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# Dimensionality dependence of optical nonlinearity and relaxation dynamics in cuprates

## Abstract

Femtosecond pump-probe measurements find pronounced dimensionality dependence of the optical nonlinearity in cuprates. Although the coherent two-photon absorption (TPA) and linear absorption bands nearly overlap in both quasi-one and two-dimensional (1D and 2D) cuprates, the TPA coefficient is one order of magnitude smaller in 2D than in 1D. Furthermore, picosecond recovery of optical transparency is observed in 1D cuprates, while the recovery in 2D involves relaxation channels with a time scales of tens of picoseconds. The experimental results are interpreted within the two-band extended Hubbard model.

Transport and magnetic behavior of strongly correlated electron (SCE) systems, which depend on the lowest excitations, have been studied extensively in recent years. High energy electronic excitations, in contrast, have received less attention. Linear absorption studies, performed for the copper oxide based SCE systems , do not reveal features associated with optically dark two-photon states. Femtosecond spectroscopic studies in quasi-two dimensional (2D) cuprates  have revealed the strong role played by magnetic excitations in ultrafast non-radiative relaxation processes, which is related to the large Heisenberg exchanges in the cuprates . More recently, interest has shifted to nonlinear optical studies which provide information about both odd parity one-photon states and even parity two-photon states .

An additional motivation to study nonlinear optical properties of SCE materials originates from the continued quest for new materials with ultrafast and strong optical nonlinearity. The mechanism of optical nonlinearity in SCE systems  is different from that in band insulators, and it is conceivable that new SCE materials can be found with nonlinear optical properties that meet the requirements for technological applications. Initial support for this idea has come from the demonstrations of strong two-photon absorption (TPA) along with picosecond recovery of optical transparency in the quasi-one dimensional (1D) cuprate Sr2CuO3 , and of giant electro-reflectance in several 1D Mott insulators . An important new question that has arisen involves the role of dimensionality in SCE nonlinear optical materials. In conventional band insulators confinement of the Wannier exciton in 1D can strongly enhance the optical nonlinearity . Whether or not similar dimensionality effects occur in SCE systems has not been investigated systematically so far. In the present work we compare the results of the sub-picosecond pump-probe transmission measurements in 1D and 2D cuprates. We observe significant dimensionality dependences in the magnitude of the nonlinear response as well as the relaxation dynamics, which are explained using cluster calculations within the appropriate extended Hubbard Hamiltonian.

To clarify the dimensionality dependence systematically, we selected three materials, which are well-known strongly correlated 1D and 2D charge-transfer (CT) insulators. Specifically, Sr2CuO3 (see Fig. 1(a)) and SrCuO2 (Fig. 1(b)) have single and weakly coupled double Cu-O chains, respectively . Since in SrCuO2 the interchain coupling due to 90 Cu-O-Cu bonds is much weaker than the coupling along the 180 intrachain Cu-O-Cu bonds, this material can be also classified as a 1D spin system . Sr2CuO2Cl2 (Fig. 1(c)) is a 2D cuprate with the same CuO2 network as in La2CuO4 with the apical oxygens of the latter replaced with Cl ions . Importantly, the lattice constants in the Cu-O chain direction in these materials are almost same. All of these materials show optical gaps around 2 eV, which corresponds to CT excitation, and are nearly transparent below 1.5 eV (see Fig. 3). The strong antiferromagnetic exchange interaction between holes on neighboring Cu sites, $`J`$ 2000 - 3000 K for Sr2CuO3 and SrCuO2  and $`J`$ 1400 K for Sr2CuO2Cl2 , gives rise to wide spinon and magnon bands in 1D and 2D materials, respectively. In spite of the one-dimensionality of Sr2CuO3, a spin-Peierls transition does not occur in this system.

Single crystals of Sr2CuO3 and SrCuO2 are grown by the traveling- solvent floating-zone method , while Sr2CuO2Cl2 is grown by cooling the stoichiometric melt . Thin flakes with thickness of 50-100 $`\mu `$m are cleaved out for transmission measurements. Two optical parametric generators pumped by a KHz regenerative amplifier generate pump and probe pulses. By using second harmonic and difference frequency generation techniques, the laser system can generate pulses with a temporal width of 0.2 ps and photon energy from 0.3 to 1.5 eV. We measure differential transmission $`\mathrm{\Delta }T/T`$, where $`T`$ is the transmission in the absence of the pump pulse, as a function of the pump-probe delay. The pump and probe beams are polarized along the Cu-O chains (b axis in Sr2CuO3, c axis in SrCuO2 and a axis in Sr2CuO2Cl2).

The temporal behavior of the photoinduced absorption change at 290 K, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha L`$ = –ln(1+$`\mathrm{\Delta }T/T`$), where $`L`$ is sample thickness, are shown in Fig. 2 for all the three materials with the pump intensity $`I_{pump}`$ 0.2 GW/cm2. The 2D material shows absorption change for both co- and cross-polarizations of the pump and probe beams, regardless of the angle between the polarization of the pump light and the crystallographic axes. We have found that $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha L`$ $`I_{pump}`$ up to $`I_{pump}`$ 10 GW/cm2 and $`I_{pump}`$ 1 GW/cm2 for 1D and 2D materials, respectively. This indicates that the nonlinear effect is third-order in the light field up to these $`I_{pump}`$. One can observe from Fig. 2(a) that the temporal profile of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha L`$ in Sr2CuO3 consists of a prompt component, which is determined by the laser pulse duration, and a slowly decaying component with characteristic time $``$ 1 ps. From comparisons of the temporal profiles at various pump photon energies we conclude that the relative magnitude of the decay component decreases with decreasing pump photon energy. The temporal profile of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha L`$ in SrCuO2 (Fig. 2(b)) is similar to that in Sr2CuO3. On the other hand, in Sr2CuO2Cl2, there exists a slower component with characteristic time $``$ 30 ps as well as the faster component with $``$ 1 ps (see the upper panel of Fig. 2).

The prompt component of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha L`$ is due to the coherent optical nonlinearity associated with TPA. In Fig. 3 we have shown the TPA spectra, plotted against $`\omega _{pump}+\omega _{probe}`$, for all three materials. In all cases, one- and two-photon absorption maxima nearly coincide indicating that overlapping TPA and linear absorption bands is a common feature of cuprates. The TPA spectrum of Sr2CuO3 at 290 K is similar to that obtained at 10 K, with maximum $`\beta `$ 150 cm/GW at 2.1 eV . We further observe from Fig. 3 that while in the 1D systems Sr2CuO3 and SrCuO2 $`\beta `$ is of the order of 100 cm/GW and the width of the TPA band is about 0.5 eV, in Sr2CuO2Cl2 the TPA coefficient is one order of magnitude smaller and the TPA band is broader. In particular, the low energy tail of the TPA in Sr2CuO2Cl2 continues down to $`\omega _{pump}+\omega _{probe}`$ 1.5 eV, while the TPA coefficient in 1D materials falls below 0.1 cm/GW at 1.5 eV.

In order to understand the differences in the TPA spectra between the 1D and 2D systems, we adopted the two-band extended Hubbard model, which enables us to take into account the CT nature of the excited states explicitly,

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`t{\displaystyle \underset{<ij,\sigma }{}}(c_{i\sigma }^{}c_{j\sigma }+c_{j\sigma }c_{i\sigma }^{})+{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}U_in_in_i`$ (1)
$`+`$ $`V{\displaystyle \underset{<ij>}{}}n_in_j+{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}ϵ_in_i,`$ (2)
where $`c_{i\sigma }^{}`$ creates a hole with spin $`\sigma `$ on site $`i`$, $`n_{i\sigma }=c_{i\sigma }^{}c_{i\sigma }`$, $`n_i=_\sigma n_{i\sigma }`$, and $`<ij>`$ implies nearest-neighbor sites. In Eq. (2), $`t`$ is the hopping between Cu and O sites, $`U_i`$ is the on-site Coulomb repulsion between two holes (different on Cu and O sites), $`V`$ is the Coulomb repulsion between holes on neighboring Cu and O, and $`ϵ_Oϵ_{Cu}`$ is the site energy difference between O and Cu sites.

It is instructive to first consider the qualitative difference between 1D and 2D within Eq. (2). There exists a single mirror plane in 1D, and optical transitions are between symmetry subspaces that are “plus” and “minus” with respect to this mirror plane. Consider now a three-atom segment OCuO. The single hole in the segment can occupy the Cu-site or either of the two O-sites. We denote these by the “cartoon” configurations 010, and 100 and 001, respectively. The ground state, as well as the excited + symmetry two-photon state are superpositions of 010 and (100 + 001), while the – symmetry optical state is simply (100 – 001). The dipole operator $`\mu `$ within Eq. (2) is $`_i\stackrel{}{r_i}n_i`$ (we take electronic charge $`e`$ = 1), where $`\stackrel{}{r_i}`$ gives the vector location of each atom, and has nonzero matrix element between the configurations (100 + 001) and (100 — 001). The strength of the dipole coupling between the one-photon state and the ground (two-photon) state, $`\mu _{01}`$ ($`\mu _{12}`$), then depends on the “overlap” between the (100 – 001) one-photon state and the (100 + 001) component of the ground (two-photon) state.

Consider now the 2D case, where each plaquette consists of one Cu and four O-atoms, again with a single hole. There occur two mirror planes now, and the symmetry subspaces are + +, + –, – + and – – with respect to these. Eigenstates in the + + subspace are now superpositions of the configuration with the hole on the Cu, and four configurations with the hole occupying the different O-atoms. This subspace contains both the ground state and a two-photon state. The optical states are in the +– and –+ subspaces, are degenerate, and are still superpositions of only two configurations each: the +– eigenstate is a superposition of the two configurations with holes on the O-atoms to the left and to the right of the central Cu, while the –+ eigenstate is composed of the configurations with the holes above and below the Cu. The dipole coupling between the one-photon and ++ states then can involve only two of the four configurations with holes on O-sites. Therefore, the transition dipole moments between the ground and one-photon states, $`\mu _{01}`$, and one- and two-photon states, $`\mu _{12}`$, are smaller in the 2D than in 1D. Since $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ are proportional to $`\mu _{01}^2`$ and $`\mu _{01}^2\mu _{12}^2`$, respectively , we expect both linear absorption and TPA to be weaker in 2D than in 1D, with the reduction in TPA strength larger. The above physical arguments for small-size cluster picture are valid even with a single electron, indicating that the weaker TPA in 2D can be explained without introducing charge-spin decoupling in 1D, as has been previously claimed .

We have verified the above qualitative reasonings by exact diagonalization studies of 1D and 2D clusters containing 4 Cu atoms (see Fig. 4). The 2D cluster chosen is the largest system that can be diagonalized exactly. The choice of the 1D cluster size was based on the requirement that the number of holes are the same in 1D and 2D. The parameters considered were $`|t|`$ = 1.4 eV, $`U_{\mathrm{Cu}}`$ = 10 eV, $`U_\mathrm{O}`$ = 3 eV, $`V`$ = 1 eV and $`ϵ_\mathrm{O}ϵ_{\mathrm{Cu}}`$ = 2 eV. In Fig. 4, we have shown the lowest energy levels, along with the mirror planes $`\sigma `$ in 1D and $`\sigma _x`$ and $`\sigma _y`$ in 2D. The very low energy excited states in the + subspace in 1D and + + subspace in 2D in Fig. 4 are spin excitations that play no direct role in optical nonlinearity and are not discussed further. The calculated electronic structure and the identification of optically relevant states are consistent with the recent group-theoretical analysis based on the excitonic cluster model .

Our numerical results can be summarized as follows: (i) The dipole couplings of the ground state with the lowest pair of + – and – + states in 2D are one order of magnitude smaller than that with the next higher pair of + – and – + states in the 2D lattice. Accordingly, the optical states in 2D is a higher energy pair of + – and – + states (see Fig. 4). $`\mu _{01}^2`$ in 2D is 0.36 in our units, as compared to $`\mu _{01}^21`$ in the 1D cluster, thereby explaining the weaker linear absorption in 2D (see Fig. 3). (ii) As seen in Fig. 4, in 2D, there exist even parity states, which are antisymmetric with respect to both $`\sigma _x`$ and $`\sigma _y`$ (– – subspace). TPA to these states should occur for cross-polarized pump and probe beams. We have observed the TPA with the cross-polarized configuration in our experiments and will discuss these elsewhere. Note that any interaction (electron-phonon interaction, intrinsic asymmetry due to crystal twinning) that leads to violation of this strict symmetry principle will cause weak TPA to – – states even with co-polarized pump and probe. It is conceivable that the broad nature of the TPA in 2D in the high energy region and the persistence of weak TPA in the low energy region ($``$ 1.5 eV)in Sr2CuO2Cl2 (see Fig. 3) are due to the – – states. As seen in Fig. 4, there also exists a – – state that occurs below the true optical states. This state was not found in the previous one-band model  (presumably because the smaller lattice investigated there did not have the symmetry of the 2D lattice). (iii) In 2D, the most dominant two-photon states are the lowest and the third charge excitation states in the + + subspace, whose dipole couplings are 1.25 and 1.35 to the two one-photon states, compared to dipole couplings of 3.4 and 1.2 between the dominant two-photon states and the optical state in 1D. The lower of the two + + excited states occurs slightly below the one-photon states in 2D for the parameters we have chosen, but with small modifications of these parameters it can also occur slightly above the one-photon states. Thus in both 1D and 2D the dominant two-photon states are close to the one-photon states in energy, in agreement with experiment. The numerical simulation predicts TPA in 1D larger by roughly one order of magnitude than in 2D even from these small cluster calculations. As discussed above, this is a consequence of the larger coordination number in 2D. (iv) We have included direct O–O hopping up to $`|t|`$/3 into Hamiltonian (2) and found no changes in our above conclusions.

The other distinct dimensionality dependence is the difference in the relaxation time. Specifically, in Sr2CuO2Cl2, there exist decay components with characteristic time $``$ 30 ps and $``$ 1 ps, while 1D materials show only the latter component. The intensity of the decay components reduces with an decrease in pump photon energy (see Fig. 2). This indicates that the decay mechanism is associated with excitation of real carriers. We ascribe the 1 ps relaxation to non-radiative channels through spinon (in 1D) or magnon (in 2D) states, which exist below the optical gap and whose width is $``$ 1 eV . We ascribe the slower 30 ps optical relaxation in Sr2CuO2Cl2 to the existence of low energy + – and – + states with weak dipole coupling to the ground state and the forbidden – – electronic state that can act as trap states upon photoexcitation (see Fig. 4). Such subgap electronic excitations are absent in 1D, and therefore the trapping of the optical excitation cannot occur. We note that the undoped 2D cuprates YBa2Cu3O6 and Nd2CuO4 have also shown two decay components with comparable decay rates .

In conclusion, pronounced dimensionality dependence of the optical nonlinearity in the cuprates is found experimentally and theoretically. Coherent optical nonlinearity is dominated by two-photon states whose energy locations relative to the optical states are same in both 1D and 2D materials. However, large nonlinearity and ultrafast relaxation are characteristics of only 1D SCE systems, which make them promising materials for ultrafast optoelectronics . The spin excitations with large energies, promoting the relaxation, are unique to SCE systems. The smaller nonlinearity in 2D is due to the larger coordination number of the atoms, and the occurrence of a slower relaxation channel in 2D is most probably associated with a fundamental difference in the electronic structures in 1D and 2D, viz., the occurrence of electronic energy states below the optical states in 2D, and their absence in 1D.

We are very grateful to T. Ogasawara and S. Uchida for their cooperation at the early stage of this work. We also thank M. Nagai and R. Shimano for stimulating discussions. This work was supported by a grant-in-aid for COE Research from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture of Japan and the New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO). Work in Arizona was supported by the U.S. NSF.


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# 1 The differential cross section dσ/dxᵧ for Q²<1 GeV2 with BFKL and CCFM unintegrated gluon distributions at THERA.

Heavy quark production
in the semihard QCD approach at THERA

S. P. Baranov *** Electronic address: baranov@sgi.lpi.msk.su

P.N. Lebedev Physics Institute, Leninsky prosp. 53, Moscow 117924, Russia

N. P. Zotov  Electronic address: zotov@theory.npi.msu.su

D.V. Skobeltzyn Institute of Nuclear Pysics,
M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119899, Russia

Abstract
In the framework of the semihard ($`k_T`$ factorization) QCD approach, we consider the photoproduction of $`D^\pm `$ mesons associated with two hadron jets and the $`D^\pm `$ production in DIS at THERA conditions with the emphasis on the BFKL and CCFM dynamics of gluon distributions. In the photoproduction of $`D^\pm `$ mesons the attention is focused on the variable $`x_\gamma `$, which is the fraction of the photon momentum contributed to a pair of jets with largest $`p_T`$. We show that our theoretical results are sensitive to the BFKL type dynamics which may be investigated at THERA energies. We also discuss possible effect of $`J/\psi `$ meson spin alignement, which is thought to be a vivid manifestation of gluon off-shellness.
PACS number(s): 12.38.-t, 13.60.-r, 13.87.Ce
Keywords: $`D^\pm `$ , $`J/\psi `$ and jet production, semihard QCD approach, BFKL and CCFM unintegrated gluon distribution

1. Introduction

The experimental results on heavy flavour production processes obtained by the H1  and ZEUS  collaborations at HERA provide a strong impetus for further theoretical and experimental studies in a new energy region at THERA conditions.

In due time, the experimental data have been compared with next-to-leading order (NLO) perturbative QCD calculations using the ‘massive’ and ‘massless’ schemes. The measured cross sections generally lie above the predicted level, and an agreement between the theoretical and experimental results can only be achieved using some extreme parameter values. In particular, the production rates of $`D^\pm `$ mesons in the NLO massive scheme  require as low quark mass as $`m_c=1.2`$ GeV and as sharp charm fragmentation function as $`ϵ=0.02`$ (in the Peterson parametrization). However, even within this set of parameters, the shapes of the $`D^\pm `$ transverse momentum and rapidity distributions cannot be said well reproduced. A good agreement between the massless scheme  and the measured $`p_T(D^{})`$ (though not $`\eta (D^{})`$) spectrum was achieved upon introducing an additional charm excitation contribution assuming an incredibly large charm content in the photon structure functions : $`c(x)u(x)`$.

The so called $`k_T`$ factorization, or the semihard approach (SHA) -, on one hand may give a reasonable solution for some of the above problems. On the other hand the significance of $`k_T`$ factorization (semihard) approach becomes more and more commonly recognized. Its applications to a variety of photo-, lepto- and hadroproduction processes are widely discussed in the literature  \- . In many cases a remarkable agreement is found between the data and the theoretical calculations regarding the photo-  and electroproduction  of $`D^\pm `$ mesons, forward jets , as well as for specific kinematical correlations observed in the associated $`D^\pm `$ +jets photoproduction  at HERA and also the hadroproduction of beauty , $`\chi _c`$  and $`J/\psi `$  at Tevatron. The theoretical predictions made in ref.  has triggered a dedicated experimental analysis  of the $`J/\psi `$ polarization (i.e., spin alignement) at HERA energies.

To some extent, the SHA based on the BFKL  gluon dynamics includes the relevant effects of higher order contributions . It has been also demonstrated in  that the SHA effectively imitates the anomalous coupling of the resolved photon and an ad hoc contribution from the resolved photon is no longer needed at least for the description of the $`x_\gamma `$ distribution in $`D^\pm `$ photoproduction at HERA energies.

In the present paper we use the semihard QCD approach to predict some features of the $`D^\pm `$ and $`J/\psi `$ production processes in the new energy region of THERA collider.

2. The semihard QCD approach

The production of $`J/\psi `$ mesons and open-flavoured $`c\overline{c}`$ pairs is described in terms of the photon-gluon fusion mechanism. A generalization of the usual parton model to the $`k_T`$-factorization approach implies two essential steps. These are the introduction of unintegrated gluon distributions and the modification of the gluon spin density matrix in the parton-level matrix elements.

At first we consider the relevant partonic subprocesses. Let $`k_1`$, $`k_2`$, $`k_3`$ and $`p_\psi `$ be the momenta of the initial state photon, the initial state gluon, the final state gluon and the final state $`J/\psi `$, respectively, $`ϵ_1`$, $`ϵ_2`$, $`ϵ_3`$ and $`ϵ_\psi `$ the polarization vectors, and $`k=k_1+k_2`$. The photon-gluon fusion matrix elements then read:

$`(\gamma g\psi g)=tr\{\mathit{ϵ̸}_1(\mathit{}_c\mathit{}_1+m_c)\mathit{ϵ̸}_2(\mathit{}_{\overline{c}}\mathit{}_3+m_c)\mathit{ϵ̸}_3J(ϵ_\psi )\}`$
$`\times [k_1^22(p_ck_1)]^1[k_3^2+2(p_{\overline{c}}k_3)]^1\text{ + 5 permutations}`$ (1)
Similarly, for the production of an open-flavoured $`c\overline{c}`$ pair (see fig. 1b):

$`(\gamma gc\overline{c})=\overline{u}(p_c)\{\mathit{ϵ̸}_1(\mathit{}_c\mathit{}_1+m_c)\mathit{ϵ̸}_2[k_1^22k_1p_c]^1`$
$`+\mathit{ϵ̸}_2(\mathit{}_c\mathit{}_2+m_c)\mathit{ϵ̸}_2[k_2^22k_2p_c]^1\}u(p_{\overline{c}})`$ (2)
In the expression (S0.Ex1), the projection operator  $`J(ϵ_\psi )=\mathit{ϵ̸}_\psi (\mathit{}_c+m_c)/\sqrt{m_\psi }`$ guarantees the proper spin structure of the $`c\overline{c}`$ state, and the charmed quarks are assumed to each carry one half of the $`J/\psi `$ momentum, $`p_c`$=$`p_{\overline{c}}`$=$`p_\psi /2`$, $`m_c`$=$`m_\psi /2`$. The formation of a meson from the $`c\overline{c}`$ pair is a nonperturbative process. Within the nonrelativistic approximation we are using, this probability reduces to a single parameter related to the meson wave function at the origin $`|\mathrm{\Psi }(0)|^2`$, which is known for $`J/\psi `$ and $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ families from the measured leptonic decay widths.

The evaluation of traces in (S0.Ex1)-(S0.Ex2) is straightforward and is doneusing the algebraic manipulation system FORM . The complete set of matrix elements has been tested for gauge invariance by substituting the gluons momenta for their polarization vectors.

The multiparticle phase space $`d^3p_i/(2E_i)\delta ^4(p_{in}p_{out})`$ is parametrized in terms of transverse momenta, rapidities and azimuthal angles: $`\frac{d^3p_i}{2E_i}`$=$`\frac{\pi }{2}dp_{iT}^2dy_i\frac{d\varphi _i}{2\pi }`$. Let $`\varphi _1`$ and $`\varphi _2`$ be the azimuthal angles of the initial photon and gluon, $`\varphi _3`$, $`\varphi _\psi `$, $`\varphi _c`$ and $`\varphi _{\overline{c}}`$ the azimuthal angles of the partonic subprocess products (i.e., of a $`J/\psi `$ and a gluon, or a charmed quark and an antiquark, respectively) and $`y_3`$, $`y_\psi `$, $`y_c`$ and $`y_{\overline{c}}`$ their rapidities. Then, the fully differential cross sections read:

$`d\sigma (ep\psi gX)={\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s^2\alpha e_c^2|\mathrm{\Psi }(0)|^2}{4x_2s^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}{\displaystyle \underset{\text{spins}}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8}}{\displaystyle \underset{\text{colours}}{}}|(\gamma g\psi g)|^2`$
$`\times _g(x_2,k_{2T}^2,\mu ^2)dk_{1T}^2dk_{2T}^2dp_{\psi T}^2dy_3dy_\psi {\displaystyle \frac{d\varphi _1}{2\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{d\varphi _2}{2\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{d\varphi _\psi }{2\pi }},`$ (3)
$`d\sigma (epc\overline{c}X)={\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s\alpha e_c^2}{16\pi x_2s^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}{\displaystyle \underset{\text{spins}}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{8}}{\displaystyle \underset{\text{colours}}{}}|(\gamma gc\overline{c})|^2`$
$`\times _g(x_2,k_{2T}^2,\mu ^2)dk_{1T}^2dk_{2T}^2dp_{cT}^2dy_cdy_{\overline{c}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\varphi _1}{2\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{d\varphi _2}{2\pi }}{\displaystyle \frac{d\varphi _c}{2\pi }}.`$ (4)
The phase space physical boundary is determined by the inequality

$$G(\widehat{s},\widehat{t},k_4^2,k_1^2,k_2^2,k_3^2)0,$$
(5)
where $`k_3`$ and $`k_4`$ denote the partonic subprocess final state momenta, $`\widehat{s}=(k_1+k_2)^2`$, $`\widehat{t}=(k_1k_3)^2`$, and $`G`$ is the standard kinematical function .

When calculating the spin average of the matrix element squared, we substitute the full lepton tensor for the photon polarization matrix:

$$\overline{ϵ_1^\mu ϵ_1^\nu }=4\pi \alpha [8p_e^\mu p_e^\nu 4(p_ek_1)g^{\mu \nu }]/(k_1^2)^2$$
(6)
(including also the photon propagator factor and photon-lepton coupling). For the off-shell incoming gluon we take

$$\overline{ϵ_2^\mu ϵ_2^\nu }=k_{2T}^\mu k_{2T}^\nu /|k_{2T}|^2.$$
(7)
This formula converges to the usual $`ϵ^\mu ϵ^\nu =g^{\mu \nu }`$ when $`k_T0`$. The final state gluon in (S0.Ex1) is assumed on-shell, $`ϵ_3^\mu ϵ_3^\nu =g^{\mu \nu }`$. The $`J/\psi `$ polarization vector $`ϵ_\psi `$ is defined as an explicit four-vector. In the frame with z-axis along the $`J/\psi `$ momentum, $`p_\psi =(0,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},|p_\psi |,E_\psi )`$, it reads for different helicity states:

$$ϵ_{\psi (h=\pm 1)}=(1,\pm i,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0})/\sqrt{2},ϵ_{\psi (h=0)}=(0,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},E_\psi ,|p_\psi |)/m_\psi .$$
(8)
The initial photon and gluon momentum fractions $`x_1`$ and $`x_2`$ are calculated from the energy-momentum conservation laws in the light cone projections:

$`(k_1+k_2)_{E+p_{||}}=x_1\sqrt{s}`$ $`=`$ $`m_{3T}\mathrm{exp}(y_3)+|m_{4T}|\mathrm{exp}(y_4),`$
$`(k_1+k_2)_{Ep_{||}}=x_2\sqrt{s}`$ $`=`$ $`m_{3T}\mathrm{exp}(y_3)+|m_{4T}|\mathrm{exp}(y_4).`$
The multidimensional integration in (3), (4) has been performed by means of Monte-Carlo technique, using the routine VEGAS .

Another important ingredient of the semihard approach is the so called unintegrated gluon distribution $`(x,k_T^2,\mu ^2)`$, which determines the probability to find a gluon carrying the longitudinal momentum fraction $`x`$ and transverse momentum $`k_T`$. In calculations we use two different sets of unintegrated gluon distributions. One of them is based on the approach of ref. and is costructed as a leading-order perturbative solution of the BFKL equations. Technically, the unintegrated gluon density $`_g(x,k_T^2,\mu ^2)`$ is calculated as a convolution of the ordinary gluon density $`G(x,\mu ^2)`$ with universal weight factors:

$$_g(x,k_T^2,\mu ^2)=_x^1𝒢(\eta ,k_T^2,\mu ^2)\frac{x}{\eta }G(\frac{x}{\eta },\mu ^2)𝑑\eta ,$$
(10)
$$𝒢(\eta ,k_T^2,\mu ^2)=\frac{\overline{\alpha }_s}{\eta k_T^2}J_0(2\sqrt{\overline{\alpha }_s\mathrm{ln}(1/\eta )\mathrm{ln}(\mu ^2/k_T^2)}),k_T^2<\mu ^2,$$
(11)
$$𝒢(\eta ,k_T^2,\mu ^2)=\frac{\overline{\alpha }_s}{\eta k_T^2}I_0(2\sqrt{\overline{\alpha }_s\mathrm{ln}(1/\eta )\mathrm{ln}(k_T^2/\mu ^2)}),k_T^2>\mu ^2,$$
(12)
where $`J_0`$ and $`I_0`$ stand for Bessel functions (of real and imaginary arguments, respectively), and $`\overline{\alpha }_s=\alpha _s/3\pi `$. The LO GRV set  was used here for the boundary conditions. Another set of unintegrated gluon densities was extracted from a numerical simulution of the CCFM equations  and then tabulated in the form of a FORTRAN code . Finally, the charm quarks were converted into $`D^\pm `$ mesons using the Peterson fragmentation function .

In the paper  we used the standard GRV parametrization  for the collinear gluon density, from which the unintegrated gluon distribution was developed according to eqs. (10)-(12). Some other essential parameters were chosen as follows: the charm quark mass $`m_c=1.5`$ GeV, the Peterson fragmentation parameter $`ϵ=0.06`$, the overall $`cD^{}`$ fragmentation probability 0.26. The Pomeron intercept $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ was regarded as free parameter, and then the value $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0.35`$ has been extracted from a fit to the experimental $`p_T(D^{})`$ spectrum measured by the ZEUS collaboration . Close estimates for $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ have also been obtained by many other authors, see, e.g. . Since the agreement with the data achieved within this set of parameters was really good , we continue using it in the present calculations.

3. Numerical results

3.1 $`D^\pm `$ and dijet associated photoproduction at THERA

The ZEUS collaboration has measured the associated charm and dijet production  as a further test of the underlying parton dynamics. In these measurements, the quantity of interest is the fraction of the photon momentum contributing to the production of two jets with highest $`E_T`$, which is experimentally defined as

$$x_\gamma =[E_{1T}\mathrm{exp}(\eta _1)+E_{2T}\mathrm{exp}(\eta _2)]/(2E_ey)$$
(13)
with $`E_{iT}`$ and $`\eta _i`$ being the transverse energy and rapidity of these hardest jets.

In the ref.  the theoretical calculations have been made within the SHA with different unintegrated gluon distributions at HERA energies. In Fig. 1 we present the results of similar theoretical calculations made within the semihard approach with BFKL and CCFM unintegrated gluon distributions at THERA energies. The simulation procedure consists in generating a photon-gluon fusion event using the off-shell matrix elements and the unintegrated gluon distribution functions described in Section 2.

The basic $`22`$ partonic subprocess gives rise to two high-energy quarks, which can further evolve into hadron jets. Actually, as the matter of some reasonable approximation, the calculations were restricted to parton level, and so the produced quarks (with their known kinematical parameters) were taken to play the role of the final jets: $`E_T(jet_{1,2})=E_T(q,\overline{q})`$.

The two quarks are accompanied by a number of gluons radiated in the course of the gluon evolution. It has been mentioned already that, on the average, the gluon transverse momentum decreases from the hard interaction block towards the proton. As an approximation, we assume that the gluon closest to the quark block with its momentum $`k^{}`$ compensates the whole transverse momentum of the virtual gluon participating in the hard interaction: $`\stackrel{}{k^{}}_T\stackrel{}{k}_T`$, while all the other emitted gluons are collected together in the ‘proton remnant’, which is assumed to carry only a negligible transverse momentum compared to $`\stackrel{}{k^{}}_T`$. This gluon gives rise to a third hadron jet with $`E_T=|\stackrel{}{k^{}}_T|`$.

From among the three hadron jets represented by the quark, antiquark and gluon we choose the two carrying the largest transverse energies, and then calculate the quantity $`x_\gamma `$ according to its definition given by equ. (13) 111The full FORTRAN code is available from the authors on request..

In a significant fraction of events, the gluon radiated from the BFKL cascade appears to be harder than one or even both of the quarks produced in hard parton interaction . In fact, the specified events are responsible for the wide plateau seen in the $`x_\gamma `$ distribution in Fig. 1.

3.2. Deep inelastic $`D^\pm `$ production at THERA

The process of deep inelastic $`D^\pm `$ production at HERA is truly semihard because of the presence of two large scales: the virtuality of the exchanged photon ($`Q^2`$) and the charm mass ($`m_c^2`$), both being much larger than $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}`$ but much smaller than $`s`$. Therefore, experimental data concerning the $`D^\pm `$ production in DIS at THERA provide a strong impetus for further theoretical studies of this process.

In Fig. 2 the theoretical predictions on the differential cross sections of deep inelastic $`D^\pm `$ production are shown for the THERA kinematical region: $`1<Q^2<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1000}`$ GeV2, $`1.5<p_T(D^\pm )<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}15}`$ GeV and $`|\eta (D^\pm )|<\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1.5}`$. Different curves in Fig. 2 correspond to the BFKL and CCFM unintegrated gluon distributions. At HERA energies the SHA calculations with BFKL unintegrated gluon distribution have shown  some shift to negative $`\eta (D^{})`$ with respect to the ZEUS data. When we have used the CCFM unintegrated gluon density from MC generator CASCADE  with JETSET based fragmentation function  implemented in, we obtain good agreement between our theoretical results and the ZEUS experimental data  also for $`d\sigma /d\eta (D^{})`$ .

3.3. $`J/\psi `$ photoproduction at THERA

The role of the gluon virtuality may be seen in Fig. 3, where we show the results of calculations for $`J/\psi `$ photoproduction made with the BFKL unintegrated gluon distribution. The results correspond to THERA conditions, i.e. electron proton collisions at the energy $`\sqrt{s}=`$ 1000 GeV, where no other cuts were applied except the photoproduction limit $`Q^2<1`$ GeV2 and the inelasticity requirement $`0.4<z<0.9`$.

The effects of initial gluon off-shellness may be, best of all, seen in the transverse momentum spectra , because the gluon virtuality is proportional to its transverse momentum: $`m^2=k_T^2/(1x)`$. In contrast with the conventional (massless) parton model, the SHA shows that the fraction of $`J/\psi `$ mesons in the helicity zero state increases with their transverse momentum $`p_T`$. A deviation from the parton model behaviour becomes well pronounced already from $`p_T>3`$ GeV at HERA energies , and at $`p_T>6`$ GeV the helicity zero polarization tends to be even dominant (Fig. 3c).

Qualitatively, the difference between the model predictions referes to different origins of the $`J/\psi `$ transverse momentum. In the case of conventional parton model $`J/\psi `$ meson obtains its transverse momentum from the hard photon gluon interaction, while in the SHA there is also a large the contribution from the initial gluon transverse momentum.

The degree of spin alignement can be measured experimentally since the different polarization states of $`J/\psi `$ result in significantly different angular distributions of the $`J/\psi l^+l^{}`$ decay leptons:

$$d\mathrm{\Gamma }_{h=\pm 1}/dcos\mathrm{\Theta }=1cos^2\mathrm{\Theta },d\mathrm{\Gamma }_{h=0}/dcos\mathrm{\Theta }=1+cos^2\mathrm{\Theta }$$
(14)
Here $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ is the angle between the lepton and $`J/\psi `$ directions, measured in the $`J/\psi `$ meson rest frame. Evidently the most informative regions relate to $`cos\mathrm{\Theta }=\pm 1`$.

4. Conclusions

In the framework of semihard QCD approach, we obtained some predictions for the cross sections of inclusive $`D^\pm `$ meson production at THERA conditions using different unintegrated gluon distributions driven by the BFKL and CCFM evolution equations.

We have considered the photoproduction of $`D^\pm `$ mesons associated with two hadron jets and also $`D^\pm `$ production in DIS at THERA conditions, which may be a sensitive indicator of the underlying parton dynamics. The results of the simulations show that theoretical results are very sensitive to BFKL type dynamics, in particular, to the unintegrated gluon distribution in the proton.

We have considered also the effects of initial gluon off-shellness in SHA for $`J/\psi `$ meson photoproduction at THERA energies. Gluon virtuality connected with its transverse momentum is one of the inherent properties of noncollinear (BFKL) parton evolution theory. Compared to traditional (collinear) parton model, gluons are characterized by a different spin density matrix. The latter is found to affect the polarization of $`J/\psi `$ mesons produced in $`ep`$ collisions via photon gluon fusion subprocess. The effect is best pronounced at large $`J/\psi `$ transverse momenta and can be detected experimentally by measuring the $`J/\psi l^+l^{}`$ decay lepton angular distributions. We recommend the above process as a direct probe of the gluon virtuality, which can eventually testify for the validity of BFKL gluon evolution.

Thus the experimental and theoretical investigations in the new kinematic region of THERA collider will provide additional tests of the semihard ($`k_T`$ factorization) approach and, in particular, of the ”universality” of unintegrated gluon distribution.

Acknowledgements

The work was supported by Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.


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# Untitled Document

Lotka-Volterra Equation over a Finite Ring $`𝐙/p^N𝐙`$

Shigeki Matsutani

8-21-1 Higashi-Linkan Sagamihara 228-0811 JAPAN

Abstract

Discrete Lotka-Volterra equation over $`p`$-adic space was constructed since $`p`$-adic space is a prototype of spaces with the non-Archimedean valuations and the space given by taking ultra-discrete limit studied in soliton theory should be regarded as a space with the non-Archimedean valuations in the previous report (solv-int/9906011). In this article, using the natural projection from $`p`$-adic integer to a ring $`𝐙/p^n𝐙`$, a soliton equation is defined over the ring. Numerical computations shows that it behaves regularly.

§1. Introduction

According to \[LL\], studies on the ultrametric space which is characterized by the strong triangle axiom

$$d(x,z)\mathrm{max}[d(x,y),d(y,z)]$$
(1)
or for one-dimensional additive space case

$$|xz|_{\mathrm{ult}}\mathrm{max}[|x|_{\mathrm{ult}},|z|_{\mathrm{ult}}]$$
(2)
has been current for this 10-15 years in the fields of general topology, computer language, rings of meromorphic function and so on. This space is called non-Archimedean space in English and German literature and is known as ultrametric space in France literature and as isosceles space in Russian \[LL\]. This space appeared, in first, in the theory of number theory as $`p`$-adic (Hensel) integer but nowadays, it is known that this space is natural even for the fields out of number theory.

In fact, the space obtained by ultra-discrete limit which has been studied in soliton theory \[TS, TTMS\] holds the relation (1) as shown in \[M\]. (If one recognizes that the soliton theory is roughly a theory of functions over a compact Riemann surface, the functions are also governed by the non-Archimedean valuation \[I\] and thus the ultrametric is built in soliton theory. Sato theory is based on the fact \[S\].)

In the studies of the ultrametric space, it is natural to feel that the theory over a field with characteristics $`q=0`$ is too restricted because $`p`$-adic space is a prototype of the ultrametric space.

Actually as the ultra-discrete equation \[TS, TTMS\] is given as a difference-difference equation, difference-difference equations are in general given by algebraic relations. Thus it is natural to consider the equations in the algebraic category and there non-vanishing characteristics is canonical. For example, the one-dimensional linear difference-difference heat equation is algebraically defined as follows: Let $`K`$ be a field with characteristics $`q=0`$ and $`K[X,T]`$ be a set of polynomial of $`X`$ and $`T`$. Let us introduce a ring $`F_X[T]:=K[X,T]/(1X^n)`$ where $`(1X^n)`$ is an ideal generated by $`1X^n`$ and $`n`$ is a positive integer. We have its subset

$$F_X^i[T]:=\{fF_X[T]|\text{order of }f\text{ in }Ti\}.$$
(3)
Then we can define a map $`\varphi :F_X^i[T]/F_X^{i1}[T]F_X^{i+1}[T]/F_X^i[T]`$ by for an element $`f_i`$ of $`F^i[X,T]/F^{i1}[X,T]`$, $`\varphi f_i:=T(X2+ϵ+X^1)f_i`$. For an element $`f_0F_X^0[X,T]`$, we compute $`f_n:=\varphi ^nf_0`$. This is the computation of the one-dimensional discrete heat equation with a periodic boundary condition on $`n`$; $`X`$ and $`T`$ are shift operators. Since $`F_X^0[T]`$ can be regarded as a cyclotomic field, one may compare the norm of $`|X2+ϵ+X^1|`$ with the parameter $`ϵ`$, which is related to stability’s criterion of the numerical computation \[PTVF\]. In this formulation, it is not strange to consider it over a field with non-vanishing characteristics.

Similarly we wish to formulate the difference-difference non-linear equation over a more general field with non-vanishing characteristics or its related ring. In fact, there were several attempts to formulate the soliton theory over finite fields \[N, NM\]. The purpose of this study including the previous report \[M\] is to extend the soliton theory over $`𝐑`$ to $`p`$-adic number space in order to consider the meanings of the ultra-discrete limit. (As the $`p`$-adic valuation is a prototype of the non-Archimedean valuation and the ultra-discrete system is natural in soliton theory, it is very natural to investigate soliton equations in the $`p`$-adic space.) The extension of soliton theory to $`p`$-adic space has been done by Ichikawa for continuous soliton theory or KP-hierarchy \[Ic1-3\]. In this study, we restrict ourselves only to consider the difference-difference equations. Then as mentioned in \[M\], we can also define the $`p`$-adic difference-difference Lotka-Volterra equation and show that its $`p`$-adic valuation version has the same structure of the ultra-discrete difference-difference Lotka-Volterra equation. This implies that there might exist a functor between categories of discrete ordinary soliton equations and $`p`$-adic soliton equations, even though we did not mention it \[M\].

In this article, we will investigate $`p`$-adic system more concretely. Since $`p`$-adic integer is canonically connected with a finite ring $`𝐙/p^N𝐙`$, we will consider that the Lotka-Volterra equation over the finite ring $`𝐙/p^N𝐙`$. Due to its finiteness, we can compute it concretely. Numerical computations show that the Lotka-Volterra equation over the finite ring $`𝐙/p^n𝐙`$ behaves regularly. It is expected that there is a natural group governing the system.

In this article, we denote the set of integers, rational number and real numbers by $`𝐙`$, $`𝐐`$ and $`𝐑`$ respectively.

§2. Ultra-Discrete Limit as a Valuation

This section reviews the previous report \[M\] briefly in order to connect the ultra-discrete system with ultrametric system. Let $`\overline{𝒜_{[\beta ]}}`$ be a set of non-negative real valued functions over $`\{\beta 𝐑_{>0}\}`$ where $`𝐑_{>0}`$ is a set of positive real numbers. Let us define a map $`\mathrm{ord}_\beta :\overline{𝒜_{[\beta ]}}\{0\}𝐑+\mathrm{}`$. We set $`\mathrm{ord}_\beta (0)=\mathrm{}`$ for $`u0`$ and for $`u\overline{𝒜_{[\beta ]}}`$,

$$\mathrm{ord}_\beta (u):=\underset{\beta +\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{1}{\beta }\mathrm{log}(u).$$
(4)
We call this value ultra-discrete of $`u`$.

Let us choose a subset $`𝒜_{[\beta ]}`$ of $`\overline{𝒜_{[\beta ]}}`$, $`𝒜_{[\beta ]}:=\{u\overline{𝒜_{[\beta ]}}|\mathrm{ord}_\beta (u)<\mathrm{}\}`$. Further we identify the set $`\{u\overline{𝒜_{[\beta ]}}|\mathrm{ord}_\beta (u)=\mathrm{}\}`$ with $`\{0\}`$. The ultra-discrete $`\mathrm{ord}_\beta `$ is a non-Archimedean valuation \[I\] since it hold the properties (Iβ):

Proposition Iβ  For $`u,v𝒜_{[\beta ]}\{0\}`$,

1. $`\mathrm{ord}_\beta (uv)=\mathrm{ord}_\beta (u)+\mathrm{ord}_\beta (v)`$.
2. $`\mathrm{ord}_\beta (u+v)=\mathrm{min}(\mathrm{ord}_\beta (u),\mathrm{ord}_\beta (v))`$.

Let us, now, give the difference-difference Lotka-Volterra equation for $`\{c_n^m𝐑_0|(n,m)\mathrm{\Omega }\times 𝐙\}`$ \[HT\],

$$\frac{c_n^{m+1}}{c_n^m}=\frac{1+\delta c_{n1}^m}{1+\delta c_{n+1}^{m+1}}.$$
(5)
Here $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is a subset of $`𝐙`$, $`\delta `$ is a small parameter ($`|\delta |<1`$) connecting between discrete system and continuum system, $`n`$ is an index of a subset of the integer $`𝐙`$ and $`m`$ is of time step.

By introducing new variables $`f_n^m:=\mathrm{ord}_\beta (c_n^m)`$ and $`d:=\mathrm{ord}_\beta (\delta )`$ \[T\], we have a ultra-discrete version of the difference-difference Lotka-Volterra equation (5) for $`c_n^m𝒜_{[\beta ]}`$ and $`\delta 𝒜_{[\beta ]}`$ \[TS, T, TTMS\],

$$f_n^{m+1}f_n^m=\mathrm{ord}_\beta (1+\delta _pc_{n1}^m)\mathrm{ord}_\beta (1+\delta _pc_{n1}^m).$$
(6)
We emphasize that (6) is considered as a valuation version of the difference-difference soliton equation (5).

Now in order to connect the ultra-discrete valuation and ultrametric in the framework \[LL\], we introduce a real number $`\overline{\beta }1`$ and define a quantity for $`x𝒜_{[\beta ]}`$ as,

$$|x|_\beta :=\left(\text{e}^{\overline{\beta }}\right)^{\mathrm{ord}_\beta (x)}.$$
(7)
This is an ultrametric because it satisfies next proposition.

Proposition IIβ For $`u`$, $`v𝒜_{[\beta ]}\{0\}`$, $`|u|_\beta `$ and $`|v|_\beta `$ hold following properties,

1. $`|u|_\beta `$ depends upon $`\overline{\beta }`$.
2. if $`|v|_\beta =0`$, $`v=0.`$
3. $`|v|_\beta 0`$.
4. $`|vu|_\beta =|v|_\beta |u|_\beta `$.
5. $`|u+v|_\beta =\mathrm{max}(|u|_\beta ,|v|_\beta )|u|_\beta +|v|_\beta `$.

Here we will remark on this ultrametric as follows \[M\].

1. If we define the distance $`d(x,y)`$ between points $`x,y𝒜_{[\beta ]}\{0\}`$ by $`d(x,y):=uv_\beta `$, the fifth property in IIβ satisfies (2), since the absolute value $`|uv|`$ belongs to $`𝒜_{[\beta ]}\{0\}`$. This metric induces very a week topology.
2. Since $`x𝒜_{[\beta ]}`$ has a finite value at $`\beta \mathrm{}`$, we have relation

$$|x|_\beta |_{\overline{\beta }\mathrm{}}\mathrm{exp}(\overline{\beta }((\mathrm{log}x)/\beta ))|_{\overline{\beta }\beta \mathrm{}}=|x|^{\overline{\beta }/\beta }|_{\overline{\beta }\beta \mathrm{}}.$$
(8)
It may be regarded that $`|x|_\beta |x|`$, in heart, by synchronizing $`\overline{\beta }`$ and $`\beta `$. $`|x|_\beta `$ is consist with the natural metric $`||`$ in $`𝐑`$.
3. In this metric, we have the relation,

$$|\underset{m}{}x_m|_\beta =\text{e}^{\overline{\beta }\mathrm{min}(\mathrm{ord}_\beta (x_m))}.$$
(9)
This relation appears in the partition function at $`\overline{\beta }\beta =1/T`$, $`T0`$ and in the semi-classical path integral $`\overline{\beta }\beta =1/\mathrm{}`$, $`\mathrm{}0`$ \[D, FH\]. It means that the classical regime appears as a non-Archimedean valuation, which is an algebraic manipulation. For example, a problem with a minimal principle might be regarded as a valuation of a quantum problem.

These remarks shows that the ultrametric obtained from the ultra-discrete is a very natural object from physical and mathematical viewpoints.

§3. Preliminary: $`p`$-adic Space

In the ultrametric space theory, $`p`$-adic space is prototype. Hereafter let us consider the $`p`$-adic space. In this section, let us introduce $`p`$-adic field $`𝐐_p`$ and $`p`$-adic integer $`𝐙_p`$ for a prime number $`p`$ \[C, I, L, RTV, VVZ\]. For a rational number $`u𝐐`$ which is given by $`u={\displaystyle \frac{v}{w}}p^m`$ ($`v`$ and $`w`$ are coprime to the prime number $`p`$ and $`m`$ is an integer), we define a symbol $`[[u]]_p=p^m`$. Here let us define the $`p`$-adic valuation of $`u`$ as a map from $`𝐐`$ to a set of integers $`𝐙`$,

$$\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(u):=\mathrm{log}_p[[u]]_p,\text{ for }u0,\text{ and }\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(u):=\mathrm{},\text{ for }u=0.$$
(10)
This valuation has following properties (Ip), which is similar to Iβ of $`\mathrm{ord}_\beta `$,

Proposition Ip: For $`u,v𝐐`$,

1. $`\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(uv)=\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(u)+\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(v)`$.
2. $`\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(u+v)\mathrm{min}(\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(u),\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(v))`$.

If $`\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(u)\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(v)`$, $`\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(u+v)=\mathrm{min}(\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(u),\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(v))`$.

This property (Ip-1) means that $`\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}`$ is a homomorphism from the multiplicative group $`𝐐^\times `$ of $`𝐐`$ to the additive group $`𝐙`$. The $`p`$-adic metric is given by $`|v|_p=p^{\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(v)}`$, which has the properties (IIp);

Proposition IIp:For $`u,v𝐐`$,

1. if $`|v|_p=0`$, $`v=0`$.
2. $`|v|_p0`$.
3. $`|vu|_p=|v|_p|u|_p`$.
4. $`|u+v|_p\mathrm{max}(|u|_p,|v|_p)|u|_p+|v|_p`$.

The $`p`$-adic field $`𝐐_p`$ is given as a completion of $`𝐐`$ with respect to this metric so that properties (Ip) and (IIp) survive for $`𝐐_p`$.

It should be noted that the properties Ip and IIp are essentially the same as those of Iβ and IIβ. As a property of $`p`$-adic metric, the convergence condition of series $`_mx_m`$ is identified with the vanishing condition of sequence $`|x_m|_p0`$ for $`m\mathrm{}`$ due to the relationship \[C, L, VVZ\],

$$|\underset{m}{}x_m|_p=\mathrm{max}|x_m|_p.$$
(11)
This property is related to (9).

Further we note that the integer part of $`𝐐_p`$, $`𝐙_p:=\{u𝐐_p|\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(u)>0\}`$, is a localized ring and has only prime ideals $`\{0\}`$ and $`p𝐙_p`$ \[L\]. $`𝐙_p`$ can be also defined by an inverse limit of the projective sequence \[L\],

$$𝐙/p𝐙𝐙/p^2𝐙𝐙/p^3𝐙\mathrm{},$$
(12)
or

$$𝐙_p:=\underset{}{lim}𝐙/p^N𝐙.$$
(13)
Thus there is a natural surjective ring homomorphism from $`𝐙_p`$ to $`𝐙/p^N𝐙`$.

§4. $`p`$-adic Difference-Difference Lotka-Volterra Equation

and Its Applications

Now let us define the $`p`$-adic difference-difference Lotka-Volterra equation for a $`p`$-adic series $`\{c_n^m𝐐_p|(n,m)\mathrm{\Omega }\times 𝐙\}`$ ($`p2`$),

$$\frac{c_n^{m+1}}{c_n^m}=\frac{1+\delta _pc_{n1}^m}{1+\delta _pc_{n+1}^{m+1}},$$
(14)
or

$$c_n^{m+1}(1+\delta _pc_{n+1}^{m+1})=c_n^m(1+\delta _pc_{n1}^m),$$
(15)
where $`\delta _pp𝐙_p`$ and $`|\delta _p|_p<1`$. We proved that this equation has non-trivial solution in \[M\].

In this article, we will give another proof. Due to (12) and (13), there is a natural projection from $`𝐙_p`$ to $`𝐙/p^N𝐙`$. The equation (15) can be solved by module computations if $`c_n^0𝐙_p`$ for all $`n\mathrm{\Omega }`$. Let us expand $`c_n^m`$ in $`p`$-adic space,

$$c_n^m:=\alpha _{n}^{m}{}_{}{}^{(0)}+\alpha _{n}^{m}{}_{}{}^{(1)}p+\alpha _{n}^{m}{}_{}{}^{(2)}p^2+\mathrm{},c_{n}^{m}{}_{}{}^{(N)}:=\underset{i=0}{\overset{N1}{}}\alpha _{n}^{m}{}_{}{}^{(i)}p^i.$$
(16)
For simplicity, we assume $`\delta _pp`$. By comparing the coefficients of $`p^N`$ $`(N=0,1,2,\mathrm{})`$ in the both sides in (15), we can determine the time revolution iteratively:

$`\alpha _{n}^{m+1}{}_{}{}^{(0)}`$ $`=`$ $`\alpha _{n}^{m}{}_{}{}^{(0)},`$
$`\alpha _{n}^{m+1}{}_{}{}^{(1)}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(c_n^m(1+pc_{n1}^m)c_{n}^{m+1}{}_{}{}^{(1)}\right)/p\text{module }p,`$
$`\mathrm{}`$
$`\alpha _{n}^{m+1}{}_{}{}^{(N)}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(c_n^m(1+pc_{n1}^m)c_{n}^{m+1}{}_{}{}^{(N)}(1+pc_{n+1}^{m+1}{}_{}{}^{(N)})\right)/p^N\text{module }p.`$ (17)
This comparison means that we compute (15) in modulo $`p^{N+1}`$, $`(N=0,1,2,\mathrm{})`$. If the initial state is given by $`\{c_n^0c_{n}^{0}{}_{}{}^{(N_0)}\}_{n\mathrm{\Omega }}`$ for a finite $`N_0`$, above computations give all values of $`\alpha _{n}^{m}{}_{}{}^{(N)}`$’s. Then $`\alpha _{n}^{m}{}_{}{}^{(N)}`$’s vanish for $`n\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`N>N_1`$, sufficient large $`N_1`$, and finite $`m`$. It implies that (15) has non-trivial solutions in $`p`$-adic space.

Using the natural projection from $`𝐙_p`$ to $`𝐙/p^N𝐙`$, we have solutions (17) of the equation (15) modulo $`p^{N+1}`$ when we fix $`N`$. We give some examples in tables 1, 2, and 3 with periodic boundary condition for $`n`$; $`c_n^mc_{n+M}^m`$ and $`M=5`$. These are of $`p=3`$ and $`p=5`$ modulo $`p^3`$ $`(N=2)`$ cases and $`p=7`$ modulo $`p^2`$ $`(N=1)`$ case. Numerical computations show that they are also periodic on time $`m`$ $`c_n^m=c_n^{m+p^N}`$. Since $`\alpha _{n}^{m}{}_{}{}^{(0)}`$ is an invariance, the excitations look localized. We can find that there appear several symmetries; in the tables $`c_4^m`$ oscillate with shorter periods $`p^{N1}`$, $`c_n^m`$ has point symmetry centerizing at $`(n=1.5,m=p^N/2)`$ and so on. We regard that these are solutions of Lotka-Volterra over rings $`𝐙/p^N𝐙`$. It is also noted that (15) over the finite field $`𝐅_p𝐙/p𝐙`$ gives only trivial solutions since $`\alpha _{n}^{m+1}{}_{}{}^{(0)}`$ is invariant. These facts mean that we can define soliton equation over rings beside finite fields \[N, NM\].

Here we will mention the relation of $`p`$-adic equation (15) to the ultra-discrete system following \[M\]. As the $`p`$-adic difference-difference Lotka-Volterra equation is well-defined, let us consider the $`p`$-adic valuation of the equation (14) even though the conserved quantities $`\alpha _{n}^{m+1}{}_{}{}^{(0)}`$ might make the valuation trivial. By letting $`f_n^m:=\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(c_n^m)`$ and $`d_p:=\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(\delta _p)`$, we have

$$f_n^{m+1}f_n^m=\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(1+\delta _pc_{n1}^m)\mathrm{ord}_\mathrm{p}(1+\delta _pc_{n1}^m).$$
(18)
For $`f_n^md_p`$, (18) becomes

$$f_n^{m+1}f_n^m=\mathrm{max}(0,f_{n1}^m+d_p)\mathrm{max}(0,f_{n+1}^{m+1}+d_p).$$
(19)
We emphasize that (19) has the same form as the ultra-discrete difference-difference Lotka-Volterra equation (6) \[M\]. We should note that $`p`$-adic valuation is a natural object in the $`p`$-adic number and the family of rings $`\{𝐙/p^N𝐙\}`$. This implies that the ultra-discrete difference-difference system should be also studied from the point of view of valuation theory \[M\].

As we finish this section, we will give a comment on a relation to $`q`$-analysis. It is known that some of properties in the $`q`$ analysis can be regarded as those in $`p`$-adic analysis by setting $`q=1/p`$ \[VVZ\]. We have correspondence among $`p`$, $`q`$ and $`\text{e}^\beta `$ as \[M\],

$$\text{e}^\beta p(\beta \mathrm{}),p1/q,q\text{e}^\beta (\beta 0).$$
(20)
§5. Summary and Discussion

We showed that the ultra-discrete limit should be regarded as a non-Archimedean valuation following the previous report \[M\]. After we constructed the ultrametric related to the ultra-discrete limit in (7), we remarked its properties. Due to the remarks, it is interpreted that the ultra-discrete limit is a very natural manipulation in $`𝒜_\beta \{0\}`$.

Generally in the studies of the ultrametric space \[LL\], the $`p`$-adic system is a prototype. Thus we have considered $`p`$-adic soliton equation following the previous report \[M\]. In fact the structure of $`p`$-adic valuation of the $`p`$-adic difference-difference equation has the same structure as the ultra-discrete difference-difference equation for the case of Lotka-Volterra equation.

Further since $`p`$-adic field has a natural projection to a finite ring $`𝐙/p^N𝐙`$, we have studied the Lotka-Volterra equation over the finite ring. Due to the finiteness of system, we can give concrete solutions of the equation. There remains a problem what is integrability in the sense of $`𝐙/p^N𝐙`$ but the numerical computations give regular results and beautiful symmetries of the system. It is expected that there is a group governing this system. This construction can be easily extended to a $`p`$-adic system related to more general algebraic integer if the algebraic integer is a principal domain. As the soliton theory in finite field is closely related to the code theory \[N, NM\], the soliton over $`𝐙/p^N𝐙`$ might be also applied to the information theory \[K\]. Further as the discrete heat equation can be described algebraically in the introduction, we wish, in future, to express the equation over $`𝐙/p^N𝐙`$ more algebraically.

Finally we comment upon an open problem. The non-Archimedean valuation theory is associated with the measure theory or non-standard statistics \[LL\] and renormalization theory \[RTV\]. On the other hand, soliton theory is connected with statistical system and statistical mechanics \[So\]. Thus we have a question whether both non-standard statistics and soliton theory have more directly relation.

Acknowledgment

I would like to thank Prof. K. Sogo for giving me chances to use his personal computer.

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Table 1: modulo $`3^3`$, $`\delta _p=3`$      $`m\backslash n`$ 0 1 2 3 4 5      $`0`$ 1 2 2 1 1 1   $`1`$ 7 23 26 22 10 7   $`2`$ 13 8 14 16 10 13   $`3`$ 19 11 20 10 1 19   $`4`$ 25 5 17 4 10 25   $`5`$ 4 17 5 25 10 4   $`6`$ 10 20 11 19 1 10   $`7`$ 16 14 8 13 10 16   $`8`$ 22 26 23 7 10 22   $`9`$ 1 2 2 1 1 1
Table 2: modulo $`5^3`$, $`\delta _p=5`$      $`m\backslash n`$ 0 1 2 3 4 5      $`0`$ 1 2 2 1 1 1   $`1`$ 96 117 37 106 26 96   $`2`$ 16 7 97 36 101 16   $`3`$ 11 47 57 41 101 11   $`4`$ 81 112 42 121 26 81   $`5`$ 101 77 52 26 1 101   $`6`$ 71 67 87 6 26 71   $`7`$ 116 82 22 61 101 116   $`8`$ 111 122 107 66 101 111   $`9`$ 56 62 92 21 26 56   $`10`$ 76 27 102 51 1 76   $`11`$ 46 17 12 31 26 46   $`12`$ 91 32 72 86 101 91   $`13`$ 86 72 32 91 101 86   $`14`$ 31 12 17 46 26 31   $`15`$ 51 102 27 76 1 51   $`16`$ 21 92 62 56 26 21   $`17`$ 66 107 122 111 101 66   $`18`$ 61 22 82 116 101 61   $`19`$ 6 87 67 71 26 6   $`20`$ 26 52 77 101 1 26   $`21`$ 121 42 112 81 26 121   $`22`$ 41 57 47 11 101 41   $`23`$ 36 97 7 16 101 36   $`24`$ 106 37 117 96 26 106   $`25`$ 1 2 2 1 1 1
Table 3: modulo $`7^2`$, $`\delta _p=7`$      $`m\backslash n`$ 0 1 2 3 4 5      $`0`$ 1 2 2 1 1 1   $`1`$ 43 37 16 8 1 43   $`2`$ 36 23 30 15 1 36   $`3`$ 29 9 44 22 1 29   $`4`$ 22 44 9 29 1 22   $`5`$ 15 30 23 36 1 15   $`6`$ 8 16 37 43 1 8   $`7`$ 1 2 2 1 1 1