text:
# References

Introduction. There is fundamental interest in the study of high energy density matter, which promises to illucidate further the properties of the strongly interacting vacuum and the high temperature phases of strongly interacting matter . The method of choice for the description of the rapidly evolving and possibly inhomogeneous quark-gluon plasma (QGP) has been often the hydrodynamical approach . It is generally believed that QGP existed shortly after the Big Bang initial phase of the universe, and that it may be re-created in relativistic nuclear collisions .

In order to gain a better understanding of this new form of matter, we explore here the entropy production due to numerous dissipative effects arising in the evolution of QGP towards the point of hadronization. The entropy content of the QGP phase at hadronization determines the observable particle multiplicity . Therefore, in order to establish via particle multiplicity the initial conditions reached in heavy-ion collisions , the effect of entropy production in QGP evolution has to be understood.

To begin with, we present here the main result of this paper, before embarking on its derivation. The entropy production is given by:

$`T_\mu s^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _i𝒥_iT{\displaystyle \underset{i,j}{}}\sigma _{ij}(_\mu {\displaystyle \frac{\mu _i}{T}})\mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }(_\nu {\displaystyle \frac{\mu _j}{T}})`$ (1)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa }{T}}𝒬_\mu \mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }𝒬_\nu +{\displaystyle \frac{\eta }{2}}𝒲_\alpha ^\beta \mathrm{}_\beta ^\gamma 𝒲_\gamma ^\delta \mathrm{}_\delta ^\alpha +\zeta (_\mu u^\mu )^2,`$
see Eq. (23). We will show that the four-divergence of the entropy current, $`_\mu s^\mu `$, is always nonnegative and vanishes only, when all space-time gradients of temperature $`T`$, of chemical potentials $`\mu _i`$, and of four-velocity $`u_\mu `$ vanish, and particle densities of species “$`i`$” assume their chemical equilibrium values. – The projector $`\mathrm{}`$ is: $`\mathrm{}_{\mu \nu }g_{\mu \nu }u_\mu u_\nu `$, with $`g_{\mu \nu }\text{diag}(1,1,1,1)`$ and $`u^2=1`$; we use units such that $`\mathrm{}=c=k_B=1`$.

The first two terms on the right-hand side of Eq. (1) are new. They are due to the sources $`𝒥_i`$ of particle production and chemo- and thermo-diffusion contributions involving gradients of chemical potentials and temperature , respectively. These terms arise in the continuity Eq. (6) below; $`\sigma `$ denotes the matrix of mutual diffusion coefficients between the chemical QGP components. Furthermore, the constants $`\kappa `$, $`\eta `$, and $`\zeta `$ denote the transport coefficients of heat conductivity, shear viscosity, and bulk viscosity, respectively. The corresponding terms in Eq. (1) involve the heat-flow four-vector $`𝒬_\mu `$, Eq. (17), and the shear tensor $`𝒲_{\mu \nu }`$, Eq. (18), and have been obtained earlier .

Generally, dissipative processes are important, when space-time gradients of hydro- or thermodynamical quantities in the system become large relative to its relaxation scales. The latter and especially the transport coefficients and source terms introduced in Eq. (1) have to be fit to experiment or calculated from an underlying microscopic transport theory . For a recent extensive review of such state-of-the-art microscopic calculations and new gauge theory results we refer to Ref.  and its numerous references.

In the QGP case, particle production converting kinetic energy of a nuclear collision into high multiplicity of new particles is a characteristic feature, together with annihilation processes, changing the composition of the plasma . Motivated by this fact, our aim presently has been to incorporate these dissipative and entropy producing mechanisms consistently into the relativistic hydrodynamical framework.

Equations of Motion. Presently we consider the relativistic energy-momentum tensor for an imperfect fluid:

$$T^{\mu \nu }(ϵ+P)u^\mu u^\nu Pg^{\mu \nu }+\delta T^{\mu \nu }=T^{\nu \mu },$$
(2)
where $`ϵ`$ and $`P`$ denote its local energy density and pressure, respectively. The additional term $`\delta T^{\mu \nu }`$ incorporates the dissipative effects within the fluid . It will be obtained in detail in the following. We point out that the corresponding transport coefficients have to be determined consistently, i.e., including also all contributions from particle production or other composition changing processes, if present in the system, besides the scattering contributions .

The evolution of the hydrodynamical system then is governed by the equation of motion,

$$_\mu T^{\mu \nu }=f^\nu ,$$
(3)
where $`f^\mu `$ describes the density of external forces, gravity for example, which act on the fluid locally. A closed system has $`f^\mu 0`$, which results in total four-momentum conservation. In order to obtain a complete description of the fluid, the equation of motion (2) has to be supplemented by an equation of state relating the energy density to the pressure. In the simplest case of a noninteracting ultrarelativistic system, we have $`P=ϵ/3`$, while a realistic QGP equation of state is given in Ref. .

Often, particularly if there exist conserved charges or particle numbers, a simple functional relationship between pressure and energy density does not exist. Then, assuming local thermal and possibly chemical equilibrium, both can still be represented parametrically in terms of a temperature $`T=T(x)`$ and possibly several chemical potentials $`\mu _i=\mu _i(x)`$. In this case, one has to complement Eqs. (2)-(3) by continuity equations,

$$_\mu \rho _i^\mu _\mu \rho _iu^\mu =0,$$
(4)
where $`\rho _i\rho _i(x)`$ denotes the particle number density for species “$`i`$” in the local rest frame of a fluid cell. We will not distinguish the cases of charge or particle number conservation and count each (anti-)particle species separately. – The local rest frame is always determined by $`u^\mu =u_{(0)}^\mu (1,0,0,0)`$. Thus, by definition, we have $`\rho _{i(0)}^0=\rho _i`$.

Similarly, the total energy density is defined to be equal to $`ϵ`$. Therefore, we must require that dissipative terms do not contribute to $`T^{00}`$ in the local rest frame,

$$T_{(0)}^{00}=ϵ\delta T_{(0)}^{00}=0u_\mu u_\nu \delta T^{\mu \nu }=0,$$
(5)
cf. Eq. (2). This constraint plays an important role in determining the general structure of $`\delta T^{\mu \nu }`$ consistently with the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

In order to incorporate diffusion and particle production and/or chemical reactions among the constituents, which change the composition of the fluid, we now generalize Eq. (4) to read:

$$_\mu \stackrel{~}{\rho }_i^\mu _\mu (\rho _i^\mu +\mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }_\nu _i)=𝒥_i,$$
(6)
with the new four-current $`\stackrel{~}{\rho }_i`$ having the property $`u_\mu \stackrel{~}{\rho }_i^\mu =\rho _i`$, since $`u_\mu \mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }=0`$. Furthermore, $`𝒥_i`$ denotes the local source for particle species “$`i`$”, which is a functional of the densities, $`𝒥_i(x)𝒥_i[\rho _j](x)`$. It can be calculated in terms of microscopic reaction cross sections. We do not consider here the possibility of external sources. – In a homogeneous system such continuity equations become familiar chemical rate equations, which have previously been applied to strongly interacting relativistic systems on the hadronic and partonic level .

The explicit form of the diffusion term $`_i`$ in Eq. (6) will be determined consistently with the Second Law of Thermodynamics. – One might try to follow the nonrelativistic ansatz which recovers the usual diffusive contribution to the particle current in Eq. (6) in the local rest frame:

$$_i\underset{j}{}\stackrel{~}{\sigma }_{ij}\rho _j,\stackrel{}{j}_i_i=\underset{j}{}\stackrel{~}{\sigma }_{ij}\rho _j,$$
(7)
where $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma }_{ij}`$ represents the mutual diffusion coefficient between species “$`i`$” and “$`j`$”. However, this ansatz turns out to be incompatible with the requirement that the entropy never decreases and will be suitably generalized below.

Entropy Production in an Imperfect Fluid. Here we formulate a consistent theoretical framework to study the entropy production due to dissipative effects within a relativistic fluid. We assume local thermal equilibrium and characterize the particle densities by appropriate chemical potentials.

We remark that introducing chemical potentials does not necessarily imply chemical equilibrium in the sense of saturating the available phase space . – For example, consider a thermalized electron-positron plasma with one chemical potential regulating the charge density, as usual, and with a number of $`e^+e^{}`$-pairs which does not correspond to the given temperature. Such a situation can be described by introducing a phase space occupancy factor in addition to the charge chemical potential or, equivalently, by two chemical potentials regulating the number of electrons and positrons separately. – We presently admit such cases, recall Eq. (6), which typically involve charge conservation side by side with dynamically changing particle pair populations in the fluid.

In order to obtain a relationship between the thermodynamical quantities and variables discussed so far and the entropy, in particular, we employ the (local) equilibrium relations,

$$PV=\mathrm{\Omega }(T,V,\mu _i)=UTS\underset{i}{}\mu _iN_i,$$
(8)
where $`U`$, $`S`$, and $`N_i`$ denote the internal energy, entropy, and particle numbers, respectively.

Two comments are in order here. Firstly, having nuclear collisions in mind, we employ the grandcanonical description despite the fact that the fireball created in a single event is thermodynamically closed. There is no heat or particle bath. However, instead of generating the grandcanonical ensemble by our system being connected to such a bath, we consider a large number of events to form the ensemble. The events have to be identical with respect to the conserved total energy-momentum, angular momentum, and baryon number, to name the most relevant “macroscopic” observables. Nevertheless, microscopically, the initial state may differ from event to event. Then, under the assumption that the entropy is maximized, the grandcanonical ensemble is obtained . In the hydrodynamical approach we apply this reasoning locally to each fluid cell.

Secondly, consider finite size effects present in small volume systems. In this case, the usual ($`V\mathrm{}`$) statistical description breaks down, if the unphysical fluctuations of exactly constrained quantities are not eliminated.111Such constraints arise due to exact conservation laws, unbroken internal symmetries, and quantization of the motion of the constituents (see, e.g., Refs. ). For example, the thermodynamical properties of small quark-gluon plasma droplets start to deviate strongly from the asymptotic ($`V\mathrm{}`$) behavior, if the dimensionless parameter $`TV^{1/3}`$ becomes of order one or less. This issue needs to be addressed in our context in the future.

We also need the Duhem-Gibbs relation for the densities corresponding to Eq. (8),

$$Ts=ϵ+P\underset{i}{}\mu _i\rho _i.$$
(9)
Then, using Eqs. (2) and (9), we obtain by contraction with $`u_\nu `$ of the equation of motion (3):

$`u_\nu f^\nu `$ $`=`$ $`u_\nu _\mu T^{\mu \nu }=u_\nu _\mu ([Ts+{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _i\rho _i]u^\mu u^\nu )u^\mu _\mu P+u_\nu _\mu \delta T^{\mu \nu }`$ (10)
$`=u_\nu u^\nu _\mu [T\stackrel{~}{s}^\mu +{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _i\rho _i^\mu ]+[T\stackrel{~}{s}^\mu +{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _i\rho _i^\mu ]u_\nu _\mu u^\nu u^\mu _\mu P+u_\nu _\mu \delta T^{\mu \nu }`$
$`=_\mu [T\stackrel{~}{s}^\mu +{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _i\rho _i^\mu ]u^\mu _\mu P+u_\nu _\mu \delta T^{\mu \nu },`$
where we introduced an entropy four-current $`\stackrel{~}{s}^\mu su^\mu `$ and the currents $`\rho _i^\mu \rho _iu^\mu `$, as before. For the last equality, we made use of $`u^2=1`$.

For conservative external forces which can be derived from a potential (density), $`f^\mu ^\mu \varphi `$, using Eq. (6) and $`u^\mu _\mu =d/d\tau `$, we can further simplify Eq. (10) ($`\dot{A}dA/d\tau `$):

$`0`$ $`=`$ $`T_\mu \stackrel{~}{s}^\mu +{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _i(𝒥_i_\mu \mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }_\nu _i)+s\dot{T}+{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\rho _i\dot{\mu }_i\dot{P}\dot{\varphi }+u_\nu _\mu \delta T^{\mu \nu }`$ (11)
$`=`$ $`T_\mu \stackrel{~}{s}^\mu +{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _i(𝒥_i_\mu \mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }_\nu _i)+u_\nu _\mu \delta T^{\mu \nu },`$
where the terms involving $`d/d\tau `$ cancel identically. In order to demonstrate this cancellation, we multiply them by $`Vd\tau `$ and employ Eq. (8),

$`SdT+{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}N_id\mu _iVdPVd\varphi `$ (12)
$`=`$ $`d(TS)+d({\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _iN_i)d(PV)TdS{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _idN_i+PdVVd\varphi `$
$`=`$ $`dUTdS{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _idN_i+PdVVd\varphi =0.`$
The last equality expresses the First Law of Thermodynamics, which is incorporated here.

Finally, we introduce the proper entropy four-current defined by:

$$s^\mu \stackrel{~}{s}^\mu +T^1u_\nu \delta T^{\mu \nu }+\underset{i}{}_i\mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }_\nu _i.$$
(13)
This form is found by ‘trial and error’ and, by the constraint (5) and $`u_\mu \mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }=0`$, implies $`s_{(0)}^0=s`$ in the local rest frame.

We remark that the difficulty to identify a viable form of the entropy four-current, i.e. the admissible structure of $`\delta T^{\mu \nu }`$, $`_i`$, and $`_i`$, resides in the requirements that the entropy density be equal to $`s`$ in the local rest frame and that it never decreases anywhere in the system. In the following we will determine the function $`_i`$ consistently together with $`_i`$ and $`\delta T^{\mu \nu }`$, in order to obtain the new contributions due to diffusion and, particularly, due to particle production, which have not been considered before.

We combine Eqs. (11) and (13), which yields:

$`T_\mu s^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _i𝒥_iT^1(_\mu T)u_\nu \delta T^{\mu \nu }+(_\mu u_\nu )\delta T^{\mu \nu }`$ (14)
$`+{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}(\mu _i+T_i)_\mu \mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }_\nu _i+T{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}(_\mu _i)\mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }_\nu _i.`$
This equation describes the entropy production in an imperfect fluid evolving under the influence of conservative external forces, which do not generate entropy (Liouville’s theorem). In order to agree with the Second Law of Thermodynamics for the closed system ($`f^\mu 0`$), the right-hand side of Eq. (14) has to be nonnegative for all fluid configurations, such that $`_\mu s^\mu 0`$ always. This requirement is implemented in the following steps.

First, we put a constraint on the sources introduced in Eq. (6),

$$\underset{i}{}\mu _i𝒥_i0.$$
(15)
This constraint and its implications will be further discussed below, beginning with Eq. (24). Under fairly general assumptions about the particle producing processes or chemical reactions the inequality (15) guarantees that the system is driven towards chemical equilibrium.

Second, the structure of $`\delta T^{\mu \nu }`$ including terms of first order space-time gradients, which is subject to the constraint (5) and compatible with $`_\mu s^\mu 0`$, is well known :

$$\delta T^{\mu \nu }=\kappa (\mathrm{}^{\mu \gamma }u^\nu +\mathrm{}^{\nu \gamma }u^\mu )𝒬_\gamma +\eta \mathrm{}^{\mu \gamma }\mathrm{}^{\nu \delta }𝒲_{\gamma \delta }+\zeta \mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }_\gamma u^\gamma ,$$
(16)
where $`\kappa ,\eta ,\zeta 0`$ denote the coefficients of heat conductivity, shear viscosity, and bulk viscosity, respectively, and with the heat-flow four-vector $`𝒬_\mu `$ and the shear tensor $`𝒲_{\mu \nu }`$ defined by:

$`𝒬_\mu `$ $``$ $`_\mu TTu^\nu _\nu u_\mu ,`$ (17)
$`𝒲_{\mu \nu }`$ $``$ $`_\mu u_\nu +_\nu u_\mu {\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}g_{\mu \nu }_\gamma u^\gamma .`$ (18)
Third, as we shall see in Eq. (23), the contribution to the right-hand side of Eq. (14) of the diffusion terms involving $``$ becomes a nonnegative quadratic form if we identify:

$$_i\frac{\mu _i}{T},_i\underset{j}{}\sigma _{ij}\frac{\mu _j}{T},$$
(19)
where the symmetric matrix $`\sigma `$ consists of the mutual diffusion constants and supposedly has only nonnegative eigenvalues. We remark that $`_i`$ as defined in (19) yields a diffusive particle current in the local rest frame,

$$\stackrel{}{j}_i_i=\underset{j}{}\frac{\sigma _{ij}}{T}(\mu _j\frac{\mu _j}{T}T).$$
(20)
Thus, we find here a combination of chemo- and thermo-diffusion contributions, which appears to be unique up to terms involving first-order space-time gradients.

We observe that the diffusion current of Eq. (20) indeed generalizes the nonrelativistic ansatz discussed before, cf. Eqs. (7). For example, neglecting interactions, a straightforward calculation in the ultrarelativistic Boltzmann approximation gives:

$$\mu _j=T\text{ln}[C\rho _jT^3],$$
(21)
where $`C`$ collects the constants. Using this in Eq. (20), i.e. $`\mu _j=\mu _j(\rho _j,T)`$, we obtain:

$$\stackrel{}{j}_i=\underset{j}{}\sigma _{ij}(\frac{\rho _j}{\rho _j}+3\frac{T}{T}).$$
(22)
Obviously the term $`\rho _j`$ corresponds to the nonrelativistic one, while our covariant considerations additionally yield an unique thermo-diffusion term.

Collecting the results of this section, we can now rewrite Eq. (14) with all the sources of entropy production in an explicitly nonnegative form:

$`T_\mu s^\mu `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\mu _i𝒥_iT{\displaystyle \underset{i,j}{}}\sigma _{ij}^1(_\mu _i)\mathrm{}_\lambda ^\mu (_\nu _j)\mathrm{}^{\nu \lambda }`$ (23)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\kappa }{T}}𝒬_\mu \mathrm{}_\lambda ^\mu 𝒬_\nu \mathrm{}^{\nu \lambda }+{\displaystyle \frac{\eta }{2}}\mathrm{}_\alpha ^\beta 𝒲_\beta ^\gamma \mathrm{}_\gamma ^\delta \mathrm{}_\delta ^\mu 𝒲_\mu ^\nu \mathrm{}_\nu ^\alpha +\zeta (_\mu u^\mu )^2,`$
which is obtained with the help of Eqs. (16)-(19) and by making use of the properties of the projector $`\mathrm{}`$. All transport coefficients are treated as constants here, despite the fact that they implicitly depend on the thermodynamical variables, if calculated microscopically .

Together with condition (15), the Eq. (23) guarantees that a closed system evolves from local towards global equilibrium. The latter is reached, of course, when all space-time gradients of $`T`$, $`\mu _i`$, and $`u^\mu `$ vanish and the particle densities have their asymptotic values, such that the sources $`𝒥_i`$ vanish.

Driving Towards Chemical Equilibrium. We now turn to the discussion of the local source terms $`𝒥_i[\rho _j]`$, which describe the particle production in the continuity equations (6). This will clarify the meaning of the constraint (15).

We assume a sufficiently small fluid cell with a given volume, such that all spatial gradients can be neglected in Eq. (6). This does not limit our considerations which are related to the invariant source terms $`𝒥_i`$. Thus, in the local rest frame, we obtain approximately:

$$_t\rho _i=𝒥_i\underset{j}{}[G_{ij}\rho _jL_{ji}\rho _i],$$
(24)
where the source term is expressed in terms of gain and loss rates, $`G`$ and $`L`$, respectively. In general, they are complicated function(al)s of the temperature and the densities themselves (see, for example, Refs.  and Chap. X. in Ref. ).

The master equations (24) form a first order nonlinear flow system . In the following we will show that Eq. (15) presents a sufficient condition for an attractive fixed point of the flow, which corresponds to the local chemical equilibrium.

In order to proceed, we introduce the equilibrium densities $`\overline{\rho }_i(T)\rho _i(\overline{\mu }_i,T)`$, where $`\overline{\mu }_i`$ denotes the corresponding equilibrium chemical potential, and the reduced densities $`\xi _i\rho _i/\overline{\rho }_i`$, $`0\xi _i<\mathrm{}`$. We assume that

$$\mu _i(\xi _i,T)\overline{\mu }_i+f_i(\xi _i,T),$$
(25)
with $`f_i(1,T)=0`$, is a strictly increasing function of $`\xi _i`$ at a given temperature $`T`$. This is exemplified by the result obtained in the Boltzmann approximation, Eq. (21),

$$\mu _i(\xi _i,T)=\overline{\mu }_i+T\text{ln}[\xi _i].$$
(26)
In any case, the point $`\stackrel{}{\xi }_1\{\xi _i=1,`$ for all $`i\}`$ in the multidimensional $`\xi `$-space corresponds to the chemical equilibrium state.

Sufficiently close to equilibrium, $`\stackrel{}{\xi }\stackrel{}{\xi }_1`$, the constraint (15) can be expanded. We suppress the temperature dependence from now on, tacitly assuming (as before) that local thermal equilibrium is maintained by sufficiently fast elastic scattering among the constituents of the considered fluid cell. For convenience, we introduce rates weighted by the equilibrium densities, $`\overline{G}_{ij}G_{ij}\overline{\rho _j}`$ and $`\overline{L}_{ji}L_{ji}\overline{\rho _i}`$. Then, employing Eq. (25) and using principle of detailed balance,

$$\underset{j}{}[\overline{G}_{ij}(\stackrel{}{\xi }_1)\overline{L}_{ji}(\stackrel{}{\xi }_1)]=0,$$
(27)
i.e. $`𝒥_i=0`$ in chemical equilibrium, we obtain:

$$0\underset{i}{}\mu _i𝒥_i\underset{i,j}{}\overline{\mu }_i(\stackrel{}{\xi }\stackrel{}{\xi }_1)(\overline{G}_{ij}\xi _j\overline{L}_{ji}\xi _i)|_{\stackrel{}{\xi }_1}.$$
(28)
The first nonvanishing contribution here is a positive gradient term; in the absence of equilibrium chemical potentials one obtains a curvature term here instead. Therefore, the nonnegative contribution $`_i\mu _i𝒥_i`$ to the entropy production, Eq. (23), vanishes in the chemical equilibrium state.

In order to prove that the equilibrium point $`\stackrel{}{\xi }=\stackrel{}{\xi }_1`$ is actually an attractive fixed point, we suitably rewrite the flow system, Eqs. (24),

$$_t(\xi _i1)=\overline{\rho }_i^1\underset{j}{}[\overline{G}_{ij}\xi _j\overline{L}_{ji}\xi _i],$$
(29)
and introduce a distance measure $``$,

$$(\stackrel{}{\xi },\stackrel{}{\xi }_1)\frac{1}{2}\underset{i}{}\overline{\rho }_if_i^{}(1)(\stackrel{}{\xi }\stackrel{}{\xi }_1)_i(\stackrel{}{\xi }\stackrel{}{\xi }_1)_i0,$$
(30)
since $`f_i^{}df_i/d\xi _i>0`$, $`\mu _i`$ being a strictly increasing function. Then, we obtain:

$$_t(\stackrel{}{\xi },\stackrel{}{\xi }_1)=\underset{i}{}(\mu _i(\xi _i)\overline{\mu }_i)\overline{\rho }_i_t(\xi _i1)=\underset{i}{}\mu _i(\xi _i)𝒥_i(\stackrel{}{\xi })0,$$
(31)
which holds sufficiently close to the equilibrium state, where $`\mu _i(\xi _i)\overline{\mu }_if_i^{}(1)(\xi _11)`$. We also made use of Eqs. (15), (24), and (29). Thus, the system evolves towards the chemical equilibrium fixed point, provided the constraint (15) is satisfied.

In order to arrive at the second equality in Eq. (31), we had to take into account charge and/or particle number conservation. The equilibrium values of the chemical potentials $`\overline{\mu }_i`$ are given by the equilibrium value of the chemical potentials associated to conserved quantities. In the case of a single charge conservation law this is written as:

$$\overline{\mu }_i=q_i\overline{\mu },$$
(32)
where $`q_i`$ denotes the generic charge of (anti-)particles of species “$`i`$”. Thus we obtain the relation:

$$\underset{i}{}\overline{\mu }_i\overline{\rho }_i_t\xi _i=\overline{\mu }_t\underset{i}{}q_i\rho _i=0,$$
(33)
which we employed in Eq. (31). The generalization including several distinct abelian conservation laws is obvious, while the consideration of nonabelian charges in this context presents an open problem, cf. Ref. .

In passing we mention that

$$\tau ^1_t\text{ln}[(\stackrel{}{\xi },\stackrel{}{\xi }_1)],$$
(34)
may provide a useful measure of the chemical equilibration rate. According to Eq. (31), it can be written as a sum of partial equilibration rates, $`\tau ^1=_i\tau _i^1`$, with $`\tau _i^1\mu _i𝒥_i`$, while a more explicit form of the source terms, cf. Eq. (24), allows to relate it to the equilibration times of chemical rate equations.

Discussion of the First-order Formalism. Some general remarks about the first-order dissipative relativistic fluid dynamics presented in this work are in order here. It is labeled “first order”, since the entropy current, Eq. (13) together with Eqs. (16)-(19), contains only up to first order gradients, which describe deviations from the equilibrium state of the fluid.

It has been argued before that in a wide class of first-order theories the equilibrium state is unstable under physically admissible perturbations . This includes the theories of Eckart  and of Landau and Lifshitz  especially. Unrealistically large growth rates of the unstable modes222However, these were calculated only for macroscopic fluids, such as water. It is not obvious that the instabilities would be unrealistically fast for fluid parameters representing microscopic fluids, such as QGP droplets. led the authors of Refs.  to discard these theories in favor of the Israel-Stewart second-order theory , where only stable or damped modes are found. The expense is the increased complexity of the theory based on a larger number of degrees of freedom. This goes together with an increased number of phenomenological parameters, which ultimately should be calculated microscopically, as we discussed.

We do not know, whether the first-order approach presented here prevents such unphysical instabilities. A full linear response analysis studying this problem is beyond the scope of this paper and is left for future work.

However, the growth of potentially unstable modes will be cut off by the finite size of the system in most realistic applications and by the additional dissipative processes taking place at the surface, such as radiation losses. These can be naturally incorporated in the future. Furthermore, we do take into account that the fluid may undergo dynamical changes of its composition. This is particularly important for relativistic fluids at extreme energy densities, where particle production is an important dissipative process, as long as chemical equilibrium is not fully established. Our considerations related to particle sources have shown that small perturbations of the chemical equilibrium are damped and decay. The system is driven by chemical reactions or particle production towards the equilibrium state.

Conclusions. We have presented here the theoretical considerations which allow to determine the entropy production which is consistent with the restriction to first-order space-time gradients of the thermodynamical and fluid variables, as well as with the requirements of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics. Our result in Eq. (1) and the subsequent hydrodynamical framework are generally applicable to special relativistic fluids. As new elements, which need to be considered in applications to high-energy nuclear collisions and QGP, we introduce here the entropy producing mechanisms of chemo- and thermo-diffusion together with the contribution of particle production.

We point out that nonlinear flow systems, such as the one describing the particle production processes in QGP, which we studied in relation to chemical equilibration, generally tend to show more structure than a simple attractive fixed point . Therefore, one may speculate, whether some particular fluctuations may be caused by these nonlinearities in high-energy collisions (high multiplicity events), i.e. by the nonequilibrium chemistry of the reactions, with interesting consequences for the entropy production.

Summarizing, the Eqs. (1), (3), and (6), together with the relevant definitions and supplemented by an equation of state, present a consistent framework for the study of dissipative relativistic hydrodynamical systems. This comprises imperfect fluids with composition changing processes, particle production in particular, and the more familiar dissipative effects of heat conduction, shear and bulk viscosities, and diffusion. We discussed the potential shortcomings of this formalism, which involves only up to first-order space-time gradients.

Acknowledgements: Work supported in part by a grant from the U.S. Department of Energy, DE-FG03-95ER40937 , by PRONEX (Brazil) (No. 41.96.0886.00), and by the Polish Committee for Scientific Research under contract KBN-2 P03B 030 18.


format: text

text:
# Impact of Muon Anomalous Magnetic Moment on Supersymmetric Models

## I Introduction

Recently, the Brookhaven E821 experiment has announced a new measurement of the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon. The measured result deviates by $`2.6\sigma `$ from the central value of the quoted Standard Model (SM) prediction: $`a_\mu (exp)a_\mu (SM)=43(16)\times 10^{10}`$, where $`a_\mu =\frac{g_\mu 2}{2}`$ (see also Ref. ). The largest error on the SM calculation arises from the hadronic vacuum polarization loops. These loops are included via dispersion integrals involving the rate for $`e^+e^{}hadrons`$, with the largest contribution coming from the region around the $`\rho (770)`$ resonance.***We note that other evaluations of the hadronic vacuum polarization contribution (primarily because of a larger uncertainty) can lead to a SM $`a_\mu `$ prediction in accord with experiment: see Ref. . The recent evaluation by Davier and Höcker cited in Ref’s  uses the much more precise tau decay data to reduce the uncertainty in the $`e^+e^{}\pi ^+\pi ^{}`$ cross section. This is a potential source of theoretical uncertainty since the tau decays purely via the weak isospin 1 channel, while the photon also has an isospin zero component. It is anticipated that improved measurements of these low energy cross section measurements will reduce the uncertainty in the SM prediction in the near future, without recourse to tau decay data. Furthermore, additional data already taken by the E821 collaboration should soon reduce the experimental uncertainty in $`a_\mu `$ by about a factor of two. If the difference between SM prediction and experimental measurement of $`a_\mu `$ is maintained and sharpened, then a clear signal for physics beyond the SM will be obtained.

The error bars on $`a_\mu `$ are now small enough to be sensitive to electroweak loop effects, and other effects of the same order of magnitude. Weak scale supersymmetry is an especially well motivated extension of the SM in which contributions to $`a_\mu `$ from loops with supersymmetric (SUSY) particles naturally have a magnitude comparable to electroweak effects. Thus the Brookhaven experiment can potentially probe weak scale supersymmetry. Supersymmetric contributions to $`a_\mu `$ have been calculated previously, including a number of very recent papers addressing the new E821 result . The supersymmetric contributions to $`a_\mu `$ involve chargino-sneutrino loops and also neutralino-smuon loops. For $`\mathrm{tan}\beta \frac{v_u}{v_d}`$ not too small, the supersymmetric contributions yield

$$\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}\frac{m_\mu ^2\mu M_i\mathrm{tan}\beta }{M_{SUSY}^4},$$
(1)
where $`M_i`$ ($`i=1,2`$) is a gaugino mass, and $`M_{SUSY}`$ is a characteristic sparticle mass scale. Then $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ grows with $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, and for models with a positive gaugino mass, has the same sign as the superpotential Higgs mass term $`\mu `$.

In this paper, we present calculations of the contribution to $`a_\mu `$ from a variety of supersymmetric models. Some of these models overlap with those recently examined in Ref. , while others are new. In addition, we compare explicitly where possible with reach projections of Run 2 of the Fermilab Tevatron $`p\overline{p}`$ collider and the CERN Large Hadron Collider (LHC).

The supersymmetric models considered can be organized according to the assumed mechanism for communication of supersymmetry breaking from the hidden sector to the visible sector. First, we consider models with SUSY breaking communicated via gravitational interactions. These include the minimal supergravity model (mSUGRA), with universality of soft SUSY breaking terms at the Grand Unification Theory (GUT) scale. In addition, we also consider minimal $`SO(10)`$ models with a high degree of Yukawa coupling unification, models with an inverted scalar mass hierarchy (proposed to solve the SUSY flavor and CP problems), and models with non-universal gaugino masses. Next, we show results for models with gauge-mediated SUSY breaking (GMSB), for various numbers of messenger fields. We also examine models with anomaly-mediated SUSY breaking (AMSB) and finally, models with gaugino-mediated SUSY breaking (inoMSB).

In general, for SUGRA and GMSB models, large CP violating phases may be present (such phases are suppressed in AMSB and inoMSB models). Phenomenologically, many of these phases must be small in order to satisfy constraints such as those coming from measurements of the neutron and electron electric dipole moments. However, it is possible that some CP violating phases are large, but still satisfy EDM bounds if certain amplitude cancellations take place. In this paper, we neglect the presence of CP violating phases on the $`g2`$ calculation; their effect on SUGRA models is noted in Ref. , and on general MSSM models in Ref. .

We end with some broad conclusions in the last section. If the apparent discrepancy between theory and experiment continues to hold, then SUSY GUT models with a high degree of Yukawa unification will be strongly constrained, as will be models which solve the SUSY flavor and CP problems via a decoupling of the first two generations of scalars.

## II Gravity-mediated SUSY breaking models

In this class of models, SUSY is assumed to be broken in a hidden sector, consisting of fields which do not interact with usual particles and their superparners via SM gauge or Yukawa type interactions. SUSY breaking is communicated to the visible sector via gravitational interactions. In general, there is no mechanism to suppress soft SUSY breaking terms which can lead to flavor changing (FC) and CP violating processes in conflict with experiment. A common (ad-hoc) solution is to assume universality of soft SUSY breaking terms at the unification scale, which suppresses the unwanted FC processes.

### A Minimal supergravity model (mSUGRA)

In this model, it is assumed that, at the GUT scale, all scalars have a common mass $`m_0`$, all gauginos have a common mass $`m_{1/2}`$, and all trilinear soft SUSY breaking terms have a common value $`A_0`$. Electroweak symmetry is assumed to be broken radiatively (REWSB), leading to a model parameter set consisting of

$$m_0,m_{1/2},A_0,\mathrm{tan}\beta ,sign(\mu ).$$
(2)
The superparticle masses and mixings can be calculated via renormalization group evolution between the scale of grand unification and the weak scale. We use the mSUGRA mass calculation embedded in the computer program ISAJET 7.51 for our results. We have adapted the $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ calculation of Moroi for use with the ISAJET code.

Our results for the mSUGRA model are shown in Fig. 1. We plot only parameter planes with $`\mu >0`$, since the opposite sign of $`\mu `$ almost always gives negative contributions to $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$. The solid shaded regions are excluded by i) a lack of appropriate REWSB, or ii) a lightest SUSY particle that is not the lightest neutralino ($`\stackrel{~}{Z}_1`$), or iii) by the experimental lower limits from LEP2 that $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}>100`$ GeV, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{e}_1}>100`$ GeV and $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1}>76`$ GeV. The region below the thick solid contour has a lightest Higgs mass $`m_h<113.5`$ GeV, in apparent discord with recent results from LEP2 on searches for SM Higgs bosons. The dots shaded regions are found to have a value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ within $`2\sigma `$ of the E821 result: e.g. $`11\times 10^{10}<\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}<75\times 10^{10}`$. The regions below the dashed contours are accessible to SUSY searches via the isolated trilepton or $`\overline{)}E_T`$ signals at Run 2 of the Tevatron with 25 fb-1 of integrated luminosity. Finally, the region below the dot-dashed contour is accessible to SUSY searches at the CERN LHC $`pp`$ collider, assuming 10 fb-1 of integrated luminosity.

In Fig. 1a), we show the $`m_0vs.m_{1/2}`$ plane for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =3`$, and for $`A_0=2m_0`$. For larger values of $`A_0`$, we find the entire plane to be excludedStrictly speaking, the bound $`m_h>113.5`$ GeV applies to the SM Higgs boson and needs to be corrected for the SUSY case. However, over much of the parameter space $`h`$ is close to the SM Higgs boson, and we will for simplicity use this as the limit in the rest of this paper. For this reason, as well as to allow for some uncertainty in the computation of $`m_h`$, the reader should allow some latitude in the interpretation of this contour. by LEP2 Higgs searches. At this low value of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, the region preferred by the E821 result consists of a small region in the lower left corner. The preferred region lies entirely within the Tevatron Run 2 search region, but is unfortunately already disfavoured by LEP2 Higgs searches. In frame b), we show the same plane, but for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =10`$ and $`A_0=0`$. In this case, the LEP2 Higgs bound cuts out a significant portion of the region preferred by $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$, but a substantial region remains at low $`m_0`$ where $`m_h>113.5`$ GeV. Much of this region is beyond the reach of Tevatron Run 2 experiments, but all of the preferred region is well within the region accessible to LHC searches. Of particular interest is that models with large $`m_0`$ and low $`m_{1/2}`$, i.e. in the focus point region, are disfavored, and will be excluded if the disagreement between theory and experiment persists. Finally, in frame c), we show the same parameter space plane as in b), except now for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =35`$. The region preferred by $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ has expanded greatly, reflecting the nearly linear growth of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ with $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. Much of the region is beyond the LEP2 Higgs bound, but all of it is within the reach of the CERN LHC. In this case, the focus point region is allowed for large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$.

In several papers, comparisons have been made between the calculated values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ and the $`bs\gamma `$ decay rate, and the neutralino relic density $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{Z}_1}h^2`$. It is especially interesting to note that at large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ and $`\mu <0`$, the mSUGRA model is doubly disfavored by both $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ and by $`bs\gamma `$. In addition, at large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, much of mSUGRA model parameter space at large values of $`m_0`$ and $`m_{1/2}`$ is allowed by bounds on the neutralino relic density. This is due in large part to $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_1\stackrel{~}{Z}_1A,Hb\overline{b}`$ annihilation via very broad $`A`$ and $`H`$ poles in the $`s`$-channel. It is an important observation that the mSUGRA model can accommodate all these constraints, and simultaneously respect the bound from LEP2 Higgs searches.

### B Yukawa unified $`SO(10)`$ model

Supersymmetric $`SO(10)`$ grand unified models are especially attractive in that they can unify gauge couplings, Yukawa couplings and also matter particles within a single generation. In light of evidence for neutrino mass from observation of atmospheric neutrinos, there has been heightened interest in this class of models. $`SO(10)`$ SUSY GUT models naturally accommodate light neutrinos via the see-saw mechanism. Using third generation fermion masses as inputs, Yukawa unification can be achieved if $`\mathrm{tan}\beta 50`$ and $`\mu <0`$. In this region of parameter space, however, REWSB is not possible assuming universal scalar masses at the GUT scale. Incorporation of $`D`$-term scalar mass contributions, which are generically present when $`SO(10)`$ breaks to a lower rank gauge group, allow REWSB to occur by imposing GUT scale boundary conditions where $`m_{H_u}<m_{H_d}`$. In this case, the $`D`$-terms leave a characteristic imprint on the entire SUSY particle mass spectrum. The model parameter space consists of

$$m_{16},m_{10},M_D^2,m_{1/2},A_0,\mathrm{tan}\beta ,\mathrm{and}sign(\mu ).$$
(3)
Here, $`m_{16}`$ is the common soft SUSY breaking mass (renormalized at the GUT scale) of all matter scalars, while $`m_{10}`$ is the corresponding mass of the Higgs scalars. $`M_D`$ parametrizes the magnitude of the $`SO(10)`$ $`D`$-terms. Yukawa coupling unification restricts $`\mathrm{tan}\beta 50\pm 4`$ and $`\mu <0`$. The sparticle mass spectrum, relic density, $`bs\gamma `$ decay rate, and collider signals have been recently calculated in terms of these parameters in the second paper of Ref. .

One might expect these models to be heavily disfavored by the E821 result, since Yukawa unification occurs for $`\mu <0`$, while a positive value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ occurs for $`\mu >0`$. We explicitly display these results in Fig. 2, for a) $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =47`$ and b) $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =50`$. We generate models with values of $`m_{16}`$ and $`m_{10}`$ over the range $`03000`$ GeV, $`m_{1/2}:01000`$ GeV, $`3000<A_0<3000`$ GeV and $`M_D<1000`$ GeV, and accept models that satisfy REWSB and phenomenological constraints, as well as having $`tb\tau `$ Yukawa coupling unification at $`M_{GUT}`$ to 5%. In both frames, we see that $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ is always less than zero. However, for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =47`$, a substantial fraction of models have $`|\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}|<5`$, so that they lie within $`3\sigma `$ of the E821 result. These models generally require $`m_{16}>1000`$ GeV, so are effectively entering the decoupling regime. In frame b), for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =50`$, almost all models are excluded unless $`m_{16}>2200`$ GeV. For the higher $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ value, larger values of $`M_2`$ and smaller values of $`|\mu |`$ are generated for Yukawa unified solutions; in some cases, neutralino loops dominate the amplitude for $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$. Overall, for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =50`$, there is decoupling at larger values of $`m_{16}`$ than in the $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =47`$ case. In these models, generally a reasonable value for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\stackrel{~}{Z}_1}h^2`$ can be obtained. Also, in these decoupling regimes, the rate for anomalous supersymmetric contributions to $`bs\gamma `$ decay rate also diminishes. However, such large values of $`m_{16}`$ may suffer from problems with naturalness.

### C Inverted scalar mass hierarchy models

A possible solution to the SUSY flavor and CP problems arises by decoupling the matter scalars in the theory. This involves setting matter scalar masses towards the 10-100 TeV range, thereby suppressing all loop induced FCNCs and CP violating processes. Such models seemingly violate constraints from naturalness, but two ways out have been suggested. In the focus point region of mSUGRA models, large $`m_0`$, small $`m_{1/2}`$ and moderate to large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ yields a small value for $`|\mu |`$ and possibly a small fine tuning of model parameters to achieve REWSB. An alternative is in models with an inverted scalar mass hierarchy (IMH), wherein first and second generations have multi-TeV masses, while third generation scalars have sub-TeV masses: this latter condition results in models satisfying “naturalness”, since third generation scalar masses enter the fine-tuning calculation, while first and second generation masses are most severely constrained by flavor and CP violating processes.

#### 1 Radiatively driven IMH model

An intriguing scenario has been proposed in Ref. , wherein the IMH is generated radiatively by starting with multi-TeV masses for all scalars at the GUT scale. At large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, and for special soft SUSY breaking boundary conditions, third generation scalar masses are driven to weak scale values via renormalization group evolution, while first and second generation scalars remain at multi-TeV values, owing to their small Yukawa couplings. The proposed model incorporates $`tb\tau `$ Yukawa coupling unification, and necessarily includes right neutrino superfields (as in $`SO(10)`$), and requires the special ($`SO(10)`$ symmetric) boundary conditions $`A_0^2=2m_{10}^2=4m_{16}^2`$ for the renormalization group evolution of the soft SUSY breaking parameters. For consistency of Yukawa coupling unification with REWSB, $`SO(10)`$ $`D`$-terms are again necessary . Thus, the parameter space of the RIMH model consists of

$$m_{16},m_{1/2},\mathrm{tan}\beta ,M_D^2,M_N,\mathrm{and}sign(\mu ).$$
(4)
The value of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ is generally large to achieve Yukawa unification, and the parameter $`M_N`$ is the scale of the superpotential singlet neutrino mass term: $`10^3\mathrm{TeV}<M_N<M_{GUT}`$, with $`M_N10^{15}`$ GeV favored by data from atmospheric neutrinos in the simplest seesaw model for neutrino masses. Only a modest IMH is possible. The mass spectra associated with these models, along with expectations for relic density, $`bs\gamma `$ decay rates and collider signals, have been discussed in Ref. .

Motivated by the considerations in Ref. , we show in Fig. 3a) the masses of several sparticles, and in b) the associated value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$, for $`\mu <0`$, $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =50`$, $`M_D=0.2m_{16}`$, $`m_{1/2}=0.25m_{16}`$ and $`M_N=1\times 10^7`$ GeV. These parameters give a reasonable IMH while maintaining a calculable sparticle mass spectrum. In a), the IMH is displayed by the mass gap between $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\mu }_1}`$ and $`m_{\stackrel{~}{t}_1}`$ and $`m_{\stackrel{~}{b}_1}`$. In b), we see that $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ is always negative for this case. However, for values of $`m_{16}>3000`$ GeV, the value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ is within $`3\sigma `$ of the E821 result, as the model moves into the decoupling regime. Such large values of $`m_{16}`$ appear to be beyond the reach of even the LHC, at least for an integrated luminosity of 10 $`fb^1`$ .

We have also examined the situation regarding $`a_\mu `$ for $`\mu >0`$. In this case, as discussed in Ref. Yukawa couplings do not unify well, and the unification parameter $`R`$ typically ranges between 1.6 and 1.9. Here, we have fixed $`M_D=0.2m_{16}`$ which tends to give the largest mass hierarchy  for the chosen $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =50`$. The results of our analysis are shown in Fig. 4 for a$`M_N=10^7`$ GeV, and b$`M_N=10^{15}`$ GeV. The shaded regions are excluded because there is no REWSB, or one of the scalar mass parameters is tachyonic, or the lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP) is not a neutralino. To the right of the solid line, the crunch factor $`S`$ defined in Ref. exceeds 4. The dotted area shows the $`2\sigma `$ region preferred by the result of E821 experiment.

In Fig. 5, we show $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ versus $`m_{16}`$ for the slice of Fig. 4a with $`m_{1/2}=0.22m_{16}`$ for which the hierarchy tends to be large. We see that $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ is within $`2\sigma `$ of the E821 central value when $`m_{16}<1700`$ GeV. SUSY signals should readily be observable throughout this range, which unfortunately is disfavoured by considerations of relic density and the branching ratio for the $`bs\gamma `$ decay.

#### 2 GUT scale IMH model

In this class of models, it is assumed the IMH already exists at the GUT scale. The model parameter space is

$$m_0(1),m_0(3),m_{1/2},A_0,\mathrm{tan}\beta \mathrm{and}sign(\mu ),$$
(5)
where $`m_0(1)`$ is the common mass of first and second generation scalars at $`M_{GUT}`$, while $`m_0(3)`$ is the mass of all third generation and Higgs scalars at $`M_{GUT}`$. In this case, two-loop contributions from first and second generation scalars to RG evolution of third generation scalars helps to drive the latter to small masses; to avoid tachyons, $`m_{1/2}`$ must be chosen large enough. These models have been recently explored in Ref. . In general, GUT scale IMH models can support much larger first and second generation scalar masses than RIMH models. This helps to further suppress FC and CP violating processes, but will also suppress anomalous contributions to $`a_\mu `$. For instance, for the two case studies presented in Table 1 of Ref. , we find $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}=1.6\times 10^{13}`$ (case 1) and $`1.8\times 10^{11}`$ (case 2). Hence, these models should give $`a_\mu `$ values very close to the SM prediction.

### D $`SU(5)`$ models with non-universal gaugino masses

In supergravity GUT models based on $`SU(5)`$ gauge symmetry, gaugino masses arise from the Lagrangian term

$$\frac{F_\mathrm{\Phi }_{ab}}{M_{Pl}}\lambda _a\lambda _b$$
(6)
where the $`\lambda _a`$ are the gaugino fields, and $`F_\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is the vacuum expectation value of the $`F`$ term of a chiral superfield which transforms as the symmetric product of two adjoints under $`SU(5)`$:

$$(\mathrm{𝟐𝟒}\times \mathrm{𝟐𝟒})_{\mathrm{symmetric}}=\mathrm{𝟏}\mathrm{𝟐𝟒}\mathrm{𝟕𝟓}\mathrm{𝟐𝟎𝟎}.$$
(7)
Universal gaugino masses are obtained only if the superfield $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is a singlet of the GUT group. Higher dimensional $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ representations yield non-universal gaugino masses at the GUT scale: for the $`\mathrm{𝟐𝟒}`$, $`M_1:M_2:M_3=1:3:2`$, while for the $`\mathrm{𝟕𝟓}`$, $`M_1:M_2:M_3=5:3:1`$ and for the $`\mathrm{𝟐𝟎𝟎}`$, $`M_1:M_2:M_3=10:2:1`$. Thus, the model parameter space is given byHere, we do not consider the possibility that an arbitrary linear combination of these irreducible representations is also possible.

$$m_0,M_3^0,A_0,\mathrm{tan}\beta \mathrm{and}sign(\mu ),$$
(8)
where the $`SU(2)_L`$ and $`U(1)_Y`$ gaugino masses can be calculated in terms of $`M_3^0`$, the GUT scale $`SU(3)_C`$ gaugino mass.

These $`SU(5)`$ models with non-universal gaugino masses will yield weak scale gaugino mass values very different from the mSUGRA prediction, and potentially also very different values of the muon anomalous magnetic moment. We have studied the SUSY contributions to $`a_\mu `$ within this framework for positive values of $`M_2\mu `$. The 2$`\sigma `$ region favored by the E821 experiment is shown in the $`m_0vs.M_3^0`$ plane in Fig. 6 for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =10`$ and Fig. 7 for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =35`$. We fix $`A_0=0`$ in both figures. The frames a), b) and c) respectively show the cases where the superfield $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ transforms as a 24, 75 and 200 dimensional representation of $`SU(5)`$. The corresponding cases for the singlet $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ are the mSUGRA cases in Fig. 1b and Fig. 1c. Again the shaded region in frames a) and c) is excluded by the same theoretical and experimental constraints discussed for the mSUGRA case. For the 75 case in frame b) the theory constraints together with $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}>100`$ GeV exclude the entire plane. However, in the 75 and 200 cases, the mass gap between the chargino and the LSP is very small, and the LEP constraint on the chargino mass may have to be reassessed. In these cases, the lighter neutralinos contain significant higgsino components, and LEP experiments may also be able to probe $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_1\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$ production as discussed in Ref. . In view of this, in frames b), we have chosen to include just the theory constraints in the dark shaded region. In the light shaded region (which covers the rest of the plane in Fig. 7), $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}<85`$ GeV. The various lines labelled by the sparticle type denote contours where $`m_{\stackrel{~}{e}_1}=250`$ GeV, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}=250`$ GeV and $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}=1,2`$ TeV. In frames c) the selectron is heavier than 250 GeV throughout the allowed region, while the gluino is always lighter than 1 TeV in the allowed range of frame b). Finally, the solid lines are contours where $`m_h=113.5`$ GeV, except in frames b) where $`h`$ is lighter than this throughout: in this case, the solid line labels $`m_h=110`$ GeV.

The area shaded by dots is the region favoured by the E821 experiment at the $`2\sigma `$ level. We see that the 24 cases are qualitatively similar to the corresponding mSUGRA cases in Fig. 1, although the allowed region does not extend as far up in the GUT scale gluino mass. The bulk of this region would be accessible at a 500 GeV linear collider for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta 10`$, but even for the larger value of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, a considerable portion of this area will be probed there. While simulations of LHC signals have not been performed within this framework, presumably this entire region will be probed by LHC experiments via the usual multi-jet plus multi-lepton signals. Multi-jet events with identified $`Z`$ bosons and $`\overline{)}E_T`$ are a characteristic feature of this framework.

Moving to the 75 case in frames b), we see that the bulk (possibly all) of the parameter plane is already excluded by various constraints already described. Indeed if the region with charginos up to 85 GeV can be excluded either via chargino searches, or via neutralino searches, and $`h`$ can definitely be determined to be larger than 110 GeV even after incorporating effects of mixing amongst the CP even scalars, this case will be excluded. In any case, it should be possible to probe this entire region at future colliders, the near degeneracy of the $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_1`$ notwithstanding.

Finally, in frames c), we see that the E821 favoured region extends over a large fraction of the plane for both values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. In the region to the right of the contour labelled $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1`$, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}<250`$ GeV, and reduces to below the experimental bound as we hit the excluded region. Chargino pair production will thus be accessible only over parts of the parameter space favoured by E821. We have checked that the lighter chargino is higgsino-like, or for relatively small values of $`M_3^0`$ mixed, throughout the plane. Its detection may thus be complicated by the fact that the $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1\stackrel{~}{Z}_1`$ mass gap is small over much of this range. Again, although explicit LHC simulations have not been performed for this scenario, experiments at the LHC should be sensitive to the SUSY signal over a considerable fraction (if not all) of this parameter range.

To get some flavour of the size of the various contributions to $`a_\mu `$, we present in Table 1 a single case study for each of the models labeled by the dimensionality of the $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ representation. The model parameters are also listed in the table. The corresponding sparticle spectrum is listed in Table 4 of Ref. . We recognize that this point may well be excluded by experimental constraints in some of the cases. Our purpose here is only to illustrate how the individual contributions depend on the dimensionality of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. In the table, we show the magnitude of the various SUSY loop contributions to $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$, along with the total. In the case of $`\mathrm{𝟏}`$ (universality), we see that the chargino loops dominate, while the $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_2\stackrel{~}{\mu }_i`$ ($`i=1,2)`$ loops are also large, but nearly cancel with each other. For this model, the $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_2`$ is mainly wino-like. In the $`\mathrm{𝟐𝟒}`$ model, at the weak scale $`M_1`$ decreases by a factor of $`2`$ relative to the mSUGRA case, while $`M_2`$ increases by about $`1.5`$. The loop contributions involving $`\stackrel{~}{W}_i`$ decrease relative the mSUGRA case, but still dominate the total contribution. In the $`\mathrm{𝟕𝟓}`$ model, $`M_2`$ increases by about a factor of 3 relative to mSUGRA, while $`M_1`$ increases by a factor of about 5. The $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_3`$ loops form the dominant neutralino contribution, and the total value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ is further suppressed. Finally, in the $`\mathrm{𝟐𝟎𝟎}`$ case, $`M_2`$ increases by a factor of about 2 at the weak scale relative to mSUGRA, while $`M_1`$ increases by about 10. In this case, the $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_4`$ is largely wino-like, and it gives the dominant contribution to $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$.

## III Gauge-mediated SUSY breaking model

In recent years, there has been much interest in supersymmetric models where SUSY breaking is communicated via gauge interactions. In these models, SUSY breaking occurs in a hidden sector, but SUSY breaking is communicated from the hidden sector to the observable sector via Standard Model gauge interactions of messenger particles, which are assumed to occur in $`n_5`$ complete vector representations of $`SU(5)`$ with quantum numbers of $`SU(2)`$ doublets of quarks and leptons. The messenger sector mass scale is characterized by $`M`$. The soft SUSY breaking masses for the SUSY partners of SM particles are thus proportional to the strength of their gauge interactions, so that squarks are heavier than sleptons, while the gaugino masses satisfy the usual “grand unification” mass relations, though for very different reasons. Within the minimal version of this framework, the couplings and masses of the sparticles in the observable sector are determined (at the messenger scale $`M`$) by the parameter set,

$$\mathrm{\Lambda },M,n_5,\mathrm{tan}\beta ,sign(\mu ),C_{grav}.$$
(9)
The parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ sets the scale of sparticle masses and is the most important of these parameters. The model predictions for soft-SUSY breaking parameters at the scale $`M`$ are evolved to the weak scale. The parameter $`C_{grav}1`$ and enters only into the partial width for sparticle decays to the gravitino.

In Fig. 8, we show the $`2\sigma `$ region favored by the E821 data for the minimal GMSB model. Our plots are in the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }vs.\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ plane, for $`M=3\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`\mu >0`$ and a) $`n_5=1`$, b) $`n_5=2`$, c) $`n_5=3`$ and d) $`n_5=2`$ but with $`\mu =0.75M_1`$. In all cases but d), the magnitude of $`\mu `$ is fixed by the REWSB constraint. The solid region is excluded either by the REWSB constraint, or by $`m_{\stackrel{~}{Z}_1}<95`$ GeV, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{e}_1}<100`$ GeV, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1}<76`$ GeV or $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}<100`$ GeV, as indicated by LEP2 searches. The solid contour denotes where $`m_h=113.5`$ GeV. Other mass contours listed are $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}=250`$ GeV, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{e}_1}=250`$ GeV, $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1}=250`$ GeV, and $`m_{\stackrel{~}{g}}=1`$ and 2 TeV (dot-dashed contours). The $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1`$, $`\stackrel{~}{e}_1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1`$ contours correspond to the approximate reach for SUSY particles of a Next Linear Collider operating at $`\sqrt{s}=500`$ GeV. In frame a), we see that very little parameter space is favored for low $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, but considerable parameter space is favored for large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. The stars correspond to the reach in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ of the CERN LHC $`pp`$ collider for specific GMSB model lines (assuming 10 fb-1 of integrated luminosity), with the $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ values sampled in Ref. . The large dots denote the corresponding reach for the Tevatron with 25 $`fb^1`$ of integrated luminosity . In a), at least for low $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, even the Tevatron reach extends beyond the maximum value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ favored by the E821 result, while the reach of the LHC is far beyond. Similar plots are shown in b) and c) but for larger numbers of messenger fields. Frame d) is shown for the special case of a higgsino-like NLSP. For the model lines that have been analyzed , we see that for the range of parameters favoured by the E821 data, SUSY signals might well be observable even at the luminosity upgrade of the Tevatron.

## IV Anomaly-mediated SUSY breaking model

It has recently been recognized that there exist loop contributions to sparticle masses originating in the super-Weyl anomaly, which is always present in supergravity models when SUSY is broken. In models without SM gauge singlet superfields that can acquire a Planck scale vev, the usual supergravity contribution to gaugino masses is suppressed by an additional factor $`\frac{M_{SUSY}}{M_P}`$ relative to $`m_{\frac{3}{2}}=M_{SUSY}^2/M_P`$, or in higher dimensional models where the coupling between the observable and hidden sectors is strongly suppressed, these anomaly-mediated contribution can dominate. The gaugino masses turn out to be non-universal, and are found to be proportional to the respective gauge group $`\beta `$-functions. Likewise, scalar masses and trilinear terms are given in terms of gauge group and Yukawa interaction beta functions. Slepton squared masses turn out to be negative (tachyonic). A common fix is to assume an additional contribution $`m_0^2`$ for all scalars. The parameter space of the model then consists of

$$m_0,m_{3/2},\mathrm{tan}\beta \mathrm{and}sign(\mu ).$$
(10)
In the minimal AMSB model (mAMSB), the $`\stackrel{~}{W}_1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{Z}_1`$ are both wino-like, and nearly mass degenerate, leading to a unique phenomenology.

In Fig. 9, we show plots of the mAMSB parameter space via the $`m_0vs.m_{3/2}`$ plane, for $`\mu <0`$, and for a) $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =3`$, b) $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =10`$ and c) $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =35`$. For AMSB models, $`\mu <0`$ yields $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}>0`$, since we take the gaugino masses $`M_1`$ and $`M_2`$ to be negative in ISAJET.§§§We have corrected an error in the sign of the $`A`$-parameters that was present in ISAJET v7.51. This does not affect the results in Ref.. Incidently, this sign of $`\mu `$ appears to be disfavoured by constraints on $`BR(bs\gamma )`$ as obtained in Ref.. The solid regions are excluded by lack of the correct pattern of REWSB, or when $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1`$ is the LSP, or by $`m_{\stackrel{~}{W}_1}<86`$ GeV (from LEP2 chargino searches in the mAMSB model). In frame a), only a tiny region at the lower left is within the $`2\sigma `$ range of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu `$ as measured by E821. Moreover, in this entire plane $`m_h<113.5`$ GeV. The solid contour denotes where $`m_h=105`$ GeV: thus, even allowing for effects of mixing in the Higgs sector, much of this plane is presumably excluded. The dashed-dotted contour denotes the reach of the CERN LHC for mAMSB models with 10 fb-1 of integrated luminosity. In frame b), the solid contour denotes where $`m_h=113.5`$ GeV, and the dotted shading denotes the $`2\sigma `$ favored region of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$. Only a small region has $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}>11\times 10^{10}`$, and $`m_h>113.5`$ GeV. We do not show any dashed-dotted contour as there was no computation of the LHC reach for this value of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. In c), for $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =35`$, we find that a considerable region of parameter space is favored by the muon anomalous moment, while simultaneously having $`m_h>113.5`$ GeV (solid contour). The reach of CERN LHC encompasses almost the entire favored region.

## V Gaugino-mediated SUSY breaking model

A fourth class of models has been recently proposed, based on extra dimensions with branes, which provides a novel solution to the SUSY flavor and $`CP`$ problems. In this framework, chiral supermultiplets of the observable sector reside on one brane whereas the SUSY breaking sector is confined to a different brane. Gravity and gauge superfields propagate in the bulk, and hence, directly couple to fields on both the branes. As a result of their direct coupling to the SUSY breaking sector, gauginos acquire a mass. The scalar components of the chiral supermultiplets, however, can acquire a SUSY breaking mass only via their interactions with gauginos (or gravity) which feel the effects of SUSY breaking: as a result, these masses are suppressed relative to gaugino masses, and may be neglected in the first approximation. The same is true for the $`A`$ parameters.

To gain a phenomenologically acceptable sparticle mass spectrum, it is necessary to include additional renormalization group running between the assumed compactification scale $`M_c`$ and $`M_{GUT}`$. At energies above $`M_{GUT}`$, it is assumed that either $`SO(10)`$ or $`SU(5)`$ grand unification is valid. Thus, all scalars have masses $`m_0=0`$ at $`M_c`$, but non-zero values at $`M_{GUT}`$. The parameter space of the model consists of

$$m_{1/2},M_c,\mathrm{tan}\beta ,sign(\mu ).$$
(11)
If one insists on a high degree of Yukawa coupling unification, then one is forced to require $`\mu <0`$. In this case, $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ will always be negative. Yukawa coupling unification also highly restricts the allowed values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. Other parameters may be necessary in addition to the above set depending on the specific model of grand unification assumed.

In Fig. 10, we assume the inoMSB boundary conditions to be valid at $`M_c=1\times 10^{18}`$ GeV, and that minimal $`SU(5)`$ grand unification is valid between $`M_c`$ and $`M_{GUT}2\times 10^{16}`$ GeV. We use the $`SU(5)`$ RGEs given in Ref. , with Yukawa couplings $`f_t=0.519`$, and $`f_b=f_\tau =0.277`$ at $`M_{GUT}`$, which are characteristic of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =35`$. Two additional $`SU(5)`$ Yukawa couplings $`\lambda =1`$ and $`\lambda ^{}=0.1`$ are assumed. Several representative sparticle masses are shown in frame a), along with the value of $`|\mu |`$. Note that the lower bound on parameter space of $`m_{1/2}280`$ GeV occurs where $`m_{\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1}=m_{\stackrel{~}{Z}_1}`$. In frame b), we show the corresponding value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$. As expected, it is always negative. However, for $`m_{1/2}>1`$ TeV, it lies within the $`3\sigma `$ bound from E821. In this case, the model is moving towards the region of unnaturalness.

## VI Summary and conclusions

The recently reported measurement of $`a_\mu `$ by the Muon ($`g2`$) Experiment E821 has been interpreted as a harbinger of physics beyond the Standard Model. This will be so if in fact the quoted SM estimate of $`a_\mu `$ and its associated error are verified, and if the experimental measurement is maintained with a reduced error after the analysis of the year 2000 data. If the discrepancy between the measured and theoretical values of $`a_\mu `$ persists, then the result will act as a strong constraint on many forms of new physics, including weak scale supersymmetric matter.

We presented here the values of $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu ^{SUSY}`$ expected in a variety of supersymmetric models. The quoted discrepancy between theory and experiment can easily be accommodated in a variety of supersymmetric models. These include SUGRA and GMSB models with $`\mu >0`$ and moderate to large $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$.

The SUGRA, GMSB and AMSB models at low $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ are disfavored. In addition, models with a negative value of $`\mu M_2`$ are disfavored; this includes models that incorporate a high degree of Yukawa coupling unification such as simple $`SU(5)`$ or $`SO(10)`$ SUSY GUT models, and inoMSB models. Finally, models that invoke a decoupling solution to the SUSY flavor and CP problems are disfavored. These include models with an inverted scalar mass hierarchy, and focus point models at intermediate (but not high) $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. Even so, like the SM, these decoupling models are generally allowed at the $`3\sigma `$ level.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank F. Paige and J. Feng for discussions and comments. This research was supported in part by the U. S. Department of Energy under contract numbers DE-FG02-97ER41022 and DE-FG03-94ER40833. J. Ferrandis was supported by a spanish MEC-FPI grant and by the European Commission TMR contract HPRN-CT-2000-00148.