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# The kinematics of molecular clumps surrounding hot cores in G29.96$-$0.02 and G31.41$+$0.31

## 1 Introduction

The importance of the study of high-mass star formation derives from the close interaction between such stars and the interstellar medium: they affect the ISM evolution and, consequently, the galactic evolution in general. In spite of this, until the last few years the study of star formation was mostly concentrated on low-mass stars, because of the difficulties in investigating young massive stars, less numerous, more distant, more embedded and with much shorter evolutionary timescales. The search for the sites where the first phases of high-mass star formation occurs has been increasing recently, because of the advent of aperture synthesis mm-interferometers (Kurtz et al. kurtz00 (2000)).

High-mass stars ignite hydrogen burning and reach the main sequence while still accreting matter (Palla & Stahler PS93 (1993)). Thus young massive stars are still deeply embedded in a dense gas and dust envelope which impairs the detection at optical and near infrared wavelengths. Due to the large luminosity and Lyman photon emission, a newly born massive star heats the dust and ionises the gas in the surrounding envelope and can be detected in the far-infrared (FIR) as a luminous IRAS source and in the centimetric radio continuum as an ultracompact (UC) H ii region (Wood & Churchwell 1989a ; 1989b ). However, these are signposts of already-formed massive stars; in order to study the more elusive evolutionary phase of main accretion one has to devise suitable target selection procedures. Several different approaches have been explored to obtain lists of candidate massive accreting protostars (see the review by Kurtz et al. kurtz00 (2000)): high-luminosity IRAS sources with peculiar colours (e.g. Molinari et al. Mea96 (1996); Mea98 (1998)), H2O masers without associated radio continuum emission (Tofani et al. Tea95 (1995); Cesaroni et al. 1999b ), compact molecular cores close to UC H ii regions (Cesaroni et al. Cea91 (1991); 1994a ). The latter approach is supported by the observational result that massive stars are usually found in rich clusters and associations: it is thus likely to find a forming massive star lying close to a young one. In this way Cesaroni et al. (1994a ) identified compact molecular cores close to, but generally not coincident with, the target UC H ii regions. These are characterized by bolometric luminosities exceeding $`10^4`$ $`L_{}`$, small diameters ($`0.1`$ pc) and kinetic temperatures over 50 K, and were then called hot cores (HCs). Due to their high luminosity and temperature, HCs have been suggested to contain very young massive (proto-)stars. In fact, a few of them contain UC H ii regions (e.g. G10.47+0.03, see Cesaroni et al. cesa98 (1998)), which witness the existence of embedded early type stars. Moreover, two well known HCs, IRAS~20126$+$4104 (Cesaroni et al. Cea97 (1997); 1999a ) and G9.62+0.19–F (Hofner et al. 1996b ; Testi et al. Tea98 (1998); Tea00 (2000)), show evidence of an embedded massive young stellar object in a phase preceding the formation of a classical UC H ii.

Two of the best studied classical HCs from the list of Cesaroni et al. (1994a ) are those close to the UC H ii regions G29.96$-$0.02 and G31.41$+$0.31. In the former region the molecular core lies in front of the cometary UC H ii region, approximately 2$`\stackrel{}{.}`$6 west of the 1.3 cm continuum peak. In G31.41$+$0.31, faint NH3 emission is detected toward the extended halo around the UC H ii region, while the NH3 HC peak is $``$4″ to the southwest of the centimetric radio continuum peak. High angular resolution ($``$0.4″) Very Large Array (VLA) observations of the NH3(4,4) inversion transition (Cesaroni et al. cesa98 (1998)) showed resolved emission from both HCs, with a deconvolved size of $``$1$`\stackrel{}{.}`$4 in G29.96$-$0.02 and $``$1$`\stackrel{}{.}`$8 in G31.41$+$0.31. Both cores appear slightly elongated: G29.96$-$0.02 in the E-W direction and G31.41$+$0.31 along a SW-NE axis. A velocity gradient of approximately 2-3 km s-1 arcsec-1 over 3″ is found along such directions. Similar correlations are found in the CH3CN(6$``$5) transition for both G29.96$-$0.02 and G31.41$+$0.31, although the velocity gradients in CH3CN ($``$15 km s-1 arcsec-1) are larger than those observed in NH3 (Cesaroni et al. 1994b ; Hofner et al. in prep.). Also, in both sources the derived kinetic temperature shows a peak toward the center. All these features have been interpreted as evidence of disk-like structures rotating about a hot, massive central object: the (proto-)star.

The presence of a deeply embedded massive (proto-)star is also indirectly suggested by the presence of several other signposts, such as H2O and H2CO, CH3OH masers toward the hot ammonia core peak of G29.96$-$0.02 (Hofner & Churchwell 1996a ; Pratap et al pratap94 (1994); Walsh et al. walsh98 (1998)) and H2O masers toward G31.41$+$0.31 (Gaume & Mutel GM87 (1987)).

Recently, Pratap et al. (pratap99 (1999)) investigated the molecular gas surrounding G29.96$-$0.02 using the BIMA millimeter wave interferometer with moderate angular resolution ($``$10″). They found 13CO and high-density tracer (CS and CH3CN) emission; while the former molecule is found in an extended cloud surrounding both the HC and the UC H ii, the latter peak toward the HC position. Hence, CH3CN and NH3 emission trace the innermost and warmer molecular gas within the HC itself, while 13CO traces the large-scale molecular cloud in which the HC, the UC H ii region and the surrounding near infrared young stellar cluster are embedded. Pratap et al. (pratap99 (1999)) also detected a compact core of CH3OH emission, $``$5″ south west of the HC. This second core does not show the typical features of HCs (compact NH3 and CH3CN emission) and Pratap et al. suggest that it may be associated with a molecular outflow from the HC exciting source or with a low-mass star forming outside it.

In order to study the relationship between the HC and the UC H ii region, and the kinematics of the gaseous clump in which these are embedded, we decided to obtain high angular resolution observations of the HCO+(1–0) and SiO(2$``$1) v=0 lines, as already done in similar regions by other authors (Acord, Walmsley & Churchwell Aea97 (1997); Cesaroni et al. Cea97 (1997); Wilner et al. Wea96 (1996)). These tracers are expected to provide information on the innermost part of the cloud and the kinematics of the molecular gas at the interface between the HC and the UC H ii region. The main goal of the observations was thus to relate the observed velocity field within the HC to the kinematics of the molecular gas in the inner portions of the cloud. Additionally, the SiO(2$``$1) v=0 transition, which can be enhanced in shocked regions, was expected to clarify the CH3OH observations of Pratap et al. (pratap99 (1999)).

Throughout this paper we will assume a distance of 6 kpc for G29.96$-$0.02, based on the recent estimate of Pratap et al. (pratap99 (1999)), and 7.9 kpc for G31.41$+$0.31, based on the kinematic estimate of Churchwell et al. (churchwell90 (1990)).

We present our new millimeter interferometric observations and data reduction in Sect. 2. In Sect. 3 the observational results are presented for the millimeter continuum and molecular lines separately. We discuss the implications of our results on the structure of the two regions and the nature of HCs in Sect. 4. In Sect. 5 we summarize the main results of our study.

## 2 Observations and data reduction

High resolution interferometric observations were performed in the period October-December 1997 using the Owens Valley Radio Observatory (OVRO) millimeter-wave array, located near Big Pine, California. The array comprises six 10.4 m dishes that were employed in three different configurations yielding baselines in the range 15-220 m. The phase centers used were: $`\alpha _{1950}=18^\mathrm{h}43^\mathrm{m}27\stackrel{s}{.}1`$, $`\delta _{1950}=02\mathrm{°}42\mathrm{}36\stackrel{}{.}4`$ for G29.96$-$0.02 and $`\alpha _{1950}=18^\mathrm{h}44^\mathrm{m}59\stackrel{s}{.}1`$, $`\delta _{1950}=01\mathrm{°}16\mathrm{}07\stackrel{}{.}3`$ for G31.41$+$0.31. The half-power beamwidth of the OVRO antennas is $``$84″ at 88 GHz, and $``$32″ at 233 GHz. Each antenna is equipped with cryogenically cooled SIS receivers that offered typical system temperatures of $``$300 K at 88 GHz, and $``$1200 K at 233 GHz. The 3.4 mm and 1.3 mm continuum observations employed an analog correlator for a total bandwidth, at each of the two frequencies, of $``$2 GHz. The flexible digital correlator was configured to observe simultaneously the HCO+(1$``$0) and SiO(2$``$1) v=0 transitions at 89.2 and 86.8 GHz respectively. For both molecules we used a $``$105 km/s wide band with $``$1.7 km/s resolution. The spectrometer modules were centered at $``$98 km/s, close to the systemic velocity of both sources.

Complex gain calibration was ensured by frequent observations of 1741$``$038. The typical observing cycle alternated scans on G29.96$-$0.02, G31.41$+$0.31 and 1741$``$038 with a period of $``$30 min. 3C273 was used as passband calibrator and Uranus and/or Neptune were used to set the flux scale. The expected flux calibration uncertainty is $``$20%. Data calibration and editing has been performed using the MMA software package (Scoville et al. Sea93 (1993)). At 230 GHz data could be salvaged only for a small subset of the observations, due to the poor phase stability and relatively high water vapour content of the atmosphere during most of the observations. This resulted in a poor ($`u,v`$) coverage of the final 233 GHz dataset, a final noise higher than normally expected and a much reduced sensitivity to the extended structures. The calibrated ($`u,v`$) datasets were exported to the NRAO–AIPS package for imaging and analysis. All the maps presented in this paper were obtained with the AIPS IMAGR task using natural weighting of the ($`u,v`$) data.

In the continuum maps, the final synthesised half power beam width (HPBW) is $`5\stackrel{}{.}9\times 3\stackrel{}{.}7`$, with P.A.$`8`$, at 88 GHz, and $`4\stackrel{}{.}9\times 2\stackrel{}{.}7`$, with P.A.$`3.5`$, at 233 GHz, for both sources. The rms level is 10 mJy/beam at 88 GHz for both sources, 40 mJy/beam for G29.96$-$0.02 and 160 mJy/beam for G31.41$+$0.31 at 233 GHz. In the line cubes we obtained $`5\stackrel{}{.}9\times 3\stackrel{}{.}7`$ HPBW and 50 mJy/beam rms level for all lines. The P.A. is $`10.5`$ for the HCO+ and $`16.1`$ for the SiO for G29.96$-$0.02; $`9.2`$ for the HCO+ and $`14.9`$ for the SiOline for G31.41$+$0.31. The conversion factor from flux density to brightness temperature in the synthesised beam is $``$10.4 K (Jy/beam)-1 at 88 GHz and $``$2.43 K (Jy/beam)-1 at 233 GHz.

### 2.1 Continuum maps

Our millimeter continuum maps are sensitive to both the free-free emission from the ionised gas inside the UC H ii regions and the thermal dust emission. The latter is mainly confined to the HC region (Olmi et al. olmi96 (1996); Patrap et al. pratap99 (1999)). In order to disentangle the HC continuum emission from that of the UC H ii region, we need to estimate the contribution of the free-free emission at millimeter wavelengths and subtract it from our continuum maps. To this purpose we have used the 24 GHz VLA observations of Cesaroni et al. (1994a ; cesa98 (1998)). We re-imaged the calibrated ($`u,v`$) data using the same ($`u,v`$) range and restoring beam as the 88 and 233 GHz OVRO observations. These maps were then scaled assuming optically thin free-free emission ($`F_\nu \nu ^{0.1}`$). In Figs. 1 and 2, we show for each source and each frequency the millimeter continuum maps as observed at OVRO (top panels), the free-free emission maps obtained by extrapolation of the VLA data (central panels), and the residual “dust” emission maps after removal of the free-free emission from the millimeter observations (bottom panels).

Figures 1 and 2 show that the procedure described above allowed us to compute a fairly accurate estimated map of the free-free emission contribution at millimeter wavelengths. The subtraction of the extended UC H ii is successful in all cases except for the 233 GHz observations of G29.96$-$0.02. In this case, the poor ($`u,v`$) coverage of the millimeter map does not allow a proper reconstruction of the extended emission, and even if the free-free map was calculated using the same ($`u,v`$) range as the millimeter map, the much finer VLA sampling of the ($`u,v`$) plane allowed us to properly map part of the extended emission. When the subtraction of the calculated map is performed, the free-free emission from the UC H ii is oversubtracted, producing a large negative hole at the position of the UC H ii. On the other hand, also in this case, the position of the excess “dust” emission at 233 GHz is coincident with the NH3 core and the 88 GHz “dust” peak. Toward G31.41$+$0.31 the free-free contribution to the millimeter emission is lower: at 88 GHz, the observed continuum peak is twice the value calculated from the 1.3 cm map, whereas at 233 GHz the maximum of the expected free-free emission is less than the 1 $`\sigma `$ noise level in the observed continuum map. In this case, the observed flux at 233 GHz is essentially thermal dust emission. However, as for G29.96$-$0.02, the total continuum flux at 233 GHz measured in our interferometric maps is less (a factor of $`3`$ for G31.41$+$0.31) than what expected from previous single dish observations (see Fig. 3), probably due to the spatial filtering of extended emission (see also Sect. 3.1).

### 2.2 Line maps

Continuum subtraction from the line data cubes was performed both in the ($`u,v`$) plane using the AIPS task UVLIN, selecting line free channels prior to image deconvolution, and in the image plane after cleaning, by subtracting the appropriate continuum images. The two techniques offered comparable results. The analysis presented in this paper uses the continuum subtracted cubes produced with the second method.

## 3 Results

### 3.1 Continuum

In Fig. 3 we show the spectral energy distribution (SED) for G29.96$-$0.02 (top) and G31.41$+$0.31 (bottom). The flux density measurements that we used are a compilation of single dish and interferometer observations (see references in Fig. 3). The data are heterogeneous in both angular resolution and ($`u,v`$) coverage. The SED is that typical of UC H ii regions, see also Wood & Churchwell (1989b ), dominated by free-free emission at centimeter wavelengths and by thermal dust emission at millimeter and far-infrared wavelengths.

To give an estimate of global parameters, such as the supply rate of Lyman photons required to mantain the UC H ii region ionised and the average temperature of the dust, we used a simplified two component model: a spherical and homogeneous H ii region, plus a single temperature grey-body dust component. This simplified model is able to accurately reproduce the radio to far infrared portion of the SEDs shown in Fig. 3. In Table 1 we report the values of the fixed parameters of the models: distance ($`d`$) and electron temperature ($`T_{\mathrm{H}\mathrm{II}}`$) of the UC H ii regions. For G29.96$-$0.02, we used the values estimated by Pratap et al.(pratap99 (1999)); for G31.41$+$0.31, the distance is that estimated by Churchwell et al. (churchwell90 (1990)), whereas the temperature is a mean value for a typical H ii region. Also shown in the table are the values of the parameters derived from our model fits: UC H ii radius ($`r_{\mathrm{H}\mathrm{II}}`$), Lyman photons supply rate ($`N_{\mathrm{Ly}}`$), dust temperature ($`T_d`$), and dust opacity index ($`\beta `$).

From the SEDs reported in Fig. 3, we can clearly see that our 233 GHz observations are well below both the single dish points and the model fits, expecially in the case of G29.96$-$0.02, where the contribution of the UC H ii free-free emission at such high frequency is still a consistent fraction of the total emission. This is mainly due to the sparse ($`u,v`$) coverage of our synthesis at this wavelength, and the inability to properly image extended structures. Hence, as discussed in Sect. 2.1, our 233 GHz observations cannot be used to infer the properties of the large scale structures in these regions, but offer only an estimate of the high frequency emission of the HCs themselves.

The values of $`T_{\mathrm{dust}}`$ and $`\beta `$ are average values for the dust in the envelope surrounding the HCs, not the appropriate values for the HCs since these will only contribute to a small fraction of the single dish submillimeter and far infrared fluxes. Nevertheless, the dust temperature that we derive is probably a good estimate of the kinetic temperature of the HCO+/SiO molecular clump surrounding the HC and UC H ii region (see Sect. 3.2 below).

In Table 2, for each source and at each frequency, we report the peak position ($`\alpha _{1950}^{\mathrm{peak}}`$ and $`\delta _{1950}^{\mathrm{peak}}`$), the peak ($`F_\nu ^{\mathrm{peak}}`$) and integrated fluxes ($`F_\nu `$) , the observed ($`\mathrm{\Theta }_{3\sigma }`$) and deconvolved ($`\theta _{3\sigma }`$) angular diameter, and the corresponding linear radius ($`r_{3\sigma }`$) of the observed continuum emission (dust plus free-free, Figs. 1 and 2 top panels). In Table 3 the same quantities are reported for the estimated dust emission (Figs. 1 and 2 bottom panels). The observed angular diameters of the sources have been computed as $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{3\sigma }=2\sqrt{A/\pi }`$, where $`A`$ is the area encompassing the observed source emission inside the 3 $`\sigma `$ contour level. The values of $`\mathrm{\Theta }_{3\sigma }`$ have then been deconvolved using the expression $`\theta _{3\sigma }=\sqrt{\mathrm{\Theta }_{3\sigma }^2\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{B}^2}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Theta }_\mathrm{B}`$ is the synthesized HPBW. The linear radii have been calculated from $`\theta _{3\sigma }`$ using the adopted distances of 6 and 7.9 kpc, for G29.96$-$0.02 and G31.41$+$0.31 respectively (Pratap et al. pratap99 (1999); Churchwell et al. churchwell90 (1990)).

### 3.2 Line

In Figs. 4 and 5 we show the source integrated spectra for both HCO+(1$``$0) and SiO(2$``$1) v=0 transitions. The HCO+(1$``$0) spectra show absorption at a velocity very close to that of the ambient cloud in the case of G31.41$+$0.31, and redshifted in G29.96$-$0.02. No absorption is revealed in the SiO(2$``$1) v=0 spectra. From the spectra, we selected the range of velocity channels highlighted by the vertical bars in Figs. 4 and 5, in order to produce maps of the HCO+ absorption (dotted bars) and of the line wings (dashed for the red wings and dash-dotted bars for the blue wings). We produced also maps averaged over all the line emission.

The contour maps of the averaged HCO+(1$``$0) and SiO(2$``$1) v=0 emission, superimposed on the corresponding continuum in grey scale, are displayed in Fig. 6 for G29.96$-$0.02 and Fig. 7 for G31.41$+$0.31. The molecular emission in our HCO+ and SiO maps of G29.96$-$0.02 is elongated toward the position of the CH3OH clump found by Pratap et al. (pratap99 (1999)). Particularly, the SiO map shows a second peak close to the estimated position of the CH3OH outflow centre found by Pratap et al. (pratap99 (1999)). As expected, in both sources the region of the HCO+ absorption is coincident with the position of the 88 GHz continuum peak, as shown in Fig. 8: this proves that it is a *true* absorption feature, not a self-absorption effect.

Towards G29.96$-$0.02, the peak of the molecular emission is coincident with the core seen in the dust continuum and NH3 emission by Cesaroni et al. (1994a ). We note that in this source most of the 88 GHz continuum is due to the free-free emission from the UC H ii region, which is slightly displaced from the dust core (see Sect. 2.1). The lack of HCO+ emission towards the UC H ii peak is due to the absorption (see Fig. 8). The red and blue-shifted wing emissions of both HCO+ and SiO appear only slightly separated along a E-W axis, parallel to that defined by the velocity gradient of the ammonia core (Cesaroni et al. cesa98 (1998)).

Towards G31.41$+$0.31, the peak of the HCO+ and SiO clump is shifted southwards with respect to the position of the core traced by the dust emission and high excitation NH3 and CH3CN transitions (Cesaroni et al. cesa98 (1998); Cesaroni et al. 1994b ). In the case of HCO+, this is probably due to the fact that the core is coincident with the continuum peak, where the line is in absorption (see Fig. 8). In this case, the red and blue wings are clearly separated along a NE-SW axis, parallel to the velocity gradient seen in NH3 and CH3CN. The SiO red wing overlaps with the position of the dust continuum emission.

In Table 4 we report the parameters of the HCO+ line emission. For each source we report the position, velocity, and synthesised beam brightness temperature ($`T_{\mathrm{SB}}`$) for the emission and absorption peaks. In the same table we also report the observed ($`\mathrm{\Theta }_{3\sigma }`$) and deconvolved ($`\theta _{3\sigma }`$) angular diameter of the HCO+ molecular clump, computed from the 3$`\sigma `$ contour, as explained in Sect. 3.1, and the deconvolved radius ($`r_{3\sigma }`$). In Table 5 we report the parameters for the SiO transition: position, velocity, and synthesised beam brightness temperature ($`T_{\mathrm{SB}}`$) for the emission peak. We also give the values of the integrated line emission ($`TdV`$) and the peak velocity ($`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$) from gaussian fits to the spectra obtained by averaging in each spectral channel the line emission within the contour corresponding to 50% of the peak in Figs. 6 and 7. The observed and deconvolved angular size corresponding to these contours and the deconvolved linear radius are also reported in Table 5.

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 Mass estimates

Assuming optically thin dust thermal emission at 88 GHz, we calculated the mass of the millimeter continuum sources using: $`M_\mathrm{d}=\frac{F_\nu d^2}{\kappa _\nu B_\nu (T)}`$, where $`F_\nu `$ is the observed integrated flux density on dust emission map (i.e. after subtracting the computed free-free emission), $`d`$ the distance from the Sun, $`B_\nu (T)`$ the Planck function at the assumed dust temperature $`T`$, $`\kappa _\nu =\kappa _{230\text{ GHz}}\left(\frac{\nu }{230\text{ GHz}}\right)^\beta `$ is the dust opacity per gram with $`\kappa _{230\text{ GHz}}=0.005\text{ cm}^2\text{ g}^1`$, assuming a gas-to-dust ratio of 100 by mass (Preibisch et al. preibisch93 (1993)), and $`\beta `$ is taken from Table 1.

The gas kinetic temperatures of the two HCs have been estimated by Cesaroni et al. (1994a ) using the NH3(4,4) line; they found 83 K for G29.96$-$0.02 and 120 K for G31.41$+$0.31. This latter value is consistent with the estimate of 123 K based on the CH3CN observations by Cesaroni et al. (1994b ). We used the temperature derived from the hot molecular gas, rather than the lower temperature derived from the global SED fit, because the latter is an estimate of the extended envelope temperature. In fact, the temperature is determined by the grey-body spectrum peak, i.e. the IRAS flux values, wich are sensitive to the extended dust emission, while the continuum emission detected in our 88 GHz maps is dominated by the hot dust within the HC. With these temperatures, we estimated the mass of the hot core responsible for the 88 GHz dust continuum emission: 2900 $`M_{}`$ for G29.96$-$0.02 and 1500 $`M_{}`$ for G31.41$+$0.31. The latter is consistent with the estimate obtained from the 233 GHz flux for the same source (1200 $`M_{}`$). While, for G29.96$-$0.02 due to the problems discussed in Sect. 2.1, the 233 GHz map cannot be used to derive a mass estimate.

The total mass of the molecular clumps surrounding the UC H ii and HC can be estimated from the HCO+ and SiO transitions. Here we will attempt to evaluate the masses using the virial and LTE assumptions. Given the velocity structures and complex line shapes observed in both lines, these estimates are affected by large uncertainties.

Assuming that the HCO+(1$``$0) is optically thick, the peak $`T_{\mathrm{SB}}`$ (Table 4) can be used as an estimate of the gas kinetic temperature. Another estimate of the temperature of the molecular clump as a whole can be obtained from the continuum SED fits presented in Sect. 3.1. These two estimates are consistent for G29.96$-$0.02, while for G31.41$+$0.31 the HCO+ estimate is much lower. This discrepancy probably arises from the fact that in this source the absorption occurs towards the molecular clump peak, while in G29.96$-$0.02 the molecular clump, centered on the HC, is shifted from the position of the UC H ii where the absorption is centered. We decided to adopt an average value of 30 K for both clumps. We assumed an SiO abundance of 7$`\times `$10-11 with respect to H2, following the average value found by Codella et al. (CBR99 (1999)) for the quiescent SiO component in a sample of young stellar objects. This value is also in agreement with the abundance derived by McMullin et al. (MM00 (2000)) for the quiescent gas in the Serpens core. Using the integrated line emission given in Table 5, we obtained a mass of 1600 $`M_{}`$ for G29.96$-$0.02 and 3200 $`M_{}`$ for G31.41$+$0.31. The main uncertainties in these estimates are the assumed SiO abundance and LTE-equilibrium condition; in fact the SiO molecule abundance is well known to be enhanced by a factor 10–100 in shocked regions (Bachiller & Pérez Gutiérrez BPG97 (1997); Codella et al. CBR99 (1999)). Such abundance enhancement would lead to unrealistically high mass estimates, unless the SiO is confined to an outflow.

To derive the virial mass from the SiO(2$``$1) v=0 transition we used the FWHM calculated from the gaussian fit (Sect. 3.2, Table 5). We estimated a mass of 2500 $`M_{}`$ for G29.96$-$0.02 and 8000 $`M_{}`$ for G31.41$+$0.31. Owing to the fact that the SiO emission might arise from outflowing gas, which would increase the line FWHM, these values should be considered as upper limits. In the case of HCO+(1$``$0), the presence of the absorption feature makes very difficult to determine the intrinsic FWHM of the line. We fitted the line profile with two gaussian components, one in emission and one in absorption. The resulting linewidths of the emission component are 6.1 and 7.2 $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$ for G29.96$-$0.02 and G31.41$+$0.31, respectively. The resulting virial mass estimates, using the sizes from Table 4, are 2000 and 3400 $`M_{}`$ for G29.96$-$0.02 and G31.41$+$0.31, respectively. However, the fit is strongly biased by the line wings and thus the resulting virial mass is most probably overestimated. This problem is particularly evident in G31.41$+$0.31, where these features are detected in both SiO and HCO+, and the virial mass estimates are less reliable and a few times higher than the masses derived from the dust emission or using the LTE approximation.

In conclusion, considering all the uncertainties in each of the methods discussed above, our estimates of the masses of the molecular clumps in both sources are consistent with 2000 $`M_{}`$ with an error of $``$50%.

### 4.2 Gas kinematics

We investigated the presence of a velocity gradient along the axes parallel and perpendicular to the direction where such a gradient was found in the NH3(4,4) (Cesaroni et al. cesa98 (1998)) and CH3CN(6–5) transitions (Cesaroni et al. 1994b ; Olmi et al. olmi96 (1996)). For both the HCO+(1$``$0) and SiO(2$``$1) v=0 lines we averaged the emission along the axis from the UC H ii region peak to the core, and perpendicularly to it. This axis is along the E-W direction for G29.96$-$0.02 and along the NE-SW direction for G31.41$+$0.31. In Figs. 9 and 12 the position-velocity diagrams are shown, respectively for G29.96$-$0.02 and G31.41$+$0.31: we plotted, in the top panles for HCO+(1$``$0) and in the bottom for SiO(2$``$1) v=0, the offset along the axes previously described. In SiO a velocity-position trend is clearly seen along the “parallel” axes. The $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ varies from 89 to 107 km s-1 over $``$3″ toward G29.96$-$0.02 and from 86 to 106 km s-1 over $``$4″ toward G31.41$+$0.31. The corresponding velocity gradients are approximately 6 km s-1 arcsec-1 toward G29.96$-$0.02 and 5 km s-1 arcsec-1 toward G31.41$+$0.31, consistent with the velocity gradient of approximately $`23`$ km s-1 arcsec-1 over 3″ found along the same directions in ammonia by Cesaroni et al. (cesa98 (1998)). A velocity gradient of the same order is seen in HCO+ toward G31.41$+$0.31, while it is not evident in the case of G29.96$-$0.02, most likely because of the presence of absorption. In the following we propose an interpretation of these findings

#### 4.2.1 G29.96$-$0.02

In the case of the G29.96$-$0.02 molecular clump, as shown in the position-velocity diagrams (Fig. 9), the center of the HCO+ clump is coincident in both position and velocity with the NH3 HC; which in turn is located at the geometrical center of the molecular clump, as shown in Fig. 1 of Kurtz et al. (kurtz00 (2000)). The HCO+ absorption appears redshifted with respect to the molecular clump systemic $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ (as traced by C34S and C17O; Cesaroni et al. Cea91 (1991), Hofner et al. Hea00 (2000)), and positionally coincident with the UC H ii region, located east of the emission geometrical center. HCO+ channel maps in Fig. 10 also show blueshifted gas emission toward the same direction, suggesting that the gas behind the H ii region is moving towards the observer. This implies that the absorbing gas is moving along the line of sight towards the UC H ii region. Both pv-diagrams also show that the maximum line-of-sight gas velocities are in the direction of the core position.

All these features can be easily interpreted if the UC H ii is embedded within an infalling, spherically symmetric HCO+ clump centered on the HC position. As shown in the sketch in Fig. 11, if the clump is contracting toward the NH3 HC, toward the UC H ii we will observe redshifted absorption from the gas in front of it and blueshifted emission from the gas behind it. At the position of the HC, there is emission at the highest line of sight velocities for both the redshifted and blueshifted gas.

The less abundant, optically thin SiO molecule traces a more internal region of the molecular clump. For this molecule, the pv-diagrams show a peak coincident with the HC, within the uncertainties, and a velocity structure consistent with that derived from the NH3(4,4) observations of Cesaroni et al. (cesa98 (1998)). To explain this feature, we can hypothesize that SiO could trace the outer regions of the rotating NH3(4,4) disk or the inner regions of the infalling molecular clump (see Fig. 11). In the first scenario, the velocity gradient would be due to the velocity field in the outer regions of the disk. In this view the SiO abundance could be enhanced at the interface between the infalling molecular gas and the surface of the disk. Altenatively, the SiO emission could trace the innermost and denser regions of the infalling envelope: the observed velocity gradient could then be produced by the asymmetric erosion by the UC H ii. If the ionised gas is sligthly off-center and further away from the observer with respect to the center of the infalling clump (as sketched in Fig. 11), blue-shifted SiO gas is eroded from one of the sides of the clump giving the illusion of a velocity gradient accross the core. It should be noted, however, that the SiO is generally thought to trace outflowing material, as shown by several authors (Bachiller & Pérez Gutiérrez BPG97 (1997); Cesaroni et al. 1999a ; Acord et al. Aea97 (1997)), therefore one cannot exclude a priori the possibility that the velocity structure observed at the HC position (Fig. 6, bottom panels) may be due to a compact jet-outflow component unresolved by our observations.

At the position of the CH3OH core detected by Pratap et al. (pratap99 (1999)) we detect emission in both SiO and HCO+. We do not detect any clear signature of outflowing gas at that location, and favour the interpretation of a second, less massive molecular clump. Future higher resolution observations may allow to clarify the matter definitively.

#### 4.2.2 G31.41$+$0.31

Compared to G29.96$-$0.02, the structure of G31.41$+$0.31 is more difficult to interpret. In this case, the bulk of the free-free emission from the UC H ii region is along the same line of sight of the NH3(4,4) HC detected by Cesaroni et al. (1994a , cesa98 (1998)). Due to the absorption at the position of the HC, the observed molecular line emission peak, both in HCO+ and SiO, is south of the HC (Figs. 7 and 8).

The pv-diagrams (Fig. 12) show at high velocity, $`V8\mathrm{km}/\mathrm{s}`$ from the HC $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$, in both transitions, a gradient consistent with that observed in NH3(4,4) (Cesaroni et al. cesa98 (1998)). At lower velocity, however, the situation in HCO+ is more complicated, with emission and absorption occurring toward the same line of sight at both blueshifted and redshifted velocities, with respect to the $`V_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ of the HC and of the molecular clump as seen in C34S and C17O (Cesaroni et al. Cea91 (1991); Hofner et al. Hea00 (2000)). The channel maps (Fig. 13) clearly show the superposition of these velocity features, and show an extension of the emission at blue velocities to the south of the HC position. In SiO, the emission peak lies south-west of the NH3 HC and is blueshifted with respect to the latter (Figs. 7 and 12). The red emission (Fig. 7) peaks toward the HC, whereas the line bulk and the blue emission peak south-west of the HC, the velocity gradient agreeing with that seen in NH3.

It seems that there is a north-south gradient from red to blueshifted emission in HCO+, possibly tracing an outflow or the outer regions of the NH3 disk, and a NE-SW gradient in SiO, compatible with the disk hypothesis. Thus, while the observed velocity field could also be interpreted as a combination of infall, outflow and rotation, as it may happen in similar regions (see e.g. Wilner et al. Wea96 (1996)), it is clear that we lack the spatial resolution required to properly separate the various components. In fact, at present we cannot exclude the possible alternative explication that we are actually observing the superposition of two molecular cores, one located at the NH3 HC position and the second south of it, where the HCO+ and SiO emission peak. In this view, the velocity structure we observe would be partially produced by the superposition of the velocities of the two cores. However, we note that unlike G29.96$-$0.02, in G31.41$+$0.31 the absorption dip is seen at the centre of the HCO+ line: this seems to be more consistent with the disk hypothesis, as collapse and outflow should determine a shift in velocity of such an absorption dip. In conclusion, we would tend to favour the disk hypothesis, although possibly in a more complex scenario involving outflow and/or infall.

## 5 Conclusions

Our interferometric observations show that the HCs and UC H ii in G29.96$-$0.02 and G31.41$+$0.31 are embedded within massive gaseous clumps with a complex velocity structure. The masses of the clumps as derived from the millimeter continuum emission and from virial and LTE estimates based on the molecular line emission are in the range 1000–3000 $`M_{}`$ for both sources (with G31.41$+$0.31 being sligthly more massive than G29.96$-$0.02). In G29.96$-$0.02 the HC is located close to the geometrical center of the clump and there is compelling evidence for a global motion of the molecular material onto the central object. In G31.41$+$0.31 our spatial resolution is not high enough to resolve the various components and it is not easy to disentangle the observed velocity structure. Most likely, in this source several kinematical components (outflow, rotation and possibly infall) are merged together by the spatial resolution of our observations.

In both regions our observations are consistent with earlier claims of the presence of rotating disks around young accreting massive (proto-)stars (Cesaroni et al. cesa98 (1998)). However, our spatial resolution does not allow us to definitely prove such claims and alternative models to interpret our observations are still viable. To definitely solve this dilemma and to probe the detailed structure of G31.41$+$0.31, higher resolution observations are needed.

###### Acknowledgements.

The Owens Valley millimeter-wave array is supported by NSF grant AST-96-13717. Research at Owens Valley on the formation of young stars and planets is also supported by the Norris Planetary Origins Project. This work was partly supported by ASI grant ARS-98-116 to the Osservatorio di Arcetri.


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# Dimension in a Radiative Stellar AtmosphereThe original version of this paper received Honorable Mention as a 2000 Gravity Research Foundation Essay

## I INTRODUCTION

The nature and number of dimensions of the Universe are evolving ideas. From the $`3+1`$ description of Minkowski spacetime, we have come to study theories involving much higher dimensions ,,, ,. There are descriptions of processes requiring non-integer dimensions  and negative dimensions can give interesting results in some calculations . Spacetime models in lower dimensions have proved useful in gaining insights to some of the problems of quantum gravity . Identifying observable dimensional effects is one of the critical components to understanding our universe.

The Vaidya spacetime provides a useful laboratory for studying possible effects of fractal dimensions. A generalized Vaidya spacetime with horizon function $`m_{(d)}(u)`$ and dimension parameter $`d`$ has metric

$$ds_{3+1}^2=g_{ab}^{Vad}(d)dx^adx^b=[1\frac{2m_{(d)}}{r}]du^2+2dudr(r/r_0)^{d1}r_0^2d\mathrm{\Omega }^2,$$
(1)
where $`r_0`$ has units of length so that spheres have area of (length)2. As we examine radial lines at fractal scales, each $`r`$ value provides a set of points enclosed by a 2-sphere with luminosity area proportional to $`r^{d1}`$. The metric describes a Schwarzschild object surrounded by a two fluid atmosphere; a radiation fluid and a fluid with density $`\mathrm{\Gamma },`$ radial heat flow $`q_r`$, and radial and transverse stresses , . The atmosphere supports a variety of processes occurring at microscopic scales, and for each of these processes, the metric can be written with an appropriate dimension, $`d`$. For example, with $`d=3`$ and $`m_{(3)}(u)=m_0`$, an observer sees the Schwarzschild vacuum. The same observer, looking at smaller scales, i.e. at different $`d`$ in the same physical spacetime, would see processes characterized by a fractal dimension, different $`m_{(d)}`$ and non-zero fluid content. If we are observing in a $`3+1`$ spacetime, the horizon function $`m_{(d)}(u)`$ measures the system mass only for spatial dimension $`d=3`$. For all $`d`$, the sectional curvature mass $`M`$ , and density $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ describe the content within 2-surfaces of constant $`u`$ and $`r:`$

$`{\displaystyle \frac{2M}{r^3}}`$ $`=`$ $`R_{abcd}\widehat{\vartheta }^a\widehat{\phi }^b\widehat{\vartheta }^c\widehat{\phi }^d={\displaystyle \frac{(d1)^2}{4r^2}}[1{\displaystyle \frac{2m_{(d)}}{r}}]{\displaystyle \frac{r_0^{d3}}{r^{d1}}},`$ (2)
$`4\pi (\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Gamma }_0)`$ $`=`$ $`r_0^{d3}r^{1d}_rM`$ (3)
where $`\widehat{\vartheta }^a=r_0^{(d3)/2}r^{(1d)/2}\delta _\vartheta ^a`$ and $`\widehat{\phi }^a=r_0^{(d3)/2}r^{(1d)/2}\mathrm{sin}^1\vartheta \delta _\phi ^a`$.

The Raychaudhuri equation, used with null outgoing or incoming generators, determines the focusing of null rays. The existence of an horizon is expected to persist at all scales, since the focusing properties of incoming and outgoing null geodesics transform covariantly with the size of their orthogonal 2-spheres.

The interpretation of the metric parameter $`d`$ as a fractal dimension follows from considering diffusive processes in the atmosphere. If $`𝒫(u,r)`$ is a quantity that is diffusing, the diffusion equation is

$$_u𝒫=\frac{1}{r^{d1}}_r(Dr^{d1}_r𝒫)$$
(4)
and $`d`$ is identified as the dimension of the fractal substrate on which the diffusion is occurring ,. At smaller quantum levels, $`𝒫`$ is a probability measure on the space of radial paths . Fractal dimensions are defined and discussed by Hughes . Diffusion is a probe of the smaller fractal dimensions because a continuous description of a diffusive process can envelope underlying dimensional behavior . Diffusion observations can provide information about these smaller scales which are not directly accessible to observation.

## II DIMENSION AND FLUID CONTENT

The field equations provide a 2-fluid description of the matter and radiation content

$`8\pi \rho _{null}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(d1)_um_{(d)}}{r^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{(d1)(3d)}{8r^2}}[1{\displaystyle \frac{2m_{(d)}}{r}}],`$ (6)
$`8\pi \rho `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{r_0^{d3}}{r^{d1}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{(d1)}{8r^2}}[115d+{\displaystyle \frac{5(d3)m_{(d)}}{r}}],`$ (7)
$`8\pi (\rho +p_r)`$ $`=`$ $`16\pi q_r={\displaystyle \frac{(3d)(d1)}{4r^2}}[1{\displaystyle \frac{2m_{(d)}}{r}}],`$ (8)
$`8\pi p_{}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(d3)}{r^2}}[{\displaystyle \frac{(d3)m_{(d)}}{2r}}+{\displaystyle \frac{d1}{4r^2}}].`$ (9)
$`\rho `$ can be related to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ through $`M`$. For dimension $`d=3`$, we have the equivalences $`M=m_{(3)}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\rho `$.

There are some interesting aspects to the $`d=1`$ scale. The sectional curvature mass and density are $`M=M_0r^3,`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=\mathrm{\Gamma }_0r^2`$. The fluid content is

$`\rho _{null}`$ $`=`$ $`q_r=0,`$ (11)
$`\rho `$ $`=`$ $`p_r={\displaystyle \frac{1}{8\pi r_0^2}},`$ (12)
$`8\pi p_{}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2m_{(1)}}{r^3}}.`$ (13)
The null radiation and heat flow vanish while the density and radial stress assume constant values. From the metric

$$ds_{3+1}^2=[1\frac{2m_{(1)}}{r}]du^2+2dudrr_0^2d\mathrm{\Omega }^2$$
(14)
one sees that all spheres have the same constant surface area $`4\pi r_0^2`$. In the range of spacetime scales, $`d=1`$ marks the boundary between a geometry where surface area and circumference increase with radius and one where they decrease with radius.

## III INVARIANTS

As an aid to identifying the coordinate independent behavior of fractal dimension $`d`$, we compute tensor invariants of metric (1). The Ricci scalar is given by

$$R_{ab}g^{ab}=\frac{2}{r^2}\left(\frac{r_0}{r}\right)^{d3}+\frac{m_{(d)}(d3)(3d5)}{r^3}+\frac{(1d)(3d7)}{2r^2}.$$
(15)
The Ricci, Weyl, and Riemann quadratic invariants are

$`R_{ab}R^{ab}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{r^4}}+({\displaystyle \frac{2}{r_0^4}})\left({\displaystyle \frac{r_0}{r}}\right)^{2d2}+2({\displaystyle \frac{d1}{r_0^5}})\left({\displaystyle \frac{r_0}{r}}\right)^{d+2}\left[2m_{(d)}(d3)r(d2)\right]`$ (19)
$`+({\displaystyle \frac{d3}{4r^6}})\left[\begin{array}{c}4m_{(d)}^2(d3)(3d^28d+7)+4_um_{(d)}r^2(d1)^2\\ +r^2d(3d^211d+15)dm_{(d)}r(12d^256d+84)+r(40m_{(d)}3r)\end{array}\right].`$
$$C_{abcd}C^{abcd}=\frac{1}{3r^4}\left[d14dm_{(d)}/r2(r_0/r)^{d3}\right]^2.$$
(20)
$`R_{abcd}R^{abcd}`$ $`=`$ $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{2}{r_0^2}}\right)^2\left({\displaystyle \frac{r_0}{r}}\right)^{2d2}+\left({\displaystyle \frac{m_{(d)}}{r^3}}\right)^2[(d3)(3d^315d^2+29d1)+48]`$ (23)
$`+\left({\displaystyle \frac{d1}{2r^2}}\right)^2(3d^214d+19)+\left({\displaystyle \frac{2_um_{(d)}}{r^4}}\right)(d3)(d1)^2`$
$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{m_{(d)}}{r^5}}\right)(d1)^2(3d^216d+25)+\left[{\displaystyle \frac{2(d1)^2}{r^5}}\right]\left({\displaystyle \frac{r_0}{r}}\right)^{d3}(2m_{(d)}r).`$
Values of the invariant scalars are tabulated for the $`d=3`$ Vaidya null fluid and the $`d=1`$ single sphere space ($`S_{ab}=R_{ab}\frac{1}{4}Rg_{ab}`$ is the trace-free Ricci tensor):

$`\begin{array}{ccc}& \underset{¯}{d=1}& \underset{¯}{d=3}\\ \underset{¯}{R_{ab}g^{ab}}& 2/r_0^2+4m_{(1)}/r^3& 0\\ \underset{¯}{R_{ab}R^{ab}}& 2/r_0^4+8m_{(1)}^2/r^6& 0\\ \underset{¯}{C_{abcd}C^{abcd}}& (1/3)[2/r_0^2+4m_{(1)}/r^3]^2& 48m_{(3)}^2/r^6\\ \underset{¯}{R_{abcd}R^{abcd}}& 4/r_0^4+16m_{(1)}^2/r^6& 48m_{(3)}^2/r^6\\ \underset{¯}{S_{ab}S^{ab}}& [1/r_0^22m_{(1)}/r^3]^2& 0\\ \underset{¯}{S_{ab}S_c^bS^{ac}}& 0& 0\end{array}`$
A set of 16 real valued scalar invariants is given by Carminati and McLenaghan . Using GRTensor  we have computed the entire set for $`d=1`$ and $`d=3`$. The $`d=3`$ Vaidya spacetime has only 2 non-zero scalars out of 16, and they are powers of $`m_{(3)}/r^3`$, so $`d=3`$ has one independent invariant. The $`d=1`$ space has 9 non-zero Carminati-McLenaghan scalars, all powers of $`(r^3\pm 2r_0^2m_{(1)})/(r_0^2r^3)`$. Hence $`d=1`$ has two independent invariants. None of the scalar invariants place the $`d=1`$ family in a special category. However, when the optical scalars for the null generators of 2-spheres are examined then $`d=1`$ stands out.

## IV OPTICAL SCALARS

We write metric (1) as $`g_{ab}^{Vad}(d)=2l_{(a}n_{b)}2m_{(a}\overline{m}_{b)}`$ using a Newman-Penrose null tetrad where

$`l_adx^a`$ $`=`$ $`du,`$ (25)
$`n_adx^a`$ $`=`$ $`dr+(1/2)[1{\displaystyle \frac{2m_{(d)}}{r}}]du,`$ (26)
$`m_adx^a`$ $`=`$ $`(r_0/\sqrt{2})(r/r_0)^{(d1)/2}(d\vartheta +i\text{sin}\vartheta d\phi ),`$ (27)
with non-zero spin coefficients

$`\rho `$ $`=`$ $`(1d)/(2r),\mu =[(1d)/(4r)][1{\displaystyle \frac{2m_{(d)}}{r}}],`$ (29)
$`\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`(r_0/r)^{(d1)/2}\text{cot}\vartheta /(2\sqrt{2}r_0)=\beta ,`$ (30)
$`\gamma `$ $`=`$ $`m_{(d)}/(2r^2).`$ (31)
The only non-zero Weyl tensor component is

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_2=(\frac{1}{6r_0^2})\left(\frac{r_0}{r}\right)^{d1}+\frac{(d1)r4m_{(d)}d}{12r^3}$$
(32)
identifying the $`g_{ab}^{Vad}(d)`$ spacetime as Petrov type D. Both $`l^a`$ and $`n^a`$ are tangent to hypersurface orthogonal null geodesics. Spin coefficients $`\rho `$ and $`\mu `$ are the optical scalars describing the expansion of the incoming and outgoing null geodesic congruences from two-surfaces of constant $`u`$ and $`r`$. When $`d=1`$, we see from Eq.(29) that the expansion is zero, and so the ($`\vartheta ,\phi `$) two-surface at $`r_0`$ is marginally trapped.

## V POSSIBILITIES

There are several possible explanations for the $`d=1`$ behavior. The first is that $`d`$ must be greater than one. Eliminating $`d1`$ would be necessary if the field equation description were not correct for this range of $`d`$. The model describes $`d`$ as a fractal dimension which changes as one goes down in spatial scales. At some scale one might expect fractal functions to provide valid descriptions of physical parameters like a matter distributions. Since fractal functions like the Weierstrass function  are continuous, but not differentiable, conventional general relativity would not work , . Another possibility is that $`d=1`$ is only observable in the final state. Lindquist, Schwartz, and Misner  have pointed out that Vaidya’s $`u`$ in metric (1) covers the lower half-plane of Kruskal’s ($`v,w`$) coordinates in Fig.(1) of . The Schwarzschild ($`T,r`$) sector is the lower quadrant ($`v0,`$ $`w0`$). To quote from : ”The hypersurface $`r=2m_{(3)}(u\mathrm{})`$ in Vaidya’s metric is analogous to the Schwarzschild hypersurface $`r=2m_{(3)}(T\mathrm{})`$ in Kruskal’s metric”. It is future null infinity that is the horizon at $`r_0`$. The intersections of outgoing null surfaces with future null infinity are 2-spheres. Since there is only one 2-sphere at the $`d=1`$ scale, this implies that $`u\mathrm{}`$ and the $`d=1`$ scale is only observable in the late time Vaidya solution when the time dependence of $`m_{(3)}(u)`$ has vanished. This is the second of the two possibilities mentioned by Lindquist et al. We expect $`m_{(3)}(u)`$ will evolve toward $`m_{(1)}(u\mathrm{})`$. The existence of only a single spherical area suggests a new possibility.

From the field equations we see that the density $`\rho `$ is constant for $`d=1`$, and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }r^2`$. The behavior of these two densities can be reconciled if $`r=r_0`$ and both $`M`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are constant. The existence of only one spherical surface suggests that at the $`d=1`$ scale we have lost a dimension and are looking only at the horizon. One of Mandelbrot’s examples of the variability of dimension describes how a ball of thin thread is seen as an observer changes scale. From far away it seems a point, which becomes a 3-dimensional ball at a closer distance. As an observer moves down through various scales, the ball changes to a set of 1-dimensional fibers which become 3-dimensional cylinders, etc. While the embedding dimension for the ball has not changed, the effective dimension of the contents does change. At $`d=1`$, the effective spatial dimension of the Vaidya spacetime appears to be two. $`d=1`$ could mark a real drop in dimension with the onset of new physics, or the apparent loss of dimension may imply the existence of dimensions higher than four in the ”real” spacetime. The new dimensions would be analogous to the embedding dimensions in Mandelbrot’s example. It is possible that there are compact  or non-compact  dimensions and one begins to see more than four dimensions at $`d=1`$. At this scale, the $`3+1`$ metric is simply not correct although general relativity can still provide a valid description. Given the recent interest in higher dimensions in our universe this last explanation is promising, requiring new dimensions but maintaining the formalism of general relativity as an investigative tool.

## VI HIGHER DIMENSIONS

Two features which emerge from the $`3+1`$ analysis are the vanishing of the null fluid at the $`d=1`$ scale and the existence of a single 2-sphere for the entire spacetime. Using conventional general relativity, both of these features can be addressed with a higher dimensional metric. Labelling the extra spatial dimension by coordinate $`y`$, one could have for example,

$`ds_{4+1}^2`$ $`=`$ $`[1{\displaystyle \frac{2m_{(d)}(u)}{r}}]du^2+2dudr(r/r_0)^{d1}r_0^2[d\vartheta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\vartheta d\phi ^2]`$ (34)
$`(r/r_1)^2dy^2,`$
with $`r_1`$ a dimensional constant similar to $`r_0`$. The extra spatial dimension allows higher dimensional spherical surfaces. Calculating the field equations for $`d=1`$, the extra dimension provides a non-zero null fluid density containing the term $`_um_{(1)}/r^2`$. More complicated metrics with $`y`$ dependant warp factors provide similar results.

The behavior of this system at $`d=1`$ could be evidence for higher dimensions which begin to be important at the $`d=1`$ scale. Currently, some theories involving small extra dimension have been studied; for example, the Kaluza-Klein theories with a rolled up 5th dimension, superstring theories with several methods of compactification , the gravitational bulk propagation model of Arkani-Hamed et al  or the Cantorian spacetime model described by El Naschie . There have also been various ways suggested to search for these extra dimensions.

If the scale of the extra dimensions is of order 1 mm, then there should be evidence in torsion-balance tests . Smaller scales might be found in accelerator experiments. Scattering experiments which could find evidence for extra dimensions have been discussed by groups at SLAC  and CERN . On the astrophysical level, Liu et al  have discussed some solar system tests based on a 5-dimensional extension of the Schwarzschild metric and Cassisi et al  have examined the effects of higher dimensions on stellar evolution. A lower bound on extra dimensions based on light-cone fluctuations has been discussed by Yu and Ford . Evidence for higher dimensions could also show up in a transport process like diffusion.

Consider, for example, a diffusive process: let $`p(u,r)`$ be the probability at time $`u`$ for an element of the atmosphere to be in a shell between $`r`$ and $`r+dr`$. $`p(u,r)`$ obeys an anomalous diffusion equation

$$_up=\frac{1}{\sqrt{g}}_r[D\sqrt{g}_rp]$$
(35)
with $`\sqrt{g}r^d`$ and diffusivity $`D(r)`$ =$`D_0r^\theta .`$ The solution is

$$p(u,r)u^{(d+1)/(2+\theta )}e^{cr^{2+\theta }/u}.$$
(36)
From this probability one can show that $`<r^2(u)>`$ $`u^{2/(2+\theta )}`$ . The scaling with time samples the connectivity of the substrate through the radial dependence of the diffusivity. There is evidence, in condensed matter calculations, that the exponent $`\theta `$ depends on the number of spatial dimensions . If this trend carries over to gravitational problems, we would expect to see decreasing time dependence in the scaling relation as the number of dimensions increases. Observations of Vaidya atmospheric scaling behavior could provide information about dimension. Focusing on physical quantities such as fluid density, that are proportional to the probability density, would also allow dimensional effects to be studied.

In conclusion, examining the $`3+1`$ Vaidya spacetime over decreasing scales has highlighted a scale with features that can be explained, within conventional relativity, by including higher dimensions. Dimensional physics has become an active area of investigation with some promise of future experimental insights .


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# Is torsion needed in theory of gravity?

## I Introduction

In the 70ths of the XX Century many research workers have introduced torsion into theory of gravity***We omit here older trials to introduce torsion because they have only historical meaning.. The motivation (only theoretical) was the following:

1. Analogies GR with the continual theory of dislocations (Theory of generalized Cosserat continuum) led to heuristic arguments for a metric space–time with torsion, i.e., to Riemann–Cartan space–time.
2. Study of spinning matter in GR led some people to conclusion that the canonical energy–momentum tensor of matter $`{}_{c}{}^{}T_{i}^{k}`$ is the source of the curvature and the canonical intrinsic spin density tensor $`{}_{c}{}^{}S_{}^{ikl}=()_cS^{kil}`$ is the source of torsion of the underlying space–time. From these studies Einstein–Cartan–Sciama–Kibble (ECSK) theory was originated and its generalizations.
3. Trials to formulate theory of gravity as a gauge theory for Lorentz group $`L`$ or for Poincare’ group $`P`$ led to a space–time endowed with a metric– compatible connection which could have (but not necessarily) non–vanishing torsion, i.e., led to the Riemann–Cartan space–time \[4–6\].

The above motivation is not convincing. For example, the often used argument for torsion (It followed from 2.) based on (non-homogeneous) holonomy theorem This theorem says that torsion gives translations and curvature gives Lorentz rotations in tangent spaces of a Riemann-Cartan manifold during displacements along loops. holds only if one uses Cartan displacements . Ordinary parallell displacements gives only Lorentz rotations (= homogeneous holonomy group) even in a Riemann-Cartan space-time . Moreover, there are other geometrical interpretation of torsion, e.g., Bompiani  connects torsion with rotations in tangent spaces, not with translations. We also needn’t generalize GR in order to get a gauge theory with $`L`$ or $`P`$ as a gauge group . Notice especially that in the Asthekar’s variables  the ordinary GR with Levi–Civita connection itself gives an example of the simplest model of a gauge theory of gravity.

Up to now, we have no experimental evidence for existence of torsion in Nature. Contrary, the all experiments confirmed with a very high precision ($`10^{14}`$) Einstein Equivalence Principle (EEP) and (with a smaller precision) General Relativity (GR) equations \[12–15\]. Here by EEP we mean a formulation of this Principle given by C. W. Will . In this formulationIn this formulation this Principle can be experimentally tested. the EEP states:

1. Weak Equivalence Principle (WEP) is valid.

This means that the trajectory of a freely falling body (one not acted upon by such forces as electromagnetism and too small to be affected by tidal forces) is independent of its internal structure and composition.
2. Local Lorentz Invariance (LLI) is valid.

This means that the outcome of any local non-gravitational experiment is independent of the velocity of the freely-falling reference frame in which it is performed
3. Local Position Invariance (LPI) is valid.

This means that the outcome of any local non-gravitational experiment is independent of where and when in the Universe it is performed.

The only theories of gravity that can embody EEP are those that satisfy the postulates of metric theories of gravity , which are:

1. Spacetime is endowed with a symmetric metric.
2. The trajectories of freely falling bodies are geodesics of that metric.
3. In local freely falling reference frames the non-gravitational laws of physics are those written in the language of Special Relativity (SRT).

From the EEP it follows the universal pure metric coupling between matter and gravity. This admits GR, of course, and, at most, some of the so–called scalar–tensor theories (these, which respect EEP) \[13–15\] without torsion.

So, torsion is excluded by latest gravitational experiments (at least in vacuum if we neglect a cosmological background§§§Torsion is excluded at least in vacuum because if we neglect a cosmological background, then the all gravitational experiment were performed in vacuum. In such a case ECSK theory can survive since this theory is identical in vacuum with GR. But we think that the arguments which we present in Section II testify against ECSK theory also.) which have confirmed EEP with such very high precision. In consequence, torsion can be treated only as a hypothetical field and is not needed in theory of gravity.

In Section II we give a review of the (theoretical) arguments which in our opinion additionally indicate against introducing of torsion into relativistic theory of gravity. We will conclude from these arguments that torsion rather should not be introduced into theory of gravity .

In the paper we will confine to the metric–compatible connection $`\omega _k^i`$. We cannot see any reasons in order to consider more general connections, for example, connexion like proposed in . For a metric–compatible connection $`\omega _k^i`$ we have

$$Dg=0$$
(1)
and

$$\omega _k^i=_{LC}\omega _k^i+K_k^i,$$
(2)
where $`{}_{LC}{}^{}\omega _{k}^{i}`$ means Levi–Civita connection and $`K_k^i`$ denotes contortion.

By $`\vartheta ^i`$ we will denote an Lorentzian coreper; $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ will denote a matter field and $`D`$ will mean an exterior covariant derivative. For tensor fields the exterior covariant derivative $`D`$ reduces to an ordinary covariant derivative $``$.

## II Arguments which indicate against torsion

The our main argument uses Ockham’s razor and the fact: a “wonderful”, the most simple and most symmetric Levi-Civita connection is sufficient for the all physical requirements.

The other our arguments are the following:

1. In the paper  the authors have showed that the geometry of free–falls and light propagation supplemented by some (very natural axioms) lead us to Riemannian geometry.
2. Torsion is topologically trivial. This means that the topology of a real manifold $`M`$ and topology vector bundles over $`M`$ (determined by characteristic classes) do not depend on torsion. They depend on curvature only and are determined by curvature $`{}_{LC}{}^{}\mathrm{\Omega }_{k}^{i}`$ of the Levi-Civita connection $`{}_{LC}{}^{}\omega _{k}^{i}`$ \[18–20\]. Roughly speaking, one can continuously deform any metric–compatible connection (or even general linear connection) into Levi-Civita connections without changing topological invariants and characteristic classes. So, torsion is not relevant from the topological point of view.
3. Torsion is not relevant from the dynamical point of view too. Namely, one can reformulate every metric theory of gravitation with a metric- compatible connection $`\omega _k^i`$ as a "Levi-Civita theory". Torsion is then treated as a matter field. An obvious example is given by ECSK theory in the so–called “combined formulation” .In this formulation ECSK theory is dynamically fully equivalent to the ordinary GR . In general, one can prove  that any total Lagrangian of the type

$$L_t=L_g(\vartheta ^i,\omega _k^i)+L_m(\mathrm{\Psi },D\mathrm{\Psi })$$
(3)
admits an unique decomposition into a pure geometric part $`\stackrel{~}{L}_g(\vartheta ^i,_{LC}\omega _k^i)`$ containing no torsion plus a generalized matter Lagrangian $`\stackrel{~}{L}_m(\mathrm{\Psi },_{LC}D\mathrm{\Psi },K_k^i,_{LC}DK_k^i)`$ which collects the pure matter terms and all the terms involving torsion

$$L_t=L_g+L_m=\stackrel{~}{L}_g+\stackrel{~}{L}_m.$$
(4)
$`{}_{LC}{}^{}D`$ means an exterior covariant derivative with respect to the Levi-Civita connection $`{}_{LC}{}^{}\omega _{k}^{i}`$. From the Lagrangian

$$L_t=\stackrel{~}{L}_g+\stackrel{~}{L}_m$$
(5)
there follow the Levi-Civita equations associated with $`L_t`$.

So, torsion always can be treated as a matter field. This point of view has been taken e.g. in  and it is supported by transfromational properties of torsion: torsion transforms like a matter field.
4. Symmetry of the energy–momentum tensor of matter. In Special Relativity (SRT) a correct energy–momentum tensor for matter (continuous medium, dust, elastic body, solids) must be symmetric . One can always get such a tensor starting from the canonical pair $`(_cT^{ik},_cS^{ikl}=()_cS^{kil})`$ with properties

$$_k{}_{c}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}=0,{}_{c}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}_cT^{ki}=_lS^{ikl},$$
(6)
and by use Belinfante symmetrization procedure \[21,28-30\]

$${}_{s}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}=_cT^{ik}\frac{1}{2}_j(_cS^{ikj}_cS^{ijk}+_cS^{jki}),$$
(7)
$$S^{ijk}=_cS^{ijk}A^{jki}+A^{ikj}=0.$$
(8)
Here

$$A^{ikj}=\frac{1}{2}(_cS^{ikj}_cS^{ijk}+_cS^{jki}).$$
(9)
The obtained new "pair" $`(_sT^{ik},0)`$ is the most simple and the most symmetric. Note that the symmetric tensor $`{}_{s}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}=_sT^{ki}`$ gives complete description of matter because the spin density tensor $`{}_{c}{}^{}S_{}^{ijk}`$ is entirely absorbed into $`{}_{s}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}`$ during symmetrization procedure.

It is interesting that one can easily generalize the above symmetrization procedure onto a general metric manifold $`(M_4,g)`$  by using Levi-Civita connection associated with the metric $`g`$. The generalized symmetrization procedure has the same form as above with replacing $`\eta _{ik}g_{ik},_i_{LC}_i`$.

So, one can always get in a metric manifold $`(M_4,g)`$ a symmetric energy–momentum tensor $`{}_{s}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}=_sT^{ki}`$ for matter (then, of course, corresponding $`S^{ikj}=0`$). Observe that the symmetric tensor $`{}_{s}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}`$, like as in SRT, consists of $`{}_{c}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}`$ and $`{}_{c}{}^{}S_{}^{ikl}`$.

The symmetric energy–momentum tensor for matter is uniquely determined by the matter equations of motion . This fact is very important for the uniqueness of the gravitational field equations. Moreover, the symetric energy–momentum tensor is covariantly conserved.

L. Rosenfeld has proved  that

$${}_{s}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}=\frac{\delta L_m}{\delta g_{ik}},$$
(10)
where $`L_m=L_m(\mathrm{\Psi },{}_{LC}{}^{}D\mathrm{\Psi })`$ is a covariant Lagrangian density for matter.

The tensor $`{}_{s}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}`$ given by (10) is the source in the Einstein equations

$$G_{ik}=\chi _sT_{ik},$$
(11)
where $`\chi =\frac{8\pi G}{c^4}`$.

Note that these equations geometrize the both canonical quantities $`{}_{c}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}`$ and $`{}_{c}{}^{}S_{}^{ikl}=()_cS^{kil}`$ in a some equivalent way because the tensor $`{}_{s}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}`$ is built from these two canonical tensors.

So, it is the most natural and most simple to postulate that, in general, the correct energy–momentum tensor for matter is the symmetric tensor $`{}_{s}{}^{}T_{}^{ik}`$. This leads us to a pure metric, torsion-free, theory of gravity which has the field equations of the form

$$\frac{\delta L_g}{\delta g_{ik}}=\frac{\delta L_m}{\delta g_{ik}}.$$
(12)
Then, if we take into account the universality of the Einstein equations \[33–38\], we will end up with General Relativity equations (possible with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }0`$) which will have a sophisticated, symmetric energy-momentum tensor as a source.
5. A gravitational theory with torsion violates EEP which has so very good experimental evidence (up to $`10^{14}`$).
6. In a space-time with torsion a tangent space $`T(P)`$ cannot be identified with Minkowskian spacetime because there do not exist holonomic coordinates in which $`g_{ik}(P)=\eta _{ik},\mathrm{\Gamma }_{kl}^i(P)=0`$. So, a gravitational theory with torsion is not a covering theory for SRT. We also lose Fermi coordinates  in Riemann-Cartan space-time. Fermi coordinates realize in GR a local (freely-falling) inertial frame in which SRT is valid.
7. A low-energetic superstrings gravity needn’t torsion. It uses only metric $`g`$ and scalar fields and can always be formulated as Einstein theory (in “Einstein frame”) without torsion.
8. A connection having torsion can be determined neither by its own autoparallells (paths) nor by geodesics . So, one cannot determine a connection which has torsion by observation of the test particles (which move along geodesics or autoparallells).

Torsion leads to ambiguities:

1. Minimal Coupling Principle (MCP) $``$ Minimal Action Principle (MAP) in a space-time with torsion .

MCP can be formulated as follows. In a SRT field equations obtained from the SRT Lagrangian density $`L=L(\mathrm{\Psi },_i\mathrm{\Psi })`$ we replace $`_i_i,\eta _{ik}g_{ik}`$ and get covariant field equations in $`(M_4,g)`$.

By MAP we mean an application of the Minimal Action Principle (Hamiltonian Principle) to the covariant action integral $`S=\underset{\mathrm{\Omega }}{}L(\mathrm{\Psi },_i\mathrm{\Psi })d^4\mathrm{\Omega }`$, where $`L(\mathrm{\Psi },_i\mathrm{\Psi })`$ is a covariant Lagrangian density obtained from the SRT Lagrangian density $`L(\mathrm{\Psi },_i\mathrm{\Psi })`$ by MCP.

It is natural to expect that the field equations in $`(M_4,g)`$ obtained by using MCP on SRT equations should coincide with the Euler-Lagrange equations obtained from $`L(\mathrm{\Psi },_i\mathrm{\Psi })`$ by MAP. This holds in GR but not in the framework of the Riemann-Cartan geometry. So, we have there an ambiguity in the field equations.\**\**\**Axial torsion removes this ambiguity. By $`(M_4,g)`$ we mean here a general metric manifold; not necessarily Riemannian.
2. In the framework of the ECSK theory of gravity we have four energy-momentum tensors for matter: Hilbert, canonical, combined, formal . Which one is correct?
3. Let us consider now normal coordinates NC(P)  which are so very important in GR (See, eg., \[41-43\]). In the framework of the Riemann-Cartan geometry we have two NC(P): normal coordinates for the Levi-Civita part of the Riemann-Cartan connection $`\mathrm{𝐍𝐂}(_{\mathrm{𝐋𝐂}}\omega ,𝐏)`$ and normal coordinates for the symmetric part of the full connection $`\mathrm{𝐍𝐂}(_𝐬\omega ,𝐏)`$ . Which one has a greater physical meaning?

The above ambiguity of the normal coordinates††††††Axial torsion removes this ambiguity. leads us to ambiguities in superenergy and supermomentum tensors . Moreover, the obtained expressions are too complicated for practical using. In fact, we lose here a possibility of efective using of the normal coordinates.
4. In the framework of the Riemann-Cartan geometry

$$R_{(ik)lm}=R_{ik(lm)}=0,$$
(13)
but

$$R_{iklm}R_{lmik}.$$
(14)
The last asymmetry leads to an ambiguity in construction of the so–called “Maxwellian superenergy tensor” for the field $`R_{iklm}`$ . This tensor is uniquely constructed in GR owing to the symmetry $`R_{iklm}=R_{lmik}`$ and it is proportional to the Bel-Robinson tensor . In the framework of the Riemann-Cartan geometry the obtained result depends on which antysymmetric pair of the $`R_{iklm}`$, first or second, is used in construction.
5. In a Riemann-Cartan space-time we have geodesics and autoparallells (paths). Hamiltonian Principle demands geodesics as trajectories for the test particles. Then, what about physical meaning of the autoparallells? ‡‡‡‡‡‡Axial torsion removes this problem.
6. In a space-time with torsion we have in fact two kinds of parallell displacement defined by

$$dv^k=()\mathrm{\Gamma }_{ij}^kv^jdx^i$$
(15)
and

$$dv^k=()\mathrm{\Gamma }_{ij}^kv^idx^j.$$
(16)
There follow from that two kinds of absolute (and covariant) differentials

$$_iv^k=_iv^k+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{il}^kv^l$$
(17)
$$_iv^k=_iv^k+\mathrm{\Gamma }_{li}^kv^l.$$
(18)
Which one of the two above possibilities could be eventually realized in Nature?

In practice, one must consequently use one of the two above possibilities (or conventions) during any calculations in order to avoid mistakes. For example, in Hehl’s papers

$$_i\sqrt{|g|}=0$$
(19)
in the Riemann-Cartan space-time (and it is, of course, correct result). But in the paper  you can find

$$_i\sqrt{|g|}0.$$
(20)
The last result is, of course, uncorrect and it is a consequence of mixing of the two above covariant differentiation.

The other source of the computational mistakes connected with torsion is the following: different Authors use definitions of torsion which differ by sign and by factor $`1/2`$.

## III Concluding remarks

As we have seen, the GR model of the space-time has very good experimental confirmation. On the other hand, torsion has no experimental evidence (at least in vacuum) and it is not needed in the theory of gravity. Moreover, introducing of torsion into geometric structure of the space-time leads us to many problems (apart from calculational, of course). Some of these problems removes an axial torsion $`A_i=\frac{1}{6}\eta _{iabc}Q^{abc},Q^{[abc]}=Q^{abc}`$. So, it would be reasonable to confine themselves to the axial torsion only (If one still want to keep on torsion). This is also supported by an important fact that the matter fields (= Dirac’s particles) are coupled only to the axial part of torsion in the Riemann-Cartan space-time. However, if we confine to the axial torsion, then (if you remember dynamical triviality of torsion and universality of the Einstein equations) we effectively will end up with GR \+ an additional pseudovector field $`A_i`$ (or with an additional pseudoscalar field $`\phi `$ if the field $`A_i`$ is potential, i.e., if $`A_i=_i\phi `$) . But GR with an additional dynamical pseudovector field $`A_i`$ yields local gravitational physics which may have both location and velocity-dependent effects  unobserved up to now. So, we will finish with the conclusion that the geometric model of the space-time given by ordinary GR with “wonderful” Levi-Civita connection seems to be the most satisfactory. \**\**\**During Symposium LISA 3 (Golm, July 10-14, 2000) I have discussed with many Participiants of the Symposium about geometric model of the space-time. They all agreed with this conclusion. See also conclusion about correct theory of gravity and space-time structure given recently in .

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank Prof. F.W. Hehl and Prof. A. Trautman for their, most useful, critical remarks. I would like also to emphasize that I have learned at first about possible physical meaning of torsion from excellent papers given by them years ago. Under influence of these papers I was a fanatic follower of torsion in past. But recently, under influence of the papers on experimental gravity which are cited in References, papers on universality of the Einstein equations and argumentation given in Section II, I have changed my mind.