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# ’t Hooft-Polyakov Monopoles in an Antiferromagnetic Bose-Einstein Condensate

## Abstract

We show that an antiferromagnetic spin-1 Bose-Einstein condensate, which can for instance be created with 23Na atoms in an optical trap, has not only singular line-like vortex excitations, but also allows for singular point-like topological excitations, i.e., ’t Hooft-Polyakov monopoles. We discuss the static and dynamic properties of these monopoles.

Introduction. — Quantum magnetism plays an important role in such diverse areas of physics as high-temperature superconductivity, quantum phase transitions and the quantum Hall effect. Moreover, it now appears that magnetic properties are also very important in another area, namely Bose-Einstein condensation in trapped atomic gases. This is due to two independent experimental developments. The first development is the realization of an optical trap for 23Na atoms , whose operation no longer requires the gas to be doubly spin-polarized and has given rise to the creation of a spin-1 Bose-Einstein antiferromagnet . The second development is the creation of a two-component condensate of 87Rb atoms , which by means of rf-fields can be manipulated so as to make the two components essentially equivalent . As a result also a spin-1/2 Bose-Einstein ferromagnet can now be studied in detail experimentally.

The spin structure of these condensates has recently been worked out by a number of authors  and also the first studies of the line-like vortex excitations have appeared . An immediate question that comes to mind, however, is whether the spin degrees of freedom lead also to other topological excitations that do not have an analogy in the case of a single component Bose-Einstein condensate. The answer to this question is in general affirmative. Indeed, we have recently shown that ferromagnetic Bose-Einstein condensates have long-lived skyrmion excitations, which are nonsingular but topologically nontrivial point-like spin textures . Moreover, we show here that also spin-1 Bose-Einstein antiferromagnets have point-like topological excitations. In particular, there exist singular point-like spin textures, which we call ’t Hooft-Polyakov monopoles because of their analogy with magnetic monopoles in particle physics . Having done so, we then turn to the investigation of the precise texture and the dynamics of these monopoles.

Topological considerations. — To find the topological excitations of a spin-1 Bose-Einstein condensate, we need to know the full symmetry of the macroscopic wave function $`\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫)\sqrt{n(𝐫)}\zeta (𝐫)`$, where $`n(𝐫)`$ is the total density of the gas, $`\zeta (𝐫)`$ is a normalized spinor that determines the average local spin by means of $`𝐅(𝐫)=\zeta ^{}(𝐫)𝐅\zeta (𝐫)`$, and $`𝐅`$ are the usual spin matrices obeying the commutation relations $`[F_\alpha ,F_\beta ]=iϵ_{\alpha \beta \gamma }F_\gamma `$. Note that here, and in the following, summation over repeated indices is always implicitly implied. From the work of Ho  we know that in the antiferromagnetic case the mean-field interaction energy is minimized for $`𝐅(𝐫)=\mathrm{𝟎}`$, which implies that the parameter space for the spinor $`\zeta (𝐫)`$ is only $`S^1\times S^2`$ because we are free to choose both its overall phase and the orientation of the spin quantization axis. Introducing the superfluid phase $`\vartheta (𝐫)`$ and the unit vector field $`𝐦(𝐫)`$, this topology can also be understood explicitly from the fact that all the spinors

$$\zeta (𝐫)=\frac{e^{i\vartheta (𝐫)}}{\sqrt{2}}\left(\begin{array}{c}m_x(𝐫)+im_y(𝐫)\\ \sqrt{2}m_z(𝐫)\\ m_x(𝐫)+im_y(𝐫)\end{array}\right)e^{i\vartheta (𝐫)}\zeta _{\mathrm{AF}}(𝐫)$$
(1)
have a vanishing average spin and hence are locally degenerate.

What does this tell us about the possible topological excitations? For line-like defects or vortices, we can assume $`\zeta (𝐫)`$ to be independent of one direction and the spinor represents a mapping from a two-dimensional plane into the order parameter space. If the vortex is singular this is visible on the boundary of the two-dimensional plane and we need to investigate the properties of a continuous mapping from a circle $`S^1`$ into the order parameter space $`G`$, i.e., of the first homotopy group $`\pi _1(G)`$ . Since $`\pi _1(S^1\times S^2)=Z`$, we conclude that an antiferromagnetic spin-1 condensate can have vortices with winding numbers that are an arbitrary integer. Physically, this means that by traversing the boundary of the plane, the spinor can wind around the order parameter an arbitrary number of times.

Similarly we can also discuss singular point-like defects. Since the boundary of a three-dimensional gas is the surface of a three-dimensional sphere, singular point-like defects are determined by the second homotopy group $`\pi _2(G)`$ . Because also $`\pi _2(S^1\times S^2)=Z`$, such topological excitations thus indeed exist in the case of a spin-1 Bose gas with antiferromagnetic interactions. In view of the work of ’t Hooft and Polyakov we refer to these excitations as monopoles, although it would also be justifiable to call them singular skyrmions. In contrast to the nonsingular skyrmions in the Bose-Einstein ferromagnets, which inherently are nonequilibrium objects, the ’t Hooft-Polyakov monopoles turn out to be thermodynamically stable excitations as we show next.

Monopole texture. — The grand-canonical energy of the spinor condensate can be obtained from the usual Gross-Pitaevskii theory, which for the restricted parameter space given in Eq. (1), leads to the expression

$`E[n,\zeta ]={\displaystyle }d𝐫\psi ^{}(𝐫)({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2\mathbf{}^2}{2m}}+V_{\mathrm{trap}}(𝐫)\mu `$ (2)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{g_n}{2}}|\psi (𝐫)|^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}}[\mathbf{}𝐦(𝐫)]^2)\psi (𝐫),`$ (3)
where $`\psi (𝐫)=\sqrt{n(𝐫)}e^{i\vartheta (𝐫)}`$ is the superfluid order parameter, $`V_{\mathrm{trap}}(𝐫)=m\omega ^2𝐫^2/2`$ is an isotropic harmonic trapping potential, $`\mu `$ is the chemical potential, and $`g_n4\pi a_n\mathrm{}^2/m`$ is the appropriate coupling constant for density fluctuations. Minimization of this energy determines both the spin texture $`𝐦(𝐫)`$ and the density profile $`n(𝐫)`$ of the ’t Hooft-Polyakov monopole . Since gradients in the spin texture do not couple to the superfluid phase $`\vartheta (𝐫)`$, we can at this point already conclude that the presence of a monopole will not induce any superfluid flow in the atomic cloud. From now on we therefore no longer consider this degree of freedom.

Interestingly, the spin texture is uniquely determined by the fact that it should have a topological winding number

$$W=\frac{1}{8\pi }𝑑𝐫ϵ_{ijk}ϵ_{\alpha \beta \gamma }_im_\alpha _jm_\beta _km_\gamma $$
(4)
equal to 1 and that it should also minimize the gradient energy

$$E_{\mathrm{grad}}[n,\zeta ]=𝑑𝐫\frac{n(𝐫)\mathrm{}^2}{2m}[\mathbf{}𝐦(𝐫)]^2.$$
(5)
As we discuss in more detail in a moment, the latter requires the spin texture to be as symmetric as possible. In combination with the first requirement, we thus conclude that $`𝐦_{\mathrm{HP}}(𝐫)=𝐫/r`$ for a monopole in the center of the trap. Indeed, a spin texture with the same winding number can be obtained by rotating $`𝐦_{\mathrm{HP}}(𝐫)`$ by an arbitrary rotation matrix $`𝐑(r)`$ that only depends on the radial distance $`r`$. As a result the gradient energy is turned into the suggestive form

$$E_{\mathrm{grad}}[n,\zeta ]=𝑑𝐫\frac{n(𝐫)\mathrm{}^2}{2m}|[\mathbf{}i𝐀(𝐫)]𝐦_{\mathrm{HP}}(𝐫)|^2,$$
(6)
which brings out even more clearly the analogy with the $`O(3)`$ gauge theory studied by ’t Hooft and Polyakov. In our case the vector potential is, however, defined by $`𝐀(𝐫)=i(𝐑^1(r)\mathbf{}𝐑(r))`$ and is always orthogonal to the gradient of $`𝐦_{\mathrm{HP}}(𝐫)`$. The gradient energy is therefore minimized for $`𝐑(r)=\mathrm{𝟏}`$, as anticipated previously.

Substituting our hedgehog solution for the spin texture into Eq. (2), we see that the density profile of the spinor condensate is found from a Gross-Pitaevskii equation with a centrifugal barrier equal to $`\mathrm{}^2/mr^2`$. Considering first the homogeneous case and writing the superfluid order parameter as $`\psi (𝐫)=(\mu /g_n)^{1/2}f(r/\xi )`$, with $`\xi =(\mathrm{}^2/2m\mu )^{1/2}`$ the correlation length, we obtain explicitly that

$$\left(\frac{1}{\rho ^2}\frac{d}{d\rho }\left(\rho ^2\frac{d}{d\rho }\right)+\frac{2}{\rho ^2}+f^2(\rho )1\right)f(\rho )=0.$$
(7)
This equation cannot be solved analytically, but its numerical solution is shown in Fig. 1. What is most important for our purposes, however, is the large distance behavior of the density profile. Neglecting the gradient terms in the left-hand side, we easily find that $`f(\rho )11/\rho ^2`$ for $`\rho 1`$. Furthermore, the monopole is clearly seen to possess a core with a typical size of the order of the correlation length. Inside this core the density is strongly reduced, which offers the opportunity to detect monopoles by the same expansion experiments that have recently also been used to observe vortices .

Having obtained the spin texture and the density profile of the ’t Hooft-Polyakov monopole, we are now in a position to determine also its energy. Placing the monopole in the center of a spherical volume with a large radius $`R\xi `$, we obtain

$$E_{\mathrm{HP}}=\frac{\mu }{a_n}(RR_{\mathrm{core}}),$$
(8)
where $`R_{\mathrm{core}}`$ is the effective core size of the monopole. Its calculation requires knowledge of the complete density profile and we find numerically that $`R_{\mathrm{core}}1.4\xi `$. The monopole energy thus diverges linearly with the system size, which implies that in the thermodynamic limit only pairs of monopoles with opposite winding numbers require a finite energy for their creation.

The physical interpretation of Eq. (8) is that to calculate the monopole energy we only need to evaluate the gradient energy for a fixed density equal to $`\mu /g_n`$, but restrict the integration to the volume outside a spherical core region with radius $`R_{\mathrm{core}}`$. This interpretation is particularly useful for a trapped spinor condensate in the Thomas-Fermi limit, when the size $`R_{\mathrm{TF}}=(2\mu /m\omega ^2)^{1/2}`$ of the condensate is much larger than the correlation length $`\xi `$. For a monopole at position $`𝐮`$ near the center of the trap, we find in this manner that

$$E_{\mathrm{HP}}[𝐮]\frac{2\mu }{3a_n}R_{\mathrm{TF}}\left(1\frac{3𝐮^2}{R_{\mathrm{TF}}^2}+\frac{3𝐮^4}{5R_{\mathrm{TF}}^4}+\mathrm{}\right),$$
(9)
if we neglect the core contributions that are smaller by a factor of $`\xi /R_{\mathrm{TF}}`$. The significance of this result will become clear once we understand the dynamical properties of the ’t Hooft-Polyakov monopole.

Monopole dynamics. — In first instance we expect the dynamics of the monopole to be determined by the action $`S[n,\zeta ]=𝑑t(T[n,\zeta ]E[n,\zeta ])`$ with a time-derivative term that is equal to

$$T[n,\zeta ]=𝑑𝐫n(𝐫,t)\zeta ^{}(𝐫,t)i\mathrm{}\frac{}{t}\zeta (𝐫,t)$$
(10)
in the Gross-Pitaevskii theory. However, when we restrict ourselves to the antiferromagnetic spinor $`\zeta _{AF}(𝐫,t)`$, the time-derivative term in the action exactly vanishes due to the normalization condition $`𝐦^2(𝐫,t)=1`$. To find any dynamics for the monopole we thus need to consider also fluctuations that bring the spinor condensate out of the antiferromagnetic order parameter space. In the Thomas-Fermi limit, the relevant dynamical part of the action thus becomes

$`S_{\mathrm{dyn}}[n,\zeta ]`$ (11)
$`={\displaystyle 𝑑t\left(T[n,\zeta ]𝑑𝐫\frac{g_s}{2}[n(𝐫,t)𝐅(𝐫,t)]^2\right)},`$ (12)
with $`g_s4\pi a_s\mathrm{}^2/m`$ the appropriate coupling constant for spin-density fluctuations. Using this action we can now investigate the effect of the above mentioned fluctuations by substituting $`\zeta (𝐫,t)=\zeta _{\mathrm{AF}}(𝐫,t)+\delta \zeta (𝐫,t)`$ and expanding the action up to quadratic order in $`\delta \zeta (𝐫,t)`$. Solving then the Euler-Lagrange equation for $`\delta \zeta (𝐫,t)`$ and substituting the solution back into the action, we ultimately find the desired low-frequency result

$$S_{\mathrm{dyn}}[n,\zeta ]=𝑑t𝑑𝐫\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2g_s}\left(\frac{𝐦(𝐫,t)}{t}\right)^2.$$
(13)
While performing the calculation, we must make sure that we are not considering fluctuations of the spinor within the antiferromagnetic order parameter space. This requires the matrix elements $`\zeta _{\mathrm{AF}}^{}(𝐫,t)𝐅\delta \zeta (𝐫,t)`$ to be real, because for fluctuations within the antiferromagnetic parameter space we have in lowest order that $`\mathrm{𝟎}=𝐅(𝐫,t)=\zeta _{\mathrm{AF}}^{}(𝐫,t)𝐅\delta \zeta (𝐫,t)+\delta \zeta ^{}(𝐫,t)𝐅\zeta _{\mathrm{AF}}(𝐫,t)`$. Moreover, the normalization of the spinor requires also that $`\zeta _{\mathrm{AF}}^{}(𝐫,t)\delta \zeta (𝐫,t)=0`$.

The importance of this result is twofold. First, from Eqs. (5) and (13) we see that at the quantum level the dynamics of the space-independent part of the vector field $`𝐦(𝐫)`$ is governed by the following time-dependent Schrödinger equation

$$i\mathrm{}\frac{}{t}\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐦,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2I}\mathbf{}_𝐦^2\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐦,t)$$
(14)
for the wave function $`\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐦,t)`$. It thus corresponds exactly to a quantum rotor with a moment of inertia equal to $`I=\mathrm{}^2V_0(\mu )/g_s`$, where $`V_0(\mu )`$ is the total volume of the spinor condensate in the Thomas-Fermi limit. In an harmonic trap the moment of inertia is thus proportional to the $`3/5`$ power of the total number of atoms. The eigenstates of this Schrödinger equation are the spherical harmonics $`Y_{S,M_S}(𝐦)`$. In this way we thus recover the fact that according to quantum mechanics both the total spin of the Bose-Einstein antiferromagnet as well as its projection on the quantization axis must always be an integer. More precisely, since the ground state wave function is given by $`Y_{0,0}(𝐦)=1/\sqrt{4\pi }`$, we have actually shown that the many-body wave function of the antiferromagnetic spinor condensate is a singlet state exactly . Note that physically this phenomenon is equivalent to the way in which ‘diffusion’ of the overall phase of a Bose-Einstein condensate leads to the conservation of particle number . The main difference is that here the ‘diffusion’ takes place on the surface of a unit sphere instead of on a unit circle.

Second, and most important for our purposes, we can now determine the single monopole dynamics, by using the ansatz $`𝐦(𝐫,t)=𝐦_{\mathrm{HP}}(𝐫𝐮(t))`$ for the texture of a moving monopole, which is expected to be accurate for small velocities $`d𝐮(t)/dt`$ and, in the inhomogeneous case, near the center of the trap where $`u/R_{\mathrm{TF}}1`$. Substituting this ansatz into Eq. (13) and remembering also Eq. (9), we find that the action for the center-of-mass motion of the monopole becomes precisely that of a massive particle

$$S_{\mathrm{HP}}[𝐮]=𝑑t\left(\frac{m_{\mathrm{HP}}}{2}\left(\frac{d𝐮(t)}{dt}\right)^2E_{\mathrm{HP}}[𝐮]\right),$$
(15)
with a mass given by $`m_{\mathrm{HP}}=2mR_{\mathrm{TF}}/a_s`$. The semiclassical equation of motion for the monopole position is therefore simply Newton’s equation

$$m_{\mathrm{HP}}\frac{d^2𝐮(t)}{dt^2}=\mathbf{}_𝐮E_{\mathrm{HP}}[𝐮].$$
(16)
In view of the fact that the energy of the ’t Hooft-Polyakov monopole decreases as the distance to the center of the trap increases, we conclude that in general the monopole is always accelerated to the boundary of the condensate. Typically it will reach that boundary in a time interval of order

$$\mathrm{\Delta }t_{\mathrm{HP}}\frac{\pi }{2}\sqrt{\frac{mR_{\mathrm{TF}}^2}{2\mu }\frac{a_n}{a_s}}=\frac{\pi }{2\omega }\sqrt{\frac{a_n}{a_s}},$$
(17)
which for present-day experiments is sufficiently long to be able to observe the monopole once it is created . In this context it should be noted that all our calculations are performed at zero temperature. In the presence of a normal component, the monopole experiences damping, which increases the time needed to reach the edge of the spinor condensate.

Summarizing, we have investigated the most important equilibrium and nonequilibrium properties of a ’t Hooft-Polyakov monopole in a trapped, antiferromagnetic Bose-Einstein condensate. A further direction of research is an ab initio calculation of the above mentioned friction force on the monopole. In fact, we expect the thermal cloud to lead not only to dissipation but also to noise. Both effects can be conveniently treated within the general framework of the stochastic field theory that was developed previously for nonequilibrium phenomena in partially Bose-Einstein condensed gases . Another interesting topic is the interaction between two monopoles and the many-body properties of a gas of these topological objects. Finally, a very important experimental problem is the creation of a ’t Hooft-Polyakov monopole. Of course, pairs of monopoles with opposite winding numbers can in principle be created in a thermal quench or by sufficiently shaking up the spinor condensate. However, a more controled creation mechanism is desirable. Therefore, we are presently exploring if a single monopole can be created by an appropriate tailoring of the detuning, the intensity and the polarization of two pulsed Raman lasers.

This work is supported by the Stichting voor Fundamenteel Onderzoek der Materie (FOM), which is financially supported by the Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO).


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# CONSTRUCTION OF AN ALGORITHM IN PARALLEL FOR THE FAST FOURIER TRANSFORM

## 1 Introduction

In the last few years, the implementation of low-cost computer nets for processing in parallel has been growing. Most of the designated implementations denominate “Clusters” have been developed in work stations under environments of Unix; however today exits Clusters that include the processing G3-G4 of Motorola-IBM-Apple, in computers Apple Macintosh running under MacOS, and also with Pentium III under Linux or Windows.

TheOAN Cluster is a project that born in December of 1998 motivated by the reached developments for Decyk and his team , by the hardware (Macs/G3) recently incorporate to the Observatorio Astronómico Nacional (OAN) and by the developments in software carried out within the investigation lines: Theoretical Astrophysics, Galactic Astronomy and Numerical Methods of the OAN. With the support of Absoft Corporation  was incorporated an excellent software compiler (Fortran 77/90 and C, C ++); that together with the routines MacMPI developed by Decyk in  completed the development structure of the OAN Cluster.

The first codes were centered in the knowledge of the own commands of the MPI, to evolve in the data distribution and operations with matrix. Several applications have been developed, one of them the denominated “prime numbers under the rule of Stanislav Ulam” the one which is found available in the Web address of the OAN  and an algorithm in parallel for the Fast Fourier Transform.

## 2 Fast Fourier Transform

Let $`f:`$ a continuously function, where $`R`$ represents the set of real numbers and $`C`$ the complex numbers. The Fourier Transform of $`f`$ is given by

$$H(\nu )=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}f(t)e^{2\pi i\nu t}𝑑t,$$
(1)
where $`i`$ is the imaginary unity and $`\nu `$ the frecuency .

In most of practical situations, the function $`f`$ is given in discrete form as a finite values collection $`f(x_0),f(x_1),\mathrm{},f(x_{N1})`$ with $`N`$, where $``$ is the set of natural numbers and {$`x_0,x_1,\mathrm{},x_{N1}`$} is one partition on an real interval $`[a,b]`$ and $`x_k=a+\frac{ba}{N}k`$, for $`0kN1`$. In problems that imply numerical calculation, instead the equation (1) we use the sum partial

$$H(k)=\frac{1}{N}\underset{j=0}{\overset{N1}{}}f(x_j)e^{2\pi ikj/N},$$
(2)
designated Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) of $`f`$ over the interval $`[a,b]`$. If $`f`$ is a function defined on the interval $`[0,2\pi ]`$ of real value with period $`2\pi `$, the values $`H(k)`$, by $`k=0,\mathrm{},N1,`$ can be interpreted as the coefficients $`c_k`$

$$c_k=\frac{1}{N}\underset{j=0}{\overset{N1}{}}f(x_j)e^{i\frac{2\pi k}{N}j},0kN1\text{ }$$
(3)
of a exponential polynomial

$$p(x)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{N1}{}}c_ke^{ikx},$$
(4)
where $`x`$, $`c_k,`$ y $`k=0,1,\mathrm{},N1,`$ which interpole $`f`$ in the values $`f(x_0),f(x_1),\mathrm{},f(x_{N1}).`$

The Discrete Fourier Transform of $`f`$ over the partition $`\{x_0,x_1,\mathrm{},x_{N1}\},`$ is defined as the operator

$$DFT:^N^N$$

such that

$`[c_0,c_1,\mathrm{},c_{N1}]^T=DFT\left([f(x_0),f(x_1),\mathrm{},f(x_{N1})]^T\right)`$

The algorithm that evaluates DFT is denominated Fast Fourier Transform, and reduces the calculation significantly. For directly calculations is necesary to use $`N^2`$ multiplications, while FFT only needes $`NLog_2N`$ products. A comparison for greater values of $`N`$ is shown in Table 2.

The next tree show how is running the interpolation. In the first level (indicated by the superscript of the polynomials) are related two data in each branch that comes of the zero level and produce a polynomial with two coefficients $`P_k^{(1)},`$ for $`0k3`$. In the second level, again the points gene- rated are interpolated and produces new factors and polynomials $`P_k^{(2)},`$ with $`0k1`$; Finally we obtain the output vector, where $`P_0^{(3)}`$ is the polynomial that we requires .

$`P_0^{(3)}`$
$``$ $``$
$`P_0^{(2)}`$ $`P_1^{(2)}`$
$``$ $``$
$`P_0^{(1)}`$ $`P_2^{(1)}`$ $`P_1^{(1)}`$ $`P_3^{(1)}`$
$``$ $``$ $``$ $``$
$`P_0^{(0)}`$ $`P_4^{(0)}`$ $`P_2^{(0)}`$ $`P_6^{(0)}`$ $`P_1^{(0)}`$ $`P_5^{(0)}`$ $`P_3^{(0)}`$ $`P_7^{(0)}`$

The parallel code works $`2^l`$ processors, $`l0`$. For a better comprehension let us consider an example: let $`C=[C(0),\mathrm{},C(7)]`$ eight data and four processors.

The basic variables that are used, are presented in Table 1. Then, for this example we have: $`nproc=4`$, $`N=8`$, $`m=3`$, $`m1=1`$.

Each processor works with its respective branch:

$`idproc=0`$ $`idproc=2`$ $`idproc=1`$ $`idproc=3`$
$`P_0^{(1)}`$ $`P_2^{(1)}`$ $`P_1^{(1)}`$ $`P_3^{(1)}`$
$``$ $``$ $``$ $``$
$`P_0^{(0)}`$ $`P_4^{(0)}`$ $`P_2^{(0)}`$ $`P_6^{(0)}`$ $`P_1^{(0)}`$ $`P_5^{(0)}`$ $`P_3^{(0)}`$ $`P_7^{(0)}`$
$`C(0)`$ $`C(4)`$ $`C(2)`$ $`C(6)`$ $`C(1)`$ $`C(5)`$ $`C(3)`$ $`C(7)`$

In this step, the processor identified with the label $`idproc`$ generates the coefficients’ vector: $`P_{idproc}^{(n)}`$ for $`0idproc<nproc=4;`$ ($`n=1`$). The processing of the information continues until $`n=m1=1`$. In this point $`idproc=2`$ transmits its vector to $`idproc=0,`$ and $`idproc=3`$ transfers its vector to $`idproc=1`$. Before of the transference, each processor stores the information in a matrix with two columns where the real part is stored in the first column and the imaginary part in the second column. This is necessary because the commando to send don’t recognize complex numbers in language C.

In this moment $`idproc=2`$ and $`idproc=3`$ don’t work. Moreover, $`nproc\mathrm{\_}sup=\frac{nproc}{2}=2,`$ so, in the level $`n=2`$ the number of processors is reduced to the half. From now on, where we avanced of level, the middle of processors out of the game and the variable $`nproc\mathrm{\_}sup`$ descend to the middle.

The processors that receive the information unpack in $`C`$.

$`idproc=0`$ $`idproc=1`$
$`P_0^{(2)}`$ $`P_1^{(2)}`$
$`C(0)`$ $`C(2)`$ $`C(4)`$ $`C(6)`$
$`C(1)`$ $`C(3)`$ $`C(5)`$ $`C(7)`$
$``$ $``$
$`P_0^{(1)}`$ $`P_2^{(1)}`$ $`P_1^{(1)}`$ $`P_3^{(1)}`$

In the level $`n=2`$, $`idproc`$ bring about the vector of coefficients $`P_{idproc}^{(n)}`$ for $`0idproc<nproc\mathrm{\_}sup=2`$. That which is stated previously, is repeated while $`nproc\mathrm{\_}sup1`$, that is to say, while exist one processor. The MASTER receive the communication of $`idproc=1`$ and effects the last calculation to bring out $`P_{idproc}^{(n)}`$ ($`idproc=0`$ and $`n=m=3`$), in this instant $`nproc\mathrm{\_}sup=\frac{1}{2}`$ and the process finish.

## 3 THE INVERSE TRANSFORM

We affirm that the exponential polinomyal (4) estimates the Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT), definied as the operator

$$IDFT:^N^N$$

such that

$`[f(x_0),f(x_1),\mathrm{},f(x_{N1})]^T=IDFT\left([c_0,c_1,\mathrm{},c_{N1}]^T\right)`$

We use the FFT to calculate the IFFT111Inverse Fast Fourier Transform. We define $`x_k=\frac{2\pi k}{N}`$ for
$`0kN1`$, and evaluate $`p`$ in $`2\pi x_k=2\pi \frac{2\pi k}{N}`$

$$p(2\pi x_k)=\underset{j=0}{\overset{N1}{}}c_je^{ij(2\pi x_k)}=\underset{j=0}{\overset{N1}{}}c_je^{ij2\pi }c_je^{ijx_k}=\underset{j=0}{\overset{N1}{}}c_je^{ijx_k}=N\left(\frac{1}{N}\underset{j=0}{\overset{N1}{}}c_je^{ijx_k}\right)$$
(5)
In this way obtain the IFFT estimating the FFT multiplied for $`N`$ and

$$p(2\pi x_k)=p(2\pi \frac{2\pi k}{N})=p\left(2\pi \frac{Nk}{N}\right),$$

so the inverse transform is in contrary order.

## 4 COMPLEXITY COMPUTATIONAL OF FFT IN PARALLEL

If the number of data is $`N=2^m`$ ($`m1`$) and the number of processors is $`2^l`$ ($`l0`$), the order of complex multiplications effected until the level $`m1`$, correspond to the multiplications made for each processor with its respective branch. The number of multiplications carried out until the level $`n`$ is $`n2^m`$ for $`0nm.`$ Particulary, if $`n=m1`$ we have $`O(m1(2^m))`$. Then dividing for the number of processors, the complexity descend to

$$\frac{m1(2^m)}{2^l}=(m1)2^{ml}=m1(2^{m1})$$

for $`n=m1`$.

Finally we adds the number of multiplications effected in the levels $`n`$, for $`m1<nm.`$ In each level we have $`2^m`$ products. Considering that for each level $`n`$, $`m1<nm,`$ the number of processors is reduced to the middle, obtain

$$\underset{i=1}{\overset{l}{}}2^{m1+i}$$

from $`m1+1`$ until $`n=m`$.
Summarizing,

$$O\left((ml)2^{ml}+\underset{i=1}{\overset{l}{}}2^{ml+i}\right).$$
(6)
Calculating the ratio between sequential FFT and parallel FFT, we have

$`{\displaystyle \frac{NLog_2N}{(ml)2^{ml}+_{i=1}^l2^{ml+i}}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{m2^m}{(ml)2^{ml}+_{i=1}^l2^{ml+i}}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{m}{(ml)2^l+_{i=1}^l2^{l+i}}}`$
This indicate that the algorithm in parallel is $`\frac{m}{(ml)2^l+_{i=1}^l2^{l+i}}`$ faster than the sequential algorithm.

## 5 THE TWO-DIMENSIONAL DISCRETE TRANSFORM 2D-DFT

For two variables the sample is in $`xy`$-plane where the sample is uniformly distribuited in the parallel straight-lines to the $`x`$-axis (rows) and the parallel straight-lines $`y`$-axis (columns). We define $`_{N\times M}()`$ the matrix of size $`N\times M`$ which contain complex numbers. Let $`f(x,y):^2`$ be a two-dimensional function, its 2D-DFT is definied as the operator

$$2DDFT:_{N\times M}()_{N\times M}()$$

$`\left(f(x,y)\right)_{N\times M}\left(F(u,v)\right)_{N\times M}`$
where

$$F(u,v)=\frac{1}{N}\underset{x=0}{\overset{N1}{}}\underset{y=0}{\overset{M1}{}}f(x,y)e^{i2\pi (\frac{ux}{N}+\frac{vy}{M})}$$
(7)
for $`u=0,1,\mathrm{},N1,v=0,1,\mathrm{},M1.`$
And we establish the 2D-IDFT (Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform two-dimensional) as

$$2DIDFT:_{N\times M}()_{N\times M}()$$

$`\left(F(u,v)\right)_{N\times M}\left(f(x,y)\right)_{N\times M}`$
where

$$f(x,y)=\frac{1}{M}\underset{u=0}{\overset{N1}{}}\underset{v=0}{\overset{M1}{}}F(u,v)e^{i2\pi (\frac{ux}{N}+\frac{vy}{M})}$$
(8)
for $`x=0,1,\mathrm{},N1,y=0,1,\mathrm{},M1.`$

The equation (7) we express as

$$F(u,v)=\frac{1}{N}\underset{x=0}{\overset{N1}{}}\underset{y=0}{\overset{M1}{}}f(x,y)e^{i2\pi \frac{ux}{N}}e^{i2\pi \frac{vy}{M}}=\frac{1}{N}\underset{x=0}{\overset{N1}{}}F(x,v)e^{i2\pi \frac{ux}{N}}$$
(9)
where $`F(x,v)=M\left(\frac{1}{M}_{y=0}^{M1}f(x,y)e^{i2\pi \frac{vy}{M}}\right)`$. In this way, we may frequent use of the DFT on rows and on columns.

The implementation of the algorithm for the 2D-FFT (Fast Fourier Transform two-dimensional) is,

FFT on rows $``$ Multiplication for $`M`$ $``$ FFT on columns.

## 6 APPLICATION

A application has been diriged to the image processing. We can represent a image as a function

$`f:^2`$

|  |  |  |  |  | $`(x,y)z=f(x,y)`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

where $``$ is the set of integer numbers, $`(x,y)`$ is the coordinate image’s point with brightness $`f(x,y)`$. A digital image, it’s a image which $`x,y,f(x,y)^+\{0\}`$. Thus, a image is a two-dimensional array $`(P_{x,y})_{N\times M}`$ of pixels (picture elements).

The algorithm pads with zeros on rows and on columns to complete the next power of two.

The Fourier Transform we can represent trought of its spectrum

$$\sqrt{Re[C(x,y)]^2+Im[C(x,y)]^2}$$
(10)
where $`Re[C(x,y)]`$ is the real part and $`Im[C(x,y)]`$ is the imaginary part of the Transform’s element $`(x,y)`$.

A images’ filter is a operator $`H:^2`$ which permits to change the brightness in the digital image. For the Convolution Theorem we can use a filter and to multiply it with the real and imaginary part image’s Fourier Transform. A filter can be designed either to eliminate or to create noise in a image. We use the filter:

$$F(x,y)=\{\begin{array}{c}0\\ 1\end{array}\begin{array}{c}si\sqrt{\left(xc_1\right)^2+\left(yc_2\right)^2}b\\ encasocontrario\end{array}$$
(11)
where $`(c_1,c_2)`$ is the image’s center and $`b>0`$, .

Finally, we calculate the 2D-IFFT to this product and obtain the image filtered. In the next step, we can see the smoothing effect derived using the filter over the spiral galaxy NGC5194 (Whirpool Galaxy). This picture has a size of 460$`\times `$506 pixels, and was taken of ; in our work we use a filter parameter of $`b=340`$.

## 7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

1. Arithmetical expression for number of multiplications in the parallel FFT was obtained in the equation (6) and calculated the ratio between sequential and paralell FFT products (with four processors) for four values of $`N`$, listed in Table 2.
2. We write until the proper functioning the algorithm 2D-FFTp.c. using the MPI’s routines and tools of MacOS system.
3. We find that the efficiency increase when the communications has the minimum rate of transference executing the code in the cluster.
4. We build the filter of the equation (11) and had been applied to the galaxy NGC5194 obtaining a new image (figure 3) which the high frequency’s components had been eliminated.

We acknowledge an anonymous referee for this helpful coments. We thank Viktor K. Decyk in UCLA for his useful recommendatios and permanent assistance. This work has been supported by DIB of the Universidad Nacional de Colombia through Proyect DIB-803577.


text:
# An astrophysical oscillator strength for the Sii 94.7 nm resonance line and S abundances in DLAs . based on data from the ORFEUS II mission, the Hubble Space Telescope, the International Ultraviolet Explorer and the ESO Very Large Telescope

## 1 Introduction

In the chemical study of DLAs the importance of S is twofold: first it traces the $`\alpha `$ elements, which are synthesized mainly by Type II SNe, so that the $`\alpha `$/iron–peak ratio provides an important constraint on the chemical history of the observed material, and second S is known to be essentially undepleted onto dust grains (Savage & Sembach 1996), at variance with what happens for Si, which is the $`\alpha `$ element most commonly observed in DLAs. Therefore the S abundance in the gas phase measures the actual S abundance in the system (Centurión et al 2000). In the spectrum of BR J0307-4945, obtained with UVES on the ESO-Kueyen 8.2 m telescope during the commissioning of the instrument, a DLA at $`z_{abs}`$= 4.4680 is observed. For this system the Sii triplet lines at 125 nm, which are the only ones used so far to determine the abundances of this nucleosynthetically important element (Centurión et al 2000), are not available because they are blended with lower redshift Ly$`\alpha `$ absorbers. We have been able to detect the Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm resonance line for which, unfortunately, no theoretical or experimental $`f`$ value is available, thus preventing its use in the analysis. The presence of the Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line and the lack of a suitable $`f`$ value are tantalizing.

The observations with the echelle spectrograph on board of the ORFEUS II mission allow to observe the Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line in the Galactic interstellar medium with both a resolution and signal to noise ratio sufficient for its analysis. We therefore decided to use these data to derive an “astrophysical” $`f`$ value for this transition. Our method is quite simple: we determine the $`f`$ value by requiring that this line yields the same column density as the Sii $`\lambda `$125 nm triplet. The most suitable target for this analysis is the well known O star HD 93521. The Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line has been clearly detected in its ORFEUS II echelle spectrum by Barnstedt et al (2000). In the present paper we perform a quantitative analysis on this feature. The ORFEUS spectrum covers both the Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line and the Sii $`\lambda `$125 nm triplet. In order to support our analysis we also make use of archival data from IUE and HST-GHRS both of which contain information on the Sii $`\lambda `$125 nm triplet.

## 2 Observational material

Our data consist of two echelle spectra from the ORFEUS II mission, three echelle spectra observed with the GHRS on board the HST. We also used 128 high resolution large aperture SWP IUE spectra.

The ORFEUS data under study here were described in detail by Barnstedt et al (2000) and instrument description, performance and data reduction by Barnstedt et al (1999). The wavelength coverage ranges from about 91.6 nm to 141.0 nm with a resolution of $`\lambda /\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda 10000`$. Each ORFEUS echelle spectrum consists of 22 echelle orders. We focussed on order 44 (125.421 nm – 128.457 nm), order 45 (122.635 nm – 125.602 nm) and order 59 (93.500 nm – 95.999 nm). Orders 44 and 45 contain the Sii $`\lambda `$125 nm triplet while order 59 contains the Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line. The ORFEUS data was kindly provided to us by Dr. Kappelmann.

HST data consist of three GHRS echelle spectra, taken with the small science aperture (z0ih020ft, z0ih020gt, z0ih020ht), which we added without any wavelength shift. For each spectrum the resolution is $`\lambda /\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda 85000`$ and the exposure time is 144 s. These spectra were already analyzed by Spitzer & Fitzpatrick (1993).

The UVES spectra of the QSOs BR J0307-4945 and 0347-3819 were obtained during the commissioning of the instrument and released by ESO for public use. In the present paper we use one spectrum of BR J0307-4945 taken in the red arm centered at 600 nm with CD #3 and a 1$`\stackrel{}{.}`$1 slit and an exposure time of 4400 s. For QSO 0347-3819 we use the sum of two blue arm spectra, for a total exposure time of 9500 s taken with dichroic #2 and centered at 437 nm CD #2 and a 1$`\stackrel{}{.}`$0 slit. The reduced spectra were provided to us by Dr. M. Dessauges-Zavadsky and Dr. S. D’Odorico who used the UVES data reduction pipeline. Further details on the data reduction may be found in Dessauges-Zavadsky et al (2001) and D’Odorico et al (2001). The resolution is about 40000 for both spectra with S/N $`40`$ in the regions under analysis here.

## 3 Analysis and results

Since HD 93521 is a fast rotator ($`v\mathrm{sin}i=400\pm 25`$ $`\mathrm{k}ms^1`$, Lennon et al 1991) all stellar lines are very broad and it is therefore relatively easy to draw a local continuum relative to which the interstellar line may be measured. When we refer to “lines” in the following discussion we always mean the interstellar lines.

Due to the differences in resolution we could not compare HST data with ORFEUS spectra directly. Even the wavelength scale of the two instruments is not in agreement, as may be appreciated in figures 12. By least squares fitting we determined the wavelength shift and broadening to be applied to HST spectra in order to obtain the best agreement with the ORFEUS spectrum. In Fig.3 the degraded HST normalized spectrum is compared to the corresponding ORFEUS spectrum. The spectra have been normalized by fitting a spline through selected continuum points.

Although the HST full resolution spectra show the presence of 9 separate components (Spitzer & Fitzpatrick 1993), at the resolution of ORFEUS only two components are apparent, indicated hereafter as B (blue) and R (red) component. We fitted Voigt profiles to the spectra of the two instruments by using least squares in order to obtain the column density, the $`b`$ value and the mean velocity of the two components of each line of the Sii $`\lambda `$125 nm triplet. The atomic data for the transitions under study are summarized in Table 1. The results of the fits are given in Table 2.

A similar exercise was performed also using IUE data, for which we coadded 128 IUE large aperture SWP spectra. The flux of these spectra appeared in disagreement with that of both ORFEUS and HST. We believe this is due to the well known problems of background subtraction in IUE at these short wavelengths. We thus did not further consider the IUE spectrum.

Using the column density, the $`b`$ parameter and the mean velocity for the B and R component of the best fit to the triplet lines we fitted the whole range from 94.6680 nm to 94.7120 nm in order to determine the $`f`$ value of the S ii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line.

We performed the fitting starting with the input parameters deduced from ORFEUS and HST in turn. The R component of the Sii 94.7 nm line is blended with the $`\mathrm{H}_2`$ $`\lambda `$94.6986 nm line. For the $`\mathrm{H}_2`$ lines we fixed $`b=7\mathrm{k}ms^1`$, as found for all other $`\mathrm{H}_2`$ lines by Gringel et al (2000), while we left the column densities as fitting parameters. For what pertains to the Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm lines all the parameters where kept fixed except the $`f`$ value. Therefore we had three fitting parameters and 12 degrees of freedom; the results are reported in Table 2.

Taking as input the column densities derived from the ORFEUS data the fitted oscillator strength of the S ii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line is

$$f=0.00498_{0.00138}^{+0.00172}$$

The fit is shown in Fig. 4. The quoted error is the 1$`\sigma `$ deduced from the $`\chi ^2`$ analysis, as shown in Fig.5. The oscillator strength found by using the column density deduced from HST data is $`f=0.00528_{0.00148}^{+0.00157}`$, in good agreement with that obtained above by using the ORFEUS–based column density.

## 4 Application to the study of QSO 0347-3819

The line–of–sight towards QSO 0347-3819 is characterized by the presence of one damped Ly$`\alpha `$ system with two components very close to each other. The Hi column density has been derived by Pettini et al (1994), while the Sii column density has been measured from the $`\lambda `$125.9 nm line by Centurión et al (1998), Ledoux et al (1998) and Prochaska & Wolfe (1999). The measurements of Centurión et al (1998) and Prochaska & Wolfe (1999) agree with each other, within errors, while the value of Ledoux et al (1998) is lower by $``$ 0.3 dex. We used the UVES spectrum of this QSO to provide an external check on the accuracy of our $`f`$ value, namely by comparing the column density derived by the $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line with the values of Centurión et al (1998) and Prochaska & Wolfe (1999). In Fig. 6 we show the observed spectrum together with our best fit. The Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line falls on the wing of a Ly$`\alpha `$ absorber of lower redshift and this needs to be taken into account when modeling the line. We fit the feature successfully using two Ly$`\alpha `$ clouds and one Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line, as shown in the figure. The fitted parameters are log $`N`$(Sii)$`=14.71\pm 0.04`$, $`b=3.4\pm 1.0`$. Another possible choice is to fit only the red wing of the feature by using one Ly$`\alpha `$ in this case we obtain log $`N`$(Sii) $`=14.70\pm 0.04`$, the redshift is $`z=3.024866`$, $`b=3.1\pm 1.0`$ $`\mathrm{k}ms^1`$. Both the values of the column density found are in perfect concordance, within errors, with the value of Centurión et al (1998): log $`N`$(Sii) $`=14.77\pm 0.08`$ derived from CASPEC spectra using Voigt profile fitting, as we do. They also agree with the value of Prochaska & Wolfe (1999): log $`N`$(Sii) $`=14.731\pm 0.012`$ derived from Keck HIRES spectra using the apparent optical depth method. Our $`b`$ value is very small when compared with $`b=17.9\pm 3.3`$ $`\mathrm{k}ms^1`$found by Centurión et al (1998). One should note however two facts: in the first place Centurión et al (1998) had a resolution of 15.4 $`\mathrm{k}ms^1`$, to be compared with 7.1 $`\mathrm{k}ms^1`$of the present data; in the second place, because of the lower resolution Centurión et al could not resolve the two components at $`z_{abs}`$= 3.02466 and $`z_{abs}`$= 3.02486 but fitted a single component with $`z_{abs}`$= 3.02476, i.e. the sum of the two. In the UVES spectra the two components are separated as may be appreciated by inspecting several transitions, however for the $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line the bluemost component falls in the Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption and is not detectable. Therefore our column density refers to the $`z_{abs}`$= 3.02486 system only, while the value Centurión et al refers to the sum of both. It is thus not surprising that our column density is slightly lower than that of Centurión et al. The agreement of our new measurement with those of Centurión et al (1998) and Prochaska & Wolfe (1999), makes it unlikely that the abundance found by Ledoux et al (1998) is the correct one.

To test the influence of the adopted $`f`$ on the derived column density we performed fits using the two extreme values given in the first row of Table 4. For $`f=0.00670`$ we obtain log $`N`$(Sii) $`=14.57\pm 0.04`$, for $`f=0.00360`$ we obtain log $`N`$(Sii) $`=15.11\pm 0.04`$. The fact that both values are in stark disagreement with the column density of Centurión et al (1998) suggests that the $`f`$ value is more accurate than the formal $`1\sigma `$ errors derived from the $`\chi ^2`$ analysis.

## 5 Application to the study of BR J0307-4945

This high redshift QSO ($`z_{em}=4.74`$) shows in its spectrum the DLA at highest redshift so–far known: $`z_{abs}`$=4.466. This very complex system, for which no less than 14 separate components are required to describe the low–ions, is studied in detail by Dessauges-Zavadsky et al (2001). We identify the Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line at $`z_{abs}`$= 4.4666 (component # 8) and at $`z_{abs}`$= 4.4680 (component # 13), which are the main components of the system.

The Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line at $`z_{abs}`$= 4.4680 is relatively blend-free, although there is clearly some extra-absorption on the red wing. The fitted parameters are log $`N`$ (Sii) $`=14.72\pm 0.07`$, $`b=7.7\pm 2.0`$ and redshift $`z=4.4681`$, the fit is shown in Fig. 7. The sulphur abundance for this system, which has log $`N`$(Hi) $`=20.56`$ (Dessauges-Zavadsky et al 2001), is therefore \[S/H\]$`=1.04`$111we use here the usual notation: $`[X/Y]=\mathrm{log}(X/Y)\mathrm{log}(X/Y)_{}`$., which is consistent with the upper limit given by Dessauges-Zavadsky et al (\[S/H\]$`<0.41`$). By combining our measure of S column density, with the column densities of Dessauges-Zavadsky et al for O, Si and Fe we obtain: \[S/O\]$`=+0.68`$, \[S/Si\]$`=+0.94`$ and \[S/Fe\]$`=+1.33`$. The above abundance ratios are very peculiar. Non solar S to $`\alpha `$ element ratios are not theoretically excluded, although observationally this would be the first occurence of such a case. Most likely the line could be contaminated by a Ly$`\alpha `$, in which case our measure should be considered as an upper limit to the S abundance.

The line of the $`z_{abs}`$= 4.4666 system is blended with Ly$`\alpha `$ absorbers of lower redshift. We obtain a reasonable fit corresponding to log $`N`$ (Sii) $`=14.47\pm 0.26`$, $`b=10.3\pm 3.9`$ and redshift $`z=4.4667`$. The result depends strongly on the modeling of the Ly$`\alpha `$ absorption, therefore, although the fitted redshift is in good agreement with that of component # 8 of Dessauges-Zavadsky et al (2001), we consider this as a tentative identification.

## 6 Conclusions

By requiring that the Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line and the Sii $`\lambda `$125 nm triplet provide the same Sii column density in the line of sight towards HD 93521 we have been able to deduce an “astrophysical” $`f`$ value for the Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm line. The error, of the order of 30%, is essentially associated to the noise present in the spectra. As an external check of the accuracy of our $`f`$ value we used the Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm at $`z_{abs}`$=3.02486 towards QSO 0347-3819 to determine the Sii column density and were able to confirm, within errors, the value found from the $`\lambda `$125.9 nm line by Centurión et al (1998). This result gives us further confidence in our $`f`$ value and suggests that the accuracy is better than these formal error estimates. We warn the readers that the value log $`gf=0.230`$ listed for the Sii $`\lambda `$94.7 nm in table 3 of Barnstedt et al (2000) is a guessed value which comes from the Kurucz (1993) database. This value is almost a factor of 30 larger than our “astrophysical” value (log $`gf=1.70`$) and should not be used in sulphur abundance analysis.

As an application we derived the Sii column density in the absorption system at $`z_{abs}`$= 4.4680 towards BR J0307-4945. In this system the S column density cannot be derived from the $`\lambda `$125 nm triplet because of blending with Ly$`\alpha `$ clouds. The high \[S/O\] ratio implied by our measurement has no straightforward explanation, which suggests that the line could contaminated.

## Acknowledgements

We are grateful to Dr. Kappelmann for providing the ORFEUS data and to Dr. Dessauges-Zavadsky and Dr. D’Odorico for sharing with us the reduced UVES data.