^2}}`$ (27)
$`\times `$ $`{}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(l+\sqrt{1k^2a^2}+2),{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(l+\sqrt{1k^2a^2}+1),l+{\displaystyle \frac{3}{2}};{\displaystyle \frac{\rho ^2}{a^2}}),`$ (28)
where $`C`$ is the normalization constant.

In terms of the variable $`\zeta (\mathrm{sin}\frac{\tau }{a})`$, the timelike evolution function $`T`$ satisfies the equation

$`(1\zeta \zeta ){\displaystyle \frac{d^2T}{d\zeta d\zeta }}4\zeta {\displaystyle \frac{dT}{d\zeta }}+\left(a^2m_0^2+{\displaystyle \frac{a^2k^2}{1\zeta \zeta }}\right)T`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (29)
By introducing $`T(\zeta )=(1\zeta \zeta )^{\frac{1}{2}}P(\zeta )`$, we transform the timelike evolution equation as the standard associated Legendre equation

$`(1\zeta \zeta ){\displaystyle \frac{d^2P}{d\zeta d\zeta }}2\zeta {\displaystyle \frac{dP}{d\zeta }}+\left(a^2m_0^2+2{\displaystyle \frac{1a^2k^2}{1\zeta \zeta }}\right)P`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (30)
Therefore, the solutions of the timelike evolution equation can be presented as

$`T_1(\tau )`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{cos}\frac{\tau }{a}}}P_{\frac{1}{2}+\sqrt{\frac{1}{4}+m_0^2a^2+2}}^{\sqrt{1k^2a^2}}\left(\mathrm{sin}{\displaystyle \frac{\tau }{a}}\right),`$ (31)
$`T_2(\tau )`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{cos}\frac{\tau }{a}}}Q_{\frac{1}{2}+\sqrt{\frac{1}{4}+m_0^2a^2+2}}^{\sqrt{1k^2a^2}}\left(\mathrm{sin}{\displaystyle \frac{\tau }{a}}\right),`$ (32)
where $`P_I^N(\zeta )`$ and $`Q_I^N(\zeta )`$ are associated Legendre functions. Because $`Q_I^N(\zeta )`$ become infinite on the boundary $`|\xi ^0|=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\lambda }}`$ , we would ignore $`Q_I^N(\zeta )`$. The natural boundary condition of $`P_I^N(\zeta )`$ on $`|\xi ^0|=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\lambda }}`$ requires $`I,N`$ to be integers. This gives the discrete mass spectrum of scalar fields in AdS spacetime

$$\begin{array}{c}a^2m_0^2+2=I(I+1),\hfill \\ k^2a^2+1=N^2,|N|I.\hfill \end{array}$$
(33)
The wave functions of scalar fields in AdS spacetime can be written as following

$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{\Phi }_{NIlm}(\tau ;\rho ,\theta ,\varphi )U_{Nl}(\rho )(\mathrm{cos}\frac{\tau }{a})^1P_I^N\left(\mathrm{sin}\frac{\tau }{a}\right)Y_{lm}(\theta ,\varphi ).\hfill \end{array}$$
(34)
In order to get a scalar field theory on AdS spacetime, we now construct a Hilbert space by defining the inner product on the whole AdS manifold

$$(\mathrm{\Phi }_{N^{}I^{}l^{}m^{}},\mathrm{\Phi }_{NIlm})=_V\mathrm{\Phi }_{N^{}I^{}l^{}m^{}}^{}\mathrm{\Phi }_{NIlm}R^3(\tau )(1+\lambda \rho ^2)^2\rho ^2\mathrm{sin}\theta d\tau d\rho d\theta d\varphi .$$
(35)
Because of the orthogonality of the associated Legendre functions $`P_I^N(\zeta )`$ and the spherical harmonic functions $`Y_{lm}(\theta ,\varphi )`$, these $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{NIlm}(\tau ;\rho ,\theta ,\varphi )`$ form a complete orthonormal basis of the Hilbert space

$`(\mathrm{\Phi }_{N^{}I^{}l^{}m^{}},\mathrm{\Phi }_{NIlm})=\delta _{N^{}N}\delta _{I^{}I}\delta _{l^{}l}\delta _{m^{}m}.`$ (36)
## IV Cosmological constant

During the last three decades, several approaches of quantizing fields in AdS had been acquired. Since AdS is a homogeneous space of the conformal group $`SO(3,2)`$ , Fronsdal adopted a group-theoretic approach to get canonical quantization of fields. The covariant self-consistent quantization scheme was devised by considering the information variance through AdS timelike spatial infinity. For our aim in this paper, we just treat the AdS timelike spatial infinity as a natural boundary constraint to obtain the discrete Hamiltonian eigenvalues. In this case, a Hermitian free scalar field operator is defined by

$`\mathrm{\Phi }(x)={\displaystyle \underset{N,I,l,m}{}}\left(\mathrm{\Phi }_{NIlm}(x)\widehat{a}_{NIlm}+\mathrm{\Phi }_{NIlm}^{}(x)\widehat{a}_{NIlm}^+\right),`$ (37)
where the sign $`x`$ denotes the Beltrami coordinates $`(x^0,x^1,x^2,x^3)`$, and the operators $`\widehat{a}_{NIlm}`$, $`\widehat{a}_{N^{}I^{}l^{}m^{}}^+`$ satisfy

$`[\widehat{a}_{NIlm},\widehat{a}_{N^{}I^{}l^{}m^{}}]`$ $`=`$ $`[\widehat{a}_{NIlm}^+,\widehat{a}_{N^{}I^{}l^{}m^{}}^+]=0,`$ (38)
$`[\widehat{a}_{NIlm},\widehat{a}_{N^{}I^{}l^{}m^{}}^+]`$ $`=`$ $`\delta _{NN^{}}\delta _{II^{}}\delta _{ll^{}}\delta _{mm^{}},`$ (39)
$`\widehat{a}_{NIlm}|0`$ $`=`$ $`0,|N,I,l,m=\widehat{a}_{NIlm}^+|0,`$ (40)
here $`|0`$ denotes the vacuum state. Thus, the $`\widehat{a}_{NIlm}`$ and $`\widehat{a}_{NIlm}^+`$ are the annihilation and creation operators on the Fock space, which is constructed as an infinite tensor product of the simple-harmonic-oscillator Hilbert spaces. In quantum field theory, the vacuum is used to mean the ground state of quantum fields. We can reasonably require that the ground states are spherically symmetric, i.e., $`l=m=0`$. Hence, the vacuum energy is simply the sum of ground energy of the states $`|NI00`$. The parameter $`k`$ in the Eq.(29) is a wave vector because the timelike evolution equation should reduce to the evolution equation in Minkowskian spacetime when $`|\lambda |0`$. Now we have an upper limitation on the quantum number $`N`$ $`(N^2=0,1)`$. According to (10), the ground state energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill E^2& =& m_0^2+k^2+\lambda l(l+1)\hfill \\ & =& m_0^2+k^2.\hfill \end{array}$$
(41)
In the case of continuous wave vector spectrum in Minkowskian spacetime, summing the ground state energy $`|\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{}\omega `$ up to a wave number cutoff $`\mathrm{\Lambda }m_0`$ yields a vacuum energy density,

$`\rho ={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle _0^\mathrm{\Lambda }}{\displaystyle \frac{4\pi k^2dk}{(2\pi )^3}}\sqrt{m_0^2+k^2}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }^4}{16\pi ^2}}.`$ (42)
If we believe general relativity up to the Planck scale, then we might take $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(8\pi G)^{\frac{1}{2}}`$, which would give

$`\rho 2^{10}\pi ^4G^2=2\times 10^{71}\mathrm{GeV}^4.`$ (43)
It shows that the energy density of vacuum got by the quantum field theory in Minkowskian spacetime is over $`120`$ orders of magnitude in excess of the value of astronomical observations.

As shown in the previous section, the natural boundary conditions at the points $`\xi ^0=\pm \frac{1}{\sqrt{\lambda }}`$ assure that the wavevector $`k`$ be discrete. Therefore, the integration in the formula (42) should be alternated by summation in this discrete energy Fock space. In fact, any scalar field of arbitrary mass $`m_0`$ gives contributions to the energy density of vacuum. Because the mass spectrum in the quantum field theory on Minkowskian spacetime is continuous, it is difficult to get a sum over different mass modes. Now a discrete mass spectrum has been obtained for scalar fields in AdS spacetime, thus we can sum the contributions of all scalar fields with different mass. We, therefore, get the energy density of AdS vacuum

$`\rho `$ $`=`$ $`2\pi {\displaystyle \underset{m_0}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{k}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{k^2}{(2\pi )^3}}\delta k\sqrt{m_0^2+k^2},`$ (44)
where $`\delta k=|k(N=1)k(N=0)|=\frac{1}{a}`$ is the wavevector difference of two eigen states. Equation (33) is used to get the energy density of vacuum as following

$`\rho ={\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi )^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{I=1}{\overset{I_{\mathrm{max}}}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{N=0}{\overset{1}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1N^2}{a^4}}\sqrt{I(I+1)N^21},`$ (45)
where $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$ is the cutoff of mass spectrum. We would estimate $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$ as the Planck scale, $`E_{\mathrm{Planck}}10^{19}`$GeV, which is widely accepted as a point where conventional field theory breaks down due to quantum gravitational effects. The maximal energy $`E_{\mathrm{max}}`$ will be the Planck energy corresponding to the cutoff $`I_{\mathrm{max}}`$,

$`E_{\mathrm{max}}=E_{\mathrm{Planck}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{a}}\sqrt{I_{\mathrm{max}}(I_{\mathrm{max}}+1)N^21},N=0.`$ (46)
In terms of the Planck energy, we obtain a relation of the energy density of vacuum with the radius $`a`$ of AdS spacetime

$`\rho ={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{(E_{\mathrm{Planck}})^2}{a^2}}.`$ (47)
The radius of AdS spacetime can be determined by the observed Hubble constant

$`a={\displaystyle \frac{1}{H_0}}.`$ (48)
Thus, we get the energy density of vacuum by the Equation (47)

$`\rho ={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{H_0^2}{G}}=3.63\times 10^{48}\mathrm{GeV}^4,`$ (49)
which is in good agreement with the present astronomical observational value. Furthermore, we acquire the cosmological constant

$`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }={\displaystyle \frac{8\pi G\rho }{3H_0^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3\pi }}.`$ (50)
What we obtain here is in agreement with the hints of the redshift observations of supernovae and quasars. References gave an upper limitation of the curvature $`\lambda `$ from the estimation of the universe age and the Hubble constant: $`|\lambda |10^{56}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. Our result is also in agreement with this upper limitation for the radius of AdS spacetime got by different ways.

## V Concluding remarks

Since de Sitter found the de Sitter solution of Einstein’s equation in 1917, de Sitter and anti-de Sitter spacetime has been studied extensively by physicists and astronomers. Recent developments in AdS physics include the AdS/CFT correspondence and theory of extra dimensions. In this paper, we try to give a new understanding to the long standing cosmological constant problem. We assumed that the topological structure of the whole universe is AdS spacetime. This is consistent with the Randall-Sundrum model, where a slice of five-dimensional AdS was used. We got a Robertson-Walker-like metric which keeps the spacelike submanifold of AdS invariant under the spacelike subgroup transformation $`SO(3)`$. Equations of motion for massive scalar fields were solved exactly by variables separating method. Solutions indicate that the mass spectrum of scalar fields is discrete and possible normal modes of scalar fields are limited. These facts tell us clearly that we can sum the zero-point energies of all kinds of scalar fields with different mass. At last, an intrinsic relation between the energy density of vacuum and the curvature of AdS spacetime was obtained, and the cosmological constant was calculated by using $`c/H_0`$ for the radius of AdS spacetime, which matches well with the observational cosmological constant. It should be pointed out that our results is not dependent explicitly on dimensions of spacetime. Only for definiteness, we presented the formalism for AdS<sub>4</sub>.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

One of us (Z.C.) would like to thank H. Y. Guo for enlightening discussions. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation of China.