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# Remark On Quantum Battle of The Sexes Game

## Introduction

Quantum game and quantum strategies is a new born field. Although many novel features have been discovered by researchers in the previous works1 (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), some problems also exist. In a recent article of Luca Marinatto and Tullio Weber6 (6), they proposed a scheme to quantize the famous Battle of The Sexes Game. In the usual exposition of this game, Alice and Bob are trying to decide where to go on Saturday night. Alice wants to attend the Opera, while Bob prefers to watch TV. And both players would be happier to spend the evening together rather than apart. Both players want to maximize their individual payoff. Table (1) indicates the payoffs of Alice and Bob. The first entry in the parenthesis refers to Alice’s payoff, and the second to Bob’s. To satisfy the preferences of the two players, the condition $`\alpha >\beta >\gamma `$ is imposed.

|  | Bob: $`O`$ | Bob: $`T`$ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Alice: $`O`$ | $`(\alpha ,\beta )`$ | $`(\gamma ,\gamma )`$ |
| Alice: $`T`$ | $`(\gamma ,\gamma )`$ | $`(\beta ,\alpha )`$ |

(1)
There are two Nash equilibrium $`(O,O)`$ and $`(T,T)`$ existing in the classical form of the game. Since there is no transfer of information between two players, they face the dilemma in choosing between two stable solutions. If the mismatch situation occurs, that is if one player chooses strategy $`O`$ and the other chooses strategy $`T`$, then the payoff to both players is $`\gamma `$ and it is the worst situation.

Luca Marinatto and Tullio Weber6 (6) give an Hilbert structure to the strategic spaces of the players, so allowing the existence of linear combinations of classical strategies to be interpreted according to usual formalism of orthodox quantum mechanics. They applied this formalism to the study of the Battle of the Sexes Game. The result is that if both players are allowed to play entangled quantum strategies, the game has a unique solution.

This article attracts the attention of S.C. Benjamin and he made a comment7 (7) on it. In his comment two observations were made:“ Firstly, the overall quantization scheme is fundamentally very similar to the scheme proposed by Eisert et al.2 (2)-the similarity is non-obvious because of the very different use of the word ‘strategy’ in the two approaches. Secondly, we argue that the quantum Battle of the Sexes Game does not in fact have a unique solution, hence the players are still subject to a dilemma.” In the work of Luca Marinatto and Tullio Weber6 (6), the initial strategy is set to $`\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|00+|11\right)`$, and ‘tactics’ of the players are limited to a probabilistic choice between applying the identity $`I`$ and $`C=\sigma _x`$. So Benjamin pointed out “this is a severe restriction on the full range of quantum mechanically possible manipulation”. In the scheme of Luca Marinatto and Tullio Weber6 (6), $`p^{}`$ and $`q^{}`$ are used to represent the probability of Alice’s and Bob’s choosing $`\sigma _x`$ respectively. The authors get two profile tactics which satisfy the maximum expected payoff of the players. One is $`\left(p^{}=0,q^{}=0\right)`$ and the other is $`\left(p^{}=1,q^{}=1\right)`$. Since the final entangled quantum ‘strategy’ remains unchanged in either case, so this is the unique solution in the game. However, Benjamin wrote that “it seems to us that a clear dilemma remains for the players”. Because there are two pairs of tactics $`\left(p^{}=0,q^{}=0\right)`$ and $`\left(p^{}=1,q^{}=1\right)`$, without knowing the choice of the other player, the players face the dilemma to choose between them, Benjamin continue, “If the tactics are mismatched, i.e. if either $`\left(p^{}=0,q^{}=1\right)`$ or $`\left(p^{}=1,q^{}=0\right)`$ are adopted, then the worst situation will occur. This is almost the same problem faced by the players in the traditional game.”

In replying these remarks, Luca Marinatto & Tullio Weber outlined some topical points of their work which they hold to be crucial for a better comprehension of their new approach to the quantum theory of games8 (8). Regarding terminology, they think “the choice of calling ‘strategies’ the quantum states instead of the ‘operators’ used to manipulate them, is very natural and quite consistent with the spirit of the classical game theory”. As far as the choice of the tactics set is concerned, they wrote that “obviously the class of allowed manipulations could be enlarged, but in our paper we did not take care of this possibility since our minimal choice was enough to reproduce intact the classical results when considering only factorizable strategies and to obtain the disappearance of the dilemma when resorting to entangled strategies”. As regards the possibility of the occurrence of the mismatch situation, they consider it from the perspective of practical operation. They think that “since both the choices will eventually lead to the same final strategy”, “it is therefore apparent that both players, knowing this fact, will decide doing nothing on their strategy”. They have two reasons for their decision. One is that “doing nothing could be considered cheaper than doing something”. The other is “Which player will in fact decide to refuse a certain gain, without prospects of a better gain and running the risk of incurring a loss?”.

The reply of Luca Marinatto and Tullio Weber sounds reasonable from the perspective of their paper. Yet we consider the terminology ‘strategy’ as the operation of a player on his state. The process of obtaining initial state is not included in the strategic space. According to the concept of the static game, the strategic moves of the players are local operations, and each player has no information about the strategies of other player. Since the process of obtaining initial state $`\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|OO+|TT\right)`$ from $`|OO`$ must be a global operation and every player clearly knows it, so this process could not be called as strategy. Furthermore we think that in the scheme of Luca Marinatto & Tullio Weber the probability $`p^{}`$ and $`q^{},`$ which are used to represent the probability of Alice’s and Bob’s choosing $`\sigma _x`$ respectively, are classical probabilities. Since $`\sigma _x`$ and $`I`$ are equivalent to classical pure strategies “flip” and “not-flip” respectively, the operation of the player could be considered as the classical mixture of classical strategies.

In this paper, we propose a new scheme in which there is no restriction on the quantum mechanically possible manipulations of the players, and the strategy space is the complete set of $`SU\left(2\right)`$. Here the terminology ‘strategy’ is consistent with the one used by Eisert et al.2 (2). And the operation of a player is the probabilistic mixture of the pure quantum strategies. We show that if both players resort to mixed quantum strategy, although there are still many profiles of Nash equilibria, the possible tactic mismatch will have no influence on the players. So the dilemma which exists in the traditional Battle of the Sexes Game is removed.

## I The Quantization of Battle of The Sexes Game

Our physical model for quantizing the game is similar to the delicate scheme introduced by Eisert et al.2 (2, 9). Figure 1 indicates the flow of information in the Battle of the Sexes Game.

It is composed of a source of two bits, one bit for each player. $`|O=\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\end{array}\right)`$ represents the state of going to Opera and $`|T=\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ 1\end{array}\right)`$ represents the state of watching TV. The state of the game is described by a vector in the tensor product space which is spanned by the basis $`|OO`$, $`|OT`$, $`|TO`$ and $`|TT`$, where the first entry refers to Alice’ state and the second to Bob’. Gate $`J`$ is a unitary operator and consist of a Hadamard gate and a C-NOT gate. So the prepared state after gate $`J`$ is

$$|\psi _i=J|OO=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\left(|OO+|TT\right)$$
(2)
So the density matrix of the initial state is

$$\rho _i=|\psi _i\psi _i|$$
(3)
The strategies of Alice and Bob are denoted by unitary operator $`U_A`$ and $`U_B`$. Alice and Bob independently operate on her/his qubit with $`U_A`$ and $`U_B`$ respectively. $`U_A`$ and $`U_B`$ are chosen from the strategy space $`S`$. Considering the possible strategies of the players, the strategy space $`S`$ should be all of $`SU(2)`$, and the general expression of the unitary operator is

$$U(\theta ,\varphi ,\psi )=\left(\begin{array}{cc}e^{i\left(\varphi +\psi \right)/2}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\theta }{2}& ie^{i\left(\varphi \psi \right)/2}\mathrm{sin}\frac{\theta }{2}\\ ie^{i\left(\varphi \psi \right)/2}\mathrm{sin}\frac{\theta }{2}& e^{i\left(\varphi +\psi \right)/2}\mathrm{cos}\frac{\theta }{2}\end{array}\right)$$
(4)
with $`\pi \theta \pi ,\pi \varphi \pi ,\pi \psi \pi `$. We set $`f`$ as the probability of the operator $`U`$ which will be chosen by the players. Naturally $`f`$ is a probability density function with respect to $`U`$. It is obvious that $`f(U)0`$ and $`{\displaystyle _{SU\left(2\right)}}f\left(U\right)dU=1`$. Here we use the invariance of the Haar measure, assumed to be normalized so that the volume of $`SU\left(2\right)`$ is $`1`$. The probabilities of Alice choosing $`U_A`$ and Bob choosing $`U_{B\text{ }}`$are denoted by $`f_A(U_A)`$ and $`f_B(U_B)`$ respectively. So after the strategy moves of Alice and Bob, the final density matrix

$$\rho _f=\underset{A}{}\underset{B}{}f_Af_B\left(U_AU_B\right)\rho _i\left(U_AU_B\right)^+dU_AdU_B$$
(5)
The payoff operators for Alice and Bob are

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\widehat{\$}_A=\alpha |OOOO\left|+\beta \right|TTTT|+\gamma \left(|OTOT|+|TOTO|\right)\\ \widehat{\$}_B=\beta |OOOO\left|+\alpha \right|TTTT|+\gamma \left(|OTOT|+|TOTO|\right)\end{array}$$
(6)
The expected payoffs of Alice and Bob are mean values of these operators and hence are functional of $`f_A`$ and $`f_B`$.

$`\overline{\$}_A(f_A,f_B)`$ $`=`$ $`Tr\left(\rho _f\widehat{\$}_A\right)`$ (7)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{B}{}}f_Af_B\left[Tr\left(\left(U_AU_B\right)\rho _i\left(U_AU_B\right)^+\widehat{\$}_A\right)\right]dU_AdU_B`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{B}{}}f_Af_B\$_A(U_A,U_B)dU_AdU_B`$
$`\overline{\$}_B(f_A,f_B)`$ $`=`$ $`Tr\left(\rho _f\widehat{\$}_B\right)`$ (8)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{B}{}}f_Af_B\left[Tr\left(\left(U_AU_B\right)\rho _i\left(U_AU_B\right)^+\widehat{\$}_B\right)\right]dU_AdU_B`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{B}{}}f_Af_B\$_B(U_A,U_B)dU_AdU_B`$
Where $`\$_A(U_A,U_B)`$ and $`\$_B(U_A,U_B)`$ are the payoff functions of Alice and Bob when they adopt the pure quantum strategies $`U_A`$ and $`U_B`$ respectively, the expression of $`\$_A`$ and $`\$_B`$ are as follows:

$`\$_A`$ $`=`$ $`\alpha P_{OO}+\beta P_{TT}+\gamma \left(P_{OT}+P_{TO}\right)=\left(\alpha \gamma \right)P_{OO}+\left(\beta \gamma \right)P_{TT}+\gamma `$ (9)
$`\$_B`$ $`=`$ $`\alpha P_{OO}+\beta P_{TT}+\gamma \left(P_{OT}+P_{TO}\right)=\left(\beta \gamma \right)P_{OO}+\left(\alpha \gamma \right)P_{TT}+\gamma `$ (10)
Since Alice and Bob adopt the pure quantum strategies, here $`P_{\sigma \tau }=\left|\sigma \tau \left|\left(U_AU_B\right)\right|\psi _i\right|^2`$ is the joint probability of the final state collapses into the basis $`|\sigma \tau `$.

$$P_{OO}=P_{TT}=\frac{1}{4}\left(1+\mathrm{cos}\theta _A\mathrm{cos}\theta _B\mathrm{cos}\left(\psi _A+\psi _B\right)\mathrm{sin}\theta _A\mathrm{sin}\theta _B\right)$$
(11)
From the expression of $`P_{OO}`$ and $`P_{TT}`$, we have

$`\$_A(U_A,U_B)`$ $`=\$_B(U_A,U_B)`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{\alpha +\beta 2\gamma }{4}}\left(1+\mathrm{cos}\theta _A\mathrm{cos}\theta _B\mathrm{cos}\left(\psi _A+\psi _B\right)\mathrm{sin}\theta _A\mathrm{sin}\theta _B\right)+\gamma `$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{\alpha +\beta +2\gamma }{4}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha +\beta 2\gamma }{4}}\left(\mathrm{cos}\theta _A\mathrm{cos}\theta _B\mathrm{cos}\left(\psi _A+\psi _B\right)\mathrm{sin}\theta _A\mathrm{sin}\theta _B\right)`$ (12)
Substitute equation(12) into equations(7,8), we can obtain expressions of $`\overline{\$}_A`$ and $`\overline{\$}_B`$ as funtionals of $`f_A^{}`$ and $`f_B^{}`$.

Now we investigate Nash Equilibrium in this game. The definition of Nash Equilibrium $`\{s_A^{},s_B^{}\}`$ for pure strategy in two-player games can be expressed as the following inequalities

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\$_A(s_A^{},s_B^{})\$_A(s_A,s_B^{})\\ \$_B(s_A^{},s_B^{})\$_B(s_A^{},s_B)\end{array}s_A,s_BSU\left(2\right)$$
(13)
When extended to the mixed strategies ($`f_A`$ and $`f_B`$), the Nash Equilibrium profile $`\{f_A^{},f_B^{}\}`$ can be expressed as follows

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\overline{\$}_A(f_A^{},f_B^{})\overline{\$}_A(f_A,f_B^{})\\ \overline{\$}_B(f_A^{},f_B^{})\overline{\$}_B(f_A^{},f_B)\end{array}f_A0,f_B0,_Af_A𝑑U_A=_Bf_B𝑑U_B=1.$$
(14)
It is obvious that $`f_A^{}0,f_B^{}0,_Af_A^{}𝑑U_A=_Bf_B^{}𝑑U_B=1`$. By using calculus of variations to the equation(14), we obtain the following equations:

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\left(\frac{\delta \overline{\$}_A(f_A,f_B^{})}{\delta f_A}\right)_{f_A=f_A^{}}=\lambda _A\\ \left(\frac{\delta \overline{\$}_B(f_A^{},f_B)}{\delta f_B}\right)_{f_B=f_B^{}}=\lambda _B\end{array}$$
(15)
where $`\lambda _A`$ and $`\lambda _B`$ are constant. From equation(7,8), the left hand of the equation(15) can be rewritten as follows

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\left(\frac{\delta \overline{\$}_A(f_A,f_B^{})}{\delta f_A}\right)_{f_A=f_A^{}}=\underset{B}{}f_B^{}\left(U_B\right)\$_A(U_A,U_B)dU_B\\ \left(\frac{\delta \overline{\$}_B(f_A^{},f_B)}{\delta f_B}\right)_{f_B=f_B^{}}=\underset{A}{}f_A^{}\left(U_A\right)\$_B(U_A,U_B)dU_A\end{array}$$
(16)
From above calculation, we get the following equation.

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\lambda _A=\frac{\delta \overline{\$}_A(f_A,f_B^{})}{\delta f_A}=\underset{B}{}f_B^{}\left(U_B\right)\$_A(U_A,U_B)dU_B\\ \lambda _B=\frac{\delta \overline{\$}_B(f_A^{},f_B)}{\delta f_B}=\underset{A}{}f_A^{}\left(U_A\right)\$_B(U_A,U_B)dU_A\end{array}$$
(17)
Here, the left hand of equation $`\lambda _A`$ (or $`\lambda _B`$) is a constant independent of $`U_A`$ and $`U_B`$, but the right hand of equation(17) generally depends on $`U_A`$ (or $`U_B`$). The equation has o solution without the guarantee of $`f_B^{}\left(U_B\right)`$ (or $`f_A^{}\left(U_A\right)`$) that there is no $`U_A(U_B)`$ in the result of the integral of $`\$_A(U_A,U_B)`$ (or $`\$_B(U_A,U_B)`$). On the other hand, any $`f_A^{}\left(U_A\right)`$ and $`f_B^{}\left(U_B\right)`$ which meet the guarantee of $`f_B^{}\left(U_B\right)`$ (or $`f_A^{}\left(U_A\right)`$) will be solution of equation(17), and the profile $`\{f_A^{},f_B^{}\}`$ will be one of the Nash Equilibria of the game. When Alice’s mixed strategy is $`f_A^{}`$ and Bob’s is $`f_B^{}`$, neither of them can increase her/his payoff by unilaterally changing her/his own strategy.

The solutions of equation (17) are obviously infinite, that means there is no unique stable strategies. However, the possible tactic mismatch will have no influence on the players because for any $`f_A^{}`$ which satisfies equation(17) will yield

$`\overline{\$}_A(f_A^{},f_B^{})`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{B}{}}f_A^{}f_B^{}\$_A(U_A,U_B)dU_AdU_B`$ (18)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}f_A^{}\left[{\displaystyle \underset{B}{}}f_B^{}\$_A(U_A,U_B)dU_B\right]dU_A`$
$`=`$ $`\lambda _A{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}f_A^{}dU_A`$
$`=`$ $`\lambda _A`$ (19)
So the payoff for Alice ($`\overline{\$}_A(f_A^{},f_B^{})`$) is not related to her own strategy ($`f_A^{}`$) but her opponent’s strategy($`f_B^{}`$). Similarly the payoff for Bob ($`\overline{\$}_B(f_A^{},f_B^{})`$) is $`\lambda _B`$, which is not related to his own strategy ($`f_B^{}`$). It is apparent that for any combination of $`f_A^{}`$ and $`f_B^{}`$ which belongs to the stable strategies (solutions of equation(17)), the payoffs for alice is $`\lambda _A`$ and for Bob is $`\lambda _B`$. Further more, through the following caculation we find that the payoffs of Alice and Bob is the same ($`\lambda _A=\lambda _B`$). So the players will not worry about the occurrence of tactic mismatch. Then the dilemma in the classical Battle of The Sexes Game is removed.

From the expression of $`\theta ,\varphi ,\psi `$ in equation(4), the normalized invariance of the Haar measure is

$$dU(\theta ,\varphi ,\psi )=\frac{1}{16\pi ^2}\left|\mathrm{sin}\theta \right|d\theta d\varphi d\psi $$
(20)
So the integration on the right hand of the equation(17) can be rewritten as integration with respect to $`\theta ,\varphi ,\psi `$. For any $`f_A^{}`$ which satisfies the equation(17), we get $`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}f_A^{}\left(U_A\right)\$_B(U_A,U_B)dU_A`$ being independent of $`U_B`$, hence $`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}f_A^{}\left(U_A\right)P_{\sigma \tau }(U_A,U_B)dU_A`$ is independent of $`U_B`$. From the expression of $`P_{\sigma \tau }`$(see equation(11)),after integrating with respect to $`\theta _A,\varphi _A,\psi _A`$, the values of the integration of the terms that contain $`\theta _B,\varphi _B,\psi _B`$ is zero. So we get

$`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}f_A^{}\left(U_A\right)P_{\sigma \tau }(U_A,U_B)dU_A`$ (21)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}f_A^{}\left(U_A\right)P_{OO}(U_A,U_B)dU_A`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}f_A^{}\left(U_A\right)P_{TT}(U_A,U_B)dU_A`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{A}{}}f_A^{}\left(U_A\right)\frac{1}{4}dU_A={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}`$
Repeating the same procedure, we obtain that $`{\displaystyle \underset{B}{}}f_B^{}\left(U_B\right)P_{\sigma \tau }(U_A,U_B)dU_B={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}`$. According to the payoff functions of $`\$_A(U_A,U_B)`$ and $`\$_B(U_A,U_B)`$ (see equation(12)), finally the payoff to both players is $`\overline{\$}_A=\overline{\$}_B=\frac{\alpha +\beta +2\gamma }{4}`$. We list four of the simplest solutions(Nash Equilibria) in the following table:

| $`\left(1\right)`$ | $`f_A^{}=1`$ | $`f_B^{}=1`$ | $`\overline{\$}_A=\overline{\$}_B=\frac{\alpha +\beta +2\gamma }{4}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`\left(2\right)`$ | $`f_A^{}=1`$ | $`f_B^{}=\frac{2}{\pi \left|\mathrm{sin}\theta _B\right|}`$ | $`\overline{\$}_A=\overline{\$}_B=\frac{\alpha +\beta +2\gamma }{4}`$ |
| $`\left(3\right)`$ | $`f_A^{}=\frac{2}{\pi \left|\mathrm{sin}\theta _A\right|}`$ | $`f_B^{}=1`$ | $`\overline{\$}_A=\overline{\$}_B=\frac{\alpha +\beta +2\gamma }{4}`$ |
| $`\left(4\right)`$ | $`f_A^{}=\frac{2}{\pi \left|\mathrm{sin}\theta _A\right|}`$ | $`f_B^{}=\frac{2}{\pi \left|\mathrm{sin}\theta _B\right|}`$ | $`\overline{\$}_A=\overline{\$}_B=\frac{\alpha +\beta +2\gamma }{4}`$ |

Any strategy in the table is a stable solution.

In the classical Battle of The Sexes Game, there are two Nash Equilibria: $`(O,O)`$ and $`(T,T)`$. If the tactic mismatch occurs, the strategic profile becomes $`(O,T)`$ or $`(T,O)`$ and the payoffs turn out to be the worst-case payoff $`\overline{\$}_A=\overline{\$}_B=\gamma `$. In the quantum version of this game, there are more than one Nash Equilibrium appearing when players adopted the deterministic strategies (see in Ref6 (6)), and any tactic mismatch can lead to the worst-case payoffs. While when we propose that if the players adopt quantum mixed strategies, it can be guaranteed that the possible appearance of the tactic-mismatch will have no effect on the payoffs of the players, and the payoffs will always remain as $`\frac{\alpha +\beta +2\gamma }{4}`$.

## II Conclusion

In this paper, the problems existing in the previous quantum Battle of The Sexes Game are studied in detail. We proposed a new scheme, applying mixed quantum strategies, to quantize this game. In our scheme, the players can choose their strategies in the all of $`SU\left(2\right)`$. It means that there is no restriction on the quantum mechanically possible manipulations of the players. We show that if the players resort to the mixed quantum strategy, in the game the equilibria that they reach will be much more efficient than that in its classical version. Furthermore, the tactic-mismatch which is the difficulty faced by the players in the traditional game7 (7) has no effect on the payoffs of the players. Thus the dilemma which exists in the classical Battle of the Sexes Game is truly removed. The scheme of mixed quantum strategy proves successful. We also hope that the scheme of mixed quantum strategy can be useful for the investigation of other quantum games.

Acknowledgement

This project was supported by the National Nature Science Foundation of China (No. 10075041 and No. 10075044) and the Science Foundation for Young Scientists of USTC.


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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The brane world scenarios of Randall and Sundrum  have opened new perspectives in physics beyond the standard model. The one-brane scenario of  (RSII) appears to be particularly interesting from the point of view of gravitation and cosmology.

In RSII, the standard model fields are confined to the boundary of an infinitely extended AdS5 bulk. Four-dimensional gravity is recovered at length scales above the AdS length $`\mathrm{}`$. While related models with warped and non-compact extra dimensions have been considered before , an extensive discussion has been triggered by the specific model of . An important reason for this is the proximity of this construction to recent more formal developments, such as D-branes and the AdS/CFT correspondence. On the phenomenological side, the RSII model demonstrates the extent to which gravity can be changed without violating experimental constraints. This is manifest in the existence of infinitely many, weakly coupled light modes and in the possibility of an unconventional cosmological evolution.

Although there have been many previous treatments of ‘brane cosmology’, the majority of these focus on either the situation for flat extra dimensions , which is highly constrained because of either the problem of bulk gravitons or the radion problem , or on the situation in RSI with the additional ‘TeV-brane’ and radion problems .

In the present paper, we develop the physical picture of the early universe in RSII, including in particular the phenomenologically relevant dynamics of bulk gravitons, the physics of the bulk black hole, the use of the AdS/CFT correspondence to make manifest some properties of the theory in the IR, and the varying early cosmology resulting from the possibility of quite different definitions of the theory in the UV.

The investigation of RSII cosmology and phenomenology was pioneered in  and  respectively. The cosmological evolution is most conveniently discussed in terms of a moving brane with static AdS-Schwarzschild metric in the bulk. This is equivalent to the description with an expanding bulk . The two main unconventional cosmological features are the dark radiation (characterized by the size of the black hole in the bulk) and the $`\rho ^2`$ term in the Friedmann equation. Both effects are governed by the ‘AdS-cosmology scale’ $`M_c=\sqrt{M_4/\mathrm{}}`$, where $`M_4`$ is the 4-dimensional reduced Planck mass. In the most radical scenario with $`\mathrm{}1`$ mm, one has a 5-dimensional reduced Planck mass $`M_5=\sqrt[3]{M_4^2/\mathrm{}}1.1\times 10^5`$ TeV and $`M_c0.7`$ TeV.

So far, much attention has been devoted to the geometrical brane dynamics and its possible extensions  and to the evolution of inhomogeneities in the early universe  (see  for recent reviews). However, the discussion of radiation of gravitons by the brane has been less prominent. An estimate of this effect has been given in . Other, model dependent, sources for dark radiation have been discussed in .

We argue that graviton radiation by the hot brane will unavoidably produce a black hole in the bulk. If one assumes that the black hole was initially very small (e.g., because of inflation on the brane), then the size of the black hole is a calculable function of the reheating temperature. We present a detailed calculation of the rate at which energy is lost to the bulk due to graviton radiation. Our result allows for an extended $`\rho ^2`$ period in the early universe. More specifically, we find that the $`\rho `$ period produces dark radiation corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{d,N}0.005`$ at nucleosynthesis, while a maximally extended $`\rho ^2`$ period can result in $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{d,N}0.05`$. These numbers are small since, parametrically, they are inversely proportional to the number of brane degrees of freedom (this number, which is $`𝒪(100)`$ in the standard model, enhances the expansion rate, thus leaving less time for graviton production). The contribution of the $`\rho ^2`$ period is enhanced by a factor $`ln(T_{\text{max}}/M_c)`$ with the respect to the $`\rho `$ period, where $`T_{\text{max}}`$ is the maximal brane temperature. It is interesting to note that gravitons emitted sufficiently early remain bound to the brane and fall into the horizon only at the end of the $`\rho ^2`$ period. Our numerical results for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{d,N}`$ can be lowered or enhanced by having additional degrees of freedom on the brane or in the bulk respectively. From a phenomenological point of view, it is amusing to note that the size of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_d`$ is potentially observable.

Gubser  has initiated an AdS/CFT description of RSII cosmology (see also ) in which the CFT corresponds to the bulk degrees of freedom. The CFT temperature, which is the bulk temperature near the brane, is responsible for the dark radiation. It is known that the leading corrections to 4d gravity arising from the bulk Kaluza-Klein modes are reproduced by the CFT-gravity coupling. We point out that the direct coupling of brane fields to the CFT can be responsible for the known $`\rho ^2`$ corrections in the Friedmann equation. In addition, at the same densities when these corrections become relevant, higher curvature terms induced by the CFT start to affect the 4d gravity theory. These effects, naively suppressed by $`M_4`$, come in so early because of the large number of degrees of freedom of the CFT. Furthermore, we emphasize that the ‘UV region’ $`r<\mathrm{}`$ of RSII is very different in the string motivated case of AdS$`{}_{5}{}^{}\times `$S5.

Our paper is organized as follows. After discussing the basic cosmological setting and the origin of the bulk black hole in Sect. 2, we derive the energy loss through graviton radiation in Sect. 3. Section 4 deals with the AdS/CFT perspective and, in particular, with the UV definition of RSII. We summarize and outline interesting open questions in Sect. 5 and present some formulae related to the graviton production rate in the Appendix.

## 2 Basics of late cosmological evolution

We start from the 5-dimensional action

$$S=d^5x\sqrt{g_5}\left(\frac{1}{2}M_5^3\mathrm{\Lambda }_5\right)+_{brane}d^4x\sqrt{g_4}(_{SM}\mathrm{\Lambda }_4),$$
(1)
which includes the contribution from a 4-dimensional brane with induced metric $`g_4`$. We suppose that the standard model fields characterized by the Lagrangian $`_{SM}`$ are localized on this brane. The situation is further simplified by identifying the regions on both sides of the brane, i.e., imposing $`Z_2`$ orbifold boundary conditions on the 5-dimensional space-time. Our treatment of the dynamics of this system will follow closely the particularly clear and compact discussion of Kraus .

The motion of the brane follows from the 5-dimensional Einstein equations. It can be characterized most conveniently in terms of the extrinsic curvature $`K_{\mu \nu }`$ of the brane (with brane indices $`\mu ,\nu =0\mathrm{}3`$). $`K_{\mu \nu }`$, also known as the second fundamental form, can be defined as the projection of

$$K_{MN}=_Mn_N,$$
(2)
(with bulk indices $`M,N=0\mathrm{}4`$) onto the brane, where $`n_N`$ is the unit normal. Then the brane motion is determined by the Israel junction condition  (see also )

$$K_{\mu \nu }^+K_{\mu \nu }^{}=2K_{\mu \nu }=\frac{1}{M_5^3}\left(T_{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{3}T_\rho ^\rho g_{4,\mu \nu }\right),$$
(3)
where the index ‘+’ refers to the side of the brane to which $`n^N`$ points and the index ‘$``$’ refers to the opposite side of the brane. The energy-momentum tensor $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ follows from the brane action in Eq. (1).

For negative $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_5`$, the AdS metric

$$ds^2=\frac{r^2}{\mathrm{}^2}dt^2+r^2(d\stackrel{}{x})^2+\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{r^2}dr^2,$$
(4)
with $`\mathrm{}^2=6M_5^3/|\mathrm{\Lambda }_5|`$, represents a vacuum solution of the 5-dimensional Einstein equations. If, in addition, the 4-dimensional cosmological constant, i.e., the brane tension, satisfies the relation $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4=6M_5^3/\mathrm{}`$, then the Israel junction conditions allow for an empty brane to be at rest in the above coordinates, e.g., at the position $`r=R`$.

In this situation, the brane observer sees 4-dimensional gravity at distance scales greater than $`\mathrm{}`$. The corresponding reduced Planck mass, $`M_4=1/\sqrt{8\pi G_4}`$, is fixed by the relation

$$M_4^2=M_5^3\mathrm{},$$
(5)
where $`M_5`$ is the analogously defined 5-dimensional reduced Planck mass. Thus, in our following analysis, it will be convenient to consider $`M_4`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$ as our basic physical parameters and $`M_5`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_5`$ as derived quantities.

Starting from Gauss’s Theorema Egregium (see, e.g., ), which expresses the bulk curvature near the brane in terms of the intrinsic and extrinsic brane curvatures, and replacing the extrinsic brane curvature with the brane energy-momentum tensor according to Eq. (3), one arrives at  (see also )

$$M_4^2_{\mu \nu }^4=\tau _{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{2}\tau g_{4,\mu \nu }\frac{1}{4M_c^4}\tau _\mu ^\rho \left(\tau _{\rho \nu }\frac{1}{3}\tau g_{4,\rho \nu }\right)+M_4^2\delta _{\mu \rho \nu \sigma }^5g_4^{\rho \sigma }.$$
(6)
Here $`\tau _{\mu \nu }=T_{\mu \nu }+\mathrm{\Lambda }_4g_{4,\mu \nu }`$ is the matter contribution to the brane energy-momentum tensor, $`_{\mu \nu }^4`$ is the brane Ricci tensor and $`\delta _{\mu \rho \nu \sigma }^5`$ is the brane projection of the deviation of the bulk curvature tensor from its pure-AdS value. As will be discussed in detail below, the ‘AdS-cosmology scale’

$$M_c=\sqrt{M_4/\mathrm{}}$$
(7)
plays a prominent role in the cosmology of the Randall-Sundrum model. It is intermediate with respect to the AdS-scale $`1/\mathrm{}`$ and the ‘strong gravity scale’ $`M_5=\sqrt[3]{M_4^2/\mathrm{}}`$ since, in the physically interesting limit $`1/\mathrm{}M_4`$, one has $`1/\mathrm{}M_cM_5`$. Equation (6) reduces to the Einstein equation for the induced brane metric in the limit where the bulk is pure AdS and energy densities on the brane are much smaller than $`M_c^4`$.

To discuss cosmology, we have to introduce hot matter on the brane. In this situation, the bulk solution, Eq. (4), is not general enough. The reason for this is the unavoidable graviton radiation off the brane. No matter how small the amount of energy lost to the bulk might be, it will fall deep into the AdS bulk and produce, at least if back-reaction on the metric is neglected, an arbitrarily high local energy density. The only plausible physical resolution of this problem that we are aware of is offered by the creation of a black hole in the bulk.

To see this more explicitly, consider the trajectory of a graviton radiated at time $`t=0`$ by a static brane at position $`R`$. At large $`t`$, this trajectory is given by

$$r=\frac{R}{1+(Rt/\mathrm{}^2)\mathrm{sin}\phi }\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{t\mathrm{sin}\phi },$$
(8)
where $`\phi `$ is the angle between the initial graviton momentum and the brane. (The dependence on this angle is obtained most easily by considering brane-perpendicular radiation first and then boosting the configuration along the brane.) Assume next that a 3-dimensional energy density $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho `$ is lost to gravitons with angles between $`\phi `$ and $`\phi +\mathrm{\Delta }\phi `$. At large $`t`$, these gravitons will be found in a slice of the AdS bulk of invariant thickness

$$\frac{\mathrm{}}{r}\mathrm{\Delta }r\frac{\mathrm{}}{r}\frac{\mathrm{}^2\mathrm{cos}\phi }{t\mathrm{sin}^2\phi }\mathrm{\Delta }\phi \frac{\mathrm{cos}\phi }{\mathrm{sin}\phi }\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Delta }\phi .$$
(9)
Note that the separation of gravitons in $`r`$ direction due to different times of their emission from the brane is small compared to the separation due to different angles of emission. In the rest frame of the matter on the brane, the brane-parallel components of the graviton momenta are isotropically distributed. Therefore the radiation in the above slice $`\mathrm{\Delta }r`$ has its own ‘rest frame’. In this frame, the momenta in $`r`$ direction vanish and the momenta in brane direction are blue-shifted by a factor $`R/r`$ with respect to their original values. Furthermore, the density in brane direction is increased by a factor $`(R/r)^3`$ due to AdS geometry. Thus, the 4-dimensional energy density of the radiation at position $`r`$, measured in its own rest frame, is given by

$$\rho _r\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\rho }{(\mathrm{}/r)\mathrm{\Delta }r}\left(\frac{R}{r}\right)^4\mathrm{cos}\phi \frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\rho }{\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Delta }\phi }\left(\frac{R}{r}\right)^4\mathrm{sin}\phi .$$
(10)
This local energy density diverges as $`r0`$ and we are forced to conclude that eventually a horizon will form, hiding any possible super-Planck-scale effects from our view. Thus, the relevant bulk metric is given by the AdS-Schwarzschild solution

$$ds^2=f(r)dt^2+r^2(d\stackrel{}{x})^2+f(r)^1dr^2$$
(11)
with

$$f(r)=\frac{r^2}{\mathrm{}^2}\left(1\frac{r_h^4}{r^4}\right),$$
(12)
where $`r_h`$ is the position of the black hole horizon.

Now the Israel junction conditions or, equivalently, Eq. (6) lead to the following equation of motion for the brane:

$$3M_4^2\left(\frac{\dot{R}}{R}\right)^2=\rho \left(1+\frac{\rho }{12M_c^4}\right)+3M_c^4\left(\frac{r_h}{R}\right)^4,$$
(13)
where $`\dot{R}=dR/d\tau `$ and $`\tau `$ is the proper time of the brane observer. Since the brane metric is given by

$$ds_b^2=d\tau ^2+R^2(d\stackrel{}{x})^2,$$
(14)
the small-$`\rho `$ and small-$`r_h`$ limit of Eq. (13) reproduces the familiar 4-dimensional Friedmann equation. Deviations are characterized by $`M_c`$. On the one hand, $`M_c`$ determines the scale at which the $`\rho ^2`$ term in Eq. (13) becomes important. On the other hand, it sets the scale of the last term on the rhs of Eq. (13). This term, which contributes to the expansion rate like an energy density $`\rho _d`$ of ‘dark radiation’, is $`M_c^4`$ if the brane is near the black hole horizon, $`Rr_h`$. Furthermore, as will be discussed in detail in the next section, the radiation of bulk gravitons competes with the Hubble expansion rate $`H=\dot{R}/R`$ at brane temperatures $`T\stackrel{>}{}M_c`$.

Let us add a comment concerning the position of the horizon (or, equivalently, the size of the black hole) characterized by $`r_h`$. As can be seen from Eqs. (11)–(14), the absolute value of this quantity is not physical. In fact, nothing changes if one rescales the bulk coordinates and the positions of brane and horizon according to

$$x^\mu \alpha x^\mu ,rr/\alpha \text{and}RR/\alpha ,r_hr_h/\alpha ,$$
(15)
with some real number $`\alpha >0`$. The important physical parameter is the ratio $`r_h/R`$ (see Eq. (13)). Note furthermore that this degeneracy is lifted if one considers closed or open geometries, where $`f(r)=k+r^2/\mathrm{}^2(1r_h^2/r^2)`$ with $`k=\pm 1`$. However, since we are only interested in the early universe, we will primarily consider the flat case with $`k=0`$.

## 3 Dark radiation and graviton emission into the bulk

Let us start with the cross section for the production of bulk gravitons by matter on the brane. If the cms-energy of the collision is large compared to particle masses, $`\sqrt{s}m`$, and to the typical scale of the AdS-space curvature, $`\sqrt{s}1/\mathrm{}`$, the only relevant scales in the process are $`\sqrt{s}`$ and the 5-dimensional Planck mass. Since the cross section has to be proportional to the 5-dimensional gravitational coupling, we expect $`\sigma (s)\sqrt{s}/M_5^3`$ on dimensional grounds. 111 This result differs from what is implied by Eq. (33) of  (see also our Eq. (19)). The discrepancy arises because the estimate of Ref.  is based on the leading corrections to 4-dimensional gravity. By contrast, we find that the relevant regime is $`\sqrt{s}1/\mathrm{}`$, i.e., truly 5-dimensional gravity. As a result, we get weaker bounds and high allowed brane temperatures.

The exact results, which are derived in the Appendix utilizing previous work of , can be summarized by writing

$$\sigma _i(s)=c_i\frac{\sqrt{s}}{M_5^3}.$$
(16)
The appropriate numerical constants for the cases of scalars, vector particles and fermions (with initial-state spin averaging included) are given by

$$c_s=\frac{1}{12},c_v=\frac{1}{4},c_f=\frac{1}{16}.$$
(17)
In a hot plasma, the reaction rate per 3-volume is obtained by thermally averaging the cross section $`\sigma `$ for the process under consideration and multiplying it with the squared number density $`n`$ of the initial state particles (see, e.g., Ref. ). Analogously, the total rate of energy loss due to bulk graviton radiation is obtained by thermally averaging the product of cross section and lost energy (to avoid double counting the number of interactions between identical particles, a factor $`1/2`$ has to be included):

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\dot{\rho }=\frac{1}{2}\sigma v_{\text{rel}}En^2=\frac{1}{2}d^3p_1d^3p_2f(E_1)f(E_2)\sigma v_{\text{rel}}(E_1+E_2).$$
(18)
Here $`f(E)=\kappa (2\pi )^3(\mathrm{exp}(E/T)\pm 1)^1`$ is the distribution function for bosons (minus sign) or fermions (plus sign) with $`\kappa `$ spin degrees of freedom and $`v_{\text{rel}}`$ is the relative velocity of the colliding particles. Using the cross section of Eq. (16) and setting particle masses to zero, one finds

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\dot{\rho }=\frac{2T^8c_i}{5\pi ^4M_5^3}\kappa _i^2\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{7}{2})\zeta (\frac{7}{2})\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{9}{2})\zeta (\frac{9}{2}),$$
(19)
in the bosonic case. An additional factor $`a_f=(12^{5/2})(12^{7/2})0.750`$ arises in the fermionic case.

Summing the different particle species and normalizing to the total energy density of a relativistic gas one obtains

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\dot{\rho }}{\rho }=C\frac{T^4}{M_5^3},$$
(20)
where

$$C=0.574\frac{g_sc_s+2g_vc_v+2g_fa_fc_f}{g_s+g_v+(7/8)g_f},$$
(21)
for $`g_s`$ scalar, $`g_v`$ vector, and $`g_f`$ fermionic degrees of freedom. The factors 2 in front of $`g_v`$ and $`g_f`$ are due to the 2 spin degrees of freedom of massless vector particles and fermions. In the standard model, $`g_s=4`$, $`g_v=24`$ and $`g_f=90`$, leading to $`C=0.112`$.

At sufficiently late times, the expansion of the universe is governed by 4-dimensional gravity. To be more specific, this period is characterized by $`1/H\mathrm{}`$ or $`\rho M_c`$, which means that the term linear in $`\rho `$ dominates the rhs of Eq. (13) (‘$`\rho `$ period’). In this situation, effective 4-dimensional energy-momentum conservation ensures that the loss of energy-density on the brane is equal to the gain of dark energy-density $`\rho _d`$,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\dot{\rho }+\mathrm{\Delta }\dot{\rho }_d=0,$$
(22)
where both $`\rho `$ and $`\rho _d`$ scale like radiation: $`\dot{\rho }=4H\rho +\mathrm{\Delta }\dot{\rho }`$ and $`\dot{\rho }_d=4H\rho _d+\mathrm{\Delta }\dot{\rho }_d`$. Thus, even if $`\rho _d=0`$ at some initial time $`\tau _1`$, it will develop a non-zero late-time value characterized by $`\mathrm{\Omega }_d=\rho _d/(\rho +\rho _d)`$. If $`\rho _d\rho `$, we have

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_d=_{\tau _1}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\tau \left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\dot{\rho }}{\rho }\right),$$
(23)
where the integrand is given by Eq. (20). Employing the relation $`\rho =g_{}(\pi ^2/30)T^4`$ (where $`g_{}`$ is the effective number of degrees of freedom, $`g_{}=g_s+g_v+(7/8)g_f`$ ), the temperature factor $`T^4`$ can be expressed through $`\rho `$. Now the integral in Eq. (23) is easily performed, giving the result

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_d=\frac{15C}{g_{}\pi ^2}\sqrt{\frac{3\rho _1}{M_c^4}},$$
(24)
where $`\rho _1`$ is the radiation density at $`\tau =\tau _1`$. The largest value of $`\rho _1`$ compatible with linear $`\rho `$ behaviour is $`\rho _112M_c^4`$ (cf. Eq. (13)), leading to

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_d=\frac{90C}{g_{}\pi ^2}.$$
(25)
Assuming that the evolution of the universe after the decoupling of bulk gravitons (which is complete soon after the beginning of the $`\rho `$ period) respects entropy conservation, one finds that at the time of nucleosynthesis

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{d,N}=\left(\frac{g_{,N}}{g_{}}\right)^{1/3}\mathrm{\Omega }_d.$$
(26)
Here $`g_{,N}10.75`$ is the number of light degrees of freedom at nucleosynthesis. Thus, one arrives at the result that bulk graviton production during the complete $`\rho `$ period only gives rise to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_d=0.0044`$, i.e., somewhat less than 0.5% of energy density in dark radiation. The smallness of this contribution is a direct result of the large number of light fields on the brane, which leads to a fast expansion and a correspondingly fast cooling of the universe.

The above result is encouraging for two reasons. First it implies that late cosmological evolution in the RSII model is quite safe (although not without a potential signature in future accurate CMBR measurements) even assuming the most extreme values for $`\mathrm{}`$ and $`M_5`$. Second it allows for a cosmological $`\rho ^2`$ period with hot matter on the brane. However, also during the $`\rho ^2`$ period matter is lost to dark radiation and we have to calculate the resulting contribution to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_d`$. Since we do not have effective 4-dimensional gravity during the $`\rho ^2`$ period, the energy lost by the brane is not necessarily the same as the energy found at late times in dark radiation, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{lost}\mathrm{\Omega }_d`$. Equation (23) is still valid, but with the lhs replaced by $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{lost}`$ and with $`\tau _1`$ as the upper limit of integration,

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{lost}=_{\tau _0}^{\tau _1}𝑑\tau \left(\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\dot{\rho }}{\rho }\right).$$
(27)
Here $`\tau _0`$ is the earliest time at which our analysis is valid, e.g., the time of reheating.

The Friedmann equation in the $`\rho ^2`$ period,

$$6M_5^3H=\rho ,$$
(28)
which follows from Eq. (13) in the limit $`\rho M_c^4`$, implies that $`\rho 1/\tau `$ and $`H=(1/4\tau )`$. In this situation, Eqs. (20) and (27) give

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_{lost}=\frac{45C}{g_{}\pi ^2}ln(\rho _0/\rho _1)\frac{90C}{g_{}\pi ^2}\frac{1}{3}ln\left(M_4\mathrm{}/12^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}/2}\right).$$
(29)
The last approximate equality follows by assuming $`\rho _0M_5^4`$, the highest density compatible with weakly interacting gravity. This result shows an enhancement by a potentially large factor $`(1/3)ln(M_4\mathrm{})`$ compared to Eq. (25).

We still have to adress the question of how $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{lost}`$ at the $`\rho ^2`$ period translates into $`\mathrm{\Omega }_d`$ at late times. This is most easily done from the brane perspective. During the $`\rho ^2`$ period, the brane moves with almost speed-of-light through the AdS bulk (a natural bulk rest frame can be defined by the black-hole horizon or, equivalently, by the late-time limit, where the brane is almost at rest). The (absolute) acceleration of the brane can be calculated using the standard formula

$$a^M=u^N_Nu^M,$$
(30)
where $`u^M=dx^M/d\tau `$ is the velocity of a particle at rest on the brane. Multiplying this acceleration with the brane normal vector $`n^M`$ (which is, in fact, the direction of the acceleration) and making use of the orthogonality relation $`nu=n_Mu^M=0`$, one derives

$$a=na=u^Mu^N_Mn_N.$$
(31)
This is precisely the $`\tau \tau `$ component of the extrinsic curvature $`K_{\mu \nu }`$. Using the Israel junction condition, Eq. (3), and defining $`n^M`$ to point into the direction of increasing $`r`$, the acceleration is found to be

$$a=\frac{1}{2M_5^3}(\mathrm{\Lambda }_4+\rho ).$$
(32)
Notice first that this provides a nice physical interpretation of the Israel junction condition: the brane motion is determined by the brane acceleration, which, in turn, is determined by the energy density on the brane. Furthermore, deep in the $`\rho ^2`$ period, the brane can be thought of as accelerating into the direction of decreasing $`r`$ with $`a\rho /M_5^3`$. This implies that gravitons radiated by the brane are accelerated towards the brane with the same acceleration $`a`$. Since, in a thermalized situation, gravitons are emitted with smooth angular distribution, most of them will fall back onto the brane after having reached a maximal distance

$$d\frac{1}{a}\frac{M_5^3}{\rho }.$$
(33)
Clearly, this discussion becomes invalid if $`d\stackrel{>}{}\mathrm{}`$, since then the AdS curvature takes over and determines the future path of the graviton. In this situation, the graviton will not return to the brane but fall into the black hole horizon.

The critical value of $`\rho `$ is determined Eq. (33) with $`a1/\mathrm{}`$,

$$\rho \frac{M_5^3}{\mathrm{}}M_c^4.$$
(34)
This means that virtually no gravitons leave the vicinity of the brane during the $`\rho ^2`$ period. Instead, the gravitons radiated by the brane remain gravitationally bound to the brane and fall into the black hole only at the end of the $`\rho ^2`$ period, when the motion of the brane becomes non-relativistic.

Between its initial emission and its final fall into the horizon, each graviton can bounce off the brane many times. During this process, the graviton momentum parallel to the brane remains unchanged except for the trivial redshift factor associated with the AdS geometry. However, the momentum transverse to the brane decreases dramatically. This is seen most easily by observing that, in the black hole frame, the graviton is reflected many times by the retreating brane, losing part of its momentum in the $`r`$ direction with each reflection.

Thus, we expect that the $`\rho ^2`$ period contributes an amount $`\mathrm{\Omega }_d=\alpha \mathrm{\Omega }_{lost}`$ (with $`\alpha <1`$) to the late-time dark energy fraction. A lower bound on the constant $`\alpha `$ can be derived by assuming that only the energy going into the brane-parallel motion of the radiated gravitons will survive the multiple reflection phase and make it into the black hole horizon. This corresponds to replacing the factor $`(E_1+E_2)`$ in Eq. (18) by $`|\stackrel{}{p}_1+\stackrel{}{p}_2|`$. Recalling that $`\sigma \sqrt{s}`$ and $`v_{\text{rel}}=1\mathrm{cos}\theta `$, one finds

$$\alpha =\frac{d^3p_1d^3p_2f(E_1)f(E_2)\sqrt{s}(1\mathrm{cos}\theta )|\stackrel{}{p}_1+\stackrel{}{p}_2|}{d^3p_1d^3p_2f(E_1)f(E_2)\sqrt{s}(1\mathrm{cos}\theta )(E_1+E_2)}.$$
(35)
To get an estimate, we use the relation

$$|\stackrel{}{p}_1+\stackrel{}{p}_2|=\sqrt{E_1^2+E_2^2+2E_1E_2\mathrm{cos}\theta }(E_1+E_2)\sqrt{(1+\mathrm{cos}\theta )/2},$$
(36)
where $`\theta `$ is the angle between $`\stackrel{}{p}_1`$ and $`\stackrel{}{p}_2`$ and the equality is realized for $`E_1=E_2`$. Since $`\sqrt{s}\sqrt{1\mathrm{cos}\theta }`$ and since the angular integration is performed with the measure $`d(\mathrm{cos}\theta )`$, the following bound can be derived:

$$\alpha >\frac{_1^1d(\mathrm{cos}\theta )\sqrt{(1+\mathrm{cos}\theta )/2}(1\mathrm{cos}\theta )^{3/2}}{_1^1d\mathrm{cos}\theta (1\mathrm{cos}\theta )^{3/2}}=\frac{5\pi }{32}.$$
(37)
Thus, we find $`0.5\stackrel{<}{}\alpha <1`$, and the maximally extended $`\rho ^2`$ period produces a dark energy contribution

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_d=\frac{90C}{g_{}\pi ^2}\frac{\alpha }{3}ln\left(M_4\mathrm{}/12^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}/2}\right),$$
(38)
where $`C`$ is defined in Eq. (21). Even for the conservative number $`\alpha 0.5`$, this clearly dominates over the contribution from the $`\rho `$ period and corresponds, in the most optimistic scenario with $`\mathrm{}1\text{mm}=1/(0.2\text{meV})`$, to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{d,N}0.05`$. Such a value is marginally consistent with present nucleosynthesis bounds and would probably be visible in future CMBR analyses.

As we discuss in the next section, the role of the black hole in late cosmology has a nice interpretation in the AdS/CFT correspondence. However, the $`\rho ^2`$-period depends crucially on which definition of RSII cosmology is chosen – that inherited from the AdS/CFT correspondence, or the above naive ‘brane in AdS5’ definition.

## 4 The AdS/CFT definition

Many of the confusions concerning the early cosmology of RSII stem from the fact that there are various definitions of the theory, which accord with each other in the IR, but which can differ in their high-energy and high-temperature behaviour. The first definition is that employed by RSII and is the one used in the previous sections. Specifically, this involves a brane whose motion continues to be well-described by five-dimensional gravity at length scales below the AdS length $`\mathrm{}`$, the 5d gravity description only breaking down at the fundamental 5d Planck length $`1/M_5`$.

The second definition, which we now discuss, arises from the AdS/CFT correspondence . Although more complicated in detail, this definition has the significant advantage that it is embedded in a richer context, allowing in principle a self-consistent discussion of high-energy (and high-temperature) effects via the connection to string theory.

Let us recall some basic aspects of the AdS/CFT correspondence in the most studied case. IIB string theory on AdS$`{}_{5}{}^{}\times `$S5 is conjectured to be equivalent to an $`𝒩=4`$ supersymmetric Yang-Mills conformal field theory on the boundary of AdS5. Defining the ’t Hooft coupling of the boundary $`SU(N)`$ SYM theory $`\lambda =g_{YM}^2N`$, the relation between the parameters of the theories is

$$g_{YM}^2=4\pi g_s,\left(\frac{\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}_s}\right)^4=\left(\frac{R_{S^5}}{\mathrm{}_s}\right)^4=\lambda ,$$
(39)
where $`g_s`$ and $`\mathrm{}_s`$ are the string coupling and length, and $`R_{S^5}`$ is the radius of the S5. That the boundary of the full 10-dimensional space is just 4-dimensional is easily seen from inspecting the AdS$`{}_{5}{}^{}\times `$S5 metric

$$ds^2=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{z^2}\left\{dz^2+dx^2+z^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_5^2\right\}$$
(40)
in the limit $`z0`$. Note that the radius of the S5 part of the background, as measured by an observer located at $`z=\mathrm{}`$, is $`\mathrm{}`$. This feature is quite generic, applying to the broad class of backgrounds of the form AdS$`{}_{5}{}^{}\times `$M5, since it derives from the ballancing of curvature contributions from the AdS5 and M5 in the bulk equations of motion.

The precise fashion in which these two theories correspond is most easily described in terms of the generating functional of correlation functions for the boundary theory

$$Z[\psi (x)]=\mathrm{exp}𝑑x\psi (x)𝒪(x)$$
(41)
where $`𝒪(x)`$ are a complete set of operators of the boundary theory, and $`\psi `$ are, for the moment, just the associated sources. The proposal of Refs. is to identify $`Z[\psi (x)]`$ with the functional integral of the AdS$`{}_{5}{}^{}\times `$S5 theory, with specified boundary behaviour for the fields:

$$Z[\psi (x)]=[d\mathrm{\Psi }(z,x)]\mathrm{exp}\left(S_{\text{IIB}}[\mathrm{\Psi }(z,x)]\right)|_{\mathrm{\Psi }(z0,x)\psi (x)}.$$
(42)
In the limit of large $`N`$ and large ’t Hooft coupling $`\lambda `$, the bulk IIB string theory goes over to its (super)gravity limit in the tree approximation. In fact, a similar correspondence with a 4d boundary CFT is believed to apply much more generally for any gravity theory formulated on AdS5. In particular we will, for simplicity, consider the non-supersymmetric case in the following.

It is important that, because of the short-distance singularities of the correlators, the above expressions must be regulated so that they are well-defined. A natural way of doing this is to impose the boundary conditions at a finite cutoff $`z=z_c`$ rather than at $`z=0`$. By the Weyl rescaling symmetry of the coordinates $`(z,x)`$, changes in the $`z`$ coordinate of AdS5 can be reinterpreted as changes in the energy scale of the CFT process under consideration, with $`z0`$ corresponding to the UV limit of the boundary conformal theory. Thus the cutoff at $`z=z_c`$ implements a UV regulation of the boundary theory. In order to get a well-defined limit as the cutoff is removed, $`z_c0`$, the boundary theory must be supplemented by counterterms depending on the boundary values of the bulk fields. Moreover, the cutoff at $`z=z_c`$ also allows the normalizability of the bulk AdS graviton zero mode, the existence of such a mode implying that the regulated boundary theory now also couples to dynamical gravity. In the limit of $`z_c0`$, the boundary theory becomes a pure CFT decoupled from gravity, the effective Planck mass of the boundary theory $`M_4`$ going to infinity as the graviton zero mode becomes non-normalizable.

In the specific case we are interested in, this cutoff is implemented by a physical ‘Planck brane’ located at $`z_c`$. This Planck brane provides a physical cutoff for the bulk theory and the theory on the Planck brane is a 4-dimensional CFT coupled to dynamical 4-dimensional gravity arising from the graviton zero mode. The CFT degrees of freedom are just the new expression of the bulk Kaluza-Klein modes of the graviton in this 4d ‘holographic’ approach.

Following Refs., it is useful to be more explicit about the result of this procedure in the simple case where the only bulk field is the 5-dimensional metric $`g_5(x,z)`$, with boundary value $`g_4(x)`$ at the Planck (regulator) brane at $`z_c`$.222In addition, we suppose that there are fields $`\phi `$ localized to the Planck brane which represent the standard model degrees of freedom. In general, string theory imposes strong consistency requirements relating the spectrum of brane-localized fields to the bulk field content, so our assumption of $`g_5`$ as the sole bulk field is not really justified. However it is sufficient to illustrate the point at hand. The boundary operator for which $`g_4`$ is the source is just the energy-momentum tensor $`T_{\mathrm{CFT}}^{\mu \nu }`$ of the CFT, so the integration over all bulk metrics will lead to the generating functional $`Z[g_4]=\mathrm{exp}(g_{4,\mu \nu }T_{\mathrm{CFT}}^{\mu \nu })_{\mathrm{CFT}}`$ for correlation functions of $`T_{\mathrm{CFT}}`$. In addition, counterterms in the boundary metric $`g_{4,\mu \nu }`$ must be added. Together this leads to a boundary theory described by the effective action

$$S_{4\mathrm{d}}[g_4,\phi ]=d^4x\sqrt{g_4}\left\{(\phi )\frac{1}{2}M_4^2b_4_2+\mathrm{}\right\}.$$
(43)
Here $`_2=^{\mu \nu }_{\mu \nu }/8+^2/24`$ is the leading higher-derivative pure metric piece of the counterterm action, and $`b_4=cf(z_c)`$ where $`f(z_c)`$ is a function that has a $`\mathrm{log}(z_c)`$ singularity as $`z_c0`$, and $`c=2\pi ^2(M_5\mathrm{})^3`$ is the central charge of the boundary CFT.

At long distances this effective action correctly reproduces the gravitational potential between two masses located on the Planck brane including leading corrections:

$$V(r)=\frac{m_1m_2}{M_4^2}\left(\frac{1}{r}+a\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{r^3}+\mathrm{}\right),$$
(44)
for $`r\mathrm{}`$, and $`a`$ a numerical coefficient. In the original bulk AdS5 picture, the $`1/r^3`$ correction is due to the exchange of the continuous spectrum of Kaluza-Klein modes, while in the boundary CFT + 4-dimensional gravity description, the correction is due to the two-point function of the CFT energy-momentum tensor with two external 4d graviton propagators $`(1/p^2)T(p)T(p)(1/p^2)\mathrm{log}p^2`$. Recall that the two-point function of $`T_{\mathrm{CFT}}`$ satisfies

$$T(p)T(p)cp^4\mathrm{log}p^2$$
(45)
with $`c`$ the central charge.

Note that an inspection of the calculation of Ref.  shows that for fixed 4d Planck mass, $`M_4`$, the central charge $`c/2\pi ^2=(M_5\mathrm{})^3=(M_4\mathrm{})^2`$ of the boundary CFT depends only on the geometry of the AdS5 (through the parameter $`\mathrm{}`$). In particular, for equal values of $`\mathrm{}`$, the two theories defined by taking the geometry to be respectively either AdS5 or AdS$`{}_{5}{}^{}\times `$S5 have the same 4d CFT + 4d gravity description in the IR.333 In fact, because of the isometries of S5, the IR CFT of the AdS$`{}_{5}{}^{}\times `$S5 has additional conserved currents. However, the central charge and thus the late cosmology of the two models is the same (cf. Eq. (46)).  Since the theories most certainly differ for length scales $`r<\mathrm{}`$ (the static gravitational potential behaving as $`V(r)1/r^2`$ or $`1/r^7`$ in the two cases), the 4d CFT + gravity description must break down at $`r\mathrm{}`$ due to the existence of new strong couplings possibly involving new degrees of freedom.

As pointed out by Gubser , the CFT perspective is particularly useful for a physical understanding of the dark radiation term in the Friedmann equation. The AdS-Schwarzschild geometry implies, by continuation to Euclidean space, a black hole temperature $`T_{\mathrm{BH}}=r_h/\pi \mathrm{}^2`$. This corresponds to a local temperature $`T(r)=T_{\mathrm{BH}}/\sqrt{f(r)}`$ in the bulk . For $`Rr_h`$, the temperature near the brane is $`T(R)r_h/(\pi \mathrm{}R)`$. Thus, the brane observer interprets the CFT, represented by the bulk degrees of freedom, as being heated to this temperature. At weak coupling, the energy density of the heated CFT is given by $`\rho =2\pi ^2cT^4`$. Taking into account the famous factor $`3/4`$ (see, e.g., ), which is due to strong coupling effects in the CFT, one finds

$$\rho =\frac{3\pi ^2}{2}c[T(R)]^4,$$
(46)
which is precisely the dark radiation term of Eq. (13). Note that, phenomenologically, $`T(R)`$ has to be much smaller than the standard model temperature on the brane. Otherwise, the dark radiation completely dominates the total energy density due to the large number of degrees of freedom of the CFT.

Near the horizon, $`f(r)`$ goes to zero and the local bulk temperature diverges. Nevertheless, the brane observer in a cosmological setting sees an effective bulk temperature $`T=r_h/(\pi \mathrm{}R)`$, since the red-shift factor from the brane motion in the black-hole rest frame compensates the singular behaviour of $`1/\sqrt{f(r)}`$. We have, at present, no deeper understanding of this intriguing fact. Note, however, that the naive formula $`T(r)=T_{\mathrm{BH}}/\sqrt{f(r)}`$, which underlies the above discussion, should in itself be questioned near the horizon, since it is in principle affected by the ambiguities of the definition of the black-hole vacuum state (cf. ).

In the cosmological context of the earlier sections, an immediate question is if the $`\rho ^2`$ correction in the Friedmann equation (13) is similarly reproduced by the AdS/CFT description Eq.(43). At first glance the answer appears to be no, as the $`\phi `$-matter energy-momentum tensor derived from $`(\phi )`$ couples linearly with $`g_{4,\mu \nu }`$. However, the existence of the higher-derivative terms $`_2=^{\mu \nu }_{\mu \nu }/8+^2/24`$ in the 4d action Eq.(43) leads to an effective $`\rho ^2`$ correction.444 After completion of this paper we were kindly informed of the recent work of Ref. , where the correct coefficient of the $`\rho ^2`$ term in the pure AdS5 case has been verified.  (Recall that these higher-derivative terms are predicted by the conformal anomaly of the boundary CFT and occur with coefficient $`b_4`$ enhanced by $`c`$.) To see this, consider the Friedmann equations in the limit that $`\rho M_c^4`$; in this case the Hubble length $`H^1\mathrm{}`$. Then in the leading approximation $`H^2\rho /M_4^2`$, and substituting this back in to the higher-derivative $`^2`$ terms gives

$$b_4\left(^{\mu \nu }_{\mu \nu }/8+^2/24\right)cH^4\frac{\mathrm{}^2\rho ^2}{M_4^2}=\frac{\rho ^2}{M_c^4},$$
(47)
the required $`\rho ^2`$ term. The coefficient of this effective $`\rho ^2`$ correction can vary, though, depending on the definition of the UV theory. For example, the boundary action Eq.(43) can contain an additional higher-dimensional counterterm that is not forbidden by any symmetry:

$$\frac{1}{M_4^4}T_{\mu \nu }^{\mathrm{CFT}}T_\phi ^{\mu \nu }.$$
(48)
Such an operator directly linking the CFT with the brane-localized matter has recently been invoked  to explain the $`1/r^7`$ corrections to the gravitational potential found in the Lykken-Randall ‘probe-brane’ scenario  (see also ). Via the use of the $`T_{\mathrm{CFT}}`$ two-point function, this operator in turn implies the additional interaction

$$\mathrm{\Delta }S_{4\mathrm{d}}\frac{1}{M_4^8}d^4xd^4yT_\phi (x)T_{\mathrm{CFT}}(x)T_{\mathrm{CFT}}(y)T_\phi (y)\frac{c}{M_4^8}d^4xd^4y\frac{T_\phi (x)T_\phi (y)}{|xy|^8}$$
(49)
which, for homogeneous and isotropic radiation $`T_\phi =\mathrm{diag}(\rho ,\rho /3,\rho /3,\rho /3)`$, leads to a term (taking the cutoff for the Planck brane theory to be $`M_4`$)

$$\frac{c}{M_4^4}\rho ^2\frac{\rho ^2}{M_c^4}$$
(50)
on the rhs of the Friedmann equation.

Thus it is possible to account for the $`\rho ^2`$ term in the modified Friedmann equation, Eq.(13), from a CFT description, although the exact coefficient of this term depends on the UV definition of the theory. In the case that the UV ($`r<\mathrm{}`$) theory is just the brane in AdS5, then, by definition, the CFT version must exactly reproduce the term in Eq.(13). Alternatively if the theory is the string-motivated AdS$`{}_{5}{}^{}\times `$S5, then the $`\rho ^2`$ term can receive further corrections.

Despite the existence of the $`\rho ^2`$ correction to the Friedmann equation, we wish to emphasize that the unusual cosmological ‘$`\rho ^2`$-behavior’ where this term dominates (occurring for $`\rho >M_c^4`$) is not physically accessible in the string motivated AdS$`{}_{5}{}^{}\times `$S5 definition of the theory. The reason for this is simply that for the string coupling $`g_s<1`$ (which can always be arranged by suitable strong to weak coupling duality transforms) the string scale satisfies $`L_s^1g_s^{1/4}(M_4/\mathrm{}^3)^{1/4}g_s^{1/4}(M_c^3/M_4)^{1/2}M_c`$. Thus one encounters the full string theory well before one reaches the scale at which $`\rho ^2`$ behaviour begins.

## 5 Summary and Comments

In this paper we have considered some of the cosmological issues raised by taking the Randall-Sundrum II framework to describe our world. The Randall-Sundrum II proposal assumes that the SM degrees of freedom are localized on the ‘Planck brane’ and are therefore described by a conventional (3+1)-d quantum field theory up to high scales; thus the successes of, for example, supersymmetric gauge coupling unification are not necessarily spoiled. However, RSII does not itself provide a solution to the hierarchy problem – one must still assume supersymmetry or technicolour, or some other as yet undiscovered mechanism, to solve this problem for the Planck-brane QFT; on the other hand, gravity is dramatically modified leading to new effects, especially in early universe cosmology, and associated constraints or signals. RSII provides an interesting laboratory for exploring modifications to gravity and early universe cosmology.

There are two immediate new effects in RSII cosmology. The first is that the motion of our Planck brane in the AdS bulk leads to a correction to the usual Friedmann equations for the scale factor – the well known $`\rho ^2`$-term. The second is the possibility of radiation into the AdS bulk, and the formation of a black hole in the AdS spacetime. Both of these issues have been previously studied. However, we argue that the amount of ‘dark radiation’ that could be produced during the linear-in-$`\rho `$ and $`\rho ^2`$ epochs in the early universe was overestimated in previous treatments. This leads to the false conclusion that the Planck brane temperature could never be high enough to reach the $`\rho ^2`$ region. We give a detailed account of this radiation and further show that the formation of the bulk AdS-Schwarzschild background is a necessary consequence. The numbers that we find for the dark radiation are in a region that is accessible by future more precise cosmological measurements. In particular, we predict dark radiation at nucleosynthesis with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{d,N}0.005`$ from the $`\rho `$ regime and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{d,N}\stackrel{<}{}0.05`$ from the $`\rho ^2`$ regime. The precise amount of the contribution from the $`\rho ^2`$ regime depends on the maximal brane temperature in the early universe.

Another important ingredient of our paper is the extended discussion of RSII cosmology in the framework of the AdS/CFT correspondence. We show how, for small brane energy densities, the manifestly 4-dimensional CFT description can reproduce the predictions of the standard definition in which the Planck brane moves in AdS5 according to the Israel junction conditions, including the $`\rho ^2`$ corrections to the Friedmann equations. However, we emphasize that there exist different definitions of the theory in the ‘UV region’ $`r<\mathrm{}`$, and the precise size of the $`\rho ^2`$ corrections depends on this UV theory. In the general case, the corrections to the cosmological evolution arise both from higher-derivative terms in the curvature and higher-dimension operators connecting the on-brane matter directly to the CFT. Because of the large central charge of the CFT, the coefficient of the higher curvature terms is greatly enhanced over its naive value, indicating a precocious breakdown of the 4d effective theory. In the case of the string-motivated definition on AdS$`{}_{5}{}^{}\times `$M5, the ‘$`\rho ^2`$-region’ where the $`\rho ^2`$ term dominates the evolution is not physically accessible.

There are many additional physical questions that either deserve further attention or have not been discussed at all. These include a further analysis of the near horizon, $`(Rr_h)/r_h1`$, behavior of the ‘Israel’ brane theory, and the inclusion of the many more bulk fields (in addition to the graviton) that are likely to accompany the construction of even a semi-realistic model. At low energies, the manifestly 4-dimensional CFT+gravity description is likely to be useful to analyse such questions as the production and evolution of the cosmic microwave background fluctuations. Concerning the UV definition of the RSII theory, an important general point about the string-motivated AdS$`{}_{5}{}^{}\times `$M5 definition is that it encodes a consistent description of the theory in the high-energy regime, with different physical behaviour from the standard ‘Israel’ definition.

## Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Tony Gherghetta, Yaron Oz and Riccardo Rattazzi for helpful discussions. We are also grateful to the authors of the later paper Ref.  (see also ) for pointing out two numerical errors in the first version of this paper. Special thanks go to Lorenzo Sorbo, who helped to compare the respective calculations.

## Appendix

In this appendix, we briefly describe the calculation of the cross sections for the production of bulk gravitons by scalars, fermions and vector particles on the brane. The effective 4-dimensional Lagrangian for the graviton Kaluza-Klein modes and their coupling to matter has been derived, e.g., in Ref. . To properly normalize the bulk excitations, one introduces a regulator brane at $`r=\mathrm{}\mathrm{exp}(L/\mathrm{})`$ and takes the limit $`L\mathrm{}`$ at the end. In the transverse traceless gauge, where the graviton fields $`H_{(n)}^{\mu \nu }`$ satisfy $`H_{(n),\mu }^{\mu \nu }=0`$ and $`g_{\mu \nu }H_{(n)}^{\mu \nu }=0`$, the Lagrangian reads555 Note that we have changed the normalization of $`H_{\mu \nu }`$ by a factor of $`\sqrt{2}`$ with respect to Ref.  to give the graviton fields a canonical kinetic term.

$$_H=\frac{1}{2}\underset{n}{}\left(H_{(n),\rho }^{\mu \nu }H_{\mu \nu }^{(n),\rho }+m_n^2H_{(n)}^{\mu \nu }H_{\mu \nu }^{(n)}\right)+T^{\mu \nu }\underset{n}{}\lambda _nH_{\mu \nu }^{(n)},$$
(A.1)
where, in the limit $`m_n1/\mathrm{}`$,

$$m_n=\frac{1}{\mathrm{}}n\pi e^{L/\mathrm{}}\text{and}\lambda _n=\frac{1}{M_4}e^{L/2\mathrm{}}.$$
(A.2)
For each $`n`$, the operator $`H_{\mu \nu }^{(n)}`$ represents simply a massive spin-2 field with 5 physical degrees of freedom (see, e.g., ). Thus, introducing the 5 polarization tensors $`\epsilon _{\mu \nu }^{(i)}(q)`$ (with $`\epsilon _{\mu \nu }^{(i)}(q)\epsilon _{(j)}^{\mu \nu }(q)=\delta _j^i`$), the final state spin sum in the production of a graviton with momentum $`q`$ can be taken multiplying the squared amplitude with

$$\underset{i}{}\epsilon _{\mu \nu }^{(i)}(q)\epsilon _{\alpha \beta }^{(i)}(q)=g_{\mu \alpha }g_{\nu \beta }\frac{1}{3}g_{\mu \nu }g_{\alpha \beta }+(\text{terms}q_\mu ,q_\nu ,q_\alpha \text{or}q_\beta )$$
(A.3)
and summing over $`\mu \nu `$ and $`\alpha \beta `$. Terms $`q`$ are irrelevant since the energy-momentum tensor $`T^{\mu \nu }`$ in Eq. (A.1) is conserved.

Since we will mainly be interested in cms-energies in the TeV region, we disregard the masses of brane degrees of freedom in the following calculation. In the case of one real scalar field, the energy-momentum tensor in Eq. (A.1) is given by

$$T_{\mu \nu }=_\mu \phi _\nu \phi \frac{1}{2}g_{\mu \nu }(\phi )^2.$$
(A.4)
Now it is straightforward to derive the Feynman rule for the $`\phi \phi H`$ vertex and to calculate the total $`\phi \phi `$ annihilation cross section after the sum over $`n`$ is replaced by an integral over the final state mass $`m=\sqrt{s}`$ according to

$$\underset{n}{}\frac{\mathrm{}}{\pi }e^{L/\mathrm{}}𝑑\sqrt{s}.$$
(A.5)
Similarly, the annihilation cross sections for two vector particles (e.g., two photons) and for a fermion-antifermion pair can be obtained by substituting the energy-momentum tensors

$$T_{\mu \nu }=F_{\mu \rho }F_\nu ^\rho +\frac{1}{4}g_{\mu \nu }F^2,$$
(A.6)
with $`F_{\mu \nu }=_\mu A_\nu _\nu A_\mu `$, and

$$T_{\mu \nu }=\frac{i}{4}\overline{\psi }(\gamma _\mu \underset{\nu }{\overset{}{}}+\gamma _\nu \underset{\mu }{\overset{}{}})\psi $$
(A.7)
into Eq. (A.1). The resulting cross sections are given in Eqs. (16) and (17) of the main part of the paper.

Note that, since we are only interested in the limit $`\sqrt{s}1/\mathrm{}`$, the AdS nature of the bulk has no physical significance. Therefore, our result can be compared with the graviton production cross section on a brane in a flat, 5-dimensional bulk (the ADD scenario with one extra dimension ) if the 5-dimensional gravitational constants are identified. Indeed, one can check explicitly that the one-graviton exchange amplitude calculated in the framework of this appendix (where $`i/(q^2m_n^2)_j\epsilon _{\mu \nu }^{(j)}(q)\epsilon _{\alpha \beta }^{(j)}(q)`$ ) is the graviton propagator) is identical to the result of Ref.  (see Eqs. (69)–(71) with $`\delta =1`$).


text:
# The mysterious H I deficiency of NGC 3175

## 1 Introduction

A large number of “typical” global properties of galaxies of various Hubble types are presented and discussed by Roberts & Haynes (1994; in the following RH94). We will use these as standard reference values, with respect to which we will discuss our results from H I observations of the southern edge-on spiral galaxy NGC 3175. RH94, as well as e.g. Rhee & van Albada (1996), determined that typical $`L_{}`$ spiral galaxies, i.e. galaxies near the “knee” of the galaxy luminosity function, with an absolute $`B`$ magnitude of $`M_\mathrm{B}20`$, normally have H I gas masses on the order of $`10^910^{10}M_{}`$. This usually represents a few percent of their total mass (RH94). The spatial distribution of H I gas is usually more extended than that of the stellar disk (Bosma 1981).

With respect to its global properties the edge-on spiral galaxy NGC 3175 is quite peculiar. Its Hubble type is uncertain; the Third Reference Catalogue of Bright Galaxies (RC3; de Vaucouleurs et al. 1991) classifies it as SAB(s)a?, while it is listed as Sc in the Revised Shapley-Ames Catalog (RSA; Sandage & Tammann 1981). In the Uppsala General Catalog of Galaxies (UGC), Nilson (1973) claims that de Vaucouleurs’ classification (which had been taken over from the RC2) is incorrect and that NGC 3175 is “probably a late-type galaxy”. Because of this confusion, we will compare its global properties with those of galaxies ranging from type Sa to Sc.

Although at a redshift of only 1098 km s-1 (and thus at a distance of only 15.9 Mpc)111We adopt here $`H_0=75`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 and a virgocentric infall velocity of 300 km s-1., this galaxy was, until a few years ago, not detected in H I emission (Mathewson et al. 1992). Recently, Mathewson & Ford (1996) and Theureau et al. (1998) found weak H I emission from NGC 3175. Despite this difficulty in tracing its H I gas, it has been readily detected in H$`\alpha `$ (Ryder & Dopita 1993, 1994), radio continuum (Condon et al. 1996) and CO emission (Elfhag et al. 1996), which are tracers of star forming regions. The Infra-Red Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) measured 60 $`\mu `$m and 100 $`\mu `$m fluxes of 13.1 and 28.2 Jy, respectively. With an $`f_{60}/f_{100}`$ flux ratio of 0.46, tracing warm dust, and in the absence of a luminous AGN, this galaxy is obviously forming stars that heat the interstellar medium (ISM) and dust in its disk. The detection of CO emission in the central part of NGC 3175 proves that there is molecular gas from which stars can form. On the other hand, with only barely detectable H I emission, it is not clear where NGC 3715 has its gas reservoir from which to form stars in the future. We investigate this riddle here based on new H I observations conducted with the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA)222The Australia Telescope is funded by the Commonwealth of Australia for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO..

## 2 Observations and data reduction

Our ATCA observations were obtained on 1997, Jan. 27–28, with the 750D configuration over a timerange of 13 hours. The total on-source integration time is 10 h. The ATCA correlator setup used by us provides a velocity resolution of 3.3 km s-1.

1934-638 was used as the primary flux calibrator and 1012-44 as phase calibrator. The measured flux of 1934-638 was 14.94 Jy at 1.42 GHz. The data reduction was performed in the standard fashion, using the software package MIRIAD. In order to achieve maximum sensitivity for extended emission, natural weighting of the visibilities was used. The disadvantage of this procedure, namely the low angular resolution of the images, is secondary for the current study.

With an angular extent of its radio emission of only a few arcmin (see below), NGC 3175 fits easily into the primary beam of the ATCA’s 22 m antennae of $`34^{}`$. Therefore, no primary beam correction is necessary. With a shortest spacing of 31 m, flux losses due to missing short spacings are negligible.

## 3 Results

### 3.1 H I distribution

Figure 1 displays our ATCA image of the total H I emission from NGC 3175, superposed as contours on a Digital Sky Survey (DSS) image. The angular resolution (FWHM) of the H I image is $`121^{\prime \prime }\times 44\stackrel{}{.}5`$, as indicated in the lower left. The emission is marginally resolved along the disk plane of the galaxy in what appears to be a double-peaked distribution.

A cut through the H I emission distribution along the galaxy’s major axis, for which we adopt a position angle of PA $`=51^{}`$ (Dahlem et al. 2001), is displayed in Fig. 2. In this figure the data are represented by a solid line.

It became clear very soon during our spatial analysis of the emission distribution that a two-component approximation is not adequate. Thus, a three-gaussian model was computed and graphically displayed. The individual gaussians and the sum of the three are represented by dotted lines. The remaining residual is shown as a bold dashed line. The width of $`67\stackrel{}{.}7`$ of all three gaussians is identical; it represents the resolution of our data in the direction of the major axis over the width of the cut of $`35^{\prime \prime }`$. The fact that the three gaussians leave virtually no residuals indicates that most of the H I line emission arises from three maxima, with almost no emission from further out in the disk. The positions of the three gaussian components along the major axis and their relative intensities, normalising that of the strongest peak to unity, are tabulated in Table 1. The zero point of the radial axis is the position of the radio continuum maximum, which we assume to be associated with the galaxy centre. A justification for using a three-gaussian approximation lies in the structure of the 1.49 GHz radio continuum emission distribution, where three emission maxima are visible (Condon et al. 1996). A cut through the 1.49 GHz map (with an angular resolution of $`15^{\prime \prime }`$) is displayed in Fig. 3. The corresponding offset and intensity values were measured by us and are also listed in Table 1. A direct comparison of the radial offsets and flux densities shows that, although both emission distributions can be approximated by the same model, neither the positions nor the relative intensities of the peaks coincide. The central H I component is located, within the measuring accuracy, at the position of the central radio continuum peak (and thus the centre of the galaxy). The two outer H I components are located further out along the major axis than the extranuclear radio continuum peaks. Star formation thus takes place within the H I gas layer in the central disk, as might be expected.

The secondary H I emission feature near the southwestern edge of the galaxy disk might be a small companion or a weak remnant of a tidal spur or arm. Its recession velocity of about 1050 km s-1 does not match up with the velocities on that side of the galaxy disk closest to it (see below).

### 3.2 H I kinematics

The velocity field (Fig. 4) shows that the lowest velocities are observed in the northeastern part of NGC 3175 and the highest accordingly in the southwestern half.333Based on this knowledge and the convention to define the PA as the angle from North to the receding side of a galaxy, the formally correct value is PA = $`231^{}`$. The dust lane is located on the south-east side of NGC 3175, tracing its “near side”. This determines the sense of the galaxy’s rotation uniquely. The velocity of the secondary emission blob to the southwest is clearly similar to that of the opposite side of the disk.

A position-velocity (pv) diagram along the major axis of NGC 3175 (along PA = $`231^{}`$) is displayed in Fig. 5. One can discern solid body rotation out to a radius of about $`\pm 45^{\prime \prime }`$ from the centre of the galaxy. A comparison with Fig. 3 by Mathewson et al. (1992) reveals that the velocity gradient is not so low because of beam smearing effects, but the same gradient is observed in H$`\alpha `$, with much higher angular resolution. However, it is unusual for spirals of types earlier than Scd not to have any H I gas beyond the turnover radius in the rotation curve.

The secondary emission blob is not visible here because of its low signal-to-noise ratio. It arises from several marginally positive signals in the channels in the range 1000–1050 km s-1 (at a radial offset of about $`120^{\prime \prime }200^{\prime \prime }`$).

### 3.3 Total H I line flux and gas mass

The total H I line spectrum of NGC 3175 is displayed in Fig. 6. The integral H I line spans a velocity range of 350 km s-1, from 920 to 1270 km s-1 (cf. also Fig. 5), with an approximate width at 20% of the peak of $`W_{20}`$ = 330 km s-1. From the integral spectrum we derive a heliocentric systemic velocity of $`v_{\mathrm{hel}}=1095\pm 10`$ km s-1, which is compatible with earlier measurements. The integral line flux from NGC 3175 is 11.0 Jy km s-1, with an estimated uncertainty of about 20%, which is roughly compatible with the non-detection reported earlier, with an upper limit of 8.3 Jy km s-1 (Mathewson et al. 1992). Our H I flux measurement is only slightly lower than the values obtained by Mathewson & Ford (1996) of 14.64 Jy km s-1 and Theureau et al. (1998) of $`12.9\pm 1.2`$ Jy km s-1. One can estimate the amount of flux that might possibly have been missed by our interferometer observations by taking the flux values from our ATCA data and the one from the Parkes data by Mathewson & Ford (1996) at face value. Our measurement reflects the amount of H I gas in the disk of NGC 3175, while the value by Mathewson and Ford might be considered as the possible “full flux”, including low surface brightness or intergalactic H I. One can then argue that if any extended flux had been missed by the interferometer, it would not exceed the difference between both flux measurements, i.e. about one third of the flux displayed in Fig. 1.

The 1.344 GHz continuum flux density of NGC 3175 from our ATCA run of $`71.5\pm 5`$ mJy is in very good agreement with the value from the VLA data at 1.425 GHz (Condon et al. 1996) of 71.8 mJy. Thus, the relative calibration between our data and the VLA is good. Because of the weak continuum emission, one can assume that the measured total H I line flux is not measurably influenced by intrinsic self-absorption. Our continuum map is not displayed here, because it does not add anything new to what is already known from the one by Condon et al. (1996).

Using the relation by Roberts (1975) in Eq. 1 and assuming optically thin emission, we can calculate the H I gas mass in NGC 3175 from the integral H I line flux as follows:

$$M_{\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}}=\mathrm{2.356\hspace{0.17em}10}^5D^2f_{\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}}[M_{}],$$
(1)
where $`D`$ is the distance in units Mpc and $`f_{\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}}`$ is the measured integral H I line flux. $`f_{\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}}`$ = 14.64 Jy km s-1 (from the Parkes data by Mathewson & Ford 1996) then translates into a total H I gas mass of NGC 3175 of $`\mathrm{7.8\hspace{0.17em}10}^8`$ $`M_{}`$, which is quite low for an Sa–Sc type spiral. Other late-type spirals have H I gas masses of order $`10^910^{10}`$ $`M_{}`$, typically (e.g. Rhee & van Albada 1996).

The H I line flux of $`f_{\mathrm{H}\mathrm{I}}`$ = 11.0 Jy km s-1 measured from our data corresponds to an H I gas mass of $`\mathrm{5.8\hspace{0.17em}10}^8`$ $`M_{}`$. This implies that there are, if any, only small amounts ($`\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}10}^8`$ $`M_{}`$) of intergalactic H I gas in the vicinity of NGC 3175 that might have such a low surface brightness as to be missed by the ATCA.

Thus, our present observations prove the presence of small amounts of H I gas in the inner disk of NGC 3175, an area where other tracers of star formation (SF) processes had been detected previously. Elfhag et al. (1996) report the detection of CO emission from the central part of NGC 3175. It appears that the gas from which stars can be formed has finally been detected in emission.

One can use the CO(1–0) line flux derived by Elfhag et al. (1996) of $`f_{\mathrm{CO}}=19.3\pm 1.4`$ K km s-1 (on the $`T_{\mathrm{mb}}`$ main beam temperature scale) to calculate an estimate of the total molecular gas mass of NGC 3175. This estimate is a lower limit, because only one beam area (FWHM = $`44^{\prime \prime }`$; Elfhag et al. 1996) was observed. Assuming that the radial CO emission distribution is similar to that of the radio continuum, as observed in many galaxies (see for example García-Burillo et al. 1992), the CO emission of NGC 3175 should arise from within the central $`90^{\prime \prime }`$. At the high inclination angle of NGC 3175, the apparent thickness of the disk will probably be only a few arcseconds, thus contained within the SEST beam. Based on the fact that the CO spectrum is peaked near the systemic velocity of NGC 3175 it is also likely that the CO gas distribution is centrally peaked. Therefore, we estimate that the SEST has gathered at least 50% of the total CO(1–0) line flux from this object.

We calculate the molecular gas mass, $`M_{\mathrm{H}_2}`$, following the relation

$$M_{\mathrm{H}_2}=I_{\mathrm{CO}}N(\mathrm{H}_2)/I_{\mathrm{CO}}D^2\theta m(\mathrm{H}_2)[M_{}],$$
(2)
where $`I_{\mathrm{CO}}=19.3`$ K km s-1 is the observed surface brightness of CO line emission, $`N(\mathrm{H}_2)/I_{\mathrm{CO}}`$ is the CO-to-H2 conversion factor (“X” factor) between H2 column density and observed CO line surface brightness, for which we adopt the “standard” value of $`\mathrm{2\hspace{0.17em}10}^{20}`$ cm-2/K km s-1, $`D`$ is the distance of 15.9 Mpc in units cm, $`\theta `$ is the area over which emission is observed (in units sterad; here the beam FWHM of the SEST) and $`m(\mathrm{H}_2)`$ is the mass of an H2 molecule of 1.68 10-57 $`M_{}`$.

Filling in these quantities, we determine that $`M_{\mathrm{H}_2}\mathrm{5.8\hspace{0.17em}10}^8`$ $`M_{}`$. This infers a ratio of $`M_{\mathrm{H}_2}/M_{\mathrm{HI}}0.74`$.

In the context of the results by Young & Knezek (1989), this makes it likely that NGC 3175 is an Sc type spiral. If up to 50% of the total CO line flux should have been missed, the corrected ratio is also still consistent with an Sb–Sbc classification. This ratio of 0.74 would be unusual for a galaxy of type earlier than Sb though.

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 Global properties of NGC 3175

In order to interpret the H I gas properties of NGC 3175 in general terms and compare the galaxy with other spirals, we have calculated a few standard properties, as tabulated in Table 2. The far-infrared luminosity, $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}`$, was taken from Dahlem et al. (2001).

The total virial mass, $`M_\mathrm{T}`$, was calculated using the formula

$$M_\mathrm{T}(r)=\mathrm{2.33\hspace{0.17em}10}^5rv^2(r)[M_{}],$$
(3)
where $`r_{25}=2\stackrel{}{.}5`$, the 25th magnitude isophotal radius, was used as a measure of $`r`$ and half the width of the integral H I spectrum, $`W_{20}/2=v_{\mathrm{max}}=165`$ km s-1, as $`v(r)`$ (see Figs. 5 and 6), adopting an inclination of $`i90^{}`$.

From a comparison of the values in Table 2 with the data by RH94 (in particular their Figs. 2–5), one can conclude the following:

* The total blue luminosity, $`L_\mathrm{B}`$, of NGC 3175 is quite normal for a spiral of type Sa–Sc.
* Its total virial mass, $`M_\mathrm{T}`$, lies near the 25%-level for galaxies of type Sa–Sc in the sample by RH94.
* Accordingly, the total mass-to-light ratio of NGC 3175, $`M_\mathrm{T}/L_\mathrm{B}`$, also lies near the 25%-level in RH94’s sample.
* The total H I gas mass of NGC 3175 is relatively low (near the 25%-level) if it were an Sa or Sab galaxy; for types Sb–Sc, it is well below the 25th percentile mark of the data used by RH94, indicating an H I deficiency.
* The ratio of H I gas mass to total mass of only about 1% is at about the 25%-level in RH94’s data if it were an Sa or Sab galaxy. For all later types, this percentage represents a pronounced deficiency (because there is little variance in the ratios for spirals of type Sb or later). Note that if we use our own H I line flux measurement this deficiency is yet much more pronounced, with an H I-to-total mass ratio of only 0.8%.
* The same is true for the $`M_{\mathrm{HI}}/L_\mathrm{B}`$ ratio.
* Even for an Sa galaxy, NGC 3175’s B–V colour is unusually red, being far beyond the 75%-level of RH94’s data. For galaxies of later types the discrepancy is yet more pronounced. NGC 3175 is in fact one of the reddest nearby spiral galaxies, with a predominantly old stellar population. The same was already found by Ryder & Dopita (1993).
* On the other hand, its FIR luminosity, $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}`$, is normal for galaxies of types Sa–Sc.

One should note that $`L_\mathrm{B}`$, $`M_\mathrm{T}`$ and $`L_{\mathrm{FIR}}`$ do not show a strong dependence on Hubble type (see RH94). On the other hand, quantities like $`M_{\mathrm{HI}}`$, $`M_{\mathrm{HI}}/L_\mathrm{B}`$ and $`M_{\mathrm{HI}}/M_\mathrm{T}`$ do show a dependence of Hubble type (albeit with considerable overlaps). According to these properties, NGC 3175 shows an H I deficiency. For type Sa–Sab, this deficiency would not be very pronounced, but if NGC 3175 should be of a later Hubble type, its H I content is clearly deficient.

### 4.2 Star formation in the central disk

H I gas has been found by us, corroborating earlier detections; as stated above, NGC 3175 is H I–deficient. The ATCA data provide for the first time spatially resolved information. Our total H I intensity map in Fig. 1 indicates that most of the detected H I gas is located within the central part of the galaxy. Because this is difficult to quantify by looking at the map only, we have produced the radial cut through the emission distribution shown in Fig. 2. From the position of the gauss components (see also Table 1) it follows that practically all H I gas is contained within the central 7 kpc, and that the ongoing SF is enveloped by H I gas. It is very unusual that H I is detected only in the central $`90^{\prime \prime }`$ (7 kpc) of NGC 3175, while normally the stellar disks of spiral galaxies are embedded in extended H I envelopes (Bosma 1981). The radial extent of the H I distribution in NGC 3175 roughly coincides with that of the H$`\alpha `$ and 1.4 GHz radio continuum emission (Ryder & Dopita 1993; Condon et al. 1996). Therefore, only the central part of the disk is apparently forming stars at the present time. This is corroborated by the fact that this is the only region in NGC 3175 with optical colours suggesting the presence of a young population of stars (Ryder & Dopita 1994). All over this central area the H I gas follows a solid body rotation pattern (Fig. 5).

There is no reliable estimate on the total molecular gas content of NGC 3175 in the literature and it is doubtful that Elfhag et al. (1996) measured the total CO line flux of NGC 3175 within one $`44^{\prime \prime }`$ beam of the Swedish-ESO Submillimetre Telescope. Still, the CO spectrum by Elfhag et al. (1996) can serve to give a first impression of the molecular gas properties of the nuclear area in NGC 3175. Its peak antenna temperature of ca. 0.15 K is quite typical for galaxies at a distance of 15.9 Mpc (see also for comparison Young et al. 1995). This and the numbers derived above suggest that H I gas, which is normally more extended than CO, might be more deficient than molecular gas.

Inside the inner disk of NGC 3175, within a radius of 3.5 kpc, the density of cold atomic and molecular gas appears to be high enough for the onset of SF. In fact, the FIR properties of the inner disk in NGC 3175, especially its $`f_{60}/f_{100}`$ flux ratio of 0.46 and the implied warm dust temperatures, are reminiscent of starburst galaxies with disk-halo interactions (e.g. Heckman et al. 1990; Dahlem 1997). This is consistent with the observed radio continuum emission distribution which indicates the presence of an outflow from the H II regions in the central disk into the halo (Condon et al. 1996, Dahlem et al. 2001). Since all SF activity is visibly occurring in the central 7 kpc of NGC 3175, it can be assumed that the FIR emission comes from that same region.

### 4.3 The quiescent outer disk of NGC 3175

Virtually no H I gas was detected beyond a radius of 3.5 kpc (see Fig. 2) with the sensitivity of the current data. At the same time, the outer disk of NGC 3175 exhibits no measurable signs of ongoing SF. There is neither H$`\alpha `$ nor radio continuum emission and there is also no sign of a young, blue population of stars. The outer disk of NGC 3175 does show signs of spiral arms; thus it can be assumed to rotate differentially, but there is not enough gas to trace its rotation pattern.

Such a situation, and also the observed activity in the inner disk, might be created by an interaction (possibly a distant passage of a companion) in the past, which could have affected the outer, volatile neutral atomic gas component, but not the more centrally concentrated and therefore more stably bound molecular gas (e.g. Kenney & Young 1989). RH94 and Giovanelli & Haynes (1988) note that interacting galaxies in groups can lose up to 50% of their gas, galaxies in clusters even up to 90%.

All this would also be consistent with the exceptionally red colour of NGC 3175’s disk beyond a radius of 3.5 kpc, because a gravitational interaction could remove part of the gas from the outer disk, while a fraction of the remaining gas would move into the central region (e.g. Combes 1987). The outer, quiescent disk dominates the mean B-V colour index of NGC 3175, because it covers about 90% of the surface area.

### 4.4 The “missing” H I gas

Our H I observations cannot explain where the H I gas is that must at one point in time have been present in the outer disk of NGC 3175. Except the one weak emission blob to the south-west of NGC 3175, which is negligible in terms of its gas mass (0.8 Jy km s$`{}_{}{}^{1}\widehat{=}\mathrm{4.2\hspace{0.17em}10}^6`$ $`M_{}`$), our H I data show no sign of emission from either tidal features (like tails, plumes, tidal arms or any other sort of intergalactic or galactic emission from a potential optically faint partner) within a radius of $`15^{}`$ (70 kpc). These results are consistent with those of García (1993), according to whom NGC 3175 is a member of a group of 5 galaxies, none of which is close enough (in spatial projection and at the same time in velocity space) to be directly interacting with it at the current time (Table 2 by García 1993).

A look at the DSS does not help in proposing a likely scenario for the removal of gas from NGC 3175 either. There is no visible interaction partner near NGC 3175 (within a projected distance of $`50^{}`$, i.e. 230 kpc) massive enough to have stripped it of a significant fraction of its H I gas. ESO 436-G004, about $`5^{}`$ south of NGC 3175, is at a different redshift and thus distance (and therefore not detected in our observations). Two small objects $`1^{}`$ west of ESO 436-G004 that are visible on the second generation DSS (DSS-2) plates, if at approximately the distance as NGC 3175, must be dwarf galaxies.

Our ATCA data are most sensitive to structures with a spatial extent similar to the beam size and the sensitivity after only one aperture synthesis is still limited. Thus, a non-detection of intergalactic H I gas in this data set does not necessarily impose strong constraints on its potential properties. However, the presence of substantial amounts of H I gas in an area of about $`10^{}`$ around NGC 3175 is ruled out by the Parkes data (see above). Also the new Parkes multi-beam survey database, which was searched by us, does not exhibit any signs of H I emission in the relevant redshift interval closer to NGC 3175 than $`1\stackrel{}{.}3`$ (or 360 kpc), where NGC 3137, one of the group members, is detected. Therefore, the riddle about the fate of NGC 3175’s H I gas remains unsolved for the time being. It is not clear where it might have gone or whether NGC 3175 ever had more H I gas than is detectable at the present time. Certainly there must have been H I gas in the outer disk before from which the observed old stellar population formed.

The fact that NGC 3175 is not a member of a cluster of galaxies, but at the same time H I–deficient, makes this deficiency with simultaneously ongoing SF in its inner part so intriguing. However, a more solid interpretation of this issue must await high-resolution H I and CO imaging observations.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank the referee, Dr. A. Bosma, for useful comments that helped improve the paper considerably and Dr. J. Condon for making available the 1.49 GHz radio continuum map in digital form. The Digitized Sky Survey was produced at the Space Telescope Science Institue under U.S. Government grant NAG W-2166. The National Geographic Society - Palomar Observatory Sky Atlas (POSS-I) was made by the California Institute of Technology with grants from the National Geographic Society.