text:
# Superfluidity of bosons on a deformable lattice

## I Introduction

The weakly interacting Bose gas has been studied theoretically in great deal over the past fifty years; mainly in view of understanding the superfluid properties of $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ and its rich phase diagram in the temperature - pressure parameter space. These studies provided a qualitative description of the low temperature collective soundwave like spectrum, the depletion of the condensate, etc. In more recent years attempts have been made to examine other systems than $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ which potentially could show such superfluid properties. The superfluidity of excitons in semiconducting materials such as $`\mathrm{Cu}_2\mathrm{O}`$, presents one of those novel systems. There, the interaction between the excitons with acoustic phonons seems to play a key role in establishing such a superfluidity of the bosonic excitons. In fact it involves the appearance of a coherent crystal displacement field which enables a moving exciton-phonon condensate.

In the present work we want to address ourselves to a general situation and consider the system in which the itinerant bosons, apart from an intrinsic repulsion between them, are coupled to some bosonic degrees of freedom, which for brevity we shall term phonons. For instance, this situation might be realized in short coherence length superconductors which are controlled by the fluctuations of the phase of the order parameter rather than of its amplitude. In such systems one expects relatively long lived local pairs of electrons which can be considered as hard-core Bosons on a lattice and which are coupled to the dynamical deformations of this underlying lattice. Ion-channelling experiments on High-$`T_c`$ cuprates (showing a drastic increase in the critical angle for Rutherford back-scattering just below $`T_c`$), as well as optical absorption measurements (showing a substantial increase in the phonon intensity just below $`T_c`$) indicate that, upon entering the superconducting state, the uncorrelated motion of the local lattice vibrations might get correlated, resulting in the emergence of an acoustic branch in the phonon spectrum.

One also might think about systems, in which spin or pseudo-spin (orbital) degrees are coupled to the lattice. If, upon lowering the temperature, a long-range order due to the continuous symmetry breaking occurs in those systems, while the symmetry restoring variable is being coupled to the phonons, then the system will show the same physics associated with macroscopic quantum effects as the model we are going to deal with.

The study presented in the present paper is, to our knowledge, the first generalization of the known field-theoretical treatment of the weakly interacting dilute Bose gas when the effective two-body potential is supplemented by a time dependent retarded part stemming from the phonon mediated retarded interaction.

We shall study here the feasibility of such a phenomenon on the basis of a simple model of itinerant bosons on a deformable lattice. In the present work we consider lattices susceptible of local lattice deformations. Such local deformations occur in the systems built up of molecular units and manifest themselves as dynamical deformations which are à priori spatially uncorrelated and are described by the Einstein phonon model. Generalization of such a scenario to globally deformable lattices, described by acoustic phonon modes, will be briefly mentioned in the concluding part of the paper and will be subject of a future publication. In section 2 we shall define the model and study it within the standard Bogoliubov scheme which we extend to two interacting boson fields: that of the itinerant bosons (the local electron pairs or electron-hole pairs respectively) and that of representing the lattice degrees of freedom (the optical or acoustic phonons respectively). This approximation treats the scattering processes among condensate quasi-particles and between condensate and out-of-condensate quasi-particles, but neglects scattering among out-of-condensate quasi-particles. These latter processes are important if the system are not very dilute and if the temperature is finite. A consistent theory which can satisfactorily deal with that situation is the so called Beliaev-Popov theory, which, in section 3, we shall generalize from a weakly interacting Bose gas on a rigid lattice to one where also the interaction between the bosons and the lattice vibrations are taken into account. In section 4 we address the question of the renormalization of the sound velocity of the collective modes in the hydrodynamic regime at temperature zero. We shall illustrate the subtle compensation between two competing mechanisms arising from the boson-phonon coupling which while leading to an enhancement of the boson mass it also leads to an increased rigidity of the phase of the condensate. As a result the sound velocity is practically the same as that for a weakly interacting Bose gas on a rigid lattice. Concluding remarks and an outlook on further studies are presented in section 5.

## II The model and its solution within a Bogoliubov scheme

We consider a system of bosons on a lattice having a tight binding spectrum $`\epsilon _𝐪=zt[11/3(\mathrm{cos}q_x+\mathrm{cos}q_y+\mathrm{cos}q_z)]`$ (From now on we shall set $`zt=1`$, measuring all energies in units of the half bandwidth) which in the long wavelength limit is given by $`\epsilon _𝐪=q^2/2M`$ with $`M`$ being the the bare boson mass. The interaction between bosons is characterized by a coupling constant $`g`$ and that between the bosons and the phonons by $`\alpha \omega _0`$, $`\omega _0`$ denoting the frequency of the optical phonon mode. The Hamiltonian for such a system is then given by

$`H`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}ϵ_𝐪b_𝐪^{}b_𝐪+\omega _0{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}(a_𝐪^{}a_𝐪+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}})`$ (1)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{g}{2N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤,𝐤^{},𝐩}{}}b_𝐤^{}b_𝐤^{}^{}b_{𝐤^{}𝐩}b_{𝐤+𝐩}`$ (2)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha \omega _0}{\sqrt{N}}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤,𝐪}{}}b_𝐤^{}b_{𝐤+𝐪}[a_𝐪^{}+a_𝐪]`$ (3)
where $`b_𝐤^{()}`$ and $`a_𝐪^{()}`$ denote the boson and phonon annihilation (respectively creation) operators, $`ϵ_𝐪=\epsilon _𝐪\mu `$ and $`\mu `$ being the chemical potential. Let us now assume the existence of a condensed state not only for the bosons but also for the phonons and consequently make the Ansatz:

$$b_𝐤=\widehat{b}_𝐤+\overline{b}\delta _{k,0},a_𝐤=\widehat{a}_𝐤+\overline{a}\delta _{k,0}$$
(4)
By substituting expressions (4) into the Hamiltonian (3) and requiring that the terms linear in $`\widehat{b}_𝐤`$ and $`\widehat{a}_𝐪`$ vanish we find the following relations

$`\overline{a}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha \overline{b}^2}{\sqrt{N}}}=\alpha \sqrt{N}n_c`$ (5)
$`n_c`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\overline{b}^2}{N}}`$ (6)
$`\mu `$ $``$ $`\overline{g}n_c,\overline{g}=g2\alpha ^2\omega _0.`$ (7)
finally yielding the following Hamiltonian

$$H=H_0+H_{BP}+H_{BB}$$
(8)
and where

$`H_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}\overline{ϵ}_𝐪\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}\widehat{b}_𝐪+\omega _0{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}\widehat{a}_𝐪^{}\widehat{a}_𝐪`$ (9)
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{gn_c}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}\left[\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}+\widehat{b}_𝐪\widehat{b}_𝐪\right]`$ (10)
$``$ $`\alpha \omega _0\sqrt{n_c}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}\left[\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}+\widehat{b}_𝐪\right]\left[\widehat{a}_𝐪+\widehat{a}_𝐪^{}\right]`$ (11)
with

$`\overline{ϵ}_𝐪`$ $`=`$ $`ϵ_𝐪+2gn_c2\alpha ^2\omega _0n_c=\epsilon _𝐪+gn_c.`$ (12)
The Hamiltonian $`H_0`$ describes the Bogoliubov quasi-particles which are hybridized with the phonons. In the condensed state the single particle excitations hybridize with the density fluctuations due to the broken gauge symmetry and give rise to the collective excitation spectrum of the bosons with a sound-wave like spectrum. The phonons which initially couple to those density fluctuations hence get hybridized with those collective modes. The second term in the Hamiltonian Eq. (8) describes that coupling between the density of the out-of-condensate particles with the phonons.

$$H_{BP}=\frac{\alpha \omega _0}{\sqrt{N}}\underset{𝐤,𝐪}{}\widehat{b}_𝐤^{}\widehat{b}_{𝐤+𝐪}\left[\widehat{a}_𝐪^{}+\widehat{a}_𝐪\right].$$
(13)
The last term in the Hamiltonian Eq. (8), $`H_{BB}`$, describes the interaction between the out-of-condensate particles.

Let us next define a generalization of the standard Bogoliubov transformation

$`\alpha _𝐪`$ $`=`$ $`u_{1,𝐪}\widehat{b}_𝐪+u_{2,𝐪}\widehat{a}_𝐪+v_{1,𝐪}\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}+v_{2,𝐪}\widehat{a}_𝐪^{}`$ (14)
$`\beta _𝐪`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{u}_{1,𝐪}\widehat{b}_𝐪+\overline{u}_{2,𝐪}\widehat{a}_𝐪+\overline{v}_{1,𝐪}\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}+\overline{v}_{2,𝐪}\widehat{a}_𝐪^{}`$ (15)
$`\alpha _𝐪^{}`$ $`=`$ $`u_{1,𝐪}\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}+u_{2,𝐪}\widehat{a}_𝐪^{}+v_{1,𝐪}\widehat{b}_𝐪+v_{2,𝐪}\widehat{a}_𝐪`$ (16)
$`\beta _𝐪^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{u}_{1,𝐪}\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}+\overline{u}_{2,𝐪}\widehat{a}_𝐪^{}+\overline{v}_{1,𝐪}\widehat{b}_𝐪+\overline{v}_{2,𝐪}\widehat{a}_𝐪.`$ (17)
With the requirement that the new operators satisfy the standard canonical commutation relations for Bosons, we obtain the following relations between the coefficients of this transformation

$`[`$ $`\alpha _𝐪,\alpha _𝐪^{}]=1u^2_{1,𝐪}+u^2_{2,𝐪}v^2_{1,𝐪}v^2_{2,𝐪}`$ (18)
$`[`$ $`\beta _𝐪,\beta _𝐪^{}]=1\overline{u}^2_{1,𝐪}+\overline{u}^2_{2,𝐪}\overline{v}^2_{1,𝐪}\overline{v}^2_{2,𝐪}`$ (19)
$`[`$ $`\alpha _𝐪,\beta _𝐪^{}]=0u_{1,𝐪}\overline{u}_{1,𝐪}+u_{2,𝐪}\overline{u}_{2,𝐪}v_{1,𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐪}v_{2,𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐪}`$ (20)
$`[`$ $`\alpha _𝐪,\beta _𝐪]=0u_{1,𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐪}+u_{2,𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐪}v_{1,𝐪}\overline{u}_{1,𝐪}v_{2,𝐪}\overline{u}_{2,𝐪}.`$ (21)
The transformation, Eq. (17), diagonalizes the Hamiltonian $`H_0`$, bringing it into the form

$$\stackrel{~}{H}_0=\underset{𝐪}{}\left(\omega _{1,𝐪}\alpha _𝐪^{}\alpha _𝐪+\omega _{2,𝐪}\beta _𝐪^{}\beta _𝐪\right).$$
(22)
The eigen-frequencies $`\omega _{1,𝐪}`$ and $`\omega _{2,𝐪}`$ as well as the coherence factors are determined in the usual way by diagonalizing the secular equation for the variables $`\alpha _𝐪,\alpha _𝐪^{},\beta _𝐪,\beta _𝐪^{}`$ which leads to:

$`\omega _{1,2,𝐪}^2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{E_{B𝐪}^2+\omega _0^2}{2}}`$ (23)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sqrt{[E_{B𝐪}^2\omega _0^2]^2+16\alpha ^2\omega _0^3\epsilon _𝐪n_c}`$ (24)
$`\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{u_1}{v_1}}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _{1,𝐪}\pm \epsilon _𝐪}{2\sqrt{\omega _{1,𝐪}\epsilon _𝐪}}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _0^2\omega _{1,𝐪}^2}{\omega _{2,𝐪}^2\omega _{1,𝐪}^2}}}`$ (25)
$`\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{u_2}{v_2}}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _{1,𝐪}\pm \omega _0}{2\sqrt{\omega _{1,𝐪}\omega _0}}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{E_{B𝐪}^2\omega _{1,𝐪}^2}{\omega _{2,𝐪}^2\omega _{1,𝐪}^2}}}`$ (26)
$`\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\overline{u}_1}{\overline{v}_1}}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _{2,𝐪}\pm \epsilon _{0,𝐪}}{2\sqrt{\omega _{2,𝐪}\epsilon _𝐪}}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _{2,𝐪}^2\omega _0^2}{\omega _{2,𝐪}^2\omega _{1,𝐪}^2}}}`$ (27)
$`\left({\displaystyle \genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{\overline{u}_2}{\overline{v}_2}}\right)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _{2,𝐪}\pm \omega _0}{2\sqrt{\omega _{2,𝐪}\omega _0}}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _{2,𝐪}^2E_{B𝐪}^2}{\omega _{2,𝐪}^2\omega _{1,𝐪}^2}}},`$ (28)
and where $`E_{B𝐪}=\sqrt{\epsilon _𝐪[\epsilon _𝐪+2gn_c]}`$ denotes the spectrum of Bogoliubov quasi-particles in the absence of coupling with phonons.

In Fig. 1 we illustrate the two branches of eigen-frequencies $`\omega _{1(2),𝐪}`$. When $`E_{B𝐪}`$ is not close to the phonon frequency $`\omega _0`$, then the two normal modes consist of a Bogoliubov excitation and a phonon mode; one of the modes being mainly a phonon and the other a Bogoliubov excitation. For $`E_{B𝐪}`$ close to $`\omega _0`$, neither mode is predominantly a phonon or a bosonic excitation. The mode which is a phonon (Bogoliubov excitation) for $`E_{B𝐪}\omega _0`$ becomes a Bogoliubov excitation (phonon) for $`\omega _0E_{B𝐪}`$. In the long-wavelength limit the lower branch reduces to a sound-like dispersion

$`\omega _{1,𝐪}v_0q,𝐪0,`$ (29)
with a characteristic sound velocity

$`v_0=[(g2\alpha ^2\omega _0)n_c/M]^{1/2}.`$ (30)
which is reduced in comparison to that where the boson-phonon coupling is absent. This reduction is determined by the static part of the attractive phonon mediated interaction.

The set of relations, Eqs. (11 - 15) represent the lowest order approximation to our problem, i.e., it takes into account collisions between condensate quasi-particles, between condensate and out-of-condensate quasi-particles, but totally neglects scattering among out-of-condensate quasi-particles as well as scattering out-of-condensate quasi-particles on phonons. As the concentration of quasi-particles increases these latter become important. We therefore shall have to include in our study the effect of $`H_{BP}`$ and $`H_{BB}`$. In the next section, we shall generalize the Beliaev-Popov approximation (BPA)  for the case when the bosons, coupled together by the two-body potential, are moreover coupled by the phonon-mediated retarded interaction. Since in the BPA the second-order self-energies are built out of the mean-field propagators we shall define all the Green’s functions involved in our perturbation theory and give their expression within the mean-field approximation. These propagators can be defined as the elements of a matrix Green’s function composed of a four-component bosonic field $`\{b_𝐪,a_𝐪,b_𝐪^{},a_𝐪^{}\}`$, the components of which are however related among each-other by symmetry relations. We define the canonical $`2\times 2`$ matrix Green’s functions for bosons, with diagonal $`(𝒢)`$ and non-diagonal $`(\widehat{𝒢})`$ components; the phonon Green’s functions $`(𝒟)`$ and the phonon-boson Green’s function $`()`$, that describes the hybridization of these two bosonic excitations in the condensed state

$`𝒢_𝐪(\omega )`$ $`=`$ $`b_𝐪|b_𝐪^{}_\omega ,\widehat{𝒢}_𝐪(\omega )=b_𝐪|b_𝐪_\omega ,`$ (31)
$`𝒟_𝐪(\omega )`$ $`=`$ $`a_𝐪+a_𝐪^{}|a_𝐪^{}+a_𝐪_\omega ,`$ (32)
$`_𝐪(\omega )`$ $`=`$ $`b_𝐪|a_𝐪^{}+a_𝐪_\omega .`$ (33)
The mean-field Green’s functions, introduced above, are obtained from the diagonalized Hamiltonian, Eq. (22), with the help of the inverse canonical transformation

$`\widehat{b}_𝐪`$ $`=`$ $`u_{1,𝐪}\alpha _𝐪+\overline{u}_{1,𝐪}\beta _𝐪v_{1,𝐪}\alpha _𝐪^{}\overline{v}_{1,𝐪}\beta _𝐪^{}`$ (34)
$`\widehat{a}_𝐪`$ $`=`$ $`u_{2,𝐪}\alpha _𝐪+\overline{u}_{2,𝐪}\beta _𝐪v_{2,𝐪}\alpha _𝐪^{}\overline{v}_{2,𝐪}\beta _𝐪^{}`$ (35)
$`\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}`$ $`=`$ $`v_{1,𝐪}\alpha _𝐪\overline{v}_{1,𝐪}\beta _𝐪+u_{1,𝐪}\alpha _𝐪^{}+\overline{u}_{1,𝐪}\beta _𝐪^{}`$ (36)
$`\widehat{a}_𝐪^{}`$ $`=`$ $`v_{2,𝐪}\alpha _𝐪\overline{v}_{2,𝐪}\beta _𝐪+u_{2,𝐪}\alpha _𝐪^{}+\overline{u}_{2,𝐪}\beta _𝐪^{}.`$ (37)
This leads to the following expressions for those mean-field Green’s functions

$`𝒢_{𝐪,\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{u_{1,𝐪}^2}{\omega \omega _{1,𝐪}}}{\displaystyle \frac{v_{1,𝐪}^2}{\omega +\omega _{1,𝐪}}}+[\omega _{1,𝐪},u,v,\omega _{2,𝐪}\overline{u},\overline{v}],`$ (38)
$`\widehat{𝒢}_{𝐪,\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`u_{1,𝐪}v_{1,𝐪}{\displaystyle \frac{2\omega _{1,𝐪}}{\omega ^2\omega _{1,𝐪}^2}}+[\omega _{1,𝐪},u,v,\omega _{2,𝐪},\overline{u},\overline{v}],`$ (39)
$`𝒟_{𝐪,\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`(u_{2,𝐪}v_{2,𝐪})^2{\displaystyle \frac{2\omega _{1,𝐪}}{\omega ^2\omega _{1,𝐪}^2}}+[\omega _{1,𝐪},u,v,\omega _{2,𝐪},\overline{u},\overline{v}],`$ (40)
$`_{𝐪,\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`(u_{2,𝐪}v_{2,𝐪})\left[{\displaystyle \frac{u_{1,𝐪}}{\omega \omega _{1,𝐪}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{v_{1,𝐪}}{\omega +\omega _{1,𝐪}}}\right]`$ (41)
$`+`$ $`[\omega _{1,𝐪},u,v,\omega _{2,𝐪},\overline{u},\overline{v}].`$ (42)
In Fig. 2 we express graphically the phonon $`𝒟`$ and the boson-phonon $``$ Green’s functions in terms of $`𝒢`$, the normal and $`\widehat{𝒢}`$, the anomalous component of the boson Green’s functions. The choice of this graphical representation is convenient when constructing all the second-order self-energy diagrams, as will be discussed in the next section. The full straight lines with two arrows in the same (opposite) direction represent the normal (anomalous) component of boson Green’s function. The thin wavy and bold wavy lines stand for the bare and the mean field Green’s functions of the phonons. The boson-phonon Green’s functions are built up of a wavy line and an outgoing straight line. The dot represents the boson-phonon vertex and the zig-zag line the condensate (given by a factor $`n_c^{1/2}`$).

## III Generalized Beliaev-Popov Theory

A consistent theory which goes beyond the mean-field approximation and takes into account collisions between out-of-condensate quasi-particles was developed by Beliaev for a dilute Bose gas at $`T=0`$. A generalization of this for finite temperature was done by Popov. The Beliaev-Popov approximation is the next step beyond the lowest order gapless theory and provides a consistent second-order self-energy approximation for the weakly interacting dilute Bose gas. It gives a gapless excitation spectrum with the velocity equal to the macroscopic speed of the sound at $`T=0`$, in agreement with the findings by Gavoret and Nozières  which is valid to all orders in a perturbation theory treatment. For details on the underling physics of the BPA we refer the reader to the review by Shi and Griffin.

### A Effective interaction and higher-order contributions the self-energy

In this section the BPA is generalized to the case where the quasi-particles, interacting via a standard two-body potential, are moreover coupled by a phonon mediated retarded interaction. To construct the second-order self-energy diagrams we define an effective interaction as the sum of a two-body $`t`$-matrix and a phonon mediated retarded interaction $`\alpha ^2\omega _0^2𝒟_0(\omega )`$, with $`𝒟_0(\omega )`$ being given by the bare phonon Green’s function.

The effective interaction is illustrated in Fig. 3 as a hatched line. The dashed line stands for the bare interaction potential and the non-hatched interaction line denotes the two-body $`t`$-matrix.

In Fig. 4 we reproduce all the Beliaev-Popov diagrams for the normal $`(\mathrm{\Sigma })`$ and anomalous $`(\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }})`$ components of self-energy. Each interaction line (hatched line) can be either a $`t`$-matrix or a phonon propagator. The diagrams are grouped in a way which is different from the conventional one. As it turns out this type of grouping is more convenient when it comes to summing up in a compact form the subset of self-energy diagrams involving the phonon mediated interaction. We use the standard notation of Green’s function lines having cuts which indicate diagrams which are already included in the $`t`$-matrix and should be not counted again. The mean field approximation, discussed in the previous section, retains only the first two diagrams from the group $`a1`$ and the first diagram from the group $`a2`$ in the normal and anomalous components of the self-energy respectively. The $`t`$-matrix is then being approximated by the $`s`$-wave scattering length.

Each second-order self-energy diagram consists of three contributions. The first contribution arises when both effective interaction lines are replaced by the $`t`$-matrix. They have been extensively discussed in Ref.. The only difference between that and the case we want to study here is the four pole structure of the mean field Green’s functions \[see Eq. (42)\]. The second contribution involves both the $`t`$-matrix and the phonon mediated interaction. Finally, the third contribution is exclusively due to the phonon mediated interaction.

To sum up in the more compact form the subset of diagrams involving the boson-phonon coupling we use the graphical representation for the mean-field Green’s functions, derived in the previous section \[see Fig. 2\]. We focus our discussion on the third subset of diagrams defined above. The second subset of diagrams, involving both types of interactions, are summed up using the same procedure. It turns out that the summation of the first four diagrams from group $`b1`$ together with the fourth diagram from group $`a1`$ \[see Fig. 4\] is equivalent to replacing the bare phonon propagator in the last diagram by the mean-field propagator. As a result one arrives at the first diagram shown in Fig. 5. Similarly, the summation of the first four diagrams from the group $`c1`$ in Fig. 4 leads to the second diagram in Fig. 5. The latter one represents the convolution of the Green’s functions describing the boson-phonon hybridization. The other diagrams in Fig. 5 and the ones for the anomalous self-energy, represented in Fig. 6, are obtained in the similar way.

We would like to point out that, in the present treatment, the renormalization of the phonon mode as well as of all relevant vertex corrections is consistently taken into account up to the second-order in the effective interaction. The phonon mode is indeed renormalized by the density fluctuation of bosons. In the condensed state the density response function consists of two contributions: a quasi-particle part and a part describing density fluctuation of out-of-condensate particles. The phonon renormalization due to the first contribution is already present in the extended Bogoliubov scheme, leading to the renormalized (mean-field ) propagator of phonons. By replacing the effective interaction by phonon propagators, one verifies that the first diagram from group $`a1`$ in Fig. 4 together with last two diagrams from group $`b1`$ describe the phonon mode renormalization arising from the density fluctuations of out-of-condensate particles. They are described given by the “particle-hole” bubble diagrams built up from normal and anomalous mean-field (Bogoliubov) Green’s functions of the bosons. One farther verifies, that the diagrams from group $`d1`$ together with diagrams of identical topology from group $`c1`$ from Fig. 4 generates the vertex corrections to the boson-phonon as well as to the boson-boson vertex. For example, when all the effective interaction lines in these diagrams are replaced by the phonon mediated interaction, one obtains the vertex corrections to the phonon-boson interaction. Similarly appear the corrections to the boson-phonon vertex due to the boson-boson interaction (these diagrams are generated by replacing one effective interaction line by the boson-boson interaction line). When all the phonon lines in the above mentioned class of diagrams are replaced by boson-boson interaction lines one obtains the renormalization of the boson-boson interaction. In a similarly way we can generate the diagrams renormalizing the boson-boson interaction by the phonon-boson interaction.

The normal and anomalous components of the Boson Green’s functions are expressed in terms of the self-energy via the Dyson-Beliaev equation

$`𝒢_{𝐪,\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\omega +ϵ_𝐪+\mathrm{\Sigma }_{𝐪,\omega }}{\text{D}_{𝐪,\omega }}},\widehat{𝒢}_{𝐪,\omega }={\displaystyle \frac{\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_{𝐪,\omega }}{\text{D}_{𝐪,\omega }}},`$ (43)
where $`ϵ_𝐪`$ is the bare excitation spectrum measured from the chemical potential $`\mu `$. In Eq. ( 43) the following notations are introduced:

$`\text{D}_{𝐪,\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`[\omega 𝒜_{𝐪,\omega }]^2[ϵ_𝐪+S_{𝐪,\omega }][ϵ_𝐪+S_{𝐪,\omega }+2\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_{𝐪,\omega }],`$ (44)
$`𝒜_{𝐪,\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }_{𝐪,\omega }\mathrm{\Sigma }_{𝐪,\omega }}{2}},`$ (45)
$`𝒮_{𝐪,\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }_{𝐪,\omega }+\mathrm{\Sigma }_{𝐪,\omega }2\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_{𝐪,\omega }}{2}}.`$ (46)
Here $`𝒜_{𝐪,\omega }`$ is an antisymmetric function in $`\omega `$, while $`𝒮_{𝐪,\omega }`$ and $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_{𝐪,\omega }`$ are symmetric functions of $`\omega `$. Invoking the Hugenholtz-Pines theorem (see the following sub-section) we have the relation $`\mu =\mathrm{\Sigma }_{0,0}\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_{0,0}=S_{0.0}`$.

The existence of the two branches in the excitation spectrum, Eq. (24) leads to three different contributions to the self-energy, describing the intra-band and inter-band scattering processes. Based on the mean-field Green’s functions, Eq. (42), we evaluate the above introduced dynamical quantities at zero temperature and arrive at the following result:

$`𝒜_{𝐪,\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤,\alpha ,\beta }{}}{\displaystyle \frac{A_{\alpha ,\beta }(𝐤,𝐪)\omega }{\omega ^2(\omega _{\alpha ,𝐤}+\omega _{\beta ,𝐤+𝐪})^2}},`$ (47)
$`𝒮_{𝐪,\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤,\alpha ,\beta }{}}{\displaystyle \frac{S_{\alpha ,\beta }(𝐤,𝐪)(\omega _{\alpha ,𝐤}+\omega _{\beta ,𝐤+𝐪})}{\omega ^2(\omega _{\alpha ,𝐤}+\omega _{\beta ,𝐤+𝐪})^2}},`$ (48)
$`\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_{𝐪,\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤,\alpha ,\beta }{}}{\displaystyle \frac{M_{\alpha ,\beta }(𝐤,𝐪)(\omega _{\alpha ,𝐤}+\omega _{\beta ,𝐤+𝐪})}{\omega ^2(\omega _{\alpha ,𝐤}+\omega _{\beta ,𝐤+𝐪})^2}}.`$ (49)
$`\alpha (\beta )`$ denotes the branch index, $`\beta \alpha =1,2`$, the corresponding vertices $`A_{\alpha ,\beta }`$, $`S_{\alpha ,\beta }`$, and $`M_{\alpha ,\beta }`$ which are expressed in terms of the coupling constants and coherence factors and are given in Appendix A.

The renormalized quasi-particle spectrum is given by the poles of the dressed boson Green’s function, or equivalently by the zeros of $`\text{D}_{𝐪,\omega }`$. In the next section we discuss the long-wave length excitation spectrum of the system, focusing on the effect of boson-phonon coupling on the sound-velocity renormalization.

### B The Hugenholtz-Pines theorem

One of the fundamental results in the theory of Bose systems is the Hugenholtz-Pines theorem which relates the chemical potential to the self-energy in the condensed state via the relation

$`\mu =\mathrm{\Sigma }_{0,0}\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_{0,0}.`$ (50)
This theorem implies that the excitation spectrum of the system is gapless. However in certain approximations, for example the Hartree-Fock-Bogoliubov approximation (HFB), higher-order terms in the chemical potential are retained, while being neglecting in the self-energies. Such approximations are not ”consistent” to any given order in the coupling constants and can generate an unphysical gap in the excitation spectrum of the system. Let us now verify this point for our treatment. We first calculate the chemical potential from the Heisenberg equations of motion for the Bose field (analogous to the Gross-Pitaevskii equation) and compare the result to that obtained from the Hugenholtz-Pines theorem. Our further treatment closely follows that of Ref..

We start from the exact Heisenberg equation of motion for the Bose field $`b_𝐪`$

$`i\dot{b}_𝐪`$ $`=`$ $`[\epsilon _𝐪\mu ]b_𝐪+{\displaystyle \frac{g}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤,𝐩}{}}b_{𝐤+𝐩}^{}b_{𝐤+𝐪}b_𝐩`$ (51)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha \omega _0}{\sqrt{N}}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤,𝐪}{}}b_{𝐤+𝐪}[a_𝐤^{}+a_𝐤].`$ (52)
The next step is to separate out the condensate part as in Eq. (4) and treat the boson interaction term in a self-consistent mean-field approximation (HFB approximation). As a result we arrive at the following equation

$`\mu \overline{b}`$ $`=`$ $`gn_c\overline{b}+{\displaystyle \frac{g}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}\left[2\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}\widehat{b}_𝐪+\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}\widehat{b}_𝐪\right]\overline{b}`$ (53)
$``$ $`2\alpha ^2\omega _0n\overline{b}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha \omega _0}{\sqrt{N}}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}\widehat{b}_𝐪[\widehat{a}_𝐪^{}+\widehat{a}_𝐪],`$ (54)
where $`\overline{b}^2/N=n_c`$ is the condensate fraction and $`n`$ is the boson density. The above equation yields the following result for the chemical potential:

$`\mu =\mu _1+\mu _2,\mu _1=\overline{g}n,\mu _2=g[\stackrel{~}{n}+\stackrel{~}{m}]\alpha \omega _0\stackrel{~}{h},`$ (55)
$`\stackrel{~}{n}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{m}`$ denote the density and anomalous density of out-of-condensate particles, respectively and $`\stackrel{~}{h}`$ is the strength of boson-phonon hybridization. These quantities are given by

$`\stackrel{~}{n}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}\widehat{b}_𝐪^{}\widehat{b}_𝐪,\stackrel{~}{m}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}\widehat{b}_𝐪\widehat{b}_𝐪,`$ (56)
$`\stackrel{~}{h}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{n_c}N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}\widehat{b}_𝐪[\widehat{a}_𝐪^{}+\widehat{a}_𝐪].`$ (57)
So far we did not make any approximation for the boson-phonon interaction. We next show that if all the above defined averages are calculated self-consistently from the corresponding mean field Green’s functions, then the derived chemical potential Eq. (55) will coincide with that obtained from the Hugenholtz-Pines theorem.

In Fig. 7 we represent graphically the contributions to the chemical potential, Eq. (55), arising from the coupling of the bosons with the phonons. Putting this contribution together with the first contribution to $`\mu _2`$ in Eq. (55) we obtain $`\mu _2=A+\widehat{A}`$. $`A`$ and $`\widehat{A}`$ are the contributions corresponding to the fourth diagram from the group $`a1`$ and the second diagram from the group $`a2`$, presented in Fig. 4.

Now we calculate the chemical potential from the Hugenholtz-Pines theorem. Examining the various diagrams of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{0,0}`$ and $`\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_{0,0}`$ we find that most of them cancel pairwises, giving the following result

$`\mu _{\text{HP}}`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{g}n+g[\stackrel{~}{n}+\stackrel{~}{m}_\text{R}]+A\widehat{A}+B,`$ (58)
$`\stackrel{~}{m}_\text{R}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{m}{\displaystyle \frac{gn_c}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\epsilon _𝐪}}.`$ (59)
$`\stackrel{~}{m}_\text{R}`$ denotes the ”renormalized” anomalous density  and

$`B={\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}{\displaystyle 𝑑\omega n_c[g\alpha ^2\omega _0^2𝒟_0(\omega )]^2\{𝒢_\omega 𝒢_\omega [\widehat{𝒢}_\omega ]^2\}}.`$
Using the Dyson-Beliaev equation (43) we verify the following identities

$`2\widehat{𝒢}_\omega `$ $`=`$ $`n_c[g\alpha ^2\omega _0^2𝒟_0(\omega )]\{𝒢_\omega 𝒢_\omega [\widehat{𝒢}_\omega ]^2\},`$ (60)
$`B`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪}{}}{\displaystyle 𝑑\omega [g\alpha ^2\omega _0^2𝒟_0(\omega )]\widehat{𝒢}_\omega }=2\widehat{A}.`$ (61)
Substituting the expressions, Eq. (61) into Eq. (59) we see that the chemical potential derived from the Hugenholtz-Pines theorem coincides with the one obtained from the Heisenberg equations of motion, Eq. (55).

## IV Results and discussion

In the preceding section we have given the expressions for the self-energies in the Beliaev-Popov approximation. We now use these results to calculate the second-order corrections to the sound velocity and the chemical potential.

### A Depletion of the ground state

We first discuss, the depletion of the ground state. From the Green’s function Eq. (42) we determine the density of out-of-condensate particles $`\stackrel{~}{n}`$, and thus obtain the self-consistent equation for the density of particles in the condensate:

$`n`$ $`=`$ $`n_c+\stackrel{~}{n},\stackrel{~}{n}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}[v_{1,𝐤}^2+\overline{v}_{1,𝐤}^2]`$ (62)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{[\overline{g}n_c+\epsilon _𝐤][\omega _0+\overline{E}_𝐤]}{2\overline{E}_𝐤(\omega _{1,𝐤}+\omega _{2,𝐤})}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha ^2\omega _0n_c}{\omega _{1,𝐤}+\omega _{2,𝐤}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\right\},`$ (63)
$`\overline{E}_𝐪=\sqrt{\epsilon _𝐪[\epsilon _𝐪+2\overline{g}n_c]}`$ is the spectrum of Bogoliubov quasi-particles with reduced scattering length $`\overline{g}`$ \[see Eq. (7)\]. The self-consistent equation for the condensate fraction, Eq. (62), is solved numerically. In Fig. 8 the relative depletion $`r=\stackrel{~}{n}/n`$ as a function of density is presented for various values of the boson-phonon coupling constant $`\alpha `$. As clearly evident from this figure, for vanishing $`\alpha `$, the relative depletion follows the canonical $`\sqrt{n}`$ behavior, which is characteristic for the dilute weakly interacting Bose gas. For a non-zero coupling constant however, $`r`$ remains finite in the limit $`n0`$, indicating a linear in density contribution to the depletion of the ground state.

For $`n1`$, expanding the denominator in the last sum of Eq. (62) and keeping the leading order contributions in $`n_c`$ we arrive at the following expression

$`\stackrel{~}{n}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\overline{g}n_c+\epsilon _𝐤\overline{E}_𝐤}{2\overline{E}_𝐤}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha ^2\omega _0^2n_c}{(\omega _0+\overline{E}_𝐤)^2}}\right].`$ (64)
The first term in Eq. (64) gives rise to the canonical $`n_c^{3/2}`$ contribution to the ground state depletion while the second term leads to the linear in density contribution, and is due to the boson-phonon coupling.

### B The chemical potential

The second order contribution to the chemical potential is given as a sum of two contributions: $`\mu _2=\mu _b+\mu _p`$. The first one is due to the boson-boson interaction and the second one stems from the boson-phonon interaction:

$`\mu _b`$ $`=`$ $`g(\stackrel{~}{n}+\stackrel{~}{m_\text{R}})={\displaystyle \frac{g}{2N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\epsilon _𝐤}{\overline{E}_𝐤}}{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _0+\overline{E}_𝐤}{\omega _{1,𝐤}+\omega _{2,𝐤}}}+{\displaystyle \frac{gn_c}{\epsilon _𝐤}}1\right],`$ (65)
$`\mu _p`$ $`=`$ $`\alpha \omega _0\stackrel{~}{h}=\alpha ^2\omega _0^2{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\epsilon _𝐤}{\overline{E}_𝐤(\omega _{1,𝐤}+\omega _{2,𝐤})}}.`$ (66)
In the normal state, where $`n_c=0`$, the second contribution $`\mu _p`$ coincides with the density independent negative shift of the chemical potential due to the coupling with phonons. However, in the condensed state this contribution becomes density dependent, via the density dependence of the spectrum in the condensed state. The density dependent part of this contribution increases with increasing density and hence gives rise to an increase of the system’s compressibility. In Fig. 9 we plot the density dependent part of this contribution ($`\mu _p=\mu _p(n)\mu _0(0)`$) for several coupling constants.

The total second order correction to the chemical potential is presented in Fig. 10 which also shows its increase with $`\alpha `$. We would like to emphasize that for $`\alpha =0`$ and for $`n0`$ the second order correction to the chemical potential shows the canonical $`n^{3/2}`$ behavior, while for large $`\alpha `$ the slope of $`\mu _2`$ is almost linear \[see inset on Fig. 10\].

Keeping only terms in leading order in the density, the expression for $`\mu _b`$ Eq. (66) becomes

$`\mu _b`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{g}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤}{}}\{[{\displaystyle \frac{\overline{g}n_c+\epsilon _𝐤\overline{E}_𝐤}{2\overline{E}_𝐤}}+{\displaystyle \frac{gn_c}{2}}({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\epsilon _𝐤}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\overline{E}_𝐤}})]`$ (67)
$`+`$ $`\alpha ^2\omega _0^2n_c{\displaystyle \frac{\omega _0+2\overline{E}_𝐤}{\overline{E}_𝐤(\omega _0+\epsilon _𝐤)^2}}\}.`$ (68)
It is the contribution in square brackets in Eq. (68), which leads to the canonical $`n^{3/2}`$ behavior of the chemical potential. On the contrary, the second term, which is due to boson-phonon coupling, is linear in density. Upon increasing $`\alpha `$ this latter contribution to the chemical potential increases while the term proportional to $`n^{3/2}`$ decreases, because of the reduction of the effective scattering length $`\overline{g}`$. This behavior is clearly seen from Fig. 11, where the chemical potential $`\mu =\mu _1+\mu _2`$ is illustrated as a function of density. For small $`n`$ the contribution linear in density is dominating and the reduction of the chemical potential due to the phonon-mediated effective attraction in lowest order is almost canceled by the second order contribution. As a result, the slope of $`\mu `$ is almost independent of $`\alpha `$ at small densities \[see the inset in Fig. 11\], while at higher values of $`n`$ the chemical potential decreases with increasing of $`\alpha `$, because of a decrease of the contribution proportional to $`n^{3/2}`$.

### C The renormalized sound velocity

The renormalized quasi-particle spectrum, arising from the second order self-energy corrections, are given by the poles of the Boson Green’s function (43), or equivalently by the zeros of $`\text{D}_{𝐪,\omega }`$ (46). Expanding the self-energies in the long-wavelength and low frequency limit around the mean field spectrum, we obtain the renormalized sound velocity $`v`$ as

$`v=v_0[1+\lambda ].`$ (69)
$`v_0=\sqrt{\overline{g}n_c/M}`$ denotes the mean field sound velocity and $`\lambda `$ the velocity renormalization factor given by

$`\lambda =\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_{0,0}^{(2)}/(2\overline{g}n_c)+\overline{g}n_csa.`$ (70)
$`\widehat{\mathrm{\Sigma }}_{0,0}^{(2)}`$ denotes the second order correction to the anomalous self-energy. The symmetric and antisymmetric self-energies, to leading order in $`\omega `$ and $`𝐪`$ \[see Eq. (49)\], are given by

$`s=\underset{𝐪0}{lim}{\displaystyle \frac{𝒮_{𝐪,\omega _{1,𝐪}}\mu }{\omega _{1,𝐪}^2}},a=\underset{𝐪0}{lim}{\displaystyle \frac{𝒜_{𝐪,\omega _{1,𝐪}}}{\omega _{1,𝐪}}}.`$ (71)
Each of the three contributions entering in sound velocity renormalization factor, Eq. (70), contains infrared divergences, which are inherent to the Bose condensed state. However, as in the case of the standard weakly interacting Bose gas, these divergent terms are exactly canceled out in the final result for the low-frequency excitation spectrum. We have checked this cancellation analytically, picking up the divergent terms both due to the coherence factors and the existence of the gapless mode.

In Fig. 12 the sound velocity renormalization factor is presented for various values of the coupling constant $`\alpha `$. In the absence of boson-phonon coupling $`\lambda `$ follows the canonical square root behavior in the density. An increase of $`\alpha `$ results in an overall enhancement of $`\lambda `$ and moreover leads to a finite value of $`\lambda `$, even for vanishing density. As a result, the renormalized sound velocity \[see Fig. 13\] is almost unaffected by the coupling of the bosons with phonons, in contrast to its mean field result, which is also presented in Fig. 13.

The interesting question now is, why the boson dressing effects, leading to its mass enhancement, does not show up in the velocity renormalization factor. Responsible for the mass enhancement is the first diagram in Fig. 5 for the normal self-energy. It is frequency dependent and is finite in the limit $`n0`$. It gives a positive contribution to $`a`$ and hence a negative contribution to the sound velocity \[see Eq. (70)\]. It turns out that in the condensed state there are two effects that overcompensate this negative contribution. First, the effective boson-phonon coupling is no longer local and becomes momentum dependent because of the coherence factors. It is decreased in the condensed state. For the momentum transfer equal to the wavevector at which the level crossing of the bare modes occurs, this effective interaction is exactly zero. The second main important contribution competing with this diagram is contained in the first diagram illustrated in Fig. 6 for the anomalous self-energy. This diagram is positive, thus leading to a positive contribution to the anomalous part of inter-particle potential, and hence increases the sound velocity.

In Fig. 14 we present these two contribution for various $`\alpha `$, rescaling them by a factor $`(\alpha ^2\omega _0^2)^1`$. As can be seen from this figure there is almost an exact cancellation of these two contributions for different $`\alpha `$. That explains the absence of the density independent negative contribution to the sound velocity originating from the boson mass enhancement.

## V Conclusion

In the present paper we have considered the problem of a system of bosons on a deformable lattice which, apart from an intrinsic repulsion between them, are coupled to local lattice deformations - treated in terms of Einstein phonon modes. This leads to a retarded time dependent contribution to the effective two-body vertex. When the bosons condense, the phonons, being initially coupled to the boson density (symmetry restoring variable in the case of gauge symmetry breaking), get hybridized with the Goldstone mode. The generalized Bogoliubov transformation has been used to diagonalize the bilinear part of Hamiltonian describing the excitation spectra of the system in the lowest order approximation. As a result two dispersion branches have been obtained: one describing a gapless sound-wave like mode and one exhibiting a gap. The two normal modes describe Bogoliubov type excitations and Einstein phonons. For momenta close to where the level crossing of bare excitation spectra occurs neither mode is predominantly a phonon or a Bogoliubov quasi-particle.

The ground state depletion is shown to consist of two contributions: the first one showing the canonical $`n^{3/2}`$ behavior in the density and the second one, which appears because of the retarded phonon mediated interaction, being linear in density. The relative depletion of the ground state remains finite in the limit $`n0`$ because of retardation effects.

The sound velocity obtained in this approximation is reduced due to reduction of the repulsive boson-boson interaction, arising from the attractive part of phonon mediated interaction in the static limit.

Considering the second order corrections to the chemical potential and excitation spectrum, the Beliaev-Popov theory has been generalized to our case. For that purpose an effective interaction has been introduced and all second-order self-energy diagrams were constructed in terms of this interaction. The short range bare boson-boson two-body potential has been renormalized in the standard way by summing up the ladder diagrams and introducing the two-body $`t`$-matrix with the characteristic $`s`$-wave scattering length. Since the phonon mediated boson-boson interaction, vanishes at high frequencies as $`1/\omega ^2`$, this interaction does not require any special renormalization in order to avoid ultraviolet divergences in the case of continuum model. Due to the pole structure of phonon mediated interaction, the density of bosons no longer enters in the expansion parameter and one has to assume a small value of boson-phonon coupling constant in order to treat the problem by perturbation theory.

Unlike the lowest order results, the second order contribution to both the chemical potential and the sound velocity shows an increase with the boson-phonon coupling constant and contains a term linear in the density which is exclusively due to the retarded nature of phonon mediated interaction. As a result the total chemical potential and the sound velocity obtained within this theory are practically unaffected by the coupling to the phonons. This effect is more pronounced in the low density limit $`n1`$. One might ascribe this effect to the robustness of the superfluid state.

In the present paper we have restricted ourself to the case when the boson system is coupled to optical phonon modes of the lattice. The formalism developed here can be easily extended to the case of acoustic phonons. In such a scenario the two normal modes correspond to two types of sound modes: the acoustic phonon mode of the lattice and the Goldstone mode of condensed Bose system. The effect of the coupling between these two sound modes as well as as well as damping effects can be treated within the present formalism. However, in that case the coupling with $`q=0`$ phonon mode (representing translation of the whole crystal) should be discarded. It amounts to neglecting the Hartree type contribution to the boson self-energy due to the phonon mediated interaction.

The present study induces us to speculate on the possibility of an insulator to superconducting transition when the boson-phonon coupling constant is strong. In that case the mass renormalization of the bosons varies exponentially with the coupling constant as $`\mathrm{exp}(\alpha ^2)`$ when we consider the normal state of the system. In the superfluid state we expect again a phase stiffness of the condensate practically unaffected by the coupling of the bosons to the lattice vibrations. Possibly such features exist in the cuprate superconductors which show a resistivity which, upon lowering the temperature, tends to an insulating behavior before abruptly dropping to zero when the system becomes superconducting. Similarly, upon entering the superconducting state, out of the broad incoherent contribution to the angle resolved photo-emission spectra evolves a sharp resonance peak which could suggest well defined quasi-particles in the superconducting state and totally diffusive modes in the normal state. Within the physics developed in the present study we can speculate on an undressing of the bosons as the temperature is lowered and the transition from the normal into the superfluid state takes place. These and related questions will be addressed in some future work.

###### Acknowledgements.

One of the authors (G. J) acknowledges support from a bourse de Recherche Scientifique et technique de l’OTAN and from an INTAS Program, Grant No 97-0963 and No 97-11066. He acknowledges in particular the kind hospitality at the Centre de Recherches sur les Très Basses Températures, where the main part of the present work has been carried out and the Max-Plank Institute f$`\ddot{\mathrm{u}}`$r Physik komplexer Systeme, where the final part of the work has been completed.

## Effective vertices

As we have already mentioned in the main text, each self-energy contribution introduced in Eq. (49) consist of three different parts describing the intra-band (denoted as 11(22) for the scattering within the lower (upper) branch) and inter-band (denoted as 12) scattering processes. The vertices for inter-band scattering are given by

$`A_{12}(𝐤,𝐪)`$ $`=`$ $`4g^2n_c\left[(u_{1,𝐤}^2\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2v_{1,𝐤}^2\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2)2u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤}(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2)2\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}(u_{1,𝐤}^2v_{1,𝐤}^2)\right]`$ (72)
$``$ $`4g\alpha \omega _0\sqrt{n_c}[(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})\{(u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤})(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2)(u_{1,𝐤}+v_{1,𝐤})\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\}.`$ (73)
$`+`$ $`(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}).\{(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})(u_{1,𝐤}^2v_{1,𝐤}^2)(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤}\}]`$ (74)
$`+`$ $`8g\alpha ^2\omega _0n_c\left[u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤}(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2)+\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}(u_{1,𝐤}^2v_{1,𝐤}^2)\right]`$ (75)
$``$ $`2\alpha ^3\omega _0^2\sqrt{n_c}\left[\left\{(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})+(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪})(u_{1,𝐤}+v_{1,𝐤})\right\}\left\{u_{1,𝐤}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}v_{1,𝐤}\right\}\right]`$ (76)
$`+`$ $`\alpha ^2\omega _0^2[(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})^2(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2)+(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪})^2(u_{1,𝐤}^2v_{1,𝐤}^2).`$ (77)
$`+`$ $`.2(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪})(u_{1,𝐤}\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}v_{1,𝐤}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})]`$ (78)
$`S_{12}(𝐤,𝐪)`$ $`=`$ $`4g^2n_c\left[u_{1,𝐤}\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}v_{1,𝐤}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\right]^2`$ (79)
$``$ $`4g\alpha \omega _0\sqrt{n_c}\left[(u_{1,𝐤}\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}v_{1,𝐤}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})\left\{(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})+(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪})(u_{1,𝐤}+v_{1,𝐤})\right\}\right]`$ (80)
$`+`$ $`\alpha ^2\omega _0^2\left[(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})^2(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})^2+(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪})^2(u_{1,𝐤}+v_{1,𝐤})^2\right]`$ (81)
$`M_{12}(𝐤,𝐪)`$ $`=`$ $`8g^2n_c[(u_{1,𝐤}^2\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2+\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2v_{1,𝐤}^2)u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤}(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2+\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2).`$ (82)
$``$ $`.2\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}(u_{1,𝐤}^2+v_{1,𝐤}^2)+3u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤}\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}]`$ (83)
$`+`$ $`4g\alpha \omega _0\sqrt{n_c}[2\{(u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤})(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪})u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤}\}.`$ (84)
$`+`$ $`.\{(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})+(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪})(u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤})\}(u_{1,𝐤}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}v_{1,𝐤})]`$ (85)
$``$ $`8g\alpha ^2\omega _0n_c\left[2(u_{1,𝐤}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}v_{1,𝐤})^2u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤}(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2+\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2)\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}(u_{1,𝐤}^2+v_{1,𝐤}^2)\right]`$ (86)
$``$ $`2\alpha ^3\omega _0^2\sqrt{n_c}[(u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤})(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪})u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤}.`$ (87)
$`+`$ $`.(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})(\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2v_{1,𝐤}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}^2u_{1,𝐤})+(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪})(u_{1,𝐤}^2\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}v_{1,𝐤}^2\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})]`$ (88)
$`+`$ $`8\alpha ^4\omega _0^2n_c\left[u_{1,𝐤}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}v_{1,𝐤}\right]^2`$ (89)
$``$ $`2\alpha ^2\omega _0^2[(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})^2\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪})^2u_{1,𝐤}v_{1,𝐤}.`$ (90)
$`+`$ $`.(u_{2,𝐤}v_{2,𝐤})(\overline{u}_{2,𝐤+𝐪}\overline{v}_{2,𝐤+𝐪})(u_{1,𝐤}\overline{v}_{1,𝐤+𝐪}+v_{1,𝐤}\overline{u}_{1,𝐤+𝐪})].`$ (91)
The corresponding vertices for the transitions within the lower (upper) band are obtained from the above expressions by replacing $`\overline{u},\overline{v}u,v`$ ($`u,v\overline{u},\overline{v}`$) and multiplying by a factor $`1/2`$.


format: text

text:
# Radio and Infrared Properties of Dust-Enshrouded Wolf-Rayet Stars

## 1. Introduction

The relationship of binarity to dust production for Wolf-Rayet (WR) stars is controversial. Most will agree that the physical conditions around single WRs are unfavorable for dust production (e.g., Cherchneff & Tielens 1995; Le Teuff et al. 2001) due to the intense radiation field, low hydrogen content, and rapid density decrease in the fast expanding winds, although some mechanisms have been proposed (Zubko 1998). The realization that WR 140 was an eccentric binary system naturally explained the observed non-thermal radio emission and episodic dust production in terms of colliding winds, with high gas compression at periastron catalyzing dust creation (Moffat et al. 1987; Williams et al. 1990; Usov 1991).

But are colliding winds necessary for dust production around WR stars? Dust-enshrouded WR stars have been classified as either “variable” or “persistent” dust-producers, based on the variability of IR flux (Williams & van der Hucht 1992). While the variable dust producers can be easily understood in terms of WR 140-style colliding wind systems, the binary nature of the persistent dust producers has been unknown until more recently. Diffraction-limited infrared imaging with the Keck-I telescope revealed that spiral-shaped dust shells, “pinwheel” nebulae, surround two of the dustiest WR stars (WR 104, WR 98a), most likely created through the colliding winds of a WR+OB binary system in a close orbit (Tuthill, Monnier, & Danchi 1999; Monnier, Tuthill, & Danchi 1999).

These observations have led to a more unified picture of the dusty Wolf-Rayet stars in terms of interacting wind (binary) systems. On the one hand, WR 140 and other episodic emitters consist of eccentric systems with $`>`$10 year orbits, while WR 104 and WR 98a have more circular (circularized?) orbits with periods $``$1 year. But are all dusty sources somewhere on this continuum of binary orbits, or could some of them be single stars?

In this paper, we give a progress report including preliminary results of our work to detect non-thermal emission from pinwheel nebulae and our search for more pinwheel nebulae in the infrared.

## 2. New Radio Observations

We used the Very Large Array (VLA) to measure the broadband spectra of three dust-enshrouded Wolf-Rayet systems, WR 104, WR 98a, and WR 112, at wavelengths of 1.3, 2, 3.6, 6, & 21 cm. At the time of our observations, WR 112 was the only dust-enshrouded WR star to have a radio detection (Leitherer et al. 1997; Chapman et al. 1999), and our programme was designed to improve upon the sensitivity limits of previous surveys by factors of 3 to 10, with a goal of $`<`$100 $`\mu `$Jy point-source sensitivity. In addition, another 12 sources have been observed with the Australian Telescope Compact Array with somewhat less sensitivity.

Preliminary results of observations from 1999 September and 2000 February are shown in Figure 1. We have clearly detected WR 104 and WR 98a for the first time, at the higher frequencies. Together the two observing sessions cover 5 wavelengths for each star. Unfortunately, we could not study each star at all wavelengths during each epoch, but repeated observations at certain wavelengths confirm that the fluxes did not change dramatically between observations. Full details will be included in a future paper.

We draw the important conclusion that these sources all show evidence for non-thermal emission. The straight dashed lines in Figure 1 show the expected power law slope ($`\alpha 0.6`$) for a pure (thermal) wind source, and our data does not show the expected increase with frequency (e.g., Leitherer & Robert 1991). In addition, WR 104 and WR 98a both show a dramatic drop in flux at 21 cm where the non-thermal emission should be bright, likely caused by free-free absorption. The radio photosphere is expected to be well outside the non-thermal emission region at these wavelengths, and such absorption is observed at long wavelengths for WR 140 (White & Becker 1995), although a detailed undertanding is geometry-dependent.

We fitted a simple two-component model to the data, consisting of thermal wind (spectral index $`\alpha =0.6`$) and non-thermal ($`\alpha =0.5`$) components, where we account for free-free opacity, $`\tau _\nu \nu ^{2.1}`$ (as Chapman et al. 1999). The results of fits to the WR 112 and WR 98a data have been included in Figure 1, and the 6 cm optical depths are reported in the legend. Based on the long wavelength turnover, the optical depth of the wind appears higher for both WR 98a and WR 104, than for WR 112 at this epoch. This could mean that the binary separation of WR 112 is larger than for WR 98a and WR 104, or that we are viewing the system through a “hole” in the wind. For instance, if the OB-type companion was in front of WR 112, then we would view the shock collision zone through the OB-wind rather than the denser WR wind; this kind of effect has also been seen in WR 140 (White & Becker 1995).

The variability of the WR 112 radio flux reported in Chapman et al. (1999), and further supported by our new data, indicates an eccentric orbit and/or an “edge-on” viewing angle of the underlying binary. We are currently monitoring the broadband radio spectrum of WR 112 every two months, and hope to constrain the period and geometry by combining this information with IR images (to be discussed in the next section) and possible VLBA images of the wind-collision shock. We note that, as of 2000 June, the radio flux of WR 112 is about a factor 2 (more at longer wavelengths) lower than seen in 2000 February.

## 3. Infrared Observations

Diffraction-limited imaging in the infrared (resolution$`<`$0$`.^{\prime \prime }`$050) was performed using aperture masking techniques on the Keck-I telescope. Observing details can be found elsewhere in this volume (Tuthill et al. 2001), and in the literature (Tuthill et al. 2000; Monnier 1999). After the initial discoveries of pinwheel nebulae around WR 104 (Tuthill et al. 1999) and WR 98a (Monnier et al. 1999), we enlarged our sample to include most WR stars with K-magnitude brighter than K=6. This sample consists mostly of late-type WC stars (WC8-10), categorized as persistent dust emitters by Williams & van der Hucht (1992).

All of the dusty sources are at least partially resolved with sizes between 20 and 80 mas, assuming Gaussian brightness distributions and azimuthal symmetry (see Figure 2). A few sources (WR 140 and WR 11) do not show evidence for dust in their spectrum and our observations confirm that these sources are not extended.

Four sources are extended enough to allow meaningful image reconstructions: WR 104, WR 98a, WR 112, and WR 48a. While WR 104 and WR 98a have already been subjects of recently published papers based on aperture masking, the structure of the dust shell of WR 112 was first resolved using lunar occultations (Ragland & Richichi 1999). In a future paper (Monnier et al. 2001), we will present our multi-epoch images of WR 112 showing a very disorganized and asymmetric dust shell changing significantly with time, rather unlike the pinwheel nebulae of WR 104 and WR 98a. WR 48a appears to be quite extended, but high resolution imaging is hampered by telescope vignetting and poor atmospheric stability when observing this low declination source (maximum elevation $``$8at Keck!).

Since we have surveyed all known IR-bright Wolf-Rayet stars and because the emission at 2.2$`\mu `$m is dominated by thermal emission, we do not expect to discover any more Wolf-Rayets systems with large-scale dust emission that can be mapped using the Keck-I telescope at this wavelength. This is simply because the expected angular size is proportional to the received flux, for a given surface brightness (i.e., dust temperature). However, there are likely variable sources which produce dust periodically (e.g., WR 140 in 2001 April), and these could be observed at IR-maximum once identified.

## 4. Conclusions

* The reddest (most obscured) WR stars (WR 104, WR 98a, WR 112) are in binaries.
* Non-thermal (i.e., flat spectrum) radio emission from colliding winds in these systems is detectable, although weak, confirming the binary hypothesis, and offering another way to establish the binary nature of systems which are too distant to resolve with direct imaging.
* WR 112 shows time variable infrared and radio emission, indicating an eccentric orbit for the underlying binary. IR imaging does not reveal a pinwheel nebula, but rather an extended and dynamically changing asymmetric envelope.

## 5. Future Work

* Conduct coordinated VLA/VLBA monitoring and IR imaging at Keck to answer the questions: why is this dust shell so complex? what are the physical parameters of the underlying binary?
* Determine if other obscured WR systems are in binaries. Methods to detect binarity include: monitoring IR light curves, measuring radio broadband spectra, visible and IR spectroscopy, detection of X-ray signature of colliding winds (?), precise radial velocity work (?)
* Since the vast majority of WC8-10 stars produce dust (Williams et al. 1987), then establishing that “all” dusty WRs are in binaries would futher imply that WC8-10 stars are not produced through single star evolution. How could binary evolution affect the WR precursors to produce the photospheric structure of the late WCs? Perhaps Roche lobe overflow during a previous red supergiant phase (e.g., Monnier et al. 1999) could play a role here.
* With improved measurements of wind and binary parameters, accurate modelling of the high quality imagery of spiral structure could yield new distance estimates and probe mass-loss and colliding wind physics.
* Pursue IR interferometric observations to significantly resolve and image dust shells around other WR stars (possible with CHARA, IOTA). A number of promising candidates have been identified herein.

## References

Chapman, J. M., Leitherer, C., Koribalski, B., Bouter, R. & Storey, M. 1999, ApJ, 518, 890

Cherchneff, I. & Tielens, A. G. G. M. 1995, IAU Symposia, 163, 346

Dougherty, S., et al. 2001, this volume

Dougherty, S. & Williams, P. M. 2000, MNRAS, in press

Le Teuff, Y., et al. 2001, this volume

Leitherer, C., Chapman, J. M. & Koribalski, B. 1997, ApJ, 481, 898

Leitherer, C. & Robert, C. 1991, ApJ, 377, 629

Moffat, A. F. J., Lamontagne, R., Williams, P. M., Horn, J., & Seggewiss, W. 1987, ApJ, 312, 807

Monnier, J. D., Tuthill, P. G., Greenhill, L. J., & Danchi, W. C. 2001, in preparation

Monnier, J. D., Tuthill, P. G., & Danchi, W. C. 1999, ApJL, 525, L97

Monnier, J. D. 1999, University of California at Berkeley, PhD Dissertation

Ragland, S. & Richichi, A. 1999, MNRAS, 302, L13

Tuthill, P. G., Monnier, J. D., & Danchi, W. C. 2001, this volume

Tuthill, P. G., Monnier, J. D., Danchi, W. C., Wishnow, E. H., & Haniff, C. A. 2000, PASP, 112, 555

Tuthill, P. G., Monnier, J. D., & Danchi, W. C. 1999, Nature, 398, 487

Usov, V. V. 1991, MNRAS, 252, 49

White, R. L. & Becker, R. H. 1995, ApJ, 451, 352

Williams, P. M. & van der Hucht, K. A., 1992, ASP Conference Series, 22, 269

Williams, P. M., van der Hucht, K. A., Pollock, A. M. T., Florkowski, D. R., van der Woerd, H., & Wamsteker, W. M. 1990, MNRAS, 243, 662

Williams, P. M., van der Hucht, K. A., & Thé, P. S. 1987, A&A, 182, 91

Zubko, V. G. 1998, MNRAS, 295, 109


text:
# 1 Fundamental group and incidence algebras

## 1 Fundamental group and incidence algebras

We consider the classical definition of a simplicial complex (see for instance ). A simplicial complex is the union of elements $`\{a_i\}_{iI}`$ called the vertices, and finite sets of vertices called the simplexes, such that if $`S`$ is a simplex all subsets of $`S`$ are also simplexes. Each set containing only one element is a simplex. A simplicial complex is said to be finite if $`I`$ is finite, and is connected if for each couple of vertices $`(s,t)`$, there exist vertices $`s_0,\mathrm{},s_n`$ such that $`s_0=s`$, $`s_n=t`$ and $`\{s_{i1},s_i\}`$ is a simplex for each $`i`$ in $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$.

The geometric realization of a simplicial complex $`C`$ with vertices $`\{a_i\}_{iI}`$ is as follows. Let $`\{A_i\}_{iI}`$ be points of $`\mathrm{}^n`$, such that if $`\{a_{\alpha _1},\mathrm{},a_{\alpha _p}\}`$ is a simplex of $`C`$, then the points $`A_{\alpha _1},\mathrm{},A_{\alpha _p}`$ are linearly independent. The set of points whose barycentric coordinates are strictly positive is called a face. Note that we prefer to define a face as the points with strictly positive barycentric coordinates instead of positive barycentric coordinates: this way, the geometric realization becomes the disjoint union of its faces and there exists only one face containing it. Moreover, if $`S`$ and $`S^{}`$ are two simplexes with empty intersection, the intersection of the corresponding faces is empty. A geometric realization of $`C`$ denoted by $`|C|`$, is the union of the faces associated to simplexes of a simplicial complex. A closed face is the closure of a face.

Note that since we assume that the simplicial complexes are finite, their geometric realization exist. Indeed let $`C`$ be a complex with set of vertices $`a_1,\mathrm{},a_n`$. The geometric realization $`|C|`$ of a simplicial complex $`C`$ is a subset of $`\mathrm{}^n`$ and inherits the topology of $`\mathrm{}^n`$. Behind the usual definition of the fundamental group $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(|C|)`$ obtained through homotopy classes of closed paths, we recall the construction of the edge-paths group of $`|C|`$. This provides another description of the fundamental group $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(|C|)`$ which is useful for our purpose (see  for example).

An edge-path of $`C`$ is a finite sequence of vertices $`a_{i_r}\mathrm{}a_{i_1}`$ such that for all $`j`$ in $`\{1,\mathrm{},r1\}`$, the set $`\{a_{i_j},a_{i_{j+1}}\}`$ is a simplex. If $`w=a_{i_r}\mathrm{}a_{i_1}`$ is an edge-path, let $`w^1`$ denote the edge-path $`a_{i_1}\mathrm{}a_{i_r}`$. An edge-path is said to be closed (or an edge-loop) if the first and the last vertices are the same. Let $`w=a_{i_r}\mathrm{}a_{i_1}`$ and $`w^{}=a_{i_r^{}^{}}^{}\mathrm{}a_{i_1^{}}^{}`$ be two edge-paths; if $`a_{i_r^{}^{}}=a_{i_1}`$, the product $`w.w^{}`$ is defined and is equal to $`a_{i_r}\mathrm{}a_{i_1}a_{i_r^{}^{}}^{}\mathrm{}a_{i_1^{}}^{}`$

This is an allowable operation on edge-paths : if three consecutive vertices of the edge-path are in the same simplex, the middle vertex can be removed. Conversely, we can add a vertex between two others, if these three vertices are in a same simplex of $`C`$. Moreover, it is possible to change $`a_{i_0}a_{i_0}`$ by $`a_{i_0}`$ and conversely. This generates an equivalence relation on the set of edge-paths. Let $`\overline{w}`$ denote the equivalence class of the edge-path $`w`$. As two equivalent edge-paths have the same extremities, the product defined before, when it exists, is defined also on the equivalence classes, as well as on the set of edge-loops starting at a fixed point.

Proposition 1.1. ( 6.3.1 and 6.3.2.)  Let $`C`$ be a simplicial complex and $`x_0`$ a vertex of $`C`$. The set of equivalence classes of edge-loops starting at one point $`x_0`$ is a group for the product defined before. Since $`C`$ is connected, this group does not depend on $`x_0`$ and is denoted by $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(C)`$. The fundamental groups $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(C)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(|C|)`$ are isomorphic.

Hereafter, $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(C)`$ will be either the approximation of the fundamental group $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(C)`$ or the fundamental group $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(|C|)`$ itself.

Given a poset (i.e. a partially ordered set), there is an associated ordered quiver, that is to say a finite oriented graph without loops and such that if there exists an arrow from $`a`$ to $`b`$, there does not exist another path from $`a`$ to $`b`$. To each element of the poset corresponds a vertex of the graph. Moreover, let $`S_1`$ and $`S_2`$ be vertices in the graph ; there exists an arrow from $`S_1`$ to $`S_2`$ if and only if the element associated to $`S_1`$ in the poset is smaller than the element associated to $`S_2`$ and if there does not exist an element of the poset strictly between these two elements. The graph obtained is an ordered quiver.

For example, the graph that corresponds to the poset $`a,b,c,a^{},b^{},c^{},d`$ with $`a<b^{}<d`$, $`c<b^{}<d`$, $`a<c^{}<d`$, $`b<c^{}<d`$, $`b<a^{}<d`$ and $`c<a^{}<d`$ is:

Conversely, by this operation all ordered graphs arise from a poset. There is a bijection between the set of ordered graphs and the set of posets. Moreover, a poset is said to be connected if its ordered quiver is connected. All the posets considered will be connected, finite and non empty.

Let now $`Q`$ be a quiver, and $`k`$ be a field. We denote $`kQ`$ the $`k`$-vector space with basis the paths of $`Q`$ (the paths of length 0 being the vertices), with the multiplication given by the composition of two paths if possible and 0 otherwise. Two paths of $`Q`$ are parallel if they have the same beginning and the same end. The k-space generated by the set of differences of two parallel paths is a two-sided ideal of $`kQ`$, denoted $`I_Q`$ and called parallel ideal. The quotient algebra $`kQ/I_Q`$ is the incidence algebra of $`Q`$.

The general definition of the fundamental group depends on a couple $`(Q,I)`$ where $`I`$ is an admissible ideal of $`kQ`$, it can be found in  and we recall it below. We notice that for an algebra the presentation as a quiver with relations is not unique in general, that is to say that different ideals $`I`$ may exist such that $`AkQ/I`$. We do not have in general a unique fundamental group associated to an algebra. Nevertheless, in the case of an incidence algebra it has been proved that the fundamental group does not depend on the presentation of the algebra (see  for example).

A relation $`_{i=1}^n\lambda _i\omega _i`$ is minimal if the sum is in $`I`$ and if for all non empty proper subset $`J`$ of $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$ the sum $`_{iJ}\lambda _i\omega _i`$ is not in $`I`$. We note that if the relation is minimal then $`\{\omega _1,\mathrm{},\omega _n\}`$ have the same source and the same terminus.

If $`\alpha `$ is an arrow from $`x`$ to $`y`$, let $`\alpha ^1`$ denote its formal inverse which goes from $`y`$ to $`x`$. A walk from $`x`$ to $`y`$ is a formal product $`\alpha _1^{\pm 1}\alpha _2^{\pm 1}\mathrm{}\alpha _n^{\pm 1}`$ which begins in $`x`$ and ends in $`y`$. The trivial walk $`x`$, which begins in $`x`$ and no longer moves is denoted $`e_x`$. A closed walk (or a loop) is a walk having the same extremities. A walk is, in fact, a path in the non oriented graph associated to $`Q`$; in other words, a walk can follow the arrows in any direction.

We consider the smaller equivalence relation $``$ on the walks of $`Q`$ containing the following items :

1. if $`\alpha `$ is an arrow from $`x`$ to $`y`$ then $`\alpha \alpha ^1e_y`$ and $`\alpha ^1\alpha e_x`$,

2. if $`_{i=1}^n\lambda _i\omega _i`$ is a minimal relation then $`\omega _1\mathrm{}\omega _n`$,

3. if $`\alpha \beta `$ then, for all $`(\omega ,\omega ^{})`$, we have $`\omega \alpha \omega ^{}\omega \beta \omega ^{}`$ Let $`x_0`$ be a vertex of $`Q`$. The set of equivalence classes of loops starting at $`x_0`$ does not depend on $`x_0`$ since $`Q`$ is connected. We denote this set by $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I)`$. If the quiver $`Q`$ comes from a poset $`P`$, the fundamental group associated to $`(Q,I_Q)`$ is denoted $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(P)`$.

We remark that if $`I`$ is the parallel ideal, the second item means parallel paths are equivalent. For example if $`Q`$ is defined by the following quiver, the fundamental group $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I__Q)`$ is isomorphic to $`\mathrm{}`$.

We note that the hypothesis $`I`$ admissible is not fully used neither to define the fundamental group nor to prove that it is a group. So, in this paper, we will consider the fundamental group of a couple $`(Q,I)`$ where $`I`$ satisfies $`F^nIF`$ for an integer $`n`$. This will be used to adapt Van Kampen’s theorem to purely algebraic fundamental groups.

Let $`C`$ be a simplicial complex. The set of non empty simplexes of $`C`$ ordered by inclusion is a poset which we will denote $`Pos(C)`$. This $`Pos`$ defines an application from simplicial complexes to posets which is injective, but not surjective, since there is no simplicial complex which gives the poset $`a<b`$. Due to the construction of the quiver from a simplicial complex, an arrows can only go from a vertex corresponding to a p-face to a vertex corresponding to a q-face with $`p>q`$, then the path algebra of this quiver is then of finite dimension.

We provide now the construction of a simplicial complex from a poset. These procedures are of course not inverse one of each other, their composition is the barycentric decomposition.

To each poset $`P`$ we associate a simplicial complex $`Sim(P)`$, where a n-simplex is a subset of $`P`$ containing $`n+1`$ elements and totally ordered. The application $`Sim`$ is surjective but not injective, for instance the simplicial complexes which are associated to $`a<b<c`$, $`a<b<d`$ and to $`a<c<b`$, $`a<d<b`$ are the same.

Let $`C`$ be a simplicial complex, $`|Sim(Pos(C))|`$ is the geometric realization of the barycentric decomposition of $`C`$. Then for example let $`C`$ be the set of the non empty parts of $`\{a,b,c\}`$ ; its geometric realization being the triangle drawn on the next figure. Then, $`Pos(C)`$ contains all the elements of $`C`$ that is to say $`T=\{a,b,c\}`$ $`A_1=\{b,c\}`$, $`A_2=\{a,c\}`$, $`A_3=\{a,b\}`$, $`S_1=\{a\}`$, $`S_2=\{b\}`$ and $`S_3=\{c\}`$ and its order is defined by $`S_iA_jT`$ for all $`i,j\{\mathrm{1,2,3}\}`$ and $`ij`$. The associated quiver is drawn on the next figure. Then $`Sim(Pos(C))`$ is the complex containing the total ordered subsets of $`P`$ that is to say : for all $`i,j\{\mathrm{1,2,3}\}`$, the 0-simplexes are $`\{S_i\}`$, $`\{A_i\}`$, $`\{T\}`$, the 1-simplexes are $`\{S_i,A_j\}`$ $`ij`$, $`\{S_i,T\}`$, $`\{A_i,T\}`$, the 2-simplexes are $`\{S_i,A_j,T\}`$ $`ij`$. By identifying poset and associated ordered quiver, simplicial complexes and their geometric realization, the situation can be summarized by the following diagram :

## 2 Equivalence between algebraic and topological approaches.

The aim of this section is to prove that the fundamental group $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(|C|)`$ defined on the geometric realization of a finite simplicial complex $`C`$ is isomorphic to the fundamental group $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Pos(C))`$ of the incidence algebra of the poset deduced from the complex.

We prove first that for any poset $`P`$ we have $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(P)\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Sim(P))`$. We will use the approximation of the topological fundamental group considered before in order to provide an isomorphism between $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Sim(P))`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(P)`$.

Theorem 2.2. Let $`P`$ be a poset, the groups $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(P)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Sim(P))`$ are isomorphic.

Proof. Due to proposition 1, it is sufficient to prove that $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(P)`$ is isomorphic to the edge-paths group of $`|Sim(C)|`$

For each vertex $`s`$ of the poset $`P`$, the set $`\{s\}`$ is totally ordered and it corresponds to a 0-simplex of the simplicial complex $`Sim(P)`$. We denote by $`s^{}`$ this 0-simplex of $`Sim(P)`$.

Let $`\varphi `$ be the map from the set of the associated quiver walks to the set of edge-paths of $`Sim(P)`$ be defined by

$$\varphi (\alpha _n^{ϵ_n}\mathrm{}\alpha _1^{ϵ_1})=s_{n+1}^{}\mathrm{}s_1^{}$$

where $`s_i`$ and $`s_{i+1}`$ are the poset elements which are the origin and the end of the walk $`\alpha _i^{ϵ_i}`$.

The map $`\varphi `$ is well defined. Indeed, $`s_{n+1}^{}\mathrm{}s_1^{}`$ is an edge-path because for all $`i`$ in $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$, the set $`\{s_i,s_{i+1}\}`$ is totally ordered since $`\alpha _i`$ is an arrow of the extremities $`s_i,s_{i+1}`$ and therefore $`\{s_i^{},s_{i+1}^{}\}`$ is a simplex of $`Sim(P)`$.

We assert now that the images by $`\varphi `$ of equivalent walks are equivalent. We have to prove this fact on the generators of the equivalence relation. Let $`f`$ be an arrow from $`s_1`$ to $`s_2`$, then $`\varphi (f.f^1)=s_1^{}.s_2^{}.s_1^{}`$ which is equivalent to $`s_1^{}=\varphi (e_{v_1})`$. Let $`c_1`$ and $`c_2`$ be two parallel paths crossing respectively the vertex $`s_1,t_1,t_2,\mathrm{},t_n,s_2`$ and $`s_1,u_1,u_2,\mathrm{},u_n,s_2`$. Then the sets $`\{s_1,t_1,t_2,\mathrm{},t_n,s_2\}`$ and $`\{s_1,u_1,u_2,\mathrm{},u_n,s_2\}`$ are totally ordered and the edge paths $`\varphi (c_1)=s_1^{}.t_1^{}.t_2^{}.\mathrm{}.t_n^{},s_2^{}`$ and $`\varphi (c_2)=s_1^{}.t_1^{}.t_2^{}.\mathrm{}.t_n^{},s_2^{}`$ are both equivalent to $`s_1^{}.s_2^{}`$.

The third relation is immediate because the equivalence relation on the edge paths set is compatible with the product of the group.

Let $`\varphi _{}:\mathrm{\Pi }_1(P)\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Sim(P))`$ denote the application induced by $`\varphi `$. Note that the image of a loop is also a loop.

First of all $`\varphi _{}`$ is a morphism. Indeed :

If $`\{\begin{array}{c}\varphi (p)=x_0v_n\mathrm{}v_1x_0\hfill \\ \varphi (q)=x_0w_n\mathrm{}w_1x_0\hfill \end{array}`$ then $`\{\begin{array}{c}\varphi (p).\varphi (q)=x_0v_n\mathrm{}v_1x_0x_0w_n\mathrm{}w_1x_0\hfill \\ \varphi (p.q)=x_0v_n\mathrm{}v_1x_0w_n\mathrm{}w_1x_0\hfill \end{array}`$

These two edge-paths are equivalent so $`\varphi _{}(p)\varphi _{}(q)=\varphi _{}(p.q)`$.

To prove that $`\varphi _{}`$ is bijective, we are going to construct its inverse $`\psi _{}`$.

Let $`s_{n+1}^{}\mathrm{}s_1^{}`$ be an edge-path. We fix $`i`$ in $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$. The set $`\{s_i^{},s_{i+1}^{}\}`$ being a simplex, the set $`\{s_i,s_{i+1}\}`$ is totally ordered. Then, there exists a maximal (for the inclusion) totally ordered set containing it and having $`s_i`$ and $`s_{i+1}`$ as extremities. The choice of this is not important because all paths corresponding to these sets have the same origin and the same end and therefore are parallel. This maximal set corresponds to a path or to an inverse path $`w_i^{ϵ_i}`$ of the associated quiver with origin $`s_i`$ and end $`s_{i+1}`$. So we can define a morphism $`\psi `$ from edge paths group to $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(C)`$ by $`\psi (s_{n+1}^{}\mathrm{}s_1^{})=w_n^{ϵ_n}\mathrm{}w_1^{ϵ_1}`$ if $`n1`$ and $`\psi (s_1^{})=s_1`$.

We will prove now that this application is constant on the equivalence class. In deed $`\psi (s^{}s^{})`$ is a path from $`s`$ to $`s`$, so $`\psi (s^{}s^{})=s=\psi (s^{})`$. Moreover, let take $`s^{},t^{},u^{}`$ such that $`\{s^{},t^{},u^{}\}`$ is a simplex, so $`\psi (s^{}t^{}u^{})=\psi (s^{}t^{}).\psi (t^{}u^{})`$ and $`\psi (s^{}u^{})`$ are paths from $`u`$ to $`s`$. Therefore they are parallel.

Finally, we will verify that $`\varphi _{}o\psi _{}=\psi _{}o\varphi _{}=Id`$. Let $`f`$ be an arrow of the ordered quiver associated to $`P`$ from $`s_1`$ to $`s_2`$ then $`\varphi _{}(f)=s_1^{}s_2^{}`$ and $`\psi _{}o\varphi _{}(f)`$ is a path from $`s_1`$ to $`s_2`$. Since the quiver is ordered, it does not exist any other path than $`f`$, so $`\psi _{}o\varphi _{}(f)=f`$ and $`\psi _{}o\varphi _{}=Id`$. For the other equality, let’s consider an edge path $`s_1^{}s_2^{}`$. Then $`\psi _{}(s_1^{}s_2^{})`$ is a path from $`s_1`$ to $`s_2`$ and then $`\varphi _{}o\psi _{}(s_1^{}s_2^{})`$ is an edge path beginning with $`s_1^{}`$ and ending with $`s_2^{}`$ such that all vertices of this edge-path are in a same simplex. So it is equivalent to $`s_1^{}s_2^{}`$.

Theorem 2.3. Let $`C`$ be a simplicial complex. The fundamental groups $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(|C|)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Pos(C))`$ are isomorphic.

Proof. The fundamental groups associated to the simplicial complex and to its barycentric decomposition are isomorphic. Then,

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_1(|C|)\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Sim(Pos(C)).$$

Moreover, the previous theorem shows that the group $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Pos(C))`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Sim(Pos(C)))`$ are isomorphic.

## 3 Applications

We first show that in a particular case of incidence algebra the result obtained by I. Assem and J.A. De La Peña (, p.200) is a consequence of a classic fact in algebraic topology ; so this proof has the advantage to link this result to algebraic topology.

Theorem 3.4. Let $`P`$ be a poset and $`A=kQ/I`$ its incidence algebra over a field $`k`$. Then

$$Hom(\mathrm{\Pi }_1(P),k^+)HH^1(A)$$

where $`k^+`$ is the additive group of the field $`k`$ and $`HH^1(A)`$ is the first Hochschild cohomology group of $`A`$.

Proof. Let $`C`$ be a simplicial complex and $`C_{}(\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ be the chain complex over a ring $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ associated to the simplicial homology of $`C`$ ; the latter homology will be denoted by $`H_{}(C,\mathrm{\Lambda })`$. Moreover, the cohomology of the complex $`Hom_\mathrm{\Lambda }(C_{}(\mathrm{\Lambda }),A)`$, where $`A`$ is a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-module, is denoted by $`H^{}(C,\mathrm{\Lambda },A)`$.

For any simplicial complex, the abelianisation $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1^{ab}`$ of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1`$ is isomorphic to the first homology group (see for example , 6.4.7). If we denote by $`C`$ the simplicial complex associated to $`Q`$, we have

$$(\mathrm{\Pi }_1(C))^{ab}H_1(C,\mathrm{})$$

and

$$Hom((\mathrm{\Pi }_1(C))^{ab},k^+)Hom(H_1(C,\mathrm{}),k^+).$$

Note that since $`k^+`$ is abelian we have :

$$Hom(\mathrm{\Pi }_1(C),k^+)Hom(H_1(C,\mathrm{}),k^+).$$

Making use of theorem we have :

$$Hom(\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I__Q),k^+)Hom(H_1(C,\mathrm{}),k^+)()$$

Adjunction, for two rings $`R`$ and $`S`$ and bimodules $`A_R`$, $`{}_{R}{}^{}B_{S}^{}`$, $`C_S`$, provides an isomorphism, (see , p.37, for example) :

$$Hom_S(A\underset{^R}{}B,C)Hom_R(A,Hom_S(B,C))$$

In our case, we consider $`B=C=S=k`$, $`R=\mathrm{}`$ and $`A=H_1(C,\mathrm{})`$. Identifying commutative groups and $`\mathrm{}`$-modules, this isomorphism becomes

$$Hom_k(H_1(C,\mathrm{})\underset{^{\mathrm{}}}{}k,k)Hom(H_1(C,\mathrm{}),k^+).$$

Then $`()`$ becomes

$$Hom(\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I__Q),k^+)Hom_k(H_1(C,\mathrm{})\underset{^{\mathrm{}}}{}k,k)()$$

Moreover, the universal coefficients theorem in homology and in cohomology (see for example , p.176-179) are as follows. Let $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ be a principal ring and $`C`$ be a flat chain complex over $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, and let $`A`$ be a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-module, then

$$\{\begin{array}{c}0H_n(C)_^\mathrm{\Lambda }AH_n(C_^\mathrm{\Lambda }A)Tor_1^\mathrm{\Lambda }(H_{n1}(C),A)0\hfill \\ 0Ext_\mathrm{\Lambda }^1(H_{n1}(C),A)H^n(Hom_\mathrm{\Lambda }(C,A))Hom_\mathrm{\Lambda }(H_n(C),A)0\hfill \end{array}$$

are exact.

As $`C_{}(\mathrm{})`$ is free and therefore flat, the hypotheses are verified with $`C=C_{}(\mathrm{})`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mathrm{}`$, $`A=k`$ and $`n=1`$ in the first theorem and $`C=C_{}(k)`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=k`$, $`A=k`$ et $`n=1`$ in the second.

Moreover, $`Ext_k^1(H_{n1}(C),A)=0`$ because $`k`$ is a field, and $`Tor_1^\mathrm{\Lambda }(H_0(C),k)=0`$ because $`H_0(\mathrm{})`$ is free (see for example , p.63, cor.2.4.7).

Then we have

$$\{\begin{array}{c}H_1(C,\mathrm{})_{^{\mathrm{}}}kH_1(C_{^{\mathrm{}}}k,\mathrm{})\hfill \\ H^1(C,k,k))Hom_k(H_1(C,k),k)\hfill \end{array}$$

Since the complexes $`C_{}(\mathrm{})_{\mathrm{}}k`$ and $`C_{}(k)`$ are isomorphic, the equation $`()`$ becomes

$$Hom(\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I),k^+)Hom_k(H_1(C\underset{^{\mathrm{}}}{}k,\mathrm{}),k)Hom_k(H_1(C,k),k)H^1(C,k,k)$$

We conclude using the Gerstenhaber-Schack theorem ( 1.4, or ) which shows that the cohomologies $`H^i(C,k,k)`$ and $`HH^i(kQ/I)`$ are isomorphic.

We introduce now the notion of completed quiver which is interesting in view of the following results, and also in order to adapt Van Kampen’s theorem to an algebraic setting. A quiver is said to be a completed quiver if

1. it does not contain cycles.

2. each path of length at least two has a parallel arrow,

3. there are no couples of parallel arrows.

Theorem 3.5. Let $`Q`$ be a quiver without cycles and without parallel arrows.

1. There exists an ordered quiver $`Q^o`$ obtained by considering the set of paths of length at least 2 and deleting all arrows parallel to these paths.

2. There exists an completed quiver $`Q^c`$ obtained from $`Q`$ by considering the set of paths of length at least 2 and adding a parallel arrow for each of these paths, unless there already is one, either added or in $`Q`$.

3. The three fundamental groups of the quivers $`Q`$, $`Q^o`$ and $`Q^c`$ with their own parallel ideals which are not necessary admissible, are isomorphic:

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I__Q)\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q^o,I_{_{Q^o}})\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q^c,I_{_{Q^c}})$$

Proof.

First, we give more details on the construction of $`Q^c`$ and $`Q^o`$. The vertices of $`Q^c`$ and $`Q^o`$ are the same as those of $`Q`$. Moreover, there exists an arrow from $`a`$ to $`b`$, $`ab`$, in $`Q^c`$ if and only if there exists a path (possibly an arrow) from $`a`$ to $`b`$ in $`Q`$, and there exists an arrow in $`Q^o`$ if and only if there exists an arrow in $`Q`$ from $`a`$ to $`b`$ which is not parallel to another path in $`Q`$.We prove that for any path in $`Q^c`$ (resp. in $`Q`$) there exists a parallel path constructed with arrows that come from $`Q`$ (resp. $`Q^o`$). Let $`q=\alpha _1\mathrm{}\alpha _n`$ be a path of $`Q^c`$. For any $`\alpha _i`$ that does not come from $`Q`$, there exists by construction a path $`\omega _i`$ in $`Q^c`$, already present in $`Q`$, parallel to $`\alpha _i`$. If $`\alpha _i`$ is an arrow which comes from $`Q`$, let us set $`\omega _i=\alpha _i`$. Then the path $`q`$ is parallel to the path $`q^{}=\omega _1\mathrm{}\omega _n`$ which is issued from $`Q`$.

The same process is applicable to the quivers $`Q`$ and $`Q^o`$. The fundamental groups $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I__Q)`$, $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q^o,I_{_{Q^o}})`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q^c,I_{_{Q^c}})`$ are isomorphic. Since any path in $`Q^c`$ is parallel to a path that comes from $`Q`$, every walk of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q^c,I_{_{Q^c}})`$ is equivalent to a walk that contains only arrows issuing from $`Q`$ ; then, the equivalent classes will not be changed by adding the parallel arrows of $`Q^c`$.

The proof of the isomorphism between $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q^o,I_{_{Q^o}})`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I__Q)`$ is the same. $`Q^o`$ is ordered. The quiver $`Q^o`$ does not contain cycles, and there is no arrow parallel to a path by construction.

$`Q^c`$ is completed. The quiver $`Q^o`$ does not contain cycles either, and if there exists a path $`p`$ from $`a`$ to $`b`$ and no arrow from $`a`$ to $`b`$, then there is a path in $`Q`$, parallel to $`p`$. This is in contradiction with the construction of $`Q^o`$.

Example 3.6.

Theorem 3.7. (Van Kampen)  Let $`Q`$ be a connected ordered quiver and let $`Q_1`$, $`Q_2`$ be two connected subquivers such that $`Q_1^cQ_2^c=Q^c`$ and such that $`Q_0`$, the ordered quiver associated to the completed quiver $`Q_1^cQ_2^c`$, is also connected. The inclusions $`i_1`$ (resp. $`i_2`$) from $`Q_0^c`$ to $`Q_1^c`$ (resp. $`Q_2^c`$) induce $`i_1`$ (resp $`i_2`$) from $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q_0,I_{_{Q_0}})`$ to $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q_1,I_{_{Q_1}})`$ (resp. $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q_2,I_{_{Q_2}})`$).

Therefore $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I__Q)`$ is the free product of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q_1,I_{_{Q_1}})`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q_2,I_{_{Q_2}})`$ by adding the relations $`i_1(\alpha )=i_2(\alpha )`$ for all $`\alpha `$ in $`\mathrm{\Pi }(Q_0,I_{_{Q_0}})`$

Proof. We use Van Kampen’s theorem for a simplicial complex (see , p243, for example):

$`K`$ is a connected complex and $`K_0`$, $`K_1`$, $`K_2`$ are connected subcomplexes, such that $`K_1K_2=K`$ and $`K_1K_2=K_0`$; $`a_0`$ is a vertex of $`K_0`$; the injection maps $`j_r:K_0K_r`$, $`r=\mathrm{1,2}`$, induce

$$j_r:\mathrm{\Pi }(K_0,a_0)\mathrm{\Pi }(K_r,a_0)$$

Then $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(K)`$ is the free product of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(K_1)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(K_2)`$ by means of the mapping $`j_1(\alpha )j_2(\alpha )`$ for all $`\alpha `$ in $`\mathrm{\Pi }(Q_0,I_{_{Q_0}})`$.

To $`Q`$,$`Q_0`$,$`Q_1`$,$`Q_2`$, there correspond simplicial complexes that we denote $`K`$,$`K_0`$,$`K_1`$,$`K_2`$. By hypothesis, these simplicial complexes are connected. Moreover, as there is a bijection between the paths of $`Q_i^c`$ of length $`n`$ and the $`n`$-dimensional simplexes of $`K_i`$, we have $`K=K_1K_2`$ and $`K_0=K_1K_2`$.

Let us denote by $`\varphi _{}`$ the isomorphism defined in theorem between $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I__Q)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(K)`$. Then it is easy to see that the following diagrams are commutative (n=1,2):

Therefore $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I__Q)`$ is the free product of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q_1,I_{_{Q_1}})`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q_2,I_{_{Q_2}})`$ by adding the relations $`i_1(\alpha )=i_2(\alpha )`$ for all $`\alpha `$ in $`\mathrm{\Pi }(Q_0,I_{_{Q_0}})`$

Corollary 3.8.  If $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q_0,I_{_{Q_0}})=0`$, then $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I__Q)`$ is the free product of $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q_1,I_{_{Q_1}})`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q_2,I_{_{Q_2}})`$.

Example 3.9. We begin with an easy example to show how the theorem works

$`Q=`$ $`Q_1=`$ $`Q_2=`$ $`Q_0=`$

As the fundamental group of a tree is zero, we deduce from the corollary that $`\mathrm{\Pi }_1(Q,I__Q)=0`$.

Example 3.10. Now, let’s consider the quiver $`Q`$ drawn on the next figure. The dotted line indicates the limits of quivers $`Q_1`$ and $`Q_2`$. Then the quivers $`Q`$, $`Q_1`$, $`Q_2`$ and $`Q_0`$ are :

Since the quiver $`Q_1`$ and $`Q_2`$ are the same, we only had to calculate the fundamental group of $`Q_1`$. Let’s use again the Van Kampen theorem, and decompose the quiver $`Q_1`$ in $`Q_{11}`$ and $`Q_{12}`$. The intersection quiver will be denoted by $`Q_{10}`$ :

The fundamental groups of quivers $`Q_{10}`$, $`Q_{11}`$ and $`Q_{12}`$ is 0. Then it is the same for the quiver $`Q_1`$ and therefore for $`Q`$ itself.

Example 3.11. The last example shows a situation where $`Q_0`$ is not simply connected :

Once again, the quivers $`Q_1`$ and $`Q_2`$ are the same and we use again the Van Kampen theorem to calculate it :

Since the fundamental group $`Q_{10}`$ is 0, $`Q_1`$ is the free product of $`Q_{11}`$ and $`Q_{12}`$ which are isomorphic to $`\mathrm{}`$. Then, if $`Q_{11}`$ and $`Q_{12}`$ are generated by $`a`$ and $`b`$, $`Q_1`$ is the group generated by $`\{a,b\}`$. In the same way, $`Q_2`$ is generated by two elements $`c`$ and $`d`$. If we add the relation $`i_1(Q_0)i_2(Q_0)=0`$, we obtain that $`d=b`$ and therefore the fundamental group of $`Q`$ is the group generated by $`\{a,b,c\}`$.

References

 I. Assem and J.A. De La Peña, The fundamental groups of a triangular algebra, Comm. Algebra, 24(1), pp.187-208 (1996).

 M. Berger, Géométrie, Nathan (1990).

 K. Bongartz and P. Gabriel, Covering Spaces in representation-Theory, Invent. Math. 65, pp.331-378 (1982).

 C. Cibils, Cohomology of incidence algebras and simplicial complex, J. Pure Appl. Algebra 56 pp.221-232 (1989).

 C. Cibils, Complexes simpliciaux et carquois, C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris t.307, Serie I, pp.929-934 (1988).

 P. Gabriel, Indecomposable representation II, Symposia Mathematica II (Instituto Nazionale di alta Matematica), Roma, pp.81-104 (1973).

 M. A. Gatica and M. J. Redondo, Hochschild cohomology and fundamental groups of incidence algebras, to appear in Comm. Algebra.

 M. Gerstenhaber and S.P. Schack, Simplicial cohomology is Hochschild cohomology, J. Pure Appl. Algebra 30 pp.143-156 (1983).

 E.L. Green, Graphs withs relations, coverings and group-graded algebras, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 279 (1983), 297-310.

 P.J. Hilton and U. Stammbach, A course in Homological Algebra, Springer (1996).

 P.J. Hilton and S. Wylie, An introduction to Algebraic Topology, Cambridge University press (1967).

 W.S. Massey, Algebraic Topology: an Introduction, Springer-Verlag, New-York Heidelberg Berlin (1989).

 R. Martinez-Villa and J.A. De La Peña, The universal cover of a quiver with relations, J. Pure Appl. Algebra 30, pp.277-292 (1983).

 J.A. De La Peña and M. Saorin, The first Hochschild cohomology group of an algebra, preprint.

 J.A. De La Peña, On the abelian Galois covering of an algebra, J. Algebra 102(1) pp.129-134 (1986).

 M.J. Redondo, Cohomología de Hochschild de álgebras de Artin, preprint.

 J. Rotman, An introduction to Homological Algebra, Academic press, inc. (1979).