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# Untitled Document

hep-th/0103115 CALT-68-2320 CITUSC/01-004

D-Branes, Holonomy and M-Theory

Jaume Gomis

Department of Physics

California Institute of Technology

Pasadena, CA 91125

and

Caltech-USC Center for Theoretical Physics

University of Southern California

Los Angeles, CA 90089

We show that M-theory on spaces with irreducible holonomy represent Type IIA backgrounds in which a collection of D6-branes wrap a supersymmetric cycle in a manifold with a holonomy group different from the one appearing in the M-theory description. For example, we show that D6-branes wrapping a supersymmetric four-cycle on a manifold with $`G_2`$ holonomy is described in eleven dimensions by M-theory on a space with $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ holonomy. Examples of such Type IIA backgrounds which lift to M-theory on spaces with $`SU(3),G_2,SU(4)`$ and $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ holonomy are considered. The M-theory geometry can then be used to compute exact quantities of the gauge theory on the corresponding D-brane configuration.

March 2001

1. Introduction

One of the important lessons of the duality era has been that string theory backgrounds can be naturally embedded in an eleven dimensional theory. The simplest example of this embedding is the uplift of any background of Type IIA string theory to M-theory \[1,,2\]. In particular, any solution of the equations of motion described by the ten dimensional metric $`g_{\mu \nu }`$, the Ramond-Ramond one form $`C_\mu `$ and the dilaton $`\varphi `$ uplifts in eleven dimensions to a solution of eleven dimensional supergravity with the following eleven dimensional metric

$$ds_{11}^2=e^{\frac{2\varphi }{3}}g_{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu +e^{\frac{4\varphi }{3}}(dx_{11}+C_\mu dx^\mu )^2.$$

The uplift of the rest of the massless bosonic fields of Type IIA string theory corresponds to turning on the three-form gauge field of eleven dimensional supergravity. Therefore, backgrounds of Type IIA string theory which only source the fields $`g_{\mu \nu }`$, $`C_\mu `$ and $`\varphi `$ must be described in eleven dimensions by a purely gravitational background without any flux.

On the other hand, supersymmetric M-theory vacua which are purely gravitational are completely classified. Supersymmetric compactifications of eleven dimensional supergravity to $`d+1`$-dimensional Minkowski space $`𝐑^{1,d}`$ appear whenever the $`D10d`$ dimensional compactification manifold $`𝐗`$ admits covariantly constant spinors1 There are many other interesting supersymmetric solutions if one allows for non-trivial background fluxes. For example, one can have AdS vacua (see  for a nice review of some such solutions) and warped compactifications (see e.g. \[4,,5\]).. The only solution in this class with maximal supersymmetry is when $`𝐗`$ is a torus $`𝐓^D`$. Solutions with reduced supersymmetry can be obtained when the compactification space $`𝐗`$ has covariantly constant spinors which do not span the full $`SO(D)`$ spinor. Such $`D`$-dimensional spaces have a holonomy group $`G`$ such that at least one component of the $`SO(D)`$ spinor is left invariant by the action of $`G`$. The list  of irreducible holonomy groups preserving some supersymmetry and the corresponding number of unbroken supercharges in $`𝐑^{1,d}`$ is : $`D=4,G=SU(2),7\text{dim.}𝒩=1\text{SUSY},16\text{real supercharges}`$

$`D=6,G=SU(3),5\text{dim.}𝒩=1\text{SUSY},8\text{real supercharges}`$

$`D=7,G=G_2,4\text{dim.}𝒩=1\text{SUSY},4\text{real supercharges}`$

$`D=8,G=SU(4),3\text{dim.}𝒩=2\text{SUSY},4\text{real supercharges}`$

$`D=8,G=\text{Spin}(7),3\text{dim.}𝒩=1\text{SUSY},2\text{real supercharges}`$

The number of unbroken supercharges is given by the number of singlets in the decomposition of the spinor of $`SO(D)`$ under the reduced holonomy group $`G\text{Spin}(D)`$. Manifolds with $`SU(2),SU(3)`$ and $`SU(4)`$ holonomy are Calabi-Yau spaces while manifolds with $`G_2`$ and $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ holonomy are real Ricci flat manifolds2 Eight dimensional hyper-Kahler manifolds with $`Sp(2)`$ holonomy will not be considered in this paper. They give rise to three dimensional theories with $`𝒩=3`$ supersymmetry..

In this paper we show that M-theory compactified3 We will consider non-compact spaces so strictly speaking we are not compactifying. Therefore, the constraint  imposed by tadpole cancellation is lifted since the flux lines can escape to infinity. on certain spaces with reduced holonomy appear as the local eleven dimensional description of Type IIA D6-branes wrapping supersymmetric cycles on certain lower dimensional spaces with a different holonomy group than the one in the M-theory description. It is crucial that we use D6-branes in the Type IIA construction since this is the only4 The magnetic dual object, the D0-brane, also lifts to pure geometry. brane which lifts in eleven dimensions to pure geometry. Supersymmetry severely constraints the types of lifts that are possible. The basic geometry that appears in eleven dimensions near the location of the D6-branes is that of an ALE fibration over the supersymmetric cycle in which we wrapped the D6-branes. This fibration has a different holonomy group than that of the manifold we started with in Type IIA. We consider the possibility of adding curved orientifold six planes (O6-planes) by modding out by worldsheet parity combined with an appropriate involution on the geometry. Then, the type of ALE fibration appearing in eleven dimensions depends on whether there is an orientifold plane in the Type IIA description. The gauge theory on the D6-branes appears in the M-theory description from singularities in the geometry. In the various examples we consider, we notice that the M-theory geometrical description can be used to compute quantities – such as prepotentials or superpotentials – of the gauge theory living on the D6-branes.

Our results extend the work of  where a configuration of D6 branes wrapping the $`𝐒^3`$ which appears in the deformation of the conifold singularity of a Calabi-Yau three-fold was represented in M-theory as compactification on a certain space with $`G_2`$ holonomy. For example, we show that M-theory on an orbifold of the spin bundle over $`𝐒^4`$ $`S(𝐒^4)`$ – which admits a metric with $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ holonomy – appears as the strong coupling description of D6-branes wrapping the supersymmetric four-cycle of the bundle of anti-self-dual two-forms over $`𝐒^4`$ $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(𝐒^4)`$ which admits a $`G_2`$ holonomy metric. This type of correspondence is extended to all other cases. Namely, we show that M-theory on certain singular spaces with $`SU(3),G_2,SU(4)`$ and $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ holonomy describe in eleven dimensions a configuration of D6-branes wrapped on a supersymmetric cycle on a manifold with different holonomy group. For example, we show that M-theory on the Calabi-Yau three-folds used in  to geometrically engineer supersymmetric gauge theories theories appear as the local description of D6-branes wrapping two-cycles in manifolds with $`SU(2)`$ holonomy. We would like to emphasize that the M-theory descriptions that we propose in this paper are appropriate descriptions of the Type IIA brane configurations near the location of the D6-branes. Globally, the eleven dimensional geometry is more complicated. In this paper we will provide simple examples of the local description of the wrapped supersymmetric D6-branes configurations in terms of eleven dimensional geometry.

This phenomena, apart from giving a physical rational for the existence of manifolds with reduced holonomy, can be useful in deriving string theory dualities using geometrical transitions. Recently, Atiyah, Maldacena and Vafa  have lifted the description of Type IIA backgrounds on two different Calabi-Yau three-folds to eleven dimensions and have found that the two different Type IIA backgrounds are described in M-theory by two different $`G_2`$ holonomy spaces which are related to each other by a flop transition . Therefore, by going through a smooth physical transition in M-theory, like a flop in a $`G_2`$ holonomy manifold, they derive the physical equivalence of string theory in the two different Calabi-Yau manifolds, which was previously conjectured by Vafa . Various aspects of this duality and generalizations to other three-folds have recently appeared in \[12,,13,,14,,15\]. The lifts proposed in this paper provide quantitative information about the gauge theory on the branes and can be useful in deriving possible new dualities among Type IIA vacua by going through a geometrical transition in the M-theory geometries we discuss.

The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section $`2`$ briefly reviews the eleven dimensional description of Type IIA D6-branes in flat space with and without an orientifold six-plane. In section $`3`$ we discuss the gauge theories one gets by wrapping D6-branes on supersymmetric cycles. We also exhibit the general features of the eleven dimensional geometry that represents the various wrapped D6-brane configurations. Sections $`4`$-$`7`$ give specific examples of lifts of Type IIA backgrounds with branes on certain manifolds with one holonomy group in terms of M-theory on spaces with a different holonomy group.

2. The Geometry of D6-branes and the O6-Plane

Any solution of the Type IIA string equations of motion only sourcing the Type IIA fields $`g_{\mu \nu }`$, $`C_\mu `$ and $`\varphi `$ is described in eleven dimensions by a purely gravitational background. A simple example of this phenomena is provided by a collection of D6-branes. The eleven dimensional description of N separated D6-branes can be obtained by using (1.1) on the Type IIA supergravity solution of . It is given by

$$ds_{11}^2=dx_0^2+dx_1^2+\mathrm{}++dx_6^2+ds_{TN}^2,$$

where $`ds_{TN}^2`$ is the metric of the Euclidean multi-centered Taub-NUT space

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill ds_{TN}^2& =Hd\stackrel{}{r}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}2}}+H^1(dx_{11}+C_\mu dx^\mu )^2\hfill \\ \hfill \stackrel{}{}\times \stackrel{}{C}& =\stackrel{}{}H\hfill \\ \hfill H& =1+\frac{1}{2}\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{g_s\sqrt{\alpha ^{}}}{|\stackrel{}{r}\stackrel{}{r_i}|},\hfill \end{array}$$

which is a hyper-Kahler metric on a $`U(1)`$ bundle over $`𝐑^3`$. The $`x^{11}`$ coordinate is periodic and absence of conical singularities at $`\stackrel{}{r}=\stackrel{}{r}_i`$ requires its periodicity to be $`2\pi g_s\sqrt{\alpha ^{}}`$. The circle fiber is identified with the M-theory circle which has the expected radius $`R=g_s\sqrt{\alpha ^{}}`$ at infinity. Therefore, a collection of D6-branes in flat space can be represented in M-theory by a four dimensional manifold with $`SU(2)`$ holonomy.

In this paper we take the D6-branes to be coincident – all $`\stackrel{}{r_i}=0`$ – which gives rise to the familiar enhanced $`SU(N)`$ gauge symmetry. The M-theory description of this configuration near the location of the D6-branes at $`\stackrel{}{r}0`$ is given by

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill ds_{ALE}^2& Hd\stackrel{}{r}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}2}}+H^1(dx_{11}+C_\mu dx^\mu )^2\hfill \\ \hfill H& \frac{Ng_s\sqrt{\alpha ^{}}}{2r},\hfill \end{array}$$

which is the metric on the $`A_{N1}`$ ALE space  near an orbifold singularity. Here the $`SU(N)`$ gauge symmetry arises from membranes wrapping the collapsed two-cycles . In the limit when all $`\stackrel{}{r_i}=0`$ the metric on the $`A_{N1}`$ ALE space  degenerates to the metric on the $`𝐂^2/𝐙_N`$ orbifold, where $`𝐙_N`$ acts by

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill z_1& e^{\frac{2\pi i}{N}}z_1\hfill \\ \hfill z_2& e^{\frac{2\pi i}{N}}z_2.\hfill \end{array}$$

Three of the coordinates which are acted on are the original transverse directions of the D6 branes. The fourth orbifolded direction corresponds to the M-theory circle whose asymptotic radius is now infinity. Therefore, Type IIA string theory with $`N`$ coincident D6-branes is locally described in eleven dimensions by the $`A_{N1}`$ ALE singularity.

One can also find the M-theory realization of a collection of D6-branes sitting on top of an orientifold six-plane (O6-plane). The O6-plane appears as the fixed locus obtained by modding out string theory by the orientifold group $`G=\{1,\mathrm{\Omega }(1)^{F_L}R_7R_8R_9\}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is worldsheet parity, $`F_L`$ is the left-moving space-time fermion number and $`R_i`$ is a reflection along the $`x^i`$-th coordinate. In this paper we consider M-theory lifts involving the O6-plane which carries -2 units of D6-brane charge5 In this paper all charges are measured in the quotient space. (the O6- plane). $`N`$ coincident D6-branes on top of this orientifold plane gives rise to enhanced $`SO(2N)`$ gauge symmetry. It was shown in \[19,,20\] that this O6-plane is represented in M-theory by the Atiyah-Hitchin space  and that the combined system of $`N`$ D6-branes on top of the O6-plane is described locally by the $`D_N`$ ALE singularity. This is the orbifold singularity $`𝐂^2/\widehat{𝐃}_{N2}`$, where $`\widehat{𝐃}_{N2}`$ is the Dihedral group with a $`𝐙_2`$ central extension 6 This discrete subgroup of $`SU(2)`$ has order $`4N8`$ and has two generators $`a`$ and $`b`$ which satisfy $`a^{2N4}=b^4=1`$ and $`ba=a^1b`$. The action of $`\widehat{𝐃}_{N2}`$ on $`𝐂^2`$ can be found, for example, in Table 1 of .. The $`SO(2N)`$ gauge symmetry arises in the M-theory description from membranes wrapping the shrunken two-cycles at the orbifold singularity.

To summarize, $`N`$ coincident D6-branes in flat space are described in eleven dimensions by an $`A_{N1}`$ ALE singularity and $`N`$ D6-branes on top of an O6--plane by a $`D_N`$ ALE singularity. The corresponding orbifold groups act on the normal direction of the D6-branes and on the M-theory circle. In the rest of the paper we will explore the M-theory description of D6-branes and D6-branes on top of an O6-plane wrapping non-trivial supersymmetric cycles in various non-trivial backgrounds.

3. General Strategy

We want to consider Type IIA supersymmetric configurations of D6-branes wrapping cycles in spaces with reduced holonomy and to find the corresponding M-theory description. In order for the D6-branes to preserve some of the supersymmetry left unbroken by the compactification space, the cycle which is wrapped must be supersymmetric \[23,,24\]. The BPS condition on a supersymmetric cycle on a manifold with holonomy group $`G`$ can be written in terms of the corresponding $`G`$-structure. The following table summarizes the classification of supersymmetric cycles (table 3 in ):

|  | p+1 | $`SU(2)`$ | $`SU(3)`$ | $`G_2`$ | $`SU(4)`$ | $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | 2 | $`\mathrm{divisor}/\mathrm{SLag}`$ | $`\mathrm{holomorphic}`$ | $``$ | $`\mathrm{holomorphic}`$ | $``$ |
|  | 3 | $``$ | $`\mathrm{SLag}`$ | $`\mathrm{associative}`$ | $``$ | $``$ |
|  | 4 | $`X`$ | $`\mathrm{divisor}`$ | $`\mathrm{coassociative}`$ | $`\mathrm{Cayley}`$ | $`\mathrm{Cayley}`$ |
|  | 5 | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |
|  | 6 | $``$ | $`X`$ | $``$ | $`\mathrm{divisor}`$ | $``$ |
|  | 7 | $``$ | $``$ | $`X`$ | $``$ | $``$ |
|  | 8 | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $`X`$ | $`X`$ |

Table 1. Supersymmetric Cycles in irreducible holonomy manifolds.

All the above cycles preserve one-half of supersymmetry except the Cayley cycles of a Calabi-Yau four-fold which instead preserve one quarter of the supersymmetries. Therefore, the supersymmetric Type IIA backgrounds with wrapped D6-branes which can be described by M-theory on a manifold with irreducible holonomy are severely constrained by supersymmetry.

There are essentially two types of situations that need to be considered:

1) The D6-branes wrap a supersymmetric cycle in such a way that the D6-branes fill completely the space transverse to the IIA compactification manifold. The field theory one obtains lives in the transverse Minkowski space. Then the local M-theory description is given by a manifold one dimensional higher in the list of manifolds with irreducible holonomy. In this fashion one can find examples of the following lifts of holonomy groups (IIA$``$ M): $`SU(3)G_2`$ and $`G_2\text{Spin}(7)`$.

2)The D6-branes wrap a supersymmetric cycle in such a way that the D6-branes are codimension one in the transverse Minkowski space to the IIA compactification manifold. The field theory one obtains lives in codimension one on the transverse space. Then the local M-theory description – near the D6-branes – is given by a manifold of two dimensions higher in the list of manifolds with irreducible holonomy. In this fashion one can find examples of the following lifts of holonomy groups (IIA$``$ M): $`SU(2)SU(3)`$ and $`SU(3)SU(4)`$.

The effective gauge theory living on the D-branes is a topological field theory . This topological field theory is a gauge theory in which the scalars parametrizing the positions of the D-branes are twisted and transform as sections of the normal bundle7 Recently, supergravity duals of these topological field theories have been constructed, see e.g .. Therefore, given a supersymmetric cycle one can construct the supersymmetric gauge theory by analyzing the normal bundle of the supersymmetric cycle. In this paper we will concentrate on supersymmetric cycles which are rigid so that there are no scalars describing the possible deformations of the cycle inside the curved manifold. When the D6-branes are codimension one, we get a massless real scalar field which is part of the vector multiplet. It describes the positions of the D6-branes in the transverse direction. The M-theory realization of these backgrounds with D6-branes will geometrically engineer these gauge theories.

The local geometry of the wrapped N D6-branes in M-theory is as follows. Near the location of the D6-branes, the D6-branes are represented in M-theory by the $`A_{N1}`$ ALE singularity. Since some of the transverse directions of the D6-branes are curved and non-trivially fibered over the supersymmetric cycle, the lift to eleven dimensions is just given by the $`A_{N1}`$ ALE singularity fibered over the supersymmetric cycle. As we will show in the sections that follow we will be able to recognize such geometries as particular manifolds with irreducible holonomy.

We can also consider the situation in which we mod out the geometry on which the D6-branes are embedded by an involution $`\sigma `$. We will require that the involution have as fixed set the supersymmetric cycle on which the D-branes are wrapped and that the fixed set satisfies the corresponding supersymmetric cycle condition. In order to obtain a supersymmetric configuration this involution must be accompanied by an orientifold projection. The appropriate orientifold group is given8 In the situation where the D6-branes are codimension one in the transverse space, one must also reflect along the transverse coordinate. by $`G=\{1,\mathrm{\Omega }(1)^{F_L}\sigma \}`$. Therefore, by performing this orientifold projection, one obtains a curved orientifold six-plane (O6-plane) with $`N`$ D-branes on top of it. Following the same argument we used to uplift the description of the curved D6-branes to M-theory we see that the M-theory description of the curved D6+O6 configuration is given by the $`D_N`$ ALE singularity fibered over the corresponding supersymmetric cycle. In the examples we will consider we will identify this fibration with a certain reduced holonomy manifold.

In the following sections we will provide concrete examples of these lifts.

4. From $`SU(2)`$ holonomy to $`SU(3)`$ holonomy via D6-Branes

We lift various IIA configurations and recover the Calabi-Yau three-folds used, for example, in  to geometrically engineer four dimensional $`𝒩=2`$ gauge theories.

The simplest9 Lifting to eleven dimensions a configuration of D6-branes wrapped on the entire K3 follows trivially from the discussion on the previous section. The corresponding eleven dimensional geometry is just $`𝐑^{1,2}\times `$Taub-NUT$`\times `$ K3. case to consider is the M-theory description of N D6-branes wrapping the $`𝐒^2`$ in $`T^{}𝐒^2`$, the cotangent bundle of $`𝐒^2`$. This space appears when resolving or deforming an $`A_1`$ singularity of K3. For instance, $`T^{}𝐒^2`$ is described by

$$z_1^2+z_2^2+z_3^2=r.$$

If we rewrite $`z_j=a_j+ib_j`$ for $`j=1,2,3`$ and take $`r`$ to be real and positive, the real and imaginary parts of (4.1) lead to $`\stackrel{}{a}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}2}}\stackrel{}{b}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}2}}=r`$ and $`\stackrel{}{a}\stackrel{}{b}=0`$. Since $`\stackrel{}{u}\stackrel{}{u}=1`$, where $`\stackrel{}{u}=\stackrel{}{a}/\sqrt{\stackrel{}{b}^{\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}2}}+r}`$, $`\stackrel{}{u}`$ generates an $`𝐒^2`$. Moreover, since $`\stackrel{}{b}\stackrel{}{u}=0`$, $`b_i`$ spans the cotangent directions of $`𝐒^2`$, so (4.1) describes the cotangent bundle of $`𝐒^2`$. This space is topologically $`𝐑^2\times 𝐒^2`$ and admits a hyper-Kahler metric with $`SU(2)`$ holonomy. The $`𝐒^2`$ is a holomorphic cycle and branes wrapping it preserve one-half of the supersymmetries left unbroken by the geometry.

We now consider N D6-branes wrapped on the supersymmetric $`𝐒^2`$ inside $`𝐑^{1,5}\times T^{}𝐒^2`$ and stretched along the $`x^1\mathrm{}x^4`$ directions. Since the normal bundle of $`𝐒^2`$ $`N(𝐒^2)`$ is trivial, the field theory living on the branes is a supersymmetric five-dimensional pure $`SU(N)`$ gauge theory with eight real supercharges10 The vector multiplet has a real scalar so there is a non-trivial Coulomb branch whose prepotential is constrained by gauge invariance to be cubic in the vector superfields .. Alternatively, one can simply derive  this gauge theory by representing the wrapped D6-branes by $`N`$ fractional  D4-branes at a $`𝐂^2/𝐙_2`$ orbifold singularity.

Now, in eleven dimensions we must obtain a geometrical background which leads to such a five-dimensional gauge theory. As explained in the previous section the geometry we get is that of an $`A_{N1}`$ ALE singularity fibered over the $`𝐒^2`$. This geometry is indeed a Calabi-Yau three-fold  and gives rise to a five dimensional $`SU(N)`$ gauge theory. The exact prepotential in the Coulomb branch of this gauge theory was computed from M-theory on this three-fold geometry in . The computation reduces to evaluating the classical intersection numbers of the divisors one obtains when resolving the curve of $`A_{N1}`$ singularities which when blown up break the $`SU(N)`$ gauge group to its maximal torus.

In the Type IIA description one can perform an orientifold projection combined with the following involution

$$\sigma :\{\begin{array}{cccc}z_i& & \overline{z}_i& i=1,2,3\\ x_5& & x_5& \end{array}.$$

This involution keeps fixed the real part of equation (4.1) fixed which describes the supersymmetric $`𝐒^2`$. Therefore, we obtain an O6-plane wrapping the $`𝐒^2`$. Then, the gauge theory on the D6-branes is a five-dimensional $`SO(2N)`$ gauge theory with eight real supercharges.

It is simple to incorporate in the M-theory description of this background the effect of the O6-plane. The geometry that one gets is that of a $`D_N`$ ALE singularity fibered over the base $`𝐒^2`$. This Calabi-Yau appears in  and M-theory on it gives a supersymmetric $`SO(2N)`$ gauge theory. By analysing the resolution of this singularity reference  reproduced the exact prepotential in the Coulomb branch of the gauge theory from classical geometry11 Both the $`SU(N)`$ and $`SO(2N)`$ pure gauge theories have a convex prepotential along the Coulomb branch and have a non-trivial fixed point of the renormalization group at the origin  ..

It is natural to ask for the M-theory description of wrapped D6-branes when the D6-branes wrap a collection of $`𝐒^2`$’s of a local K3 geometry. We will consider the well known ADE ALE spaces. The basic geometry is that of a collection of $`r`$ $`𝐒^2`$’s whose intersection form is $`I_{ab}=C_{ab}`$ where $`a,b=1,\mathrm{},r`$, which is (minus) the Cartan matrix of the corresponding ADE algebra of rank $`r`$. One can consider wrapping $`N_a`$ D6-branes on the $`a`$-th $`𝐒^2`$ for $`a=1,\mathrm{},r`$. In order to obtain a supersymmetric gauge theory on this collection of D6-branes, one must ensure that all the $`𝐒^2`$’s are holomorphic (supersymmetric) with respect to the same complex structure12 For the $`A_r`$ ALE spaces, for which an explicit metric is known , one can show that the $`r`$ homology generators are holomorphic with respect to the same complex structure when the $`r`$ vectors in $`𝐑^3`$ – from which one constructs the $`𝐒^2`$’s by fibering these vectors with the $`U(1)`$ fiber – are collinear.. Then the gauge theory one obtains is a five dimensional theory with eight real supercharges with gauge group

$$G=\underset{a=1}{\overset{r}{}}SU(N_a)$$

and the following hypermultiplet content

$$\frac{1}{2}_{ab}I_{ab}(N_a,\overline{N}_b).$$

This gauge theory can be easily derived by representing the wrapped D6-branes as fractional D4-branes probing the $`𝐂^2/𝚪`$ orbifold singularity, where $`𝚪`$ is the discrete subgroup of $`SU(2)`$ whose representation theory can be associated with the extended ADE Dynkin diagram13 $`A_r=𝐙_{r+1},D_r=\widehat{𝐃}_{r2}`$; $`E_6,E_7`$ and $`E_8`$ correspond respectively to the $`𝐙_2`$ centrally extended tetrahedral, octohedral and isocahedral groups..

The M-theory description of this Type IIA background is as follows. One has a fibration structure whose base is given by a chain of $`r`$ $`𝐒^2`$’s which intersect according to a particular ADE Dynkin diagram of rank $`r`$. Which ADE diagram appears is determined by which ADE ALE space is used in the Type IIA description. On the $`a`$-th $`𝐒^2`$ in the base one has a $`A_{N_a1}`$ ALE singularity fibered over it so the total geometry is that of a chain of $`𝐒^2`$’s intersecting according to the ADE Dynkin diagram and on each $`𝐒^2`$ there is an $`A`$-type singularity fibered over it. The type of singularity on a particular $`𝐒^2`$ in the base is determined by the number of D6-branes that wrap that cycle in the Type IIA description. This geometry is a Calabi-Yau three-fold and M-theory on it results in the required quiver gauge theory 14 The matter appears as usual from loci of enhanced symmetry in the base. and reproduces the cubic prepotential along the Coulomb branch .

We conclude this section by identifying the Type IIA background which lifts to M-theory on a family of Calabi-Yau manifolds considered in . In  it was shown that one can generalize the base geometry that we have just discussed such that the base $`𝐒^2`$’s intersect according to Dynkin diagram of the affine $`\widehat{A}\widehat{D}\widehat{E}`$ groups. The hypermultiplets are determined like in (4.1) but now $`C_{ab}`$ is the Cartan matrix of $`\widehat{A}\widehat{D}\widehat{E}`$. It is natural to try to identify the Type IIA geometry with $`SU(2)`$ holonomy which lifts, in the presence of D6-branes, to this family of Calabi-Yau manifolds.

When the base $`𝐒^2`$’s intersect according to the $`\widehat{A}_r`$ Dynkin diagram, the corresponding Type IIA geometry is the deformation of the Type Ir+1 fibre singularity of an elliptically fibered K3. This K3 is described by the Weierstrass form

$$y^2=x^3+a(z)x+b(z),$$

where $`(x,y)`$ are affine coordinates on $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$ and $`z`$ is the coordinate on the base of the elliptic fibration parametrizing a copy of $`𝐂`$. The Type Ir+1 singularity appears when the discriminant of (4.1) has a zero of order $`r+1`$ at $`z=0`$ and both $`a(z)`$ and $`b(z)`$ don’t have a zero at $`z=0`$. The deformation of this singularity generates a chain of $`r+1`$ $`𝐒^2`$’s which intersect according to the $`\widehat{A}_r`$ Dynkin diagram. Wrapping D6-branes on these two-cycles lifts to eleven dimensions to the Calabi-Yau three-fold we were looking for. One can find in a similar fashion the Type IIA realization when the $`𝐒^2`$’s in the base of the three-fold have a different affine intersection form. This corresponds to studying Type IIA with D6-branes on the deformation of certain fiber singularities – see e.g  – of an elliptically fibered K3.

5. From $`SU(3)`$ holonomy to $`G_2`$ holonomy via D6-Branes

For completeness, we briefly summarize an example of this lift which appeared recently in . The Calabi-Yau three-fold they considered is $`T^{}𝐒^3`$, the cotangent bundle of $`𝐒^3`$. This manifold appears as the deformation of the quadric on $`𝐂^4`$

$$z_1^2+z_2^2+z_3^2+z_4^2=r.$$

In a similar fashion as in (4.1), one may show that for real $`r`$ (5.1) describes $`T^{}𝐒^3`$. One can now wrap N D6-branes branes over the $`𝐒^3`$, which is a Special Lagrangian submanifold. The branes completelly fill the transverse $`𝐑^{1,3}`$ Minkowski space and give rise a four dimensional $`SU(N)`$ gauge theory with four supercharges.

In  the local description of this background was described as M-theory on a certain space with $`G_2`$ holonomy. The D6-branes lead to an $`A_{N1}`$ ALE singularity which is fibered over the $`𝐒^3`$. This geometry can be understood as a $`𝐙_N`$ orbifold of an $`𝐑^4`$ fibration over $`𝐒^3`$. Supersymmetry dictates that this space must have $`G_2`$ holonomy. It is known that the spin bundle of $`𝐒^3`$ $`S(𝐒^3)`$, whose fibers are topologically $`𝐑^4`$, admits a metric with $`G_2`$ holonomy . Moreover, the $`G_2`$ structure on this space contains an $`SU(2)^3`$ symmetry group. Therefore, modding out by any discrete subgroup of $`SU(2)^3`$ will preserve the $`G_2`$ structure. Indeed, it is easy to show that embedding $`𝐙_N`$ in one of the $`SU(2)^{}s`$ acts on the fibers precisely as we expect from the lift of Type IIA D6-branes on $`T^{}(𝐒^3)`$. Therefore, the Type IIA configuration is represented in eleven dimensions by a $`𝐙_N`$ orbifold of $`S(𝐒^3)`$ which has a $`G_2`$ structure.

Sinha and Vafa  considered the Type IIA orientifold background obtained by modding out by the following involution

$$\sigma :z_i\overline{z}_ii=1,\mathrm{},4.$$

This involution gives rise to an O6-plane wrappping the $`𝐒^3`$, which is left fixed by (5.1). The gauge theory on the D6-branes on top of this O6-plane is a four dimensional $`𝒩=1`$ $`SO(2N)`$ gauge theory.

From the general discussion in section $`3`$ such background is described in eleven dimensions by a $`D_N`$ ALE singularity fibered over $`𝐒^3`$. This is obtained by having the discrete group $`\widehat{𝐃}_{N2}`$ act on the $`𝐑^4`$ fibers. Since $`\widehat{𝐃}_{N2}SU(2)`$, one can mod out $`S(𝐒^3)`$ by $`\widehat{𝐃}_{N2}`$ by appropiately embedding $`\widehat{𝐃}_{N2}`$ in one of the $`SU(2)`$ symmetry groups of $`S(𝐒^3)`$ such that the quotient space has a $`G_2`$ structure and $`𝐃_{N2}`$ acts as required on the fibers.

Various aspects of this lift and generalizations to other three-folds have recently appeared in \[12,,13,,14,,15\].

6. From $`SU(3)`$ holonomy to $`SU(4)`$ holonomy via D6-Branes

In order to accomplish this lift the D6-branes must be codimension one in the transverse $`𝐑^{1,3}`$ Minkowski space. Therefore, the D6-branes must wrap a divisor in the Calabi-Yau three-fold. In this section we will provide a simple example of this lift.

Consider the non-compact Calabi-Yau geometry described by the $`𝒪(3)`$ bundle over $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$. The string sigma model on this three-fold has a simple description in terms of the linear sigma model approach of . We analyze the vacuum structure of a two dimensional $`𝒩=(2,2)`$ $`U(1)`$ gauge theory with four chiral superfields $`(z_1,z_2,z_3,z_4)`$ which carry charges $`(1,1,1,3)`$ under the gauge group. In the presence of a Fayet-Iliopoulos term $`r`$, the solution of the D-term equation of this model is described by

$$M:|z_1|^2+|z_2|^2+|z_3|^23|z_4|^2=r.$$

The vacuum of the theory is $`M/U(1)`$, where the $`U(1)`$ action is specified by the $`U(1)`$ charges of $`z_i`$.

The phase $`r>0`$ describes an exceptional $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$ parametrized by coordinates $`z_1,z_2,z_3`$ which due to (6.1) cannot vanish simultaneously. The coordinate $`z_4`$ describes a complex line fibered over $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$. The vacuum manifold $`M/U(1)`$ can be identified15 This Calabi-Yau is the crepant resolution of the $`𝐂^3/𝐙_3`$ orbifold singularity which appears in the linear sigma model approach in the phase when $`r<0`$; then $`z_4`$ cannot vanish and the exceptional divisor is blown down. More details on the moduli space of this model can be found in . with the $`𝒪(3)`$ bundle over $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$. The exceptional $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$ is a holomorphic cycle so branes wrapping it are supersymmetric.

We consider $`N`$ D6-branes wrapping the $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$. The field theory on the branes is a three-dimensional $`𝒩=2`$ pure $`SU(N)`$ gauge theory16 There is a subtlety in this example. Since $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$ is not a Spin manifold we must turn on a half-integral flux on the D-brane in order to avoid global anomalies . We will return to this issue in the next section.. Classically, this theory has a Coulomb branch parametrized by $`N1`$ complex scalars which are formed from the real scalars in the vector multiplet together with the real scalars one gets by dualizing the photons one gets along the Coulomb branch. Semiclassically, Yang-Mills instantons generate a superpotential for the complex scalars  break supersymmetry.

The local M-theory description of this background is given by an $`A_{N1}`$ ALE singularity fibered over $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$ which is a Calabi-Yau four-fold. Analyzing the zero mode spectrum leads to a $`𝒩=2`$ three-dimensional pure $`SU(N)`$ gauge theory17 If the complex surface $`Z`$ over which the singular ALE sits has non-zero Betti numbers $`h^{1,0}(Z)`$ and $`h^{2,0}(Z)`$ one gets chiral multiplets . Since $`h^{1,0}(\mathrm{IP}^2)=h^{2,0}(\mathrm{IP}^2)=0`$ we get pure gauge theory.. Precisely the four-fold geometry we have encountered can be used to exactly reproduce the superpotential along the Coulomb branch of the gauge theory . In the geometrical picture going to the Coulomb branch corresponds to resolving the singularities on the fiber which lead in the total geometry to a collection of divisors. The vevs of the complex scalars in the Coulomb branch correspond to the complexified blow up parameters. The superpotential then arises, when certain topological conditions  are satisfied, by wrapping Euclidean five-branes over the divisors. It was shown in  that the divisors one obtains by derforming the singularity we discussed reproduces the expected field theory superpotential of the three dimensional $`SU(N)`$ gauge theory.

We can orientifold the Type IIA background by modding out by the following involution

$$\sigma :\{\begin{array}{cccc}z_4& & z_4& \\ x_3& & x_3& \end{array}.$$

The action of $`\sigma `$ on the three-fold (6.1) leaves the $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$ fixed and gives rise to a curved orientifold plane. Therefore, we can have $`N`$ D6-branes on top of the O6-plane wrapping the $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$ inside the $`𝒪(3)`$ bundle over $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$. Thus, the gauge theory on the D6-branes is a three dimensional $`𝒩=2`$ pure $`SO(2N)`$ gauge theory. The local M-theory description of this Type IIA system is described by the Calabi-Yau four-fold given by a $`D_N`$ ALE singularity fibered over $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$. This geometry was used in  to reproduce the superpotential on the Coulomb branch of the gauge theory using five-brane instantons.

7. From $`G_2`$ holonomy to $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ holonomy via D6-Branes

In order to accomplish this lift the D6-branes must fill the transverse $`𝐑^{1,2}`$ Minkowski space. We must then look for manifolds with $`G_2`$ holonomy which have a coassociative four cycle. In order to avoid complications with tadpoles we will consider non-compact geometries.

In the literature , there are only three complete metrics on seven manifolds which admit a $`G_2`$ structure18 A $`G_2`$ structure is a globally defined three-form $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ which is covariantly constant, closed, co-closed and invariant under the group $`G_2`$. $`G_2`$ is the subgroup of $`SO(7)`$ which leaves the multiplication table of imaginary octonions invariant.. Of these geometries, two have a coassociative four cycle19 The other metric is a $`G_2`$ holonomy metric on the spin bundle over $`𝐒^3`$ $`S(𝐒^3)`$ which appeared in the previous section. This geometry has an associative three-cycle.. They are metrics on the bundle of anti-self-dual two-forms over the four-manifold $`𝐙`$ $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(𝐙)`$, where $`𝐙=𝐒^4`$ or $`𝐙=\mathrm{IP}^2`$. Topologically, the fibers are $`𝐑^3`$ and $`𝐙`$ is a supersymmetric four-cycle. Therefore, wrapping a collection of D6-branes over $`𝐙`$ gives rise to a three-dimensional $`𝒩=1`$ gauge theory. Since the normal bundle of $`𝐙`$ is trivial20 The normal bundle is the bundle of anti-self-dual two-forms. Since $`\text{dim}(H_{}^2(𝐙)=0)`$, there are no scalars. one obtains a pure $`SU(N)`$ gauge theory. Theories with three-dimensional $`𝒩=1`$ supersymmetry do not have the familiar constraints of holomorphy of four dimensional $`𝒩=1`$ field theories, therefore one cannot make exact statements about their non-perturbative dynamics.

We will start by identifying the M-theory description when the D6-branes wrap the $`𝐒^4`$ in $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(𝐒^4)`$. The M-theory geometry is given by the $`A_{N1}`$ ALE singularity fibered over $`𝐒^4`$ or equivalently by an $`𝐑^4`$ bundle over $`𝐒^4`$ where the cyclic group $`𝐙_N`$ acts on the $`𝐑^4`$ fibers. Supersymmetry requires that this space admit a $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ structure21 A $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ structure is a globally defined self-dual four-form $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ which is covariantly constant, closed and invariant under the group $`\text{Spin}(7)`$.. Fortunately, we can identify this space with an orbifold of the known  eight-dimensional space which admits a complete metric with $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ holonomy. This space is the spin bundle over $`𝐒^4`$ $`S(𝐒^4)`$, whose fibers are topologically $`𝐑^4`$ and admits a $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ structure with an $`SU(2)\times Sp(2)`$ symmetry. One can now embedd $`𝐙_N`$ on $`SU(2)`$ while preserving the $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ structure. Moreover, this embedding acts geometrically by natural action of $`𝐙_N`$ on the $`𝐑^4`$ fibers. Therefore, we have identified the M-theory description of D6-branes wrapping the $`𝐒^4`$ in $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(𝐒^4)`$ as an abelian orbifold of $`S(𝐒^4)`$ which preserves the $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ structure.

One can also consider the case when the D6-branes wrap $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$ in $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(\mathrm{IP}^2)`$. Since $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$ is not a spin manifold, the field strength $`F`$ of the $`U(N)`$ “gauge field” on the D6-branes22 More precisely $`F`$ is not a connection on a vector bundle but rather a Spinc structure. does not obey conventional Dirac quantization . One has

$$_{\mathrm{IP}^1}\frac{F}{2\pi }=n+\frac{1}{2},$$

where $`n`$ is an integer and $`\mathrm{IP}^1`$ generates $`H_2(\mathrm{IP}^2,𝐙)`$. In particular, the flux cannot vanish. Despite this flux, the effective three-dimensional theory one obtains on the branes is also a pure $`SU(N)`$ gauge theory.

The eleven dimensional description of this Type IIA background is somewhat subtle. Naively, one gets near the location of the D6-branes an $`A_{N1}`$ ALE singularity fibered over $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$. Supersymmetry suggest, in analogy with the previous example, that it must be possible to put a metric on an $`𝐑^4`$ bundle over $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$ which is complete and has $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ holonomy. Moreover, such $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ structure must have an $`SU(2)`$ symmetry on which one can embedd $`𝐙_N`$ in such a way that it acts on the $`𝐑^4`$ fibers in the usual fashion. We have not found in the literature a metric such an $`𝐑^4`$ bundle over $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$ with $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ holonomy but duality suggest that it must exist.

Just like in previous sections it is possible to consider the M-theory description when there is an orientifold six-plane wrapping $`𝐙`$. The appropiate involution is given by acting by $`\mathrm{𝟏}`$ on the fibers such that $`𝐙`$ is fixed by the involution. One then gets a three-dimensional $`𝒩=1`$ $`SO(2N)`$ gauge theory on the D-branes. The corresponding M-theory geometry is given by a $`D_N`$ ALE singularity fibered over $`𝐙`$ which admits a $`\text{Spin}(7)`$ structure.

The analysis of lifts to M-theory of wrapped D6-branes on supersymmetric cyles which are not Spin raises an interesting question. As we have remarked, absence of global anomalies forces , even for a single wrapped D6-brane over $`\mathrm{IP}^2`$, to turn on a half-integral flux (7.1). In the absence of such a flux one expects the M-theory description to be given by Taub-NUT space. In the presence of this flux, it is not clear what must be the appropiate modification to the M-theory solution. It would be interesting to identify23 This constraint was derived  from an M-theory perspective when one considers instead D4-branes. Then such a condition can be derived from an eleven dimensional viewpoint by demanding consistency of the M-theory five-brane partition function. the M-theory origin of the constraint on Dirac quantization whenever a D6-brane wraps a manifold which is not spin but is Spinc.

Acknowledgements:

We would like to thank M. Atiyah, A. Brandhuber, R. Corrado, E. Diaconescu, J. Gauntlett, S. Gukov, L. Motl, H. Ooguri and E. Witten for very useful discussions. Part of this work was done during the M-theory workshop at the ITP. We would like to thank the organizers for providing a stimulating atmosphere. This research was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHY99-07949 and by the DOE under grant no. DE-FG03-92-ER 40701.

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# Large Faraday rotation of resonant light in a cold atomic cloud

## 1 Introduction

During the past two years, we have been theoretically and experimentally investigating coherent backscattering (CBS) of near-resonant light in a sample of cold rubidium atoms . CBS is an interference effect in the multiple scattering regime of propagation inside random media, yielding an enhancement of the backscattered light intensity . This interference is very robust and can be destroyed only by a few mechanisms, including Faraday rotation  and dynamical effects . In the particular case of atomic scatterers, we have shown that the existence of an internal Zeeman structure significantly degrades the CBS interference . The breakdown of CBS due to the Faraday effect in classical samples has been recently observed and studied in details , in a situation where the scatterers are embedded in a Faraday-active matrix. We are currently exploring the behavior of CBS when a magnetic field is applied to the cold atomic cloud. Since the Faraday effect is expected to be large even at weak applied fields (of the order of $`1`$ $`G=10^4`$ T), it seems relevant to evaluate its magnitude in the particular regime of near-resonant excitation.

The Faraday effect, i.e. the rotation of polarization experienced by light propagating inside a medium along an applied magnetic field, is a well-known phenomenon . Faraday glass-based optical insulators are widely used in laser experiments to avoid unwanted optical feedback. Due to the presence of well-defined lines (strong resonances), the Faraday effect is potentially strong in atomic systems, and has been extensively studied in hot vapors . In addition, light can modify the atomic gas as it propagates and induce alignment or orientation via optical pumping, yielding various non-linear effects . However, our experiment is quite insensitive to these effects and the scope of this paper will only be the linear, ”standard” Faraday rotation. Even though laser-cooled atomic vapors appear interesting due to suppression of Doppler broadening and collisions, few experiments on cold atoms are, to our knowledge, reported in the litterature .

In Section 2 we expose a simple formalism to understand the main characteristics of optical activity in an atomic system. This model, adapted to the atomic structure of Rb, will be used in the quantitative analysis of the experimental results. We also briefly recall in this Section the principles of the Stokes analysis of a polarization state. The experimental setup and procedure are described in Section 3. The results are presented in Section 4, and compared to the model.

## 2 Faraday effect and dichroism

Let us consider a gas of two-level atoms excited by a near-resonant monochromatic light field of frequency $`\nu `$. The induced electric dipole has a component in phase with the excitation, which corresponds to the real part of the succeptibility of the atomic medium (with a dispersive behavior), and a component in quadrature, which corresponds to the imaginary part of the succeptibility (absorptive behavior). The former thus relates to the refractive index of the gas, while the later corresponds to the absorption or scattering. At low light intensity $`II_{sat}`$ (where $`I_{sat}=`$1.6 mW/cm2 is the saturation intensity for Rubidium), the refractive index $`n`$ of a dilute gas is given by :

$$n\left(\delta \right)1\rho \frac{6\pi }{k^3}\frac{\delta /\mathrm{\Gamma }}{1+4\left(\delta /\mathrm{\Gamma }\right)^2}$$
(1)
where $`\rho `$ is the atomic gas density, k $`=2\pi /\lambda `$ the light wave number in vacuum, $`\delta `$ = $`\omega \omega _{at}`$ the light detuning, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ the natural width ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }/2\pi =5.9`$ MHz for Rb). On the other hand, the imaginary part of the succeptibility yields the atomic scattering cross-section $`\sigma `$ :

$$\sigma \left(\delta \right)=\frac{3\lambda ^2}{2\pi }\frac{1}{1+4\left(\delta /\mathrm{\Gamma }\right)^2}$$
(2)
with the usual Lorentzian line shape. This term will result in an attenuation exp$`\left(\rho \sigma L\right)`$ of the incident light as it propagates over a distance $`L`$ inside the medium ; the quantity $`b=\rho \sigma L`$ is the optical thickness of the atomic sample. We thus see that the wave will experience both a phase shift and an attenuation as it propagates.

Let us now consider a J $`=0`$ J$`{}_{}{}^{\text{}}=1`$ transition excited by a linearly polarized light field. A magnetic field B is applied along the wavector k, whose direction is taken as the quantization axis. The magnetic field displaces the resonance frequencies of the excited state Zeeman sublevels of magnetic number $`m_e=\pm 1`$ by an amount $`m_e\mu B`$, where $`\mu =1.4`$ Mhz/G. The incident linearly-polarized light decomposes as the sum of $`\sigma ^+`$ and $`\sigma ^{}`$waves of equal amplitudes, which couple the unshifted ground state to excited state sublevels of magnetic number $`\pm 1`$ respectively. These waves thus propagate in media with different refractive indices $`n^+`$ and $`n^{}`$ and scattering cross-sections $`\sigma ^+`$ and $`\sigma ^{}`$, and experience different phase shifts and attenuations. If, in a first step, we neglect the absorption term, the two transmitted waves recombine in a linearly-polarized wave, rotated by an angle $`\theta =\frac{1}{2}(\phi ^+\phi ^{})=\frac{\pi }{\lambda }(n^+n^{})L`$. This is the Faraday rotation angle. At small magnetic field $`\mu B/\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$, the rotation angle is simply : $`\theta b\times \mu B/\left(\mathrm{\Gamma }/2\pi \right)`$. Thus, at small $`B`$, the Faraday angle is simply the optical thickness $`b`$ times the Zeeman shift expressed in units of the natural width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ (however, the proportionality between $`\theta `$ and $`b`$ remains valid for arbitrary magnetic field). It should be emphasized that, in atomic vapors, the Faraday effect is very strong compared to that of standard Faraday materials (like Faraday glasses), due to the high sensitivity of atomic energy levels to magnetic field : for a density $`\rho =`$1010 cm-3, the Verdet constant is $`40{}_{}{}^{}/G/mm`$ ($`4\times 10^5{}_{}{}^{}/T/mm`$), more than four orders of magnitude above that of typical Faraday glasses. However, for cold atomic gases, the linear increase of rotation angle with magnetic field is restricted to a small field range of a few Gauss (the Zeeman splitting must remain smaller than the natural width), above which the Faraday effect decreases.

Of course, in the regime of near-resonant excitation we are dealing with, one usually can not neglect absorption. The different attenuations for the $`\sigma ^+`$ and $`\sigma ^{}`$ components cause a deformation of the transmitted polarization as well as rotation. The polarization thus becomes elliptic with an ellipticity (ratio of small to large axis) determined by the differential absorption between $`\sigma ^+`$ and $`\sigma ^{}`$ light. This effect is known as circular dichroism. The angle $`\theta `$ is then the angle between the initial polarization and the large axis of the transmitted ellipse. We will see how the Stokes analysis allows to extract $`\theta `$ and the ellipticity from the measurements.

Although the simple picture developed above gives access to the main mechanisms of optical activity in a an atomic gas, it does not accurately describe the F $`=3`$F’$`=4`$ transition of the D2 line of Rb85 used in this experiment. To expand the description to the case of a ground state Zeeman structure, we will make the simplifying assumption that all the transitions between different ground state Zeeman sublevels are independent. We thus neglect optical pumping and coherences. The refractive index for, say, $`\sigma ^+`$ light, then writes as $`n^+(\delta ,B)=\underset{m=3}{\overset{3}{}}`$p$`{}_{m}{}^{}c_{m}^{+2}n_m^+(\delta ,B)`$, where the pm are the ground state sublevels populations, the $`c_m^+`$ the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients for the various $`\sigma ^+`$ transitions, and the $`n_m^+(\delta ,B)`$ the refractive indices for the Zeeman-shifted transitions (a transition from a ground state of magnetic number $`m_g`$ to an excited state $`m_e`$ is frequency-shifted by $`\left(m_eg_em_gg_g\right)\mu B`$, where $`g_e=1/2`$ and $`g_g=1/3`$ are the Landé factors for the F $`=3`$F’$`=4`$ transition of the D2 line of Rb85). We can express in the same way the total scattering cross-section for each circular polarization. In the absence of magnetic field and assuming a uniform population distribution among the ground state sublevels, the total scattering cross-section on resonance is $`\sigma \left(\delta =0\right)0.43\times 3\lambda ^2/2\pi `$, the 0.43 prefactor being the average of the squared Clebsch-Gordan coefficient (or the degeneracy factor of the transition $`\frac{1}{3}\frac{\left(2\text{F’}+1\right)}{\left(2\text{F+1}\right)}`$).

As discussed above, the polarization of the transmitted light can differ from the incident linear polarization. It is thus necessary to fully characterize the polarization state of the transmitted light. This can be done using the Stokes formalism . Four quantities need to be measured : the (linear) component of the transmitted light parallel to the incident polarization ($`I_{//}`$), the (linear) orthogonal component ($`I_{}`$), the (linear) component at 45 ($`I_{45^{}}`$), and one of the two circular components ($`I_{circ}`$). The sum of the first two is the total intensity $`s_0`$; the three other Stokes parameters are : $`s_1=I_{//}I_{}=2I_{//}s_0`$, $`s_2=2I_{45^{}}s_0`$ and $`s_3=2I_{circ}s_0`$. One can then compute the three quantities which characterize any polarization state :

$`P`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{\sqrt{s_1^2+s_2^2+s_3^2}}{s_0}}`$ (3)
$`\mathrm{sin}2\chi `$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{s_3}{s_0P}}`$ (4)
$`\mathrm{tan}2\theta `$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{s_2}{s_1}}`$ (5)
Here, $`P`$ is the degree of polarization of the light, i.e. the ratio of the intensities of the polarized component to the unpolarized one (a pure polarization state yields $`P=1`$ while $`P=0`$ corresponds to totally unpolarized light). Even though we would not a priori expect any unpolarized component, we will see that this analysis is indeed necessary in our case. The quantity $`e=\mathrm{tan}\left(\chi \right)`$ is the ellipticity of the polarized component ($`e=\pm a/b`$, where $`a`$ and $`b`$ are the small and large axis of the ellipse respectively and the + or - sign denotes the sense of rotation of the electric field). The Faraday angle $`\theta `$ is the angle between the large axis of the ellipse and the direction of the incident polarization.

## 3 Description of experiment

### 3.1
Preparation of cold atoms

The experimental setup, essentially the same as in our coherent backscattering experiment, is described in detail elsewhere . A magneto-optical trap (MOT) is loaded from a dilute Rb85 vapor (P $`10^8`$mbar) using six laser beams (diameter 2.8 cm, power 30 mW), two-by-two counter-propagating and tuned to the red of the F$`=3`$F’$`=4`$ of the Rb85 D2 line (wavelength $`\lambda =780`$ nm). The applied magnetic field gradient is typically 10 G/cm. During the experiment, the MOT (trapping beams, repumper, and magnetic field gradient) is continuously turned on and off . The ”dark” period is short enough (8 ms) so that the cold atoms do not leave the capture volume and are recaptured during the next ”bright” period (duration 20 ms).

To characterize the cold atomic cloud, we measure its optical thickness as described in the next subsection. The shape and size of the cloud is recorded in 3D using fluorescence imaging, by illuminating the sample with a laser beam detuned by several $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. We use a time-of-flight technique to measure the atom’s $`rms`$ velocity, typically 10 cm/s. The atomic cloud contains typically $`3\times 10^9`$atoms with a quasi-gaussian spatial distribution $``$ 5 mm FWHM (on average, the cloud being usually slightly cigar-shaped), yielding a peak density of $`10^{10}`$ cm-3.

### 3.2 Optical thickness and transmitted polarization measurements

The laser probe used for transmission measurements lies in the horizontal plane containing 4 of the trapping beams, at an angle of 25. It is produced by a 50 mW SDL diode laser injected by a Yokogawa DBR diode laser, whose linewidth is 2-3 MHz FWHM as estimated from the beatnote between 2 identical diodes. This laser is passed through a Fabry-Perot cavity (transmission peak FWHM 10 MHz) before being sent through the atomic cloud. Although this filtering does not significantly reduce the linewidth of the laser, it strongly suppresses the spectral components in the wings of the initial lineshape which limit the accuracy of the transmission measurement. The frequency of the probe can be scanned in a controlled way by $`\pm 50`$ MHz around the $`34`$ transition of the D2 line. The probe beam diameter is 1-2 mm, and its polarization is linear (vertical). The power in the probe is typically 0.1 $`\mu W`$, yielding a saturation parameter s $`=2\times 10^3`$. It is turned on for 2 ms (yielding a maximum of about 80 photons exchanged per atoms), typically 5 ms after the MOT is switched off. The transmitted beam is detected by a photodiode after a rough spatial mode selection by two diaphragms of diameter 3 mm, distant of 1 m. The optical thickness measurement is performed without applied magnetic field. As we emphasized in , simply measuring the on-resonance transmission yields a strongly biased estimate for the optical thickness $`b`$, due to the off-resonant components in the probe laser’s spectrum. To overcome this problem, one solution is to scan the laser detuning $`\delta `$ and record the transmission line shape. We describe this curve as the convolution product of the transmission line for a purely monochromatic laser T$`\left(\delta \right)=\mathrm{exp}\left(b\left(\delta \right)\right)`$ with the laser line shape. If the later is known, one can extract the optical thickness from the transmission data (for instance from the FWHM of the transmission curve). This method is quite accurate for large values of $`b`$, where the width of the transmission curve is only weakly dependent on the laser’s linewidth. For small values of $`b`$, measuring the transmission at $`\delta =0`$ is more accurate but still requires some knowledge of the probe laser’s spectrum. When working with dense atomic clouds at non-zero detuning, one should also keep in mind the possible influence of ”lensing” effect (focussing or deflection of the transmitted beam), due to the spatially-inhomogeneous refractive index of the sample. In our case, the rather large cloud size ($`5`$ mm) and moderate density ($`10^{10}`$ cm-3) yield a large focal length of about 25 m for the cloud, and a small (but still measurable) lensing effect.

Using the measured size of the cloud and assuming a uniform population distribution in the ground state, we can then obtain the peak atomic density and the number of atoms in the sample. The maximal optical thickness measured in our trap is $`b=24`$ (yielding a FWHM for the transmission curve $`\mathrm{\Delta }\delta 6\mathrm{\Gamma }`$).

As mentioned in Section 2, the Stokes analysis relies on four transmission measurements. To perform the polarization measurement, we insert a polarimeter in the path of the transmitted beam, as shown in fig.$`1`$. It consists of a quarter-wave plate (only used for the circular component), a half-wave plate and a glan prism polarizer (fixed). The rejection factor of the polarizer is $`10^3`$. The four transmission signals ($`I_{//}`$, $`I_{}`$, $`I_{45^{}}`$ and $`I_{circ}`$) are recorded as a function of the laser detuning. The degree of polarization, ellipticity and rotation angle can then be computed using expressions (3), (4), and (5).

## 4 Results and discussion

### 4.1 Role of detuning

Fig.$`2`$ shows a typical example of the raw signals obtained in the four polarization channels necessary for the Stokes analysis detailed in Sec.$`2`$. The transmitted intensity is recorded as a function of the detuning (expressed in units of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$) in the parallel (A), orthogonal (B), 45 (C) and circular (D) polarization channels. All curves have been scaled by the incident intensity. These data were obtained for a sample of optical thickness $`b=4.6`$ and an applied magnetic field $`B`$ = 3G. We see on curve (B) that more than 10% of the incident light is transferred to the orthogonal channel. On curves (C) and (D), the off-resonant detected intensities are close to 0.5, since the incident linear polarization projection on each of these channels is 1/2. The transmission curve (D), which corresponds to the $`\sigma ^+`$ component, presents a minimum shifted towards positive detunings by the Zeeman effect ; the position of the minimum corresponds roughly to the splitting of the $`m_g=+3m_e=+4`$ transition (1.4 MHz/G), which has a maximum Clebsch-Gordan coefficient of 1. Curves (B) and (C) exhibit noticeable asymmetries, which we will discuss later.

From the data of fig.$`2`$, we computed the three curves $`P\left(\delta \right)`$ (A), $`e\left(\delta \right)`$ (B) and $`\theta \left(\delta \right)`$ (C) characterizing the polarization state of the transmitted light (fig.$`3`$). We note on the curve (A) of fig.3 that the degree of polarization $`P`$ is not always equal to unity, and can be substantially smaller depending on the parameters. This unexpected observation is due to the finite linewidth of our probe beam : light components at different frequencies, initially all linearly polarized, experience different rotations and deformations while passing through the cloud. Because these components have different frequencies, the result of their recombination, when integrated over a time long compared to their beatnote time, is a loss of polarization (for example, two orthogonal linearly-polarized waves of different frequencies and same intensity yield a totally unpolarized light $`P=0`$). The result of the recombination of all the spectral components is not straightforward to predict, since each frequency is transmitted with a different intensity, ellipticity and rotation angle. However, if we assume that all the spectral components are mutually incoherent, the total intensity detected in each channel is the sum of the intensities corresponding to all the spectral components. Thus, in order to compare the experimental data with the model, we convolute the transmission curves $`I_{//}\left(\delta \right),`$ $`I_{}\left(\delta \right)`$, $`I_{45^{}}\left(\delta \right)`$ and $`I_{circ}\left(\delta \right)`$, as calculated with the model of Sec.$`2`$, with the power spectrum of the probe laser. We can then compute the curves $`P\left(\delta \right)`$, $`e\left(\delta \right)`$ and $`\theta \left(\delta \right)`$ using expressions (3), (4), and (5). We stress that the influence of the laser’s linewidth is quite strong : even for a (lorentzian) linewidth of a tenth of the natural width, for an optical thickness $`b=5`$ and a magnetic field $`B=1G`$, the loss of polarization is already 32% ($`P=0.68`$). This phenomenon also affects the estimates for the ellipticity and the rotation angle, since these quantities reflect mainly the polarization state of the dominant transmitted spectral component. Indeed, if one again considers the example of the superposition of two waves of different frequencies and polarizations (pure states), the results of the Stokes analysis will vary continuously from one polarization state to the other depending on the intensity ratio of the two waves. In the intermediate regime of comparable intensities, the Stokes analysis will not describe adequately any of the two polarizations. It should be noted that this situation differs from the case where the studied light consist of a polarized component plus a depolarized one  ; in this case, the Stokes analysis provides the ”correct” result (that is, the ellipticity and angle of the polarized component), even for arbitrarily small proportion of polarized light. We experimentally tested the influence of a polychromatic excitation by superimposing to the normal probe beam a weaker one, obtained from the same laser but detuned by 80 MHz with an acousto-optic modulator. The calculated degradation of $`P\left(\delta \right)`$, $`e\left(\delta \right)`$ and $`\theta \left(\delta \right)`$ account well for the experimentally observed behavior.

Fig.$`3`$ (B) shows how the ellipticity $`e`$ of the polarized component of the transmitted light varies with laser detuning. For $`\delta >0`$, it is mainly the $`\sigma ^+`$ component of the incident light which is absorbed, yielding a mostly $`\sigma ^{}`$ transmitted polarization (negative ellipticity). On resonance ($`\delta =0`$) both components are absorbed in the same proportion, an the transmitted polarization is linear ($`e=0`$). Since the ellipticity depends on the differential absorption between circular components, it is a direct measurement of the dichroism in the sample. The curve on fig.$`3`$ (C) is the Faraday rotation angle computed from expression (5). The on-resonance rotation in this case is about 40. The solid lines in fig.$`3`$ are obtained with our model using the convolution procedure discussed above ; the probe light spectrum is described by the product of a lorentzian laser lineshape (FWHM = 3 MHz) by a lorentzian Fabry-Perot transmission (FWHM =10 MHz). We account for the observed asymmetry in the experimental curves by introducing a linear variation in the populations of the ground state sublevels (i.e. a partial orientation of the sample), with maximum variation $`\pm 20\%`$ between extreme magnetic numbers $`m_g=\pm 3.`$ We have checked some other possible mechanisms for this asymmetry, such as the proximity of the F$`=3`$F’$`=3`$ transition (121 MHz to the red) or optical pumping, but both effects seem to play a small role. The fact that we were also able to invert the asymmetry by varying the orientation of the magnetic field produced by the compensation coils also favors the hypothesis of a partial orientation of the medium. We actually do see some optical pumping effects, manifested by variations of the measured transmission signals with time during the probe pulse (duration 2 ms). The overall effect of optical pumping is to increase the Faraday rotation as the number of exchanged photons (i.e. time) increases, i.e. the measured rotation immediatly after turning on the probe is smaller than after 2 ms of presence of the light (by about 6%).

The comparison of fig.$`3`$ between experiment and theory shows that, despite some discrepancies due to our rather vague knowledge of the probe lineshape and to the simplicity of our model, the overall agreement is quite satisfying.

### 4.2 Role of magnetic field

To determine the Verdet constant, it is necessary to measure the Faraday angle as a function of the magnetic field. Fig.$`4`$ shows such curves obtained for two different optical thicknesses : $`b=0.75`$ (solid circles) and $`b=9`$ (open circles). For each curve, the on-resonance Faraday angle $`\theta `$ is scaled by the optical thickness of the cloud, since one expects the rotation to be proportional to the optical thickness (thus, all experimental data should lie on the same ”universal” curve). The solid line is the prediction of the model with a infinitely narrow probe laser. Its slope around $`B=0`$ is about $`10{}_{}{}^{}/G`$ , yielding a Verdet constant $`V=20{}_{}{}^{}/G/mm`$ for an optical thickness $`b=10`$ and a sample diameter of 5 mm. The dashed curve represents the small optical thickness limit when the laser linewidth is taken into account, which lowers the slope at around $`6{}_{}{}^{}/G`$.

Both curves exhibit the expected dispersive shape, with a linear increase of the Faraday angle at small magnetic field values (where the Verdet constant is defined), and then a decreasing rotation when the splitting between the $`\sigma ^+`$ and $`\sigma ^{}`$ transitions becomes larger than the natural width. The experimental curve for small optical thickness is quite close to the model prediction (dashed line). For larger values of the optical thickness, the measurements depart from this ideal situation due to the finite linewidth of the laser : the curve for $`b=9`$ presents a smaller slope around $`B=0`$ and the scaled rotation is globally reduced. As the optical thickness is further increased, the transmitted light becomes increasingly dominated by off-resonant components of the laser spectrum and the information about the central (resonant) frequency is lost. This process is further illustrated in the following subsection.

### 4.3 Role of optical thickness

In the ideal case of a monochromatic laser, one expects the Faraday rotation to increase linearly with optical thickness. We thus recorded the rotation at $`\delta =0`$ and a fixed value of $`B`$, as a function of the optical thickness which was varied by detuning the trapping laser. The result of such an experiment is shown in fig.$`5`$. The open circles correspond to an applied magnetic field $`B=2`$ G, while the solid circles are for $`B=8`$ G. The solid line is the expected evolution for $`B=8`$ G and a monochromatic laser; the dashed line is the prediction of the same model for $`B=2`$ G. We see that, for the higher value of $`B`$, the expected linear behavior is indeed obtained, yielding a slope of about $`8{}_{}{}^{}/G`$. The (absolute) rotation angle increases up to $`150^{}`$. However, the evolution observed at smaller magnetic field ($`B=2`$ G, circles) is quite different, where the data quickly depart from the linear evolution even at low optical thickness and suddenly drop towards positive values of the angle at large optical thickness. Qualitatively, this reflects the fact that, at small applied field and large optical thickness, the central (resonant) frequency of the probe laser is strongly attenuated and can become smaller than other (off-resonant) spectral components. The measured rotation angle then passes continuously from the angle of the central frequency component to that of the dominant detuned component (in the wings of the absorption line), which can be negative (see fig.$`3`$ (C)). The large dispersion of the data for $`B=2`$ G above $`b12`$ is due to the important relative error in this low transmission regime. At larger $`B`$ field, the on-resonance transmission increases due to the Zeeman splitting, and the central frequency component remains dominant for larger values of the optical thickness (for instance, the total transmission at $`b=20`$ is around 0.1 for $`B=8`$ G, while it is only 3$`\times 10^3`$ for $`B=2`$ G).

Thus, the simple model of Section 2 provides us with a good description for the various behaviors observed experimentally. A fair quantitative agreement is obtained for moderate optical thickness or high magnetic field. The model is also helpful to understand the important role played by the lineshape of the probe laser in this experimental situation of optically-thick sample and resonant light. The experimental data confirm the occurrence of large Faraday effect inside our atomic cloud, with a Verdet constant in the range of $`20{}_{}{}^{}/G/mm`$ for a typical optical thickness of 10.

## 5 Conclusion

We have reported in this paper the measurement of large Faraday effect in an optically-thick sample of cold rubidium atoms. Due to near-resonant excitation, we need to take into account both Faraday rotation (differential refractive index) and dichroism (differential absorption) to analyze the experimental data. Using a very simple model for our F $`=3`$F’$`=4`$ transition, we obtain a good agreement with the experimental data. We measure large Verdet constant of the order of $`20{}_{}{}^{}/G/mm`$. We have shown that the finite width of the laser spectrum plays a crucial role in the signals obtained for an optically-thick sample. A complete analysis of the transmitted light polarization state is then necessary to correctly interpret the data.

The determination of the Verdet constant $`V`$ in the cloud is an important step in our current study of the effect of an applied magnetic field on the coherent backscattering of light by the cold atoms. For Faraday effect to seriously affect the CBS cone, one needs the phase difference between time-reversed waves, accumulated on a distance of the order of the light mean-free path $`l`$, to be of the order of $`\pi `$ (i.e. a rotation of $`\pi /2`$ for a linear polarization). This corresponds to a situation where $`VBl`$ $`1`$ . However, the main difference between the situation of ref. (scatterers in a Faraday-active matrix) and our atomic cloud situation is that, in our case, the Verdet constant is determined by the density of scatterers $`\rho `$ ($`V`$ proportional to $`\rho `$), which in turn fixes the mean-free path ($`l`$ proportional to$`1/\rho `$). Thus, there is a maximum rotation per mean-free path length scale, which is about 13 (for $`B=3`$ G) according to the curve of fig.$`4`$ (solid line). It seems to us interesting to study this unusual situation. Our aim is also to understand how the Faraday effect combines to the other effects due to the atom’s internal structure to determine the CBS enhancement factor in the presence of an external magnetic field.

###### Acknowledgement 1

This research program is supported by the CNRS and the PACA Region. We also thank the GDR PRIMA. The contribution of J.-C. Bernard was determinant in the development of the experiment. We are grateful to D. Delande for some very fruitful discussions.

## 6 Bibliography

Figures captions:

Figure 1 : Simplified experimental setup.

A probe laser beam of linear polarization E$`_\text{i}`$ and wave vector k is sent through the cold atomic cloud, where a magnetic field B is applied along k. The polarization E$`_\text{t}`$ of the transmitted probe light is deformed and rotated. A polarimeter measures the transmitted intensities in four polarization channels : $`I_{//}`$ (parallel to the incident polarization), $`I_{}`$ (orthogonal to the incident polarization), $`I_{45^{}}`$ (at 45 from the incident polarization), $`I_{circ}`$ (circular polarization). These quantities allow to determine the degree of polarization $`P`$, the ellipticity $`e`$, and the rotation angle $`\theta `$ of the transmitted light.

Figure 2 : Typical transmission curves in the four polarization channels.

The transmission is measured as a function of the laser detuning (in units of the natural width $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$), for a sample of optical thickness (at zero field) $`b=4.6`$ and an applied magnetic field $`B=3`$ G. All data are scaled by the total incident light intensity. A : intensity $`I_{//}`$ in the linear parallel channel. B : intensity $`I_{}`$ in the linear orthogonal channel. C : intensity $`I_{45^{}}`$ in the linear 45 channel. D : intensity $`I_{circ}`$ in the circular channel.

Figure 3 : Typical results from the Stokes polarization analysis and comparison with model.

These curves are obtained from the data of fig.2. A : degree of polarization $`P`$ (see expressions (3)). B : ellipticity $`e`$. C : Faraday rotation angle $`\theta `$. The symbols correspond to experimental data and the solid lines to the predictions of the model described in Sec. II. To reproduce the experimental asymmetry, the model assumes a linear variation of the ground state populations pm with magnetic number $`m`$, with a total variation amplitude of $`40\%`$ between extreme ground state sublevels $`m_g=\pm 3`$.

Figure 4 : Scaled Faraday angle as a function of the applied magnetic field $`B`$.

The rotation angle $`\theta `$ is scaled by the optical thickness $`b`$ of the sample. The symbols correspond to samples with two different optical thicknesses : $`b=0.75`$ (solid circles) and $`b=9`$ (open circles). The solid line is the model prediction assuming a monochromatic probe laser (and a uniform population distribution in the ground state). The dotted line is the small optical thickness limit of the model when taking into account the lineshape of the probe laser.

Figure 5 : On-resonance Faraday rotation angle $`\theta `$ as a function of the optical thickness.

The symbols correspond to experiments with two different values of the magnetic field : $`B=2`$ G (open circles) and $`B=8`$ G (solid circles). The optical thickness of the atomic cloud is varied by scanning the detuning of the MOT laser. The lines correspond to the predictions of the model with a monochromatic laser, for $`B=2`$ G (dashed line) and $`B=8`$ G (solid line). For the largest $`B`$ value, we observe the expected linear increase of Faraday angle with optical thickness. The measured rotation is close to the prediction of the ideal, monochromatic model (solid line). On the other hand, the behavior for $`B=2`$ G is quite different : the rotation angle quickly departs from the linear increase, saturates and then decreases. Indeed, as optical thickness increases, the measured rotation becomes increasingly affected by other spectral components of the laser, until these off-resonant frequencies become dominant causing a sharp drop of the angle. At large $`B`$ the central, resonant frequency component of the laser is always dominant in the optical thickness range investigated, and the linear behavior is recovered.


text:
# *

## 1 Introduction

In the past, statistical studies of QSO clustering have been limited by the small numbers of QSOs available in homogeneously-selected catalogues. The aim of the 2dF QSO redshift survey (2QZ) is to provide a optically-selected catalogue of 25000 QSOs, approximately 50 times larger than the previous largest QSO survey to a similar depth ($`B<21`$mag). This survey will be used to provide measures of:

* the evolution of QSO clustering over the redshift range $`0<z<3`$
* large-scale structure over scales 1–1000h-1Mpc
* the cosmological parameters ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}`$) using geometrical tests
* the QSO luminosity function and its evolution with redshift
* the spectral properties of a large sample of QSOs

## 2 Catalogue selection and observations

The 2QZ is based on $`UB_J`$/$`B_JR`$ colour selection of blue candidate objects from the Automated Plate Measuring (APM) machine scans of UK Schmidt $`U`$, $`J`$ and $`R`$ plates. Full details of the catalogue selection process are given by Smith et al. (2001a). The survey covers 740 deg2, comprising two $`75^{}\times 5^{}`$ strips (excluding the regions around bright stars, etc) in the South Galactic Pole region at declination $`30^{}`$ and in the North Galactic Cap region at declination $`0^{}`$ (see Fig. 1)

In total 47845 candidates were selected for observations with the 2dF instrument at the Anglo-Australian Telescope. The survey observations are combined with those of the 2dF galaxy redshift survey (2dFGRS). QSO candidates are observed at 7Å resolution over the wavelength range 3800–7250Å. We obtain reliable identification for $`85\%`$ of the candidates to our survey magnitude limit $`B_J<20.85`$mag. Spectra for the first 10000 QSOs observed are shown in Fig. reffig:spec. At the time of writing (November 2000), we have observed over 32000 QSO candidates, resulting in the identification of more than 15000 QSOs.

Galactic stars represent the largest single contaminant in the survey (25%), including almost 1500 white dwarfs. Narrow emission line galaxies ($`0<z<0.6`$) comprise a further 10% of the sample. The spectroscopic catalogue will be released to the community in two stages. First, an initial release of 20000 objects (including 10000 QSOs) will be made by June 30, 2001. The release will include positions, redshift, spectra and a detailed coverage map of the survey. The final catalogue release will be made one year after the survey is completed in February 2002. The data will be available from the 2QZ catalogue home page http://www.2dfquasar.org. The input catalogue is already available from this site.

## 3 Preliminary Results

### 3.1 QSO Spectra

The composite spectrum based on the co-addition of the first 10000 QSO spectra is shown in Fig. 3. Full details of this work will be presented in Smith et al. (2001, in preparation).

The composite based on the 1000 QSOs identified the Large Bright QSO survey (LBQS) is shown for comparison. The LBQS composite is based on QSOs that are, on average, 10 times more luminous than those identified in the 2QZ. However, the two composites are almost identical. In particular, the equivalent widths of the broad emission lines (including CIV) are the same between the two surveys, providing further evidence that the ‘Baldwin’ effect is weak or non-existent in optically-selected QSO catalogues. The only difference in the emission line properties occurs for the narrow lines; the LBQS composite exhibiting much stronger narrow \[OII\] and \[OIII\] emission compared to the 2QZ composite. Given the correlation between host mass and QSO luminosity, this suggests that the size/luminosity of the narrow line region is simply proportional to the mass of the host galaxy.

### 3.2 QSO Luminosity Function

The QSO luminosity function (LF) based on the first 5000 QSOs identified in the 2QZ and the 1000 QSOs in the LBQS is shown in Fig. 4 Full details of the analysis are given by Boyle et al. (2000).

For an $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=1`$ Universe, the QSO LF is given by a two power law model:

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(L,z)=\frac{\mathrm{\Phi }^{}}{\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{L}{L^{}(z)}}\right)^\alpha +\left({\displaystyle \frac{L}{L^{}(z)}}\right)^\beta \right]},$$

where there parameter values lie in the range $`3.45<\alpha <3.75`$, $`1.55<\beta <1.96`$, $`23<M_B^{}<22`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }^{}=10^6`$Mpc-3mag-1. The evolution of the LF over the range $`0.35<z<2.3`$ can be fitted by a pure luminosity evolution model of the form:

$$L^{}(z)L^{}(0)10^{1.40z0.27z^2}.$$

This form of evolution is consistent with the $`L(z)(1+z)^3`$ form previously derived for the redshift range $`0.3<z<2`$. However the exponential form of the relation provides for a slow down in the rate of PLE at $`z>2`$; peaking at $`z=2.5`$, beyond the 80% completeness limit for the survey.

### 3.3 QSO correlation function

The QSO correlation function based on the first 8000 QSOs in the 2QZ is shown in Fig. 5. Full details of the analysis are presented in Croom et al. (2001).

At $`r<20`$h-1 Mpc the correlation function, $`\xi (r)`$, determined over the full 2QZ redshift range $`0.35<z<2.9`$ is a good fit to a power law of the form;

$$\xi (r)=\left(\frac{r}{r_0}\right)^\gamma ,$$

where the $`\gamma =1.5`$ and $`r_0=4.5\pm 1.0`$h-1Mpc ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=1`$) at a mean redshift $`z=1.4`$. This is comparable to the present-day clustering of optically-selected galaxies. The clustering scale length $`r_O`$ shows little or no dependence on redshift when the sample is split into smaller redshift intervals.

For a flat Universe with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$, the mean scale length over the redshift range $`0.35<z<2.9`$ increases to $`r_0=5.9\pm 1.0`$h-1Mpc, and exhibits a strong evolution with redshift, with $`r_0`$ increasing towards high redshifts.

Biasing models for QSO formation based on the Press-Schechter formalism are consistent with the observed evolution in $`r_0`$ for halo masses of $`10^{12}`$M ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=1`$) and $`10^{13}`$M ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$). Comparison with CDM models yields values for the shape parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }0.2`$ ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=1`$), $`\mathrm{\Gamma }0.1`$ ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$).

### 3.4 QSO power spectrum

We have also determined the QSO power spectrum from the first $`6000`$ QSOs in the survey (Hoyle et al. 2001, in preparation).

Over scales $`20150`$h-1Mpc, the QSO redshift-space power spectrum (see Fig.6) shows a similar shape, $`P(k)k^{1.6}`$, to that measured for galaxies and clusters at low redshift. The amplitude of the QSO power spectrum is similar to the present epoch galaxy power spectrum for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=0.3`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0.7`$ and a factor of 2 lower for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{m}=1`$. At larger scales, the QSO power spectrum displays excess power over that derived from the APM galaxy survey Fitting CDM models to the observed QSO spectrum yields low values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ consistent with those obtained from the analysis of the correlation function.

## 4 Conclusions

The 2QZ is now over 60% complete. It has already begun to provide important new information on the spectral properties, luminosity function, evolution and clustering of QSOs. The initial catalogue of 10000 QSOs will be publically released by June 30, 2001. Combined with other major QSO surveys (SDSS, FIRST), the 2QZ should result in a much greater understanding of both the QSO phenomenon and the evolution of large-scale structure in the early Universe.