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# Conduction mechanism and magnetotransport in multiwall carbon nanotubes

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## Abstract

We report on a numerical study of quantum diffusion over $`\mu m`$ lengths in defect-free multiwall nanotubes. The intershell coupling allows the electron spreading over several shells, and when their periodicities along the nanotube axis are incommensurate, which is likely in real systems, the electronic propagation is shown to be non ballistic. This results in magnetotransport properties which are exceptional for a disorder free system, and which help to understand the experiments.

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Carbon nanotubes are remarkable for their structure and electronic properties, and seem suitable for molecular electronic devices. Single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) can be either metallic or semiconducting depending on their helicity, i.e. how the graphene sheet is rolled up. Experimentally, metallic SWNT are very good conductors, exhibiting ballistic transport. Structural disorder in these systems is very small leading to mean free path in the $`\mu m`$ range.

Multiwall nanotubes (MWNTs) have a complex structure that consists of several shells sharing the same axis. Their electronic properties are complicated and less understood. Indications for ballistic transport exist in some MWNTs, but the interpretation of quantized conductance $`n(2e^2/h)`$ with half integer values of n is controversial. Some authors propose an effect of contact between electrode and the nanotube whereas others show that transport through several shells is essential. Many evidences for diffusive regime and quantum interferences effects are also found in other experiments. This has been interpreted as a result of scattering by structural or chemical disorder, but the mean free path has to be several orders of magnitude smaller than in SWNTs. Even in the limit of vanishingly small disorder, this raises fundamental questions such as : how many shells participate to transport, is it just the outer shell that carries current or are inner shells important ? Is electronic transport ballistic in these systems ?

In this Letter, we report the first theoretical study of quantum diffusion on the $`\mu `$-meter scale for defect-free MWNTs. The effect of the interlayer coupling on the propagation of the wavepackets is analyzed. As the different shells periodicities along the nanotube axis are in general incommensurate, the system probed by the electron is not periodic, and we show that this yields intrinsic non ballistic transport. The consequences of this anomalous propagation on the magnetoconductance, are investigated for a magnetic field parallel to the nanotube axis. In particular, a negative magnetoresistance at low field is found, as well as oscillations of the conductance which are periodic with the magnetic flux $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ through each tube with a periodicity $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$ ($`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ the quantum flux). This offers an alternative explanation of the experimental results of Bachtold et al.  without assuming strong disorder.

Our model hamiltonian is a tight-binding one which is believed to provide a good description of the electronic structure of MWNTs. In this model, one $`p_{}`$-orbital per carbon atom is kept, with zero onsite energies, whereas constant nearest-neighbor hopping on each layer n (n.n.), and hopping between neighboring layers (n.l.) are defined by :

$$=\gamma _0\left[\underset{i,j\text{ }n.n.}{}|p_{}^jp_{}^i|\right]\beta \left[\underset{i,jn.l.}{}\mathrm{cos}(\theta _{ij})e^{\frac{d_{ij}a}{\delta }}|p_{}^jp_{}^i|\right]$$

where $`\theta _{ij}`$ is the angle between the $`p_{}^i`$ and $`p_{}^j`$ orbitals, and $`d_{ij}`$ denotes their relative distance. The parameters used here are : $`\gamma _0=2.9eV`$, $`a=3.34\AA `$, $`\delta =0.45\AA `$ . In this tight-binding approach, the differences between SWNTs and MWNTs stem from the parameter $`\beta `$, as the limit $`\beta =0`$ corresponds to uncoupled shells. Estimate gives $`\beta \gamma _0/8`$ , but in order to get insight in the effect of $`\beta `$ on transport properties, the cases $`0\beta \gamma _0`$ have been considered. Synthetized MWNTs contain typically a few tenth of inner layers but due to computer limitations, we have restricted our study to 2 and 3-wall nanotubes, taking the intershell distance of $`3.4\AA `$ as in graphite.

By means of a powerful O(N) method based on a development of the operator $`\mathrm{exp}(iHt/\mathrm{})`$ in a basis of orthogonal polynomials , the time-dependent Schrödinger equation for the evolution of wavepackets (WP) $`|\psi `$ up to large time, is solved. This allows us to calculate the spreading of the WP, defined as $`L_\psi (t)=\sqrt{\psi |(\widehat{X}(t)\widehat{X}(0))^2|\psi }`$ over micron length scales ($`\widehat{X}(t)`$ is the position operator along the tube axis in the Heisenberg representation). We also define the time-dependent diffusion coefficients, by $`D_\psi (t)=L_\psi (t)^2/t`$. $`D_\psi (\tau _\varphi )`$ is the diffusivity along the nanotube axis, if at $`\tau _\varphi `$ the electronic wavefunction looses its phase memory due to some inelastic scattering. The diffusion coefficient at $`\tau _\varphi `$ is also connected to the Kubo conductivity $`\sigma =(e^2/h)\rho D(\tau _\varphi )`$, where $`\rho `$ is the density of states, and $`D(\tau _\varphi )`$ the average of diffusion coefficients for WP close to the Fermi level. The wavepackets $`|\psi `$ are chosen localized on single sites of the nanotube at initial time, and by averaging over many sites, we obtain energy-averaged transport properties. The average spreading $`L(t)`$ and the average diffusion coefficient $`D(t)`$ are defined by $`L(t)=\sqrt{L_\psi ^2(t)}=\sqrt{tD(t)}`$, where $``$ denotes an average over many wavepackets. This provides a good qualitative picture of wavepacket propagation in MWNTs constituted of conducting shells. Note that experimental results suggest that Fermi energies away from the charge neutrality point are relevant. Recently, Krüger et al. obtained variations of the Fermi energy of $`\pm 1`$ eV, corresponding to $`1015`$ conducting channels instead of $`2`$ per metallic layer .

An essential geometrical remark is that depending on their helicities $`(n,m)`$, two shells of a given MWNT are commensurate (resp. incommensurate), if the ratio between their respective unit cell lengths $`T_{(n,m)}`$ along the tube axis is a rational (resp. irrational) number. From geometrical considerations, one expects that incommensurate structures are more likely than commensurate structures. As shown in this work, this issue has deep consequences on the conduction mechanism intrinsic to MWNTs.

As representative cases of commensurate systems, we have considered $`(9,0)\mathrm{@}(18,0)`$ and $`(6,6)\mathrm{@}(11,11)\mathrm{@}(16,16)`$ ($`T_{(9,0)}=T_{(18,0)}=3a_{cc}`$ and $`T_{(6,6)}=T_{(11,11)}=T_{(16,16)}=\sqrt{3}a_{cc}`$, where $`a_{cc}=1.42\AA `$ is the interatomic distance between carbon atoms). As representative cases of incommensurate systems, we have considered $`(9,0)\mathrm{@}(10,10)`$ and $`(6,4)\mathrm{@}(10,10)\mathrm{@}(17,13)`$ ($`T_{(6,4)}=3\sqrt{19}a_{cc}`$, $`T_{(10,10)}=\sqrt{3}a_{cc}`$, and $`T_{(17,13)}=3\sqrt{679}a_{cc}`$).

Interlayer electronic transfer.- The spreading of a WP, initially localized at one site of the outer shell, is followed on the different shells (Fig.1). Only two representative cases of 3-wall systems are reported. In commensurate systems, a rapid change in the weight of the wavefunction on each shell is followed by a relaxation at the time scale of $`\tau _{ll}\mathrm{}\gamma _0/\beta ^2`$, in good agreement with the Fermi Golden Rule. By changing the amplitude of $`\beta `$ in the range $`[\gamma _0/8,\gamma _0]`$, the expected scaling form of $`\tau _{ll}`$ is checked. Note that for two electrodes separated by $`1\mu `$m and assuming ballistic transport with a Fermi velocity of $`10^6ms^1`$, the corresponding time is $`t4500\mathrm{}/\gamma _0`$. This is two orders of magnitude larger than $`\tau _{ll}`$ (for $`\beta =\gamma _0/8`$), and points towards an important contribution of interwall coupling in experiments. In the incommensurate systems, a continuous decay from the outer shells to the inner shells is also found with similar characteristics.

Quantum diffusion along the nanotube axis.-A fundamental difference between commensurate and incommensurate systems is manifested in the quantum diffusion properties (Fig.2). In commensurate systems, $`L(t)`$ is found to follow a ballistic law : $`L(t)=vtD(t)=v^2t`$. This is expected on the basis of band structure theory for periodic systems. The velocity $`v5.10^5m.s^1`$, deduced numerically, is close to the averaged Fermi velocity of one isolated shell. It is nearly independent on $`\beta `$ and depends weakly of the shells constituting the MWNT.

In the 2-wall incommensurate system, we observe an anomalous diffusion $`L(t)t^\eta `$, $`\eta =0.88`$ (Fig. 2), for $`\beta =\gamma _0/3`$, intermediate between ballistic ($`\eta =1`$) and diffusive ($`\eta =1/2`$) motions. Anomalous diffusion laws are also observed in quasiperiodic systems, which present a particular repetitivity of local environnements .

In the 3-wall incommensurate systems, a saturation of the diffusion coefficient is seen at large time, which is equivalent to a diffusive-like behavior ($`L(t)\sqrt{t}`$) as observed in disordered systems. This allows to define an effective mean free path $`\stackrel{~}{l}_e`$ and an effective scattering time $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }_e`$ from $`lim_t\mathrm{}D(t)=D_0=\stackrel{~}{l}_ev=v^2\stackrel{~}{\tau }_e`$, where $`v^2`$ is the slope of $`D(t)`$ at origin. One can estimates an effective elastic mean free path $`\stackrel{~}{l}_e35`$ nm for $`\beta =\gamma _0/3`$ (Fig.2). Note that a diffusive law is also observed in the Harper model with a weak incommensurate potential.

The striking difference between the 2-wall and 3-wall incommensurate cases, with the same hamiltonian parameters $`\beta `$ and $`\gamma _0`$, shows that the diffusion regime for incommensurate MWNTs is very sensitive to the geometrical relation between the different shells and to the number of shells. Contrary to the case of commensurate systems, in which the quantum diffusion is weakly dependent on $`\beta `$, the diffusion law is sensitive to the value of $`\beta `$. For example, for $`\beta `$ varying between $`\gamma _0/3`$ and $`\gamma _0`$, the diffusion exponent for the 2-wall varies between $`\eta =0.88`$ and $`\eta =0.75`$, and the estimated mean free path for the 3-wall incommensurate system varies between $`35nm`$ and $`2nm`$. For $`\beta =\gamma _0/8`$, the diffusive regime in the 3-wall is not reached in the evolution time accessible to the computation (inset of Fig.2).

Transport in a magnetic field.-Applying a magnetic field parallel to the MWNT axis, Bachtold et al. have reported negative magnetoresistance at low field (decrease of the resistance with increasing magnetic field strength) as well as $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$ periodic oscillations of the conductance, well described by the weak localization (WL) theory. They correlate this effect to an intrinsic disorder and assume that the current is carried only by the outer nanotube shell.

In order to get insight in the origin of these experimental results, we compare two situations. In the first situation (case-I), similar to the one considered by Bachtold et al., the coupling between the outer and inner shells is neglected. This corresponds to $`\beta =0`$, which is equivalent to a SWNT. A substitutional disorder is introduced by a random modulation of onsite energies in the range $`[V_d/2,V_d/2]`$, in order to tune the value of the mean free path, since $`l_e1/V_d^2`$ in the limit of weak scattering. In the second situation (case-II), we consider a MWNT with $`\beta 0`$ but we neglect disorder.

The magnetic field modifies the hamiltonian through a Peierls substitution : hopping terms have a field-dependent phase $`e^{i\phi _{ij}}`$ with $`\phi _{ij}=\frac{e}{h}_{ij}𝐀`$$`.d𝐫`$, where $`𝐀`$ is the vector potential. We look at $`D(\tau _\varphi ,\mathrm{\Phi })`$, where $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is the flux of the magnetic field through the tubes and is identical for all tubes. It is sufficient to consider $`0<\mathrm{\Phi }<\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ since at least a $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$-periodicity is expected from gauge invariance . We assume that variations of the diffusivity give the main contribution to magnetoconductance.

Case-I (see Fig.3). Several types of situations occur depending on the relative values of $`L(\tau _\varphi )`$, $`l_e`$, and $`𝒞`$, which are respectively the average spatial extension of WP at the time $`\tau _\varphi `$, the elastic mean free path, and the circumference of the nanotube. When $`l_e<C<L(\tau _\varphi )`$, our calculations confirm that the behavior of $`D(\tau _\varphi ,\mathrm{\Phi })`$ follows WL theory predictions. The diffusivity increases at low field (negative magnetoresistance) and presents a $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$-periodic Aharonov-Bohm oscillation, i.e. $`D(\tau _\varphi ,\mathrm{\Phi }+\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2)=D(\tau _\varphi ,\mathrm{\Phi })`$ (see Fig.3). For a smaller disorder with $`l_e>C`$, depending on the value of $`\tau _\varphi `$, two different behaviors are obtained. If $`L(\tau _\varphi )<2l_e`$, then the diffusivity decreases at low field, and a $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$-periodic oscillation dominates the oscillative behavior of the diffusivity, i.e. $`D(\tau _\varphi ,\mathrm{\Phi }+\mathrm{\Phi }_0)=D(\tau _\varphi ,\mathrm{\Phi })`$ (inset Fig.3). This situation with large mean free path and irrelevance of backscattering indeed leads to a positive magnetoresistance and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$-periodic oscillation, in agreement with theory. Whenever $`L(\tau _\varphi )>2l_e`$, although Aharonov-Bohm oscillations remain $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$-periodic, we get a negative magnetoresistance at low magnetic field, which is consistent with the fact that $`\tau _\varphi `$ is now large enough to allow some backscattering to be efficient. We also remark that the marked reduction of diffusivity which shows up at $`\mathrm{\Phi }/\mathrm{\Phi }_0=1/2`$ is consistent with a study on small metallic cylinder.

Case-II (see Fig.4). The case of the incommensurate 2-wall $`(9,0)\mathrm{@}(10,10)`$ is given in Fig.4 (inset) where the power-law diffusion takes place. $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$-periodic oscillations and positive magnetoresistance at low field are observed, similar to what is obtained for the ballistic regime in the SWNT case. Conversely, for $`(6,4)\mathrm{@}(10,10)\mathrm{@}(17,13)`$, which present a diffusive-like propagation, there is evidence for negative magnetoresistance at low field and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$-periodicity of $`D(\tau _\varphi ,\mathrm{\Phi })`$. The effective elastic mean free path $`\stackrel{~}{l}_e35`$ nm (see above), turns out to be larger than the outer shell circumference ($`7nm`$). Even in this situation, a small $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$-periodic oscillation is observed for large $`\tau _\varphi `$. By taking an enhanced value of the coupling parameter ($`\beta =\gamma _0`$), the diffusive regime is reached more rapidly, $`\stackrel{~}{l}_e2nm<𝒞`$, and together with a negative magnetoresistance at low field, a stronger $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$-periodic oscillation is obtained. These results confirm that magnetotransport properties of MWNTs are very sensitive to the geometry, the number of shells carrying current, and the hamiltonian parameters.

Note that in disordered systems, the basic scheme is that of ballistic electrons scattering on random impurities. The $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$ periodicity results from quantum interferences of the electronic pathways around the cylinder wrist. This scheme is not strictly applicable in the case of the incommensurate MWNTs, which means that a clear theoretical understanding of the $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$ periodicity has still to be developed, although it is obvious that the diffusive-like regime propagation plays a central role.

Conclusions.-The above results demonstrate that the behavior observed by Bachtold et al. can be reproduced by considering only the effect of incommensurability. In a real experiment with uniform magnetic field, the flux through a given shell is proportionnal to its section, whereas here we have taken identical flux for all shells. Our hypothesis is relevant if, in the experimental conditions, the current is confined on a few shells close to the outer one of the MWNT. This confinment could stem from the fact electrons can not go through semiconducting shells, that represent statistically $`2/3`$ of the shells. Note that in the interpretation developed by Bachtold et al., and according to the above results (case-I), the mean free path induced by disorder has to be smaller than the circumference of the nanotube in order to recover the $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0/2`$ periodicity. Yet, using the formula of White and Todorov  with the same disorder parameter, the mean free path is four orders of magnitude larger than the circumference of the outer nanotube, in the experiment of Bachtold et al. .

In summary it has been shown that in MWNTs, the electron wavepacket can spread over several shells, due to interlayer coupling. When the ratio between the different shells periodicities along the nanotube axis is irrational, the MWNTs are incommensurate systems. In such a situation, the electronic propagation is not ballistic but depends very much on the geometry and number of shells participating to transport. It has been shown that incommensurability offers an alternative explanation of the experimental results of Bachtold et al. on magnetoresistance, without assuming strong disorder.

MWNTs could provide an unique opportunity of investigating transport in incommensurate quasi one-dimensionnal conducting systems.

Acknowledgments: Financial support from NAMITECH \[ERBFMRX-CT96-0067(DG12-MITH)\], DGES (PB98-0345), JCyL (VA28/99) and C4 is acknowledged. S.R. is indebted to R. Saito for stimulating encouragements.


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# Gold-plated processes at photon colliders

## 1 Introduction

### 1.1 Photon Colliders

A unique feature of an $`e^+e^{}`$ Linear Colliders (LC) with a center of mass (c.m.s.) energy from a few hundred GeV to several TeV  is the possibility to transform it to a $`\gamma \gamma `$, $`\gamma e`$ collider (Photon Collider) via the process of Compton backscattering of laser light off the high energy electrons (positrons are not needed for photon colliders) . Additional material can be found in the review papers , in the Conceptual(Zero) Design Reports  and in the proceedings of the workshop on photon colliders held at Berkeley  in 1995 and in these proceedings .

The maximum energy of the scattered photons is

$$\omega _m=\frac{x}{x+1}E_0;x\frac{4E_0\omega _0}{m^2c^4}15.3\left[\frac{E_0}{\text{TeV}}\right]\left[\frac{\omega _0}{eV}\right],$$
(1)
where $`E_0`$ is the electron beam energy and $`\omega _0`$ the energy of the laser photon. For example, for $`E_0=250`$ GeV, $`\omega _0=1.17`$ eV, i.e. $`\lambda =1.06`$ $`\mu `$m (Nd:glass laser), we obtain $`x=4.5`$ and $`\omega _m=0.82E_0`$.

The high energy photon spectrum becomes more peaked for increasing values of $`x`$. It turns out that the value $`x4.8`$ is the optimum choice for photon colliders, because for $`x>4.8`$ the produced high energy photons create QED $`e^+e^{}`$ pairs in collision with the laser photons, and the $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosity  will be reduced. Hence, the maximum c.m.s. energy in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions is about 80% (and 90% in $`\gamma e`$ collisions) of that in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions. If smaller photon energies are needed, the same laser can be used when the electron beam energy is decreased. In this case the value of the parameter $`x`$ also decreases and the photon spectrum becomes less peaked. Alternatively, a laser with a shorter wave length may be used to retain the same sharp spectrum ($`x4.8`$) at lower energy.

A typical luminosity distribution in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions is characterized by a high energy peak and a low energy part, Ref.. The peak has a width at half maximum of about 15%. The photons in the peak can have a high degree of circular polarization. This peak region is most useful for experimentation. When comparing event rates in $`\gamma \gamma `$ and $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions we will use the value of the $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosity in the peak region $`z>0.8z_m`$ where $`z=W_{\gamma \gamma }/2E_0`$ ($`W_{\gamma \gamma }`$ being the $`\gamma \gamma `$ invariant mass) and $`z_m=\omega _m/E_0`$. The $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosity in this region is proportional to the geometric luminosity $`L_{geom}`$ of the electron beams: $`L_{\gamma \gamma }(z>0.8z_m)0.1L_{ee,geom}`$.111for a thickness of the laser target being equal to one collision length The geometric luminosity of electron beams in a $`\gamma \gamma `$ collision region can be made larger than the $`e^+e^{}`$ luminosity because beamstrahlung and beam repulsion are absent for photon beams.

The luminosity of $`\gamma e`$ collisions is not proportional to the geometric electron-electron luminosity (see the figures in Ref. ) even in the high energy part of the luminosity spectrum. This is due to the repulsion of electron beams and beamstrahlung.

The luminosities expected at the TESLA photon collider , are presented in Table 1.

For comparison, the “nominal” $`e^+e^{}`$ luminosity at TESLA at $`2E_0=500`$ GeV is $`L_{e^+e^{}}(500)=3\times 10^{34}`$ cm-2s-1 . For the design parameters of the electron beams and the same energy,

$$L_{\gamma \gamma }(z>0.8z_m)\frac{1}{3}L_{e^+e^{}}.$$
(2)
For beams with even smaller emittances even higher $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosities can be reached, in contrast to the $`e^+e^{}`$ luminosity which is restricted by beam collision effects.

The energy spectrum of high energy photons becomes most strongly peaked if the initial electrons are longitudinally polarized and the laser photons are circularly polarized. This gives almost a factor of 3–4 increase of the luminosity in the high energy peak. The average degree of circular polarization of photons within the high-energy peak amounts to $`9095\%`$. The sign of the polarization can easily be changed by changing the signs of both electron and laser photon initial polarizations.

Linear polarization of high energy photons can be obtained by using linearly polarized laser light . The degree of linear polarization at maximum energy depends on $`x`$: $`l_\gamma =2(1+x)/(1+(1+x)^2)`$, giving 0.334, 0.6, 0.8 for $`x=4.8,2,1`$ respectively. Polarization asymmetries are proportional to $`l_\gamma ^2`$, therefore low $`x`$ values are more preferable for this goal. For $`x`$ = 2 the maximum energy is only 23% lower than for $`x=4.8`$, but the signal is 3.2 times larger. So, for energies reduced by 20% compared to $`x=4.8`$, significantly larger linear polarization can be achieved.

### 1.2 Physics Objectives

Recent experiments at the SLC, LEP, the Tevatron and HERA have confirmed to high precision the Standard Model ($`𝒮`$) of the electroweak interactions. In particular, fermion interactions with electroweak gauge bosons of the $`𝒮`$ were verified to per-mille precision.

The central goals of studies at the next generation of $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders are the proper understanding of electroweak symmetry breaking, associated with the problem of mass, and the discovery of new physics beyond the Standard Model . Three scenarios are possible for future experiments:

* New particles or interactions will be directly discovered at the TEVATRON and LHC. A linear collider in the $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$, $`\gamma e`$ modes will then play a crucial role in the detailed and thorough study of these new phenomena and in the reconstruction of the underlying fundamental theories.
* LHC and LC will discover and study in detail the Higgs boson but no spectacular signatures of new physics or new particles will be observed. In this case the precision studies of potential deviations of the properties of the Higgs boson, electroweak gauge bosons and the top quark from their Standard Model predictions can provide clues to the physics beyond the $`𝒮`$.
* Electroweak symmetry breaking (EWSB) is a dynamical phenomenon. The interactions of $`W`$ bosons and $`t`$ quarks must then be studied at high energies to explore new strong interactions at the TeV scale.

Electroweak symmetry breaking in the $`𝒮`$ is based on the Higgs mechanism, which introduces one elementary Higgs boson. The model agrees with the present data, and the recent global analysis of precision electroweak data in the framework of the $`𝒮`$  suggests a Higgs boson lighter than $`200`$ GeV. A Higgs boson in this mass range is expected to be discovered at the TEVATRON or the LHC. However, it will be the LC in all its modes that tests whether this particle is indeed the $`𝒮`$ Higgs boson or whether it is eventually one of the Higgs states in extended models like the two–Higgs doublet model ($`2𝒟`$), or the minimal supersymmetric generalization of the $`𝒮`$, $`𝒮𝒮`$. At least five Higgs bosons are predicted in supersymmetric models, $`h^0,H^0,A^0,H^+,H^{}`$. Unique opportunities are offered by the photon collider to search for the heavy Higgs bosons in areas of SUSY parameter space not accessible elsewhere.

In principle, EWSB could also be generated by a strong-coupling theory. In such models, the signals of the EWSB mechanism are most clearly manifest in the properties of the heaviest $`𝒮`$ particles, the $`W`$ and $`Z`$ bosons and the $`t`$-quark. In that case, measurement of the anomalous electroweak gauge boson and top quark coupling at the LC will be among the most central issues of the physics program.

Photon colliders have distinct advantages in searches for and measurements of new physics objects. In general, phenomena in $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$, $`\gamma e`$ collisions are quite similar because the same particles can be produced. However, the reactions are different and often give complementary information. Some phenomena can be studied better at photon colliders due to higher statistical accuracy (based on much larger cross-sections) or due to higher accessible masses (single resonances in $`\gamma \gamma `$ and $`\gamma e`$ or a pair of light and heavy particles in $`\gamma e`$). A comparison of cross-sections for some processes in $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$, $`\gamma e`$ collisions are presented in Fig.1 .

The cross sections for pairs of scalars, fermions or vectors particles are all significantly larger (about one order of magnitude) in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions than in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions, as demonstrated in Fig.2 .

For example, the maximum cross section for $`H^+H^{}`$ production with unpolarized photons is about 7 times larger in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions than in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions (see Fig.1). With polarized photons and not far from threshold, it is even larger by a factor of 20, Fig. 3 . As a result, for the luminosity given in the Table 1 the event rate is 7 times higher.

The two-photon production of pairs of charged particles is a pure QED process, while the cross section of pair production in $`e^+e^{}`$ collision depends also on the weak isospin of the produced particles via $`Z`$ exchange, and (sometimes) t–channel exchanges contribute. Therefore, measurements of pair production both in $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions can be exploited to disentangle various couplings of the charged Higgs particles.

Another example is the direct resonant production of the Higgs boson in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions. It is evident from Fig. 4 , that the cross section at the photon collider is several times larger than the Higgs production cross section in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions. Although the $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosity is smaller than the $`e^+e^{}`$ luminosity, the production rate of the $`𝒮`$ Higgs boson with mass between $`100`$ and $`200`$ GeV in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions is nevertheless 1–5 times larger than the rate in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions at $`2E_0=500`$ GeV.

Photon colliders in the $`\gamma e`$ mode can produce particles which are kinematically not accessible at the same collider in the $`e^+e^{}`$ mode. For example, in $`\gamma e`$ collisions a heavy charged particle in association with a light neutral particle can be produced, such as a supersymmetric slepton plus a neutralino or a new $`W^{}`$ boson and neutrino, and the discovery limits can be extended.

Based on these arguments alone, and without relying on the dynamics a priori, $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$/$`\gamma e`$ modes are expected to be nicely complimentary for new physics searches. Even though the analyses of new physics scenarios are not yet as advanced in $`\gamma \gamma `$ and $`e\gamma `$ collisions as they are for $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions, advantages are obvious for some scenarios.

We present a short summary of the most important objectives and topics of the physics program at the photon collider mode of an LC. We discuss studies of Higgs physics (Section 2), supersymmetry (Section 3), studies of the dynamics of $`W`$-bosons (Section 4), extra dimensions (Section 5), top quark physics (Section 6), and QCD and hadron physics (Section 7). In concluding we present a short list of processes which appear most important for the physics studies at a photon collider.

## 2 Study of the Higgs Boson

The study of the Higgs boson plays an essential role in exploring the electroweak symmetry breaking and the origin of mass. The lower bound on $`M_h`$ from direct searches at LEP is presently $`113.5`$ GeV at $`95\%`$ confidence level (CL) . A surplus of events at LEP provides tantalizing indications of a Higgs boson with $`M_h=115_{0.7}^{+1.3}`$ GeV (90% CL) . Recent global analyses of precision electroweak data  suggest that the Higgs boson is light, yielding at 95% CL that $`M_h=62_{30}^{+53}`$ GeV. There is remarkable agreement with the well known upper bound of $``$ 130 GeV for the lightest Higgs boson mass in the minimal version of supersymmetric theories . Such a Higgs boson should definitely be discovered at the LHC if not already at the TEVATRON.

Once the Higgs boson is discovered, it will be crucial to determine the mass, the total width, spin, parity, CP–nature and the tree–level and one–loop induced couplings in a model–independent way. Here the $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$ modes of the LC will play a central role. The $`\gamma \gamma `$ collider option of an LC offers the unique possibility to produce the Higgs boson as an s–channel resonance :

$$\gamma \gamma h_0b\overline{b},WW^{},ZZ,\tau \tau ,gg,\gamma \gamma \mathrm{}.$$

The total width of the Higgs boson at masses below 400 GeV is much smaller than the characteristic width of the $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosity spectra (FWHM $``$ 10–15%), so that the Higgs production rate is proportional to $`dL_{\gamma \gamma }/dW_{\gamma \gamma }`$:

$$\dot{N}_{\gamma \gamma h}=L_{\gamma \gamma }\times \frac{dL_{\gamma \gamma }M_h}{dW_{\gamma \gamma }L_{\gamma \gamma }}\frac{4\pi ^2\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\gamma \gamma }(1+\lambda _1\lambda _2)}{M_h^3}L_{\gamma \gamma }\times \sigma ^{eff}.$$
(3)
where $`\lambda _i`$ are the photon helicities. The Higgs search and study can be done best by exploiting the high energy peak of the $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosity spectrum where $`dL_{\gamma \gamma }/dW_{\gamma \gamma }`$ has a maximum and the photons have a high degree of circular polarization. The effective cross section for $`(dL_{\gamma \gamma }/dW_{\gamma \gamma })(M_h/L_{\gamma \gamma })=7`$ and $`1+\lambda _1\lambda _2=2`$ is presented in Fig. 4. The luminosity in the high energy luminosity peak ($`z>0.8z_m`$) was defined in Section 1. For the luminosities given in Table 1, the ratio of the Higgs rates in $`\gamma \gamma `$ and $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions is about 1 to 5 for $`M_h=100`$$`200`$ GeV.

The Higgs boson at photon colliders can be detected as a peak in the invariant mass distribution or (and) can be searched for by energy scanning using the sharp high energy edge of the luminosity distribution . The scanning allows also to control backgrounds. A cut on the acollinearity angle between two jets from the Higgs decay ($`bb,\tau \tau `$, for instance) allows to select events with a narrow distribution (FWHM $``$ 8%) on the invariant mass .

The $`\gamma \gamma `$ partial width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )`$ of the Higgs boson is of special interest, since it is generated at the one–loop level including all heavy charged particles with masses generated by the Higgs mechanism. In this case the heavy particles do not decouple. As a result, the Higgs cross section in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions is sensitive to contributions of such particles with masses beyond the energy covered directly by the accelerators.

Due to the high cross section some Higgs branching ratios can be measured in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions with accuracies comparable or even better than those in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions. Combined measurements of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )`$ and $`\text{BR}(h\gamma \gamma )`$ at the $`e^+e^{}`$ and $`\gamma \gamma `$ LC provide a model independent measurement of the total Higgs width .

The required accuracy of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )`$ measurements in the SUSY sector can be inferred from the results of the studies of the coupling of the lightest SUSY Higgs boson to two photons in the decoupling regime . It was shown that in the decoupling limit, where all other Higgs bosons and the supersymmetric particles are very heavy, chargino and top squark loops can generate a sizable difference between the standard and the SUSY two–photon Higgs couplings. Typical deviations are at the level of a few percent. Top squarks heavier than $`250`$ GeV can induce deviations larger than $`10\%`$ if their couplings to the Higgs boson are large.

The control of the polarizations of back-scattered photons provides a powerful tool for exploring the $`CP`$ properties of any single neutral Higgs boson that can be produced with reasonable rate at the photon collider . $`CP`$-even Higgs bosons $`h^0`$, $`H^0`$ couple to the combination $`\stackrel{}{\epsilon _1}\stackrel{}{\epsilon _2}`$, while the $`CP`$-odd Higgs boson $`A^0`$ couples to \[$`\stackrel{}{\epsilon }_1\times \stackrel{}{\epsilon }_2]\stackrel{}{k_\gamma }`$, where $`\stackrel{}{\epsilon }_i`$ are photon polarization vectors. The scalar Higgs boson couples to linearly polarized photons with a maximal strength if the polarization vectors are parallel, the pseudoscalar Higgs boson if the polarization vectors are perpendicular:

$$\sigma 1\pm l_{\gamma 1}l_{\gamma 2}\mathrm{cos}2\varphi ,$$
(4)
$`l_{\gamma i}`$ are the degrees of linear polarization and $`\varphi `$ is the angle between $`\stackrel{}{l}_{\gamma 1}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{l}_{\gamma 2}`$. The signs $`\pm `$ correspond to the CP$`=\pm 1`$ scalar particles.

### 2.1 Light $`𝒮`$ or $`𝒮𝒮`$ Higgs Boson

A light Higgs boson $`h`$ with mass below the $`WW`$ threshold can be detected in the $`b\overline{b}`$ decay mode. Simulations of this process have been performed in Refs. . The main background to the $`hb\overline{b}`$ is the continuum production of $`b\overline{b}`$ and $`c\overline{c}`$ pairs. A high degree of circular polarization of the photon beams is crucial in this case, since for equal photon helicities $`(\pm \pm )`$, which relevant for the spin–zero resonant states, the $`\gamma \gamma q\overline{q}`$ QED Born cross section is suppressed by a factor $`m_q^2/W_{\gamma \gamma }^2`$ . Another potentially dangerous background originates from heavy quark pair production accompanied by the radiation of an additional gluon, which is not suppressed even for the equal photon helicities . In addition, virtual QCD corrections for $`J_z=0`$ were found to be especially large due to a double-logarithmic enhancement factor, so that the corrections are comparable or even larger than the Born contribution for the two-jet final topologies . Recent studies on Higgs production at photon colliders  include gluon emission in $`\gamma \gamma q\overline{q}`$ and all next-to-leading QCD corrections, as well as resummed leading double-logarithmic corrections .

A Monte Carlo simulation of $`\gamma \gamma hb\overline{b}`$ for $`M_h=120`$ and $`160`$ GeV has been performed for an integrated luminosity in the high energy peak of $`L_{\gamma \gamma }(0.8z_m<z<z_m)=43`$ fb-1 in Ref. . Real and virtual gluon corrections for the Higgs signal and the backgrounds  have been taken into account.

The results for the invariant mass distributions for the combined $`b\overline{b}(\gamma )`$ and $`c\overline{c}(\gamma )`$ backgrounds, after cuts, and for the Higgs signal are shown in in Fig. 5 . Due to the large charm production cross-section in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions, excellent $`b`$ tagging is required . A $`b`$ tagging efficiency of $`70\%`$ for $`\overline{b}b`$ events and residual efficiency of $`3.5\%`$ for $`\overline{c}c`$ events were used in these studies.

For a $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosity in the high energy peak of 43 fb-1 a relative statistical error of

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }[\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )\text{BR}(hb\overline{b})]}{[\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )\text{BR}(hb\overline{b})]}2\%$$
(5)
can be achieved in the Higgs mass range between 120 and 140 GeV.

The statistical accuracy decreases for $`M_h>140`$ GeV where the $`WW^{}`$ decay mode becomes important and $`b\overline{b}`$ is not the dominant decay mode any more. For $`M_h=160`$ GeV the statistical error is about 8%.

Assuming that the $`hb\overline{b}`$ branching ratio $`\text{BR}(hb\overline{b}`$) can be measured at the LC in $`e^+e^{}`$ (and $`\gamma \gamma `$) collisions with an accuracy of 1%  the partial two-photon Higgs width can be calculated using the relation

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )=\frac{[\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )\text{BR}(hb\overline{b})]}{[\text{BR}(hb\overline{b})]}$$
(6)
with almost the same accuracy as in Eq.(5). Such a high precision of the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )`$ measurement can only be achieved at the $`\gamma \gamma `$ mode of the LC. With such an accuracy it will be possible to discriminate between the $`𝒮`$ Higgs particle and the lightest scalar Higgs boson of the $`𝒮𝒮`$ or $`2𝒟`$  and to isolate contributions of new heavy particles.

The $`𝒮`$ Higgs boson with mass $`135<M_h<190`$ GeV will predominantly decay into $`WW^{}`$ or $`WW`$ pairs. This decay mode should permit the detection of the Higgs signal below and slightly above the threshold of $`WW`$ pair production . In order to determine the two-photon Higgs width in this case the relation

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )=\frac{[\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )\text{BR}(hWW^{})]}{[\text{BR}(hWW^{})]},$$
(7)
can be used, where $`\text{BR}(WW^{})`$ is obtained from the measurements of $`\sigma (e^+e^{}hZ)\times \text{BR}(WW^{})`$ and $`\sigma (e^+e^{}hZ)`$. For $`M_h=160`$ GeV the product $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )\text{BR}(hWW^{})`$ can be measured at the photon collider with the statistical accuracy better than 2% for an integrated $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosity of 40 fb-1 in the high energy peak. The accuracy of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )`$ will be determined by the accuracy of $`\text{BR}(hWW^{})`$ in $`e^+e^{}`$ experiments, expected to be about 2%.

Above the $`ZZ`$ threshold, the most promising channel to detect the Higgs signal is the reaction $`\gamma \gamma ZZ`$ . In order to suppress the huge background from the tree level $`W^+W^{}`$ pair production leptonic ($`l^+l^{}l^+l^{}`$, $`BR=1\%`$) or semileptonic ($`l^+l^{}q\overline{q}`$, $`BR=14\%`$) decay modes of the $`ZZ`$ pairs must be selected. Although there is only a one-loop induced continuum production of $`ZZ`$ pairs in the $`𝒮`$, a large irreducible background to the Higgs signal well above the $`WW`$ threshold is generated in the continuum . Due to this background the intermediate mass Higgs boson signal can be observed at the $`\gamma \gamma `$ collider in the $`ZZ`$ mode only if the Higgs mass is less than 350–400 GeV.

Hence, the two-photon $`𝒮`$ Higgs width can be measured at the photon collider, either in $`b\overline{b}`$, $`WW(WW^{})`$ or $`ZZ(ZZ^{})`$ decay modes, up to the Higgs mass of 350–400 GeV. Other decay modes, like $`h\tau \tau ,\gamma \gamma `$, can also be explored at photon colliders, but no studies have been carried out so far.

Assuming that in addition to the measurement of the $`hb\overline{b}`$ branching ratio also the BR($`h\gamma \gamma `$) can be measured at the $`e^+e^{}`$ linear collider with an accuracy  10–15%, the total width of the Higgs boson can be determined in a model independent way

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_h=\frac{[\mathrm{\Gamma }(h\gamma \gamma )\text{BR}(hb\overline{b})]}{[\text{BR}(h\gamma \gamma )][\text{BR}(hb\overline{b})]}$$
(8)
to an accuracy dominated by the expected error on $`\text{BR}(h\gamma \gamma )`$. The measurement of this branching ratio at the photon collider can improve the accuracy of the total Higgs width.

The total Higgs width can also be determined in the $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions using the reaction $`e^+e^{}h\nu \overline{\nu }`$, in which the Higgs boson is produced in collisions of virtual $`W`$ bosons, $`\sigma \mathrm{\Gamma }(hWW^{})`$. Combined with the measurement of $`\text{BR}(WW^{})`$ in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions the total Higgs width can be determined in this way . The typical precision of such a measurement for a Higgs mass range of $`110`$$`140`$ GeV is about $`(103)\%`$.

### 2.2 Heavy $`𝒮𝒮`$ Higgs Bosons

The minimal supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model includes two charged ($`H^\pm `$) Higgs bosons and three neutral Higgs bosons: the light $`CP`$-even Higgs particle ($`h`$), the heavy $`CP`$-even ($`H`$) and the $`CP`$-odd ($`A`$) Higgs states. For large value of the $`A`$ mass, the properties of the light $`CP`$-even Higgs boson $`h`$ are similar to the light $`𝒮`$ Higgs boson, and it can be detected in the $`b\overline{b}`$ decay mode, just as the $`𝒮`$ Higgs boson. Its mass is limited to $`M_h\stackrel{<}{}130`$ GeV. However, the masses of the heavy Higgs bosons $`H,A,H^\pm `$ are expected to be of the order of the electroweak scale up to about one TeV. They are nearly degenerate. The $`WW`$ and $`ZZ`$ decay modes are suppressed for $`H`$, and these decays are forbidden for $`A`$. Instead of the $`WW`$, $`ZZ`$ decay modes, the $`t\overline{t}`$ decay channel may be useful, if the Higgs boson masses are heavier than $`2M_t`$ and if $`\mathrm{tan}\beta 10`$. An important property of the SUSY couplings is the enhancement of the bottom Yukawa couplings with increasing $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$. For moderate and large values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$, the decay mode to $`b\overline{b}`$ and to $`\tau ^+\tau ^{}`$ is substantial .

Extensive studies have demonstrated that, while the light Higgs boson $`h`$ of the $`𝒮𝒮`$ can be found at the LHC, the heavy bosons $`H`$ and $`A`$ may escape the discovery for intermediate values of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta `$ . At an $`e^+e^{}`$ LC heavy $`𝒮𝒮`$ Higgs bosons can only be found in associated production, $`e^+e^{}HA`$ , with $`H`$ and $`A`$ having almost equal masses. In the first phase of the LC collider with a total $`e^+e^{}`$ energy of 500 GeV, the heavy Higgs bosons can thus be discovered for a mass up to about 250 GeV. To extend the mass reach by a factor of 1.6, the $`\gamma \gamma `$ option of LC can be used, where these bosons can be produced singly.

The results for the cross section of the $`H`$, $`A`$ signal in the $`b\overline{b}`$ decay mode and the corresponding background for the value of $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =7`$ are shown in Fig. 6 as a function of the pseudoscalar mass $`M_A`$ . From the figure one can see that the background is strongly suppressed with respect to the signal. The significance of the heavy boson signals is sufficient for a discovery of the Higgs particles with masses up to about 70–80% of the $`e^+e^{}`$ c.m.s. energy. For a 500 GeV $`e^+e^{}`$ LC the $`H,A`$ bosons with masses up to about 400 GeV can be discovered in the $`b\overline{b}`$ channel. For a LC with $`\sqrt{s_{ee}}=900`$ GeV the range can be extended to about 700 GeV . For heavier Higgs masses the signal becomes too small to be detected. Note that the cross section given in Fig.6 is related to the luminosity $`k^2L_{geom}0.4L_{geom}`$ which is $`4.8\times 10^{34}`$cm-2s-1($`1.5L_{e^+e^{}}`$) for 2E = 500 GeV and it grows proportional to the energy.

The almost degenerate $`H`$ and $`A`$ states can be separated by using the linear polarization of the colliding photons (see eq.4). The $`H`$ and $`A`$ states can be produced from collisions of parallel and perpendicularly polarized incoming photons, respectively . Next-to-leading order QCD corrections to the asymmetry of heavy quark production in linearly polarized photon beams are shown to be small . The possible $`CP`$-violating mixing of $`H`$ and $`A`$ can be distinguished from the overlap of these resonances by studying the polarization asymmetry in the two-photon production .

The interference between $`H`$ and $`A`$ states can be also studied in the reaction $`\gamma \gamma t\overline{t}`$ with circularly polarized photon beams by measuring the top quark helicity . The corresponding cross sections are shown in Fig. 7. The effect of the interference is clearly visible for the value $`\mathrm{tan}\beta =3`$. The $`RR`$ cross section is bigger than the $`LL`$ cross section \[$`R`$($`L`$) denotes the right(left) helicity\] due to the continuum. Large interference effects are visible in both modes. Without the measurement of the top quark polarization there still remains a strong interference effect between the continuum and the Higgs amplitudes, which can be measured.

For the pair production of charged Higgses $`\gamma \gamma H^+H^{}`$, due to much larger cross section, Fig.3, the event rate at the photon collider will be almost an order of magnitude larger than at the $`e^+e^{}`$ LC.

### 2.3 Extended Higgs Models

The scenario, in which all new particles are very heavy, can be realized not only in the $`𝒮𝒮`$ but also in other extended models of the $`𝒮`$ Higgs sector, for example in models with two Higgs doublets. In this case the two-photon Higgs boson width differs from the $`𝒮`$ value due to contributions of extra heavy charged particles, i.e. charged Higgs bosons in the $`2𝒟`$.

Different models for the $`2𝒟`$ have been discussed in Ref. . Assuming that the branching ratios of the observed Higgs boson to quarks, $`Z`$ or $`W`$ bosons are close to their $`𝒮`$ values, two sets of possible values for the couplings are obtained. For solution A all these couplings are close to their values in the $`𝒮`$ up to a common sign. For solution B absolute values of the couplings are close to their $`𝒮`$ values, but the coupling to quark $`q=u(t)`$ or $`d(b)`$ is of opposite sign as compared to the coupling to the gauge bosons. Fig. 8 shows deviations of the two-photon Higgs width from the $`𝒮`$ value for these two solutions. The shaded regions are derived from the anticipated $`1\sigma `$ experimental bounds around the $`𝒮`$ values for the Higgs couplings to fermions and gauge bosons. Comparing the numbers in these figures with the accuracy of the two-photon Higgs width at a photon collider, it can concluded that the difference between $`𝒮`$ and $`2𝒟`$ should definitely be observed .

The $`CP`$ parity of the neutral Higgs boson can be measured using linearly polarized photons. Moreover, if the Higgs boson is a mixture of $`CP`$-even and $`CP`$-odd states, as in a general $`2𝒟`$ with $`CP`$-violating neutral sector, the interference of these two terms gives rise to a $`CP`$-violating asymmetries . Two $`CP`$-violating ratios could contribute to linear order with respect to $`CP`$-violating couplings:

$$𝒜_1=\frac{|_{++}|^2|_{}|^2}{|_{++}|^2+|_{}|^2},𝒜_2=\frac{2Im(_{}^{}_{++})}{|_{++}|^2+|_{}|^2}.$$
(9)
Since the event rate for Higgs boson production in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions is given by

$`dN`$ $`=`$ $`dL_{\gamma \gamma }dPS{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}(|_{++}|^2+|_{}|^2)`$ (10)
$`\times [(1+\xi _2\stackrel{~}{\xi }_2)+(\xi _2+\stackrel{~}{\xi }_2)𝒜_1+(\xi _3\stackrel{~}{\xi }_1+\xi _1\stackrel{~}{\xi }_3)𝒜_2],`$
where $`\xi _i`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\xi }_i`$ are the Stokes polarization parameters, two $`CP`$-violating asymmetries can be observed. The asymmetry measured with circularly polarized photons is given by

$$T_{}=\frac{N_{++}N_{}}{N_{++}+N_{}}=\frac{\xi _2+\stackrel{~}{\xi }_2}{1+\xi _2\stackrel{~}{\xi }_2}𝒜_1,$$
(11)
where $`N_{\pm \pm }`$ correspond to the event rates for positive (negative) initial photon helicities. Experimentally the asymmetry is measured by simultaneously flipping the helicities of the laser beams used for production of polarized electrons and $`\gamma e`$ conversion. The asymmetry measured with linearly polarized photons is given by

$$T_\psi =\frac{N(\varphi =\frac{\pi }{4})N(\varphi =\frac{\pi }{4})}{N(\varphi =\frac{\pi }{4})+N(\varphi =\frac{\pi }{4})}=\frac{\xi _3\stackrel{~}{\xi }_1+\xi _1\stackrel{~}{\xi }_3}{1+\xi _2\stackrel{~}{\xi }_2}𝒜_2,$$
(12)
where $`\varphi `$ is the angle between the linear polarization vectors of the photons. The asymmetries are typically larger than 10%  and they are observable for a large range of $`2𝒟`$ parameter space if $`CP`$ violation is present in the Higgs potential.

Hence, a high degree of both circular and linear polarizations for the high energy photon beams gives additional opportunities at the $`\gamma \gamma `$ collider for the detailed study of the Higgs sector.

## 3 Supersymmetry

In $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions, any kind of the charged particles can be produced in pairs if the mass is below the kinematical bound. Important cases for a photon collider are the charged sfermions , the charginos  and the charged Higgs bosons.

For the $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosities given in the Table 1, the production rates for these particles will be larger than in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions. Hence detailed studies of charged supersymmetric particles are possible at the $`\gamma \gamma `$ collider. In addition, the cross sections in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions are given by pure QED to leading order, while in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions also $`Z`$-boson and sometimes $`t`$-channel exchanges contribute. So, studies of these production processes in both channels provide complementary information about the interactions of these charged sparticles.

The $`e\gamma `$ collider could be the ideal machine for the discovery of the scalar electron and neutralino in the reaction $`e^{}\gamma \stackrel{~}{e}^{}\stackrel{~}{\chi }_1^0`$ . They could be discovered in $`\gamma e`$ collisions up to the kinematical limit of

$$M_{\stackrel{~}{e}^{}}<0.9\sqrt{s}_{ee}M_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }_1^0},$$
(13)
where $`\sqrt{s_{ee}}`$ is the energy of the original $`e^+e^{}`$ collider. This bound would exceed the bound for $`\stackrel{~}{e}^+\stackrel{~}{e}^{}`$ pair production in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions if $`M_{\stackrel{~}{\chi }_1^0}<0.4\sqrt{s}_{ee}`$.222Cross sections of the reactions $`e^+e^{}\stackrel{~}{e}^{}\stackrel{~}{\chi }_1^0e^\pm `$ with lower threshold in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions are suppressed by an extra factor of $`\alpha `$.

In some scenarios of supersymmetric extensions of the Standard Model stoponium bound states $`\stackrel{~}{t}\overline{\stackrel{~}{t}}`$ are formed. A photon collider would be the ideal machine for the discovery and study of these new narrow strong resonances . About ten thousand stoponium resonances for $`M_S=200`$ GeV will be produced for an integrated $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosity in the high energy peak of $`100`$ fb-1. Thus precise measurements of the stoponium effective couplings, mass and width should be possible. At $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders the counting rate will be much lower and in some scenarios the stoponium cannot be detected due to the large background .

## 4 $`W`$ Boson Interactions

One of the best known examples of new physics scenarios which clearly show the complementarity of the $`e^+e^{}`$ and the $`\gamma \gamma `$, $`\gamma e`$ modes of an LC, are anomalous gauge couplings of the $`W`$ boson. Recent experiments at LEP2 and the Tevatron have observed $`WW`$, $`ZZ`$ pair production and they have verified that the cross sections for the production of weak gauge boson pairs, at least in the region close to threshold, conform to the Standard Model predictions. New strong interactions that might be responsible for the electroweak symmetry breaking can affect the triple and quartic couplings of the weak vector bosons. The precision measurements of these couplings, as well as corresponding effects on the top quark couplings can provide clues to the mechanism of the electroweak symmetry breaking. Moreover, if all new particles are very heavy, anomalous couplings are an important source of information on the mechanism of EWSB. Estimates suggest that a high level of precision is needed, which is much higher than the current bounds close to $`10^1`$ on the parameters of the $`W`$ vertices from LEP2 and the Tevatron . Due to the huge cross sections, of the order of $`10^2`$ pb, well above the thresholds, the $`\gamma \gamma W^+W^{}`$ and $`e^{}\gamma \nu W^{}`$ processes seem to be ideal reactions to study the anomalous gauge interactions.

### 4.1 Anomalous Gauge Boson Couplings

The relevant process at the $`e^+e^{}`$collider is $`e^+e^{}W^+W^{}`$. This reaction is dominated by the large $`t`$-channel neutrino exchange diagram which however can be removed using electron beam polarization. The cross section of $`W^+W^{}`$ pair production in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions with right-handed electron beams, eliminating the neutrino exchange, has a maximum of about 2 pb at LEP2 and decreases at higher energy.

The two main processes at the photon collider are $`\gamma \gamma W^+W^{}`$, $`e\gamma W\nu `$. Their total cross sections for center–of–mass energies above $`200`$ GeV are about 80 pb and 40 pb, respectively, and they do not decrease with energy. Hence the $`W`$ production cross sections at the photon collider are at least 20–40 times larger than the cross section at the $`e^+e^{}`$ collider. This enhancement makes event rates at the photon collider one order of magnitude larger than at an $`e^+e^{}`$ collider, even when the lower $`\gamma \gamma `$, $`\gamma e`$ luminosities are taken into account. Specifically for the integrated $`\gamma \gamma `$ luminosity of 100 fb-1, about $`8\times 10^6`$ $`W^+W^{}`$ pairs are produced at the photon collider. Note that while $`\gamma eW\nu `$ and $`\gamma \gamma WW`$ isolate the anomalous photon couplings to the $`W`$, $`e^+e^{}WW`$ involves potentially anomalous $`Z`$ couplings so that the two LC modes are complementary with each other.

While there have been extensive analyses  of anomalous triple gauge boson couplings at $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders, the corresponding processes $`\gamma eW\nu `$ and $`\gamma \gamma WW`$ have generally received less attention in the literature  and the higher order processes were not considered in detail.

The analysis of $`\gamma \gamma WW`$ has been performed in Refs.  with the detector simulation. The analysis at photon colliders is compared to that at $`e^+e^{}`$ colliders. The results have been obtained only from analyses of the total cross section. With the $`W`$ decay properties taken into account further improvements can be expected. The resulting accuracy on $`\lambda _\gamma `$ is comparable with $`e^+e^{}`$ analyses, while a similar accuracy on $`\delta \kappa _\gamma `$ can be achieved at $`1/20`$–th of the $`e^+e^{}`$ luminosity.

In addition, the process $`e\gamma W\nu `$ which has a large cross section, is very sensitive to the admixture of right–handed currents in the $`W`$ couplings with fermions: $`\sigma _{e\gamma W\nu }(12\lambda _e)`$.

Many processes of 3rd and 4th order have quite large cross sections  at the photon collider:

| $`e\gamma eWW`$ |
| --- |
| $`e\gamma \nu WZ`$ |

| $`\gamma \gamma ZWW`$ |
| --- |
| $`\gamma \gamma WWWW`$ |
| $`\gamma \gamma WWZZ`$ |

It should also be noted, that in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions the anomalous $`\gamma \gamma W^+W^{}`$ quartic couplings can be probed. However, the higher event rate does not necessarily provide better bounds on anomalous couplings. In some models electroweak symmetry breaking leads to large deviations mainly in longitudinal $`W_LW_L`$ pair production . On the other hand the large cross section of the reaction $`\gamma \gamma W^+W^{}`$ is due to transverse $`W_TW_T`$ pair production. In such a case transverse $`W_TW_T`$ pair production would represent a background for the longitudinal $`W_LW_L`$ production. The relative yield of $`W_LW_L`$ can be considerably improved after a cut on the $`W`$ scattering angle. Asymptotically for $`s_{\gamma \gamma }M_W^2`$ the production of $`W_LW_L`$ is as much as 5 times larger than at a $`e^+e^{}`$ LC.

However, if anomalous couplings manifest themselves in transverse $`W_TW_T`$ pair production, e.g. in theories with large extra dimensions, then the interference with the large $`𝒮`$ transverse contribution is of big advantage in the photon collider.

### 4.2 Strong $`WWWW`$, $`WWZZ`$ Scattering

If a strong-coupling EWSB breaking scenario is realized in Nature, $`W`$ and $`Z`$ bosons will interact strongly at high energy. For example, if no Higgs boson exists with a mass below 1 TeV, the longitudinal components of the electroweak gauge bosons must become strongly interacting at energies above 1 TeV to comply with the requirements of unitarity for the $`W_LW_L`$, $`Z_LZ_L`$ scattering amplitudes. In such scenarios novel resonances can be formed in the $`𝒪`$(1 TeV) energy range which can be produced in $`W_LW_L`$ collisions. In these scenarios, $`W_LW_L`$ must be studied at energies of the order of 1 TeV. In $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions $`W_LW_L`$ scattering can be investigated by using $`W`$ bosons radiated off the electron and positron beams in the reaction $`e^+e^{}\nu \nu W^+W^{}`$. If the energy of the $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions is high enough, the effective $`W`$ luminosity in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions becomes large enough to allow for the study of $`W^+W^{}W^+W^{}`$, $`ZZ`$ scattering in the reactions

$$\gamma \gamma WWWW,WWZZ.$$
(14)
Each incoming photon turns into a virtual $`WW`$ pair, followed by the scattering of one $`W`$ from each such pair to form the final $`WW`$ or $`ZZ`$ pairs . The same reactions can be used to study anomalous quartic $`WWWW`$, $`WWZZ`$ couplings.

A potential advantage of the $`\gamma \gamma `$ collider is the longitudinal $`W`$ spectrum inside the photon . Due to the hard component, with the logarithmic enhancement factor, the distribution function at large $`z`$ is bigger for photons than for electrons. For $`\sqrt{s}=1`$ TeV the $`W_LW_L`$ luminosity distributions in $`\gamma \gamma `$ and $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions are very similar, but $`_{W_LW_L/\gamma \gamma }`$ is larger than $`_{W_LW_L/e^+e^{}}`$ by a factor of 5  for $`\sqrt{s}=5`$ TeV. A detailed comparison can be carried out only after accurate simulations of the processes have been performed, taken backgrounds into account properly.

## 5 Extra Dimensions

New ideas have recently been proposed to explain the weakness of the gravitational force . The Minkowski world is extended by extra space dimensions which are curled up at small dimensions $`R`$. While the gauge and matter fields are confined in the (3+1) dimensional world, gravity propagates through the extended 4+n dimensional world. While the effective gravity scale, the Planck scale, in four dimensions is very large, the fundamental Planck scale in 4+n dimensions may be as low as a few TeV so that gravity may become strong already at energies of the present or next generation of colliders.

Towers of Kaluza–Klein graviton excitations will be realized on the compactified 4+n dimensional space. Exchanging these KK excitations between $`𝒮`$ particles in high–energy scattering experiments will generate effective contact interactions, carrying spin=2 and characterized by a scale $`M_s`$ of order few TeV. They will give rise to substantial deviations from the predictions of the Standard Model for the cross sections and angular distributions for various beam polarizations .

Of the many processes examined so far, $`\gamma \gamma WW`$ provides the largest reach for $`M_s`$ for a given center of mass energy of the LC . The main reasons are that the $`WW`$ final state offers many observables which are particularly sensitive to the initial electron and laser polarizations and the very high statistics due to the 80 pb cross section.

By performing a combined fit to the total cross sections and angular distributions for various initial state polarization choices and the polarization asymmetries, the discovery reach for $`M_s`$ can be estimated as a function of the total $`\gamma \gamma `$ integrated luminosity. This is shown in Fig. 9 . The reach is in the range of $`M_s(11`$$`13)2E_0`$, which is larger than that obtained from all other processes examined so far. By comparison, a combined analysis of the processes $`e^+e^{}f\overline{f}`$ with the same integrated luminosity leads to a reach of only $`(6`$$`7)2E_0`$.

Other final states in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions are also sensitive to graviton exchanges, two examples being the $`\gamma \gamma `$  and $`ZZ`$  final states, which however result in smaller search reaches.

## 6 Studies of the Top Quark

The top quark is heavy and up to now point-like at the same time. The top Yukawa coupling $`\lambda _t=2^{3/4}G_F^{1/2}M_t`$ is numerically very close to unity, and it is not clear whether this is related to some deep physical reason. Hence deviations from the $`𝒮`$ predictions should be expected most pronounced in the top sector . Studies of the top quark may shed light on the origin of the mechanism of EWSB. Top quark physics will therefore be a very important part of research programs for all future hadron and lepton colliders. The $`\gamma \gamma `$ collider is of special interest because of the very clean production mechanism and high rate (review Ref. ). Moreover, the $`S`$ and $`P`$ partial waves of the final state top quark–antiquark pair produced in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions can be separated by choosing the same or opposite helicities of the colliding photons.

To get a reliable answer for the production cross section near the threshold, it is necessary to resum the Coulombic corrections as for $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions . After resummation, the cross section close to the threshold increases by a factor 4–5 . Recent results  show a large difference between the NLO and NNLO predictions.

### 6.1 Probing Anomalous Couplings in $`t\overline{t}`$ Pair Production

Two points are different in $`\gamma \gamma `$ and $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions with respect to the couplings of the top quark:

* in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions the $`\gamma t\overline{t}`$ coupling enters with the 4th power;
* the $`\gamma t\overline{t}`$ coupling is isolated in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions while in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions both $`\gamma t\overline{t}`$ and $`Zt\overline{t}`$ couplings contribute.

The effective Lagrangian contains four parameters $`f_i^\alpha `$, Ref., where $`\alpha =\gamma ,Z`$; but only couplings with $`\alpha =\gamma `$ occur in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions. It has been demonstrated  that if the cross section can be measured with 2% accuracy, scale parameters for new physics $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ can be probed up to 10 TeV for $`2E_0=500`$ GeV, with the form factors are taken in the form $`f_i^\alpha =(f_i^\alpha )^{SM}(1+s/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)`$. The sensitivity to the anomalous magnetic moment $`f_2^\gamma `$ is better in $`\gamma \gamma `$ than in $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions. The $`f_4^\alpha `$ term describes the $`CP`$ violation. The best limit on the imaginary part of the electric dipole moment $`Im(f_4^\gamma )`$ is about $`2.3\times 10^{17}`$ $`e`$cm . It can be derived from the forward-backward asymmetry $`A_{fb}`$ with initial-beam helicities of electron and laser beams $`\lambda _e^1=\lambda _e^2`$ and $`\lambda _l^1=\lambda _l^2`$. The real part of the dipole moment can also be bounded to the order $`10^{17}`$ $`e`$cm by using linear polarization asymmetries .

### 6.2 Single Top Production in $`\gamma \gamma `$ and $`\gamma e`$ Collisions

Single top production in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions results in the same final state as the top quark pair production  and invariant mass cuts are required to suppress direct $`t\overline{t}`$ contribution. Single top production can also be studied in $`\gamma e`$ collisions . In contrast to the pair production rate the single top rate is directly proportional to the $`Wtb`$ coupling and the process is therefore very sensitive to its structure. The anomalous part of the effective Lagrangian, Ref., contains terms $`f_{2L(R)}1/\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the scale of a new physics.

In the Table 2  limits on anomalous couplings from measurements at different machines are shown. The best limits can be reached at very high energy $`\gamma e`$ colliders, even in the case of unpolarized collisions. In the case of polarized collisions, the production rate increases significantly, cf. Fig. 10 , and the bounds are improved. Only left-handed electrons lead to a nonvanishing cross section.

## 7 QCD and Hadron Physics

Photon colliders offer a unique possibility to probe QCD in a new unexplored regime. The very high luminosity, the (relatively) sharp spectrum of the backscattered laser photons and their polarization are of great advantage. At the photon collider the following measurements can be performed, for example:

1. The total cross section for $`\gamma \gamma `$ fusion to hadrons .
2. Deep inelastic $`\gamma e`$ $`𝒩C`$ and $`𝒞C`$ scattering, and measurement of the quark distributions in the photon at large $`Q^2`$.
3. Measurement of the gluon distribution in the photon.
4. Measurement of the spin dependent structure function $`g_1^\gamma (x,Q^2)`$ of the photon.
5. $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ production in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions as a probe of the hard QCD pomeron .

$`\gamma \gamma `$ Fusion to Hadrons

The total cross section for hadron production in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions is a fundamental observable. It provides us with a picture of hadronic fluctuations in photons of high energy which reflect the strong–interaction dynamics as described by quarks and gluons in QCD. Since these dynamical processes involve large distances, predictions, due to the theoretical complexity, cannot be based yet on first principles. Instead, phenomenological models have been developed which involve elements of ideas which have successfully been applied to the analysis of hadron–hadron scattering, but also elements transferred from pertubative QCD in eikonalized mini–jet models. Differences between hadron–type models and mini–jet models are dramatic in the TESLA energy range. $`\gamma \gamma `$ scattering experiments are therefore extremely valuable in exploring the dynamics in complex hadronic quantum fluctuations of the simplest gauge particle in Nature.

Deep Inelastic $`\gamma e`$ Scattering (DIS)

The large c.m. energy in the $`\gamma e`$ system and the possibility of precise measurement of the kinematical variables $`x,Q^2`$ in DIS provide exciting opportunities at a photon collider. In particular it allows precise measurements of the photon structure function(s) with much better accuracy than in the single tagged $`e^+e^{}`$ collisions. The $`\gamma e`$ collider offers a unique opportunity to probe the photon at low values of $`x`$ ($`x10^4`$) for reasonably large values of $`Q^210`$ GeV2 . At very large values of $`Q^2`$ the virtual $`\gamma `$ exchange in deep inelastic $`\gamma e`$ scattering is supplemented by significant contributions from $`Z`$ exchange. Moreover, at very large values of $`Q^2`$ the charged–current process becomes effective in deep inelastic scattering, $`\gamma e\nu X`$, which is mediated by virtual $`W`$ exchange. The study of this process can in particular give information on the flavor decomposition of the quark distributions in the photon .

Gluon Distribution in the Photon

The gluon distribution in the photon can be studied in dedicated measurements of the hadronic final state in $`\gamma \gamma `$ collisions. The following two processes are of particular interest:

1. Dijet production , generated by the subprocess $`\gamma gq\overline{q}`$;
2. Charm production , which is sensitive to the mechanism $`\gamma gc\overline{c}`$.

Both these processes, which are at least in certain kinematical regions dominated by the photon–gluon fusion mechanisms, are sensitive to the gluon distribution in the photon. The detailed discussion of these processes have been presented in .

Spin Dependent Structure Function $`g_1^\gamma (x,Q^2)`$ of the Photon

Using polarized beams, photon colliders offer the possibility to measure the spin dependent structure function $`g_1^\gamma (x,Q^2)`$ of the photon . This quantity is completely unknown and its measurement in polarized $`\gamma e`$ DIS would be extremely interesting for testing QCD predictions in a broad region of $`x`$ and $`Q^2`$. The high–energy photon colliders allow to probe this quantity for very small values of $`x`$ .

Probing the QCD Pomeron by $`J/\mathrm{\Psi }`$ Production in $`\gamma \gamma `$ Collisions

The exchange of the hard QCD (or BFKL) pomeron is presumably the dominant mechanism of the process $`\gamma \gamma J/\psi J/\psi `$. Theoretical estimates of the cross–section presented in  have demonstrated that measurement of the reaction $`\gamma \gamma J/\psi J/\psi `$ at the photon collider should be feasible.

## 8 Conclusions

A short list of processes which we consider to be most important for the physics program of the photon collider option of the LC, is presented in Table 3.

Of course there exist lots of other possible manifestations of new physics in the $`\gamma \gamma `$, $`\gamma e`$ collisions which we have not discussed here. The study of resonant excited electron production $`\gamma ee^{}`$, the production of excited fermions $`\gamma \gamma f^{}f`$, leptoquark production $`e\gamma (eQ)\overline{Q}`$ , a magnetic monopole signal in the reaction of $`\gamma \gamma `$ elastic scattering  etc may be mentioned in this context.

To summarize, the photon collider will allow us to study the physics of EWSB in both the weak-coupling and the strong-coupling scenarios, as well as to search for a rich spectrum of new physics manifestations. Measurements of the two-photon Higgs width of the $`h`$, $`H`$ and $`A`$ Higgs states provide a strong motivation for developing the technology of the $`\gamma \gamma `$ collider option. Photon colliders offer unique possibilities for probing the photon structure and the QCD Pomeron. Polarized photon beams, large cross sections and sufficiently large luminosities allow to enhance significantly the discovery limits of many new particles in supersymmetric and other extentions of the Standard Model. The accuracy of the precision measurements of anomalous $`W`$ boson and top quark couplings will be improved significantly, complementing measurements at the $`e^+e^{}`$ mode of the linear collider.

## Acknowledgements

We greatly acknowledge our colleagues for numerous and useful discussions on the various problems and topics. E.B. and I.G. thanks the Organizing Committee of the Workshop for kind hospitality and financial support. The work of E.B. was partly supported by the RFBR-DFG 99-02-04011, RFBR 00-01-00704, and CERN-INTAS 99-377 grants. I.G. is grateful to RFBR (grants 99-02-17211 and 00-15-96691) for support. I.W. is supported in part by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (No. 11640262) and the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research on Priority Areas (No. 11127205) from the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, Japan. J.K. was partially supported by the EU Fourth Framework Programme ‘Training and Mobility of Researchers’, Network ‘Quantum Chromodynamics and the Deep Structure of Elementary Particles’, contract FMRX–CT98–0194.