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# Perfectly Translating Lattices on a Cylinder

## I
Introduction

The advent of modern computers has made it possible to study many-dimensional dynamical systems in detail and to ferret out previously unsuspected characteristics. Phenomena such as relaxation to equilibrium , lack of ergodicity , and connection of dynamical to statistical properties  have been explored numerically. A category of models that continue to enjoy great attention is that of interacting-electron systems. In this paper we consider a particular member of this class: the classical dynamics of the confined two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG). While various aspects of 2DEG have been well-studied, it remains a convenient and relatively tractable system to understand dynamical properties of complex systems. It is well-known that at low temperatures the electron system freezes into an hexagonal Wigner lattice . Extensive studies have been made of the possible conformations that result when this simple system is perturbed . A simple example is provided by the inter-layer coupling between vertically separated 2DEGs which enhances the stability of the square lattice relative to the hexagonal . The melting and structural transitions have also been well-studied . The confinement is also a possible perturbation—ideal hexagonal lattice is obtained only for infinite system.

However, commonly used confining potentials preserve the hexagonal character with only slight edge distortions. Perturbed 2DEG models have relevance beyond electron systems: experiments on dusty plasmas  and ion plasmas  have been usefully explained in terms of formation of few layered and bi-layered Coulomb lattices.

The classical behavior of a confined 2DEG subject to an external magnetic field has been of some recent theoretical use . In particular the magnetotransport phenomena in 2DEG have lead to important physical insights. New systems have been proposed in which the electron motion in 2DEG is nontrivially altered by a (possibly non-homogeneous) magnetic field . Some possibilities have been realized by advances in the semiconductor technology . Such systems are studied quantum mechanically for a full understanding but many features can already be appreciated within the classical theory. For example, the classical chaos was found to control the low-field transport in systems with competing magnetic and electrostatic modulation . In this paper we analyze the structure and dynamics of 2DEG on a novel geometry. The electrons are constrained to the surface of a cylinder of radius $`R_d`$ and confined along the $`z`$ direction to a strip of width $`W=2\pi R_d`$ by the potential of the uniform static positive background. We chose this geometry because it allows the electrons to carry a current along the $`\varphi `$ direction. We apply the external electric and magnetic fields and observe the time-dependent response.

We have been motivated to this problem by certain reflections on usual textbook derivations of the classical 3-dimensional Hall effect . These derivations are based on free-electron Drude theory and consider independent electrons drifting with a common and constant drift velocity $`V`$. It is then easy to show that a constant transverse electric field, generated by excess boundary charge, can balance the magnetic force and bring a steady state. In the context of a classical 2-dimensional many degree-of-freedom interacting system this simple picture could be dynamically unstable. Here we conduct numerical experiments to see if a regime of interacting electrons drifting with a common uniform velocity can be attained in a 2D many-body system. A peculiarity of 2DEG is that the Coulomb field escapes from the surface; in 3D a constant transverse Hall field can be nicely produced by the boundary electrons only, while in 2D, because of Gauss’s law, these boundary electrons can only produce a $`1/r`$ field (the field of a charged wire). We see then that a global charge redistribution is called upon for to produce a constant field.

## II Simulation and results

The Lagrangian for $`N`$ interacting electrons confined by the background potential $`V_{CON}`$ and subject to an external radial magnetic field $`B`$ is

$$=\underset{i}{}\frac{1}{2}m\dot{\stackrel{}{x}_i}^2\underset{i>j}{}\frac{e^2}{r_{ij}}V_{CON}(z_i)BR_d\underset{i}{}z_i\dot{\varphi _i},$$
(1)
where $`\stackrel{}{x}_i`$ is the coordinate of the $`i`$th electron and $`r_{ij}`$ is the distance between $`i`$th and $`j`$th electrons and $`c`$ is the speed of light. The electronic mass and charge are $`m`$ and $`e`$ respectively. To remove any ambiguity we clarify that distances are not calculated along the surface but are ordinary three-dimensional distances: $`r_{ij}^2=(z_iz_j)^2+2R_d(1\mathrm{cos}(\varphi _i\varphi _j))`$. The rotation symmetry possessed by $``$ implies the Noether’s constant:

$$l_z=\underset{i}{}mR_d^2\dot{\varphi _i}BR_d\underset{i}{}z_i.$$
(2)
The resulting equations of motion are

$$m\frac{d^2\stackrel{}{x}_i}{dt^2}=\frac{}{\stackrel{}{x}_i}\left(V_{CON}+\underset{ij}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{e^2}{r_{ij}}\right)+\frac{e}{c}\stackrel{}{B}\times \frac{d\stackrel{}{x}_i}{dt},$$
(3)
where the confining potential $`V_{CON}`$ of the positive background is taken to be either

$$V_{CON}=(\mathrm{ln}(z+W/2)+\mathrm{ln}(z+W/2)),$$
(4)
or

$$V_{CON}=((2z+W)\mathrm{ln}(2z+W)+(2z+W)\mathrm{ln}(2z+W)),$$
(5)
the stripe being symmetrical about $`z=0`$ and extending from $`W/2`$ to $`W/2`$. The first potential is flat but rises steeply near the edges. The second potential has more parabolic character and is an approximation to the exact potential of a positive background: we found analytical solution for the potential of a positively charged flat rectangle with the same width and length of our cylindrical background, and the above second potential approximates this analytic form. The use of potentials with differing characters helps in distinguishing any peculiar effect of confinement from overall observations. These potentials are sketched in Fig.(1).

The form of equation (1) is simplified by using scaled units: lengths may be scaled by the average interelectronic distance $`R`$: $`\stackrel{}{x}R\stackrel{}{x}`$ and time is scaled as $`dt\omega ^1d\tau `$ where $`\omega ^2e^2/mR^3`$. In these units the equations of motion are

$$\frac{d^2\stackrel{}{x}_i}{d\tau ^2}=\frac{}{\stackrel{}{x}_i}\left(\frac{R}{e^2}V_{CON}(R\stackrel{}{x}_i)+\underset{ij}{}\frac{1}{r_{ij}}\right)+\widehat{B}\times \frac{d\stackrel{}{x}_i}{d\tau },$$
(6)
where $`\widehat{B}=n^{3/4}B/\sqrt{(}mc^2)`$ and $`n`$ is the two-dimensional number density of the electron gas. For example at the experimentally attainable $`n=10^{10}`$ cm-2 the above formula gives $`B=0.284\widehat{B}`$ Tesla. Because of the scale-invariance of the Coulomb interaction, $`\frac{R}{e^2}V_{CON}(R\stackrel{}{x}_i)`$ is independent of $`R.`$ Equation (4) has two components for each particle corresponding to $`z`$ and $`\varphi `$ motions. We deliberately add an additionally force along the $`\varphi `$ direction represented by a small electric field $`E_\varphi <<1`$ and a weak damping so that the final equation for $`\varphi `$ is

$$R_d^2\ddot{\varphi }_i=\widehat{B}\dot{z}R_d+E_\varphi (1\frac{R_d\dot{\varphi }_i}{V})+R_d^2\underset{ji}{}\frac{\mathrm{sin}(\varphi _i\varphi _j)}{r_{ij}^3}.$$
(7)
We chose this form of damping such that if all electrons cycle with a constant common velocity $`V`$, the damping force is balanced by $`E_\varphi .`$ The last term in the above equation is just the Coulomb repulsion between electrons. The equations of motion are integrated numerically using a 7/8 order embedded Runge-Kutta pair with self-adjusted step.

The initial states for the numerical integrations are generated in the following way: the energy of the confined Coulomb system is

$$E=\frac{1}{2}\underset{i}{}v_i^2+e^2\underset{i<j}{}\frac{1}{r_{ij}}+\underset{i}{}V_{CON}(z_i).$$
(8)
A naive candidate for a minimal-energy initial condition would be one which minimizes the above energy and with all electrons cycling with the same velocity $`V.`$ It is straightforward to find this condition by steepest descent quenching and one obtains a translating lattice which approximates an ideal triangular lattice with some edge distortions. The problem with this condition is that in the presence of the external magnetic field $`B`$ (which does not appear explicitly in the energy), the translating electrons deflect upwards causing a lattice deformation. We observe, by integrating the equations of motion numerically from this condition with inclusion of the above defined weak dissipation, that the lattice shifts to a different configuration consistent with the presence of magnetic field and with a slightly higher steady state energy. (Notice that we are driving the system, so energy does not have to be constant). An equivalent way to accomplish this same final state is to seek minimum energy configurations with a certain property: they must describe a uniform motion of the entire system along the $`\varphi `$ direction under a radial magnetic field $`B`$ ($`v_i=V\widehat{\varphi }).`$ What we are looking for is that the total force acting on each electron be zero

$$\mathrm{\Phi }+BV=0,\mathrm{\Phi }=\underset{ij}{}\frac{1}{r_{ij}}+V_{CON}.$$
(9)
This configuration can be obtained by a steepest descent procedure: we integrate the (modified) quenching equation

$$\frac{d\stackrel{}{x}_i}{ds}=\frac{}{x_i}(\mathrm{\Phi }+BV\underset{i}{}z_i/c),$$
(10)
$`s`$ being the parameter along the quenching path.

The quenched configurations are obtained for various values of the parameter $`BV`$ and then used as initial conditions for subsequent molecular dynamical runs. Fig.(2) shows a representative configuration obtained with the confinement of Eq.(2). The electrons arrange themselves in an hexagonal lattice slightly distorted by the confinement and magnetic field (notice that this is a global distortion, not a simple boundary perturbation of a perfect lattice). Electrons are projected out with an initial $`\varphi `$ velocity $`V/R_d`$ plus small random components along $`\varphi `$ and $`z`$ directions. Various quantities are calculated along the trajectory: the instantaneous rotation rate $`_i\dot{\varphi }_i/N`$ which is related to the current $`I=_i\dot{\varphi }_i/2\pi `$; the $`\varphi `$ averaged potential difference between the top and bottom edges : $`V_H`$ (Hall voltage); and the Hall resistance $`R_H=V_H/I`$. All these quantities are function of time and hence their time-development is likely to be informative. We also observe snapshots of the system at regular intervals. These snapshots could be folded to $`02\pi `$ or left unfolded to preserve information about angular motion.

We report the results of the simulations of $`N=216`$ and 484 particles performed with the confining potential of Eqs (2) and (3). We distinguish between runs carried out with $`E_\varphi `$ zero and nonzero. Simulations with nonzero $`E_\varphi `$ reach a steady state after a brief transient which, is not attained by zero $`E_\varphi `$ runs. We henceforth call this state a Perfectly Translating Lattice (PTL). In the PTL state the electrons cycle with a common constant $`\varphi `$ velocity $`V/R_d`$; motion along $`z`$ being rapidly damped out. The resulting Hall resistance $`R_H`$ should be a constant in such circumstances but we observe small fluctuations in $`R_H(t)`$. The amplitude of these fluctuations is an irregular function of $`B`$ generally varying between 0.1-1.0 percent. The presence of fluctuating $`R_H`$ is not disquieting however and can be understood as an artifact of the method employed to calculate Hall resistance of small finite number of electrons: Because we used a finite number of points to average the potential difference, small instantaneous fluctuations are generated if the number of electrons is small and we verify that the fluctuations become smaller for larger $`N`$ (number of electrons).

Two cases can be further differentiated with regard to the initial phase of the dynamics. Initial configuration for certain values of the external magnetic field $`B`$ turns out to be dynamically unstable. The system makes a transition to a new configuration through coordinated row-jumping of many electrons simultaneously. Such a transition is made possible by the existence of numerous local minima in the energy surface whose presence has been confirmed numerically by extensive quenching runs starting from distinct initial conditions. The instability only appears for scaled magnetic fields greater than 7.0 for $`N=216`$ and 8.5 for $`N=484`$ (for electron density of $`10^{10}`$ cm-2 these fields correspond to 1.9 T and 2.3 T respectively ). In a way, this result shows that the initial state found by minimization ceased to be stable and another extremum (not the minimum anymore) of the functional became an stable fixed point, a bifurcation. This instability is accompanied by slower relaxation to a PTL state and can be seen in Fig.(3) which plots the spread in the instantaneous rotation rate vs. time. Even more dramatically, velocity inhomogeneities are developed if all electrons are released with a common velocity $`V`$ with no random components. These inhomogeneities are not long lasting and ultimately a PTL is attained.

The resultant of this temporarily existing velocity profile can be visualized most easily in Fig.(4) where the $`\varphi `$ coordinates have not been folded to $`(02\pi )`$. This striking profile is not apparent after folding and the finally established PTLs do not differ from PTLs in cases where this instability is absent. We call this instability a shearing instability since it is visible as a shear in the velocity profile of the electrons. This shear is seen as a dispersion in unfolded lattice along $`\varphi `$ coordinate.

We have carried out runs without forcing and dissipation i.e. $`E_\varphi =0`$ and these do not achieve a PTL state. They may or may not display the initial shearing instability but in all cases the initial randomness in velocity distribution is magnified and the $`z`$ dynamics is not damped. An irregular velocity distribution develops even from a perfectly homogeneous initial velocity distribution. The instantaneous Hall resistance $`R_H(t)`$ is unsteady with large amplitude fluctuations and the system can not be said to be in a Hall regime.

From these simulations a plot of the Hall resistance $`R_H`$ vs. $`B`$ can be drawn. Only converged values of $`R_H`$ are used which rules out our undriven simulations ($`E_\varphi =0`$). In Fig.(5) results from unsheared and sheared states are displayed for $`N=216`$ and 484. Data from the simulations employing confining potential of equation (3) has been plotted for $`N=216`$ also. All are PTL configurations but the sheared states have experienced the shearing instability referred to earlier. We observe that $`R_H`$ from the unsheared states lie on straight lines though different slopes are obtained for the two confining potentials used: 1.07 and 1.05 for potential (1) and (2) respectively. Data for $`N=216`$ and 484 overlap. Points from the sheared states are scattered haphazardly about this straight line.

How far do these data match our expectations? A plausible argument can be made for reasonableness of our simulation results: The Hall voltage $`V_H`$ is the difference between the top and the bottom edges of the stripe and may be expressed as

$$V_H=V(W/2)V(W/2)=_{W/2}^{W/2}_0\left(\underset{i}{}\frac{1}{r_{i0}}+V_{CON}\right).dl_0,$$
(11)
where $`V=_i1/r_{i0}+V_{CON}`$ and the integral is taken along a straight line from bottom to the top edge; $`r_{i0}`$ is the distance of the $`i`$th electron from integration element. Now the integrand may be split as

$$_0\left(\underset{i}{}\frac{1}{r_{i0}}+V_{CON}\right)BV\widehat{z}+\left(\frac{1}{r_{n0}}\right),$$
(12)
where $`n`$ labels the electron nearest to the integration element and $`\widehat{z}`$ is the unit vector along $`z`$ direction. This follows from the assuming that the force-balance condition (Eq. 9) holds in a neighborhood of the electron nearest to 0:

$$\left(\underset{ij}{}\frac{1}{r_{ij}}+V_{CON}\right)=BV,$$
(13)
where $`i,j`$ label electrons. This equation holds only at the position of an electron and we use as an approximate equality in a neighborhood of the nearest point $`0`$. From the above it follows

$$V_H=BV\widehat{z}.dl_0+\left(\frac{1}{r_{n0}}\right).dl_0.$$
(14)
The first term on the right yields the straight line dependence of $`R_H`$ vs. $`B`$ with a unit slope but the second term provides a correction. To evaluate this correction, we take an integration path passing through a column of electrons, avoiding each electrons by making a small semi-circle around it. If the distance between the $`i`$th and $`(i+1)`$th electrons along this path is $`d_i`$, this correction evaluates to

$`2{\displaystyle \underset{i}{}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{d_{i+1}d_i}{d_i}}\right).{\displaystyle \frac{1}{d_i}}`$

Hence the correction to the unit slope depends on the degree of compression that the lattice undergoes under the external magnetic field. A 3D lattice does not suffer this kind of bulk squishing but only edge distortions. If the lattice rearrangement is global in the sense that lattice distances are affected throughout the bulk and not just at the edges then we can fairly expect a significant alteration of the slope of Hall resistance plot. This expectation is realized in our simulations as we have seen that the slopes of $`R_H`$ vs $`B`$ plot indeed differ from unity by a few percent. Lattices which are dynamically unstable and undergo rearrangement via the shearing instability would seem to require more correction according to this picture and in fact provide a needed check for the theory.

## III Discussion and Conclusion

In conclusion we have performed dynamical simulations on a 2DEG constrained to a cylindrical stripe and subject to crossed electric and magnetic fields. The classical confined electron gas has a natural non-trivial minimal energy state and provides a convenient test bed to study many-body dynamics and long-range effects. In this work we included many-body effects on the dynamical picture used in the classical derivations of the Hall effect in two dimensional systems. We have analyzed the formation of the steady state presupposed in classical derivations. This state, which we refer to as a Perfectly Translating Lattice (PTL), in which all electrons cycle with a common constant velocity, is formed by a relaxation process. The initial configurations are obtained by a generalized quenching procedure. This initial configuration is liable to be dynamically unstable for magnetic fields above a threshold. The quenching procedure sometimes yields rather shallow local minima which readily allow further rearrangements to nearby wide basins. The inter-basin like motion is manifested in simultaneous jumping of many electrons and a slower relaxation to PTL state. The Hall resistance $`R_H`$ can be calculated and plotted as a function of external magnetic field $`B.`$ Appropriately for PTL states $`R_H`$ is a linear function of $`B`$ except for sheared states. An explanation has been put forward based upon force-balance condition as it obtains for PTL states. If one repeated the same study for a confined 3D electron-gas, the minimal energy state would be a tridimensional Wigner lattice and inclusion of a drift velocity in the presence of an external magnetic field would produce only boundary charge rearrangement. The obtained PTL would be the same ideal Wigner lattice and there would be no many-body correction to the Hall coefficient. Our results are specific to 2D classical systems.

The present work evolved from our earlier attempts to study the same problem but with the electrons interacting via the Darwin Lagrangian, which is the first relativistic correction to the Coulomb interaction. We find that the relativistic corrections break the scale-invariance of the Coulomb interaction, even in the absence of a magnetic field, only by requiring a critical density of the electron gas. Even though these is a much richer dynamical system, we did not continue the studies because the equations of motion are algebraic-differential and become impossible to integrate above the critical density even by use of the modern specialized integrators RADAU and DASSL .


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# The North Ecliptic Pole Supercluster

## 1. Introduction

Superclusters (SCs) are the ultimate manifestation of hierarchical large-scale structure (LSS) in the Universe. With a median major axis of $`150h_{50}^1`$Mpc (Jaaniste et al. 1998), they are the most massive and the largest possibly bound structures known. “Great walls” of galaxies have been discovered that are larger than what one normally calls a SC, but they are almost certainly not gravitationally bound (Geller & Huchra 1989). Observations and numerical simulations suggest that a rich hierarchy of constituents trace a SC. Massive galaxy clusters are linked by smaller galaxy groups in the high-density regions, while filamentary distributions of galaxies fill out the expansive, low-density domains. SCs are not isolated entities but the top-level components of a “cosmic web” of LSS (Tully 1987; Bond, Kofman, & Pogosyan 1996; Einasto et al. 1997).

Despite their ubiquity in our overall impression of the Universe, SCs are nonetheless exceedingly rare relative to other types of objects. The extreme properties of SCs are the results of the initial conditions of the nascent universe developed by structure formation mechanisms. SCs are so large that the crossing time of the member clusters is greater than the Hubble time. Hence the imprint of the initial conditions has not been erased by internal motions. Therefore understanding the nature of SCs is of great cosmological importance.

Much effort has been expended to locate SCs, primarily in the optical regime. Galaxy surveys provide nearly all-sky sampling of the local universe out to $`z0.03`$ (e.g. CfA, Huchra, Vogeley, & Geller 1999), while more restricted slice surveys (e.g. LCRS, Shectman et al. 1996) reach to $`z0.2`$. Galaxy clusters are more sparsely distributed but efficiently probe SCs to intermediate redshifts ($`z0.3`$) across essentially the entire sky (e.g. Bahcall & Soneira 1984; Batuski & Burns 1985; Einasto et al. 1997; Ebeling et al. 1998).

Here we report on the successful application of X-ray data, featuring high sensitivity over a large, contiguous solid angle, to characterize SCs and LSS. We have used the ROSAT All-Sky Survey to detect a substantial SC in the North Ecliptic Pole (NEP) region – a structure discovered in the optical by Batuski & Burns (1985) with subsequent X-ray detections by Burg et al. (1992). We have for the first time detected a significant number of X-ray emitting galaxy groups in a SC yielding a greatly enhanced understanding of its extent and content. These X-ray data combined with optical, IRAS, and HST/UV observations make the NEP Supercluster (NEPSC) one of the most broadly detected superstructures known.

Throughout this letter we assume a Hubble constant of $`H_0=50h_{50}`$km s$`^1`$Mpc-1 and a deceleration parameter of $`q_0=0.5`$, however the major conclusions do not change for other reasonable cosmologies. Co-moving distances are reported unless otherwise indicated.

## 2. Observations

### 2.1. ROSAT NEP Survey

The ROSAT All-Sky Survey (RASS) is the first all-sky survey with an imaging X-ray detector (Trümper 1983; Voges et al. 1999). The NEP region of the RASS possesses the deepest exposure ($`t_{\mathrm{max}}40`$ ks) and consequently the greatest sensitivity (median flux limit, $`f_\mathrm{x}`$ = 7.8 $`\times `$ 10-14 erg s-1 cm-2 \[0.5–2.0 keV\]) of the entire survey (Voges et al. 2001). We have identified the physical nature of 99.6% of the 445 X-ray sources with fluxes measured at greater than $`4\sigma `$ significance in the 9 $`\times `$ 9 survey region centered on the NEP (Henry et al. 2001). Of these, 64 (14.4%) are galaxy clusters and groups. X-ray luminous clusters are detected out to $`z=0.81`$, while low-luminosity groups of galaxies are well-sampled to $`z0.15`$.

Our primary motivation for pursuing the ROSAT NEP Survey was to construct a complete sample of X-ray selected galaxy clusters, and use it to examine X-ray cluster luminosity evolution and to characterize LSS. The initial evolution results are presented by Gioia et al. (2001), while the first findings relevant to LSS are presented in this Letter. We emphasize the cluster sample is unique in that it is both deep in flux sensitivity and contiguous on the sky.

In the top panel of Fig. 1 we plot the observed ROSAT NEP cluster redshift distribution along with the expected distribution for a spatially homogeneous, non-evolving cluster population. The latter is calculated by folding the local cluster X-ray luminosity function (XLF, Ebeling et al. 1997; De Grandi et al. 1999; H. Böhringer 2000, private communication) through the ROSAT NEP Survey selection function. The observed redshift distribution shows a striking feature at $`z=0.087`$. Sixteen clusters lie in the redshift interval $`0.07z0.10`$, 25% of the entire cluster sample. Depending on which XLF determination is used, this interval is 3.3 to 4.3 times more populated than expected which is significant at the $`3.9\sigma `$ to $`4.6\sigma `$ level.

Active galactic nuclei (AGN) are the dominant class of X-ray emitters in the ROSAT NEP survey (49.0% of all sources) and they are another means for examining LSS. Though they are more sporadic markers than clusters, they reach to greater depths ($`z_{\mathrm{max}}4`$). A $`2.2\sigma `$ density enhancement around $`z=0.087`$ is also seen in the redshift distribution of ROSAT NEP AGN. The middle panel of Fig. 1 shows the observed distribution compared to a spatially homogeneous, evolving AGN population. Twelve AGN are observed in the redshift interval $`0.07z0.10`$ where 5.6 are predicted from the AGN XLF (Miyaji, Hasinger, & Schmidt 2000). Note, an additional peak ($`1.85\sigma `$) in the AGN redshift distribution at $`z=0.32`$ is comprised of two separate groups of AGN.

Using only the ROSAT X-ray data and supporting optical observations from within the NEP survey boundaries, we have detected a significant LSS consisting of at least 16 galaxy clusters and groups, plus 12 AGN, one BL Lac, and an isolated elliptical galaxy with an X-ray luminosity commensurate with that of a poor cluster. Note there are additional SCs and clusters of AGN in the ROSAT NEP data. These structures along with spatial correlation analyses for the cluster and AGN samples will be discussed in forthcoming papers.

### 2.2. Other Relevant Optical/X-ray/IR/UV Observations

The presence of LSS in the vicinity of the NEP was first noted in a pioneering study by Batuski & Burns (1985). They produced a finding list of SC candidates (SCC) based on a percolation analysis of Abell clusters, and found an association of six clusters (A2301, A2304, A2308, A2311, A2312, A2315) approximately 5 from the NEP (SCC #47). Only two of these clusters had spectroscopic redshifts at the time, the remainder having photometric estimates. More recent percolation studies, working with improved redshift data, recovered the SC candidate (SC#34/2, Zucca et al. 1993; #97, #170, Einasto et al. 1994, 1997), with the latter two analyses noting an additional cluster A2295. Four of the Abell clusters (A2295, A2301, A2304, A2308) lie within the ROSAT NEP survey boundaries and are easily detected in X-rays. The other three (A2311, A2312, A2315), though barely outside the NEP region, are detected in the ROSAT Bright Source Catalog (BSC, Voges et al. 1999).

During the early phase of the ROSAT mission Burg et al. (1992) combined a 50 ks pointed observation with all-sky scans to identify five X-ray clusters and groups between redshifts 0.08 and 0.09 within 1.5 of the NEP. Except for one very low luminosity group discovered in the pointed data (Hasinger, Schimdt, & Trümper 1991) which is below our flux limit, our survey recovers these detections. We examined all X-ray sources in the ROSAT BSC within 10 of the known SC members. There are no additional candidate galaxy clusters or groups in the redshift interval $`0.07z0.10`$. The nearest candidate (RX J1827.6+6135, $`z=0.1014`$, Böhringer et al. 2000) is just outside both the NEP survey region and the nominal SC redshift boundary, and is not included in our analysis.

The IRAS satellite mapped the infrared sky in a mode similar to ROSAT, and hence also has enhanced sensitivity at the NEP. Ashby et al. (1996) tested models of starburst galaxy evolution using a sample of IRAS galaxies within 1.5 of the NEP and noted the strong effect of LSS. Fifteen galaxies, 20% of their IR-selected sample, lie between redshifts 0.085 and 0.090 with $`\overline{z}=0.088`$. Rinehart et al. (2000) have expanded the IRAS survey to 56 deg2. This extended IRAS sample (Fig. 1, lower panel) has 61 galaxies in the redshift interval $`0.07z0.10`$ where 30.9 are expected representing a $`4.7\sigma `$ excess. These IRAS sources are predominantly spirals found outside the dense cluster environment. The galaxies form a sheet estimated to be three times as dense as the Great Wall (Geller & Huchra 1989).

Additional evidence of structure in the NEP region is a Ly$`\alpha `$ absorber detected at $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}=0.08910`$ in the direction of a well-known QSO H1821+643 ($`z_{\mathrm{em}}=0.297`$). Tripp et al. (1998) identified this absorbing system during a study of low-redshift weak Ly$`\alpha `$ absorbers using HST UV spectroscopy. This QSO was originally discovered via its high X-ray luminosity and is the brightest source in the ROSAT NEP Survey.

## 3. Discussion

A three-dimensional view of the conical NEP survey volume, showing the distribution of clusters, groups, and AGN out to $`z=0.3`$, is presented in Fig. 2 (right). The NEPSC is clearly visible as an over-density of X-ray emitters at $`z=0.087`$ ($`D_L=533h_{50}^1`$Mpc). This complex is relatively disconnected, with a candidate void lying on the high redshift side ($`z0.12`$). The nearest non-SC clusters are RX J1827.6+6135, A2293, and A2275 at respectively 64.7, 87.2, and $`121.8h_{50}^1`$Mpc.

We use the non-weighted inertia tensor for the NEPSC groups and clusters to determine the principal axes and estimate the size, shape, and orientation of the structure. The maximal extents in three orthogonal directions are $`129\times 102\times 67(h_{50}^1`$Mpc)3 with a 12 extent on the sky. The major and minor axes are oriented 42 and 85 relative to our line-of-sight. The NEPSC is basically an oblate ellipsoid seen nearly edge-on. Consequently, the effect of flattening the SC in the line-of-sight direction in going from real space to redshift space is less important than would be in a face-on scenario such as with the Great Wall.

All eight Abell clusters associated with the NEPSC are detected in X-rays with luminosities in the range of 0.2–3.6 $`\times 10^{44}h_{50}^2`$ erg s-1 \[0.5–2.0 keV\]. Note that three clusters discovered by the ROSAT NEP Survey in this luminosity range are missing from the Abell catalog, indicative of the incompleteness inherent to optical selection. Furthermore, there are an additional 10 groups of galaxies with X-ray luminosities in the range 2–9 $`\times 10^{42}h_{50}^2`$ erg s-1 \[0.5–2.0 keV\]. This is the first time a large sample of X-ray emitting galaxy groups has been identified in a SC.

Fig. 2 (middle) shows a close-up view of the NEPSC where the groups and clusters have been linked together by a minimum spanning tree. Minimum, median, and maximum link distances are respectively 5.6, 24.2, and $`40.5h_{50}^1`$Mpc. The massive Abell clusters that initially delineated the SC are linked together by newly discovered, less massive X-ray clusters and groups which bridge the region between the previously known SC and a very rich cluster of galaxies (A2255) at the same distance, but not previously associated with this structure. The new realization of the NEPSC has doubled in physical size and tripled in cluster content. If this SC is characteristic of others, then SCs can be substantially larger than what is shown by the Abell clusters alone.

Filaments are the fundamental element of cosmic structure present in all modern numerical simulations of LSS. The NEPSC is oriented in Fig. 2 (middle) to display a possible filament containing two groups and two clusters. The length of the filament, the distance between A2304 and NEP 4990, is $`20.7h_{50}^1`$Mpc. We also show in Fig. 2 (left) a filament from a Virgo consortium $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$+CDM ($`z=0`$) numerical simulation (Jenkins et al. 1998) of LSS selected to resemble the NEP structure. The NEPSC filament is potentially the best match yet observed in X-rays to what is seen in the simulations (see Briel & Henry 1995 and Scharf et al. 2000 for previous observations).

## 4. Summary

The fortunes of experimental design and serendipity have converged at the NEP to reveal a prominent example of LSS in the Universe. The NEPSC ($`z=0.087`$) is one of the most robustly sampled superstructures known — 21 X-ray emitting clusters of galaxies demark the highest density regions while 12 X-ray selected AGN and over 60 IRAS galaxies trace out the lower density domains. The $`129\times 102\times 67(h_{50}^1`$Mpc)3 complex is strongly detected in X-ray, optical, IR, and UV wavebands. Detailed follow-up observations with Chandra, XMM-Newton and ground-based facilities will permit us to examine the dynamics of the structure, the evolutionary state of its constituents, and the degree of alignments between the member clusters. The SC’s edge-on orientation makes it an attractive candidate in which to look for filaments of diffuse X-ray emitting gas.

We have combined contiguous coverage with high sensitivity in X-rays to efficiently detect objects in a SC ranging from AGN and poor galaxy groups to rich galaxy clusters. This is the first time a sizable number of X-ray emitting galaxy groups has been identified in a SC, thus yielding a better reckoning of a SC’s girth and content. The ROSAT NEP Survey demonstrates the effectiveness of X-rays for studying LSS and advocates a next generation, large format X-ray survey mission to propel this field of study to the next level.

It is a pleasure to thank Harald Ebeling, Brent Tully, and Günther Hasinger for fruitful discussions, and Karen Teramura for graphics assistance. The kind support of the UH TAC and the expertise of the Mauna Kea Observatory personnel are gratefully acknowledged. We also thank Stephen Rinehart for providing access to the extended IRAS NEP sample prior to publication. C.R.M. acknowledges partial financial support from the NASA Graduate Student Researchers Program (NGT5-50175) and the ARCS Foundation. Support has also come from the NSF (AST91-19216, AST95-00515), NASA (GO-5402.01-93A, GO-05987.02-94A), the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, NATO (CRG91-0415), and the Italian ASI-CNR.


text:
# Charged exctions in the fractional quantum Hall regime

## Abstract

We study the photoluminescence spectrum of a low density ($`\nu <1`$) two-dimensional electron gas at high magnetic fields and low temperatures. We find that the spectrum in the fractional quantum Hall regime can be understood in terms of singlet and triplet charged-excitons. We show that these spectral lines are sensitive probes for the electrons compressibility. We identify the dark triplet charged-exciton and show that it is visible at the spectrum at $`T<2`$ K. We find that its binding energy scales like $`e^2/l`$, where $`l`$ is the magnetic length, and it crosses the singlet slightly above 15 T.

The behavior of electrons in semiconductor heterostructures subjected to a high magnetic field is governed by their mutual interactions. An important tool, which has been intensively used for studying this behavior, is photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. In a PL measurement an electron is photo-excited from the valence to the conduction band. The hole, which is created at the valence band, relaxes into the top of that band and recombines with an electron from the Fermi sea. The interpretation of the recombination spectrum is complicated, however, due to the presence of $`eh`$ Coulomb interaction. The equality (up to a sign) of the $`ee`$ and $`eh`$ interactions may give rise to mutual cancellation of their contributions. It was shown that in a symmetric system at the lowest Landau level this cancellation renders all many-body effects invisible, and the only feature that remains in the spectrum is the exciton \[MacDonald1\]. This symmetry, known as the hidden symmetry, is partially broken in realistic systems. Experimental studies at the fractional quantum Hall (FQH) regime revealed profound changes in the PL spectrum at fractional filling factors \[Turberfield, Goldberg, Kim\]: the PL intensity exhibits strong minima or maxima and new lines appear in the spectrum at the corresponding magnetic fields. However, these changes could not be linked to a concrete physical picture that takes into account the many-body $`ee`$ and $`eh`$ interactions on equal footing.

An important development in the understanding of the behavior of the many electron$`+h`$ system came through experimental studies of the PL of a dilute two dimensional electron gas (2DEG) system. It was found that the ground state of this system is the negatively charged exciton, $`X^{}`$, which consists of two electrons bound to a hole \[Kheng, Finkelstein1, Shields1\]. It was shown that at zero magnetic field the two electrons are a spin-singlet ($`𝐉=0`$), and at high magnetic field another state, where the electrons are a spin-triplet ($`𝐉=1`$), becomes bound \[Shields2, Finkelstein2\]. These observations triggered an intensive experimental and theoretical work aimed at better understanding its behavior, as it became clear that the $`X^{}`$ may play an important role in the PL of higher density 2DEG at high magnetic fields. Yet, there was a significant qualitative discrepancy between the predicted behavior of these bound states and the experimental results. It was argued that at the extreme magnetic field limit the triplet should be the ground state of the system. This is a manifestation of Hund’s rule, which minimizes the repulsive electrostatic energy of the electrons by having an anti-symmetric spatial wavefunction. At zero magnetic field the Pauli exclusion principle sets an energy price for the formation of such a state, hence the singlet is preferred. However, at high magnetic fields a triplet state can be formed at no cost of kinetic energy, since the two electrons can occupy degenerate angular momentum states. Thus, a crossing behavior of the singlet and triplet lines was predicted \[Palacios, Whittaker\]. The experimental data showed, however, a different behavior: the triplet binding energy was found to rise and then saturate at a constant value \[Shields2, Finkelstein2\]. Surprisingly, no signature of singlet-triplet crossing was observed up to very high fields \[Shields2, Hayne\]. A solution to this disagreement was recently proposed by Wojs et al. \[Wojs\]. By calculating the energy spectra of $`2e+h`$ states of a dilute 2DEG system it was found that two different triplet states are bound at high magnetic fields. These states are distinguished by their total angular momentum $`L`$, one having $`L=0`$ and the other $`L=1`$. Consequently, the first could decay radiatively, and was termed the ”bright” triplet. The other state could decay only by a scattering assisted process and was termed the ”dark” triplet. It was argued that the behavior observed experimentally is consistent with that of the ”bright” triplet. On the other hand, the ”dark” triplet is the one that crosses the singlet and becomes the ground state at high fields. Since it can not recombine radiatively it should remain invisible. A recent PL measurement at very high magnetic field (up to 40 T) showed evidences to the existence of this dark state \[Munteanu\].

In this work we study the PL spectrum of a low density ($`\nu <1`$) 2DEG at high magnetic fields ($`B<15`$ T) and low temperatures ($`T=20`$ mK). Our work is motivated by recent theoretical studies that have suggested that the charged exctions could be usefull in describing the PL spectrum of a 2DEG at the FQH regime \[Palacios, Wojs\]. Using a gated structure we are able to follow the dependence of the PL spectrum on the filling factor, $`\nu =en_\text{e}/hB`$, not only by ramping the magnetic field at a constant density, as is commonly done in PL experiments, but also by varying the density at constant magnetic field. Our main finding is that the singlet and triplet charged-exciton lines evolve continuously from the dilute limit into the FQH regime, where they are sensitive probes for the many body interactions. We identify conclusively the ”dark” triplet and show that it is visible at the spectrum at $`T<2`$ K. We find that its binding energy scales like $`e^2/l`$, where $`l`$ is the magnetic length, and it should cross the singlet slightly above 15 T.

The sample that we investigated is a single 20 nm GaAs/Al0.37Ga0.67As modulation doped quantum-well with electron mobility of $`1\times 10^6`$ cm$`{}_{}{}^{2}/`$Vs. The MBE grown wafer is processed to a mesa structure with a transparent gate electrode. The gated structure enables us to tune the electron density $`n_\text{e}`$ continuously from $`5\times 10^9`$ to $`2\times 10^{11}`$ cm-2. Most of our measurements were done in a dilution refrigerator at a base temperature of $`20`$ mK, and a magnetic field of up to $`15`$ T that is applied along the growth direction of the wafer. The higher temperature measurements ($`T>1.5`$ K) were done in a pumped He4 cryostat. The sample was illuminated by Ti-sapphire laser with a photon energy of $`1.6`$ eV and a power density of $`2`$ mW/cm2. The PL was collected using a fiber system and circular polarizers. All spectra shown in this paper are at the $`\sigma ^{}`$ circular polarization, in which a spin-up electron from the lower Zeeman level recombines with a valence band hole. The electron density under illumination is measured by finding the values of the magnetic field $`B`$ that correspond to $`\nu =1`$ and $`2`$, where drastic changes of the PL spectrum are observed \[Osborn\]. The accuracy of this method is better than $`2\times 10^9`$cm-2.

Figure 1 shows the PL spectrum at very low densities ($`n_\text{e}5\times 10^9`$ cm-2) for the $`\sigma ^{}`$ circular polarization. Let us first focus on the temperature dependence of the spectrum, which is shown in Fig. 1a for $`9`$ T. The spectrum at $`4`$ K is well studied and understood \[Shields2, Finkelstein2\]: it consists of three main peaks associated with the neutral exciton ($`X^0`$) and two charged-exciton peaks, labled as $`X_s^{}`$ and $`X_{t1}^{}`$. The two charged-exciton peaks are due to $`eh`$ recombination from singlet or triple initial states, respectively. It is clearly seen that as the temperature is decreased an additional peak, labeled as $`X_{t2}^{}`$, gradually appears between $`X_s^{}`$ and $`X_{t1}^{}`$, and becomes well resolved at $`20`$ mK. In the following we show that $`X_{t1}^{}`$ and $`X_{t2}^{}`$ are the ”bright” and ”dark” triplets, respectively.

Figure 1b describes the evolution of the spectrum as the magnetic field is varied between $`0`$ and $`15`$ T at $`20`$ mK. It is seen that at low fields ($`B<4`$ T) the spectrum consists of only two peaks, the well known $`X^0X_s^{}`$ doublet \[Kheng, Finkelstein1\]. This simple spectrum changes at higher fields as two additional peaks, $`X_{t1}^{}`$ and $`X_{t2}^{}`$, split from the exciton and gradually shift to lower energies with increasing magnetic field. Figure 2a summarizes the magnetic field dependence of the peak energies. It can be clearly seen that both $`X_{t1}^{}`$ and $`X_{t2}^{}`$ are unbound at zero magnetic field, and become bound at some finite magnetic field. Examining their polarization properties we find that both appear only at the $`\sigma ^{}`$ polarization and do not have a Zeeman-split counterpart. In Fig. 2b we show the binding energy of each charged-exciton state, defined as its energy distance from $`X^0`$. It is seen that the binding energies of $`X_s^{}`$ and $`X_{t1}^{}`$ exhibit a rapid growth at low magnetic fields ($`B<6`$ T) and than saturate at a constant value. This behavior was reported in several previous works \[Shields2, Finkelstein2\]. The binding energy of $`X_{t2}^{}`$, on the other hand, grows monotonically with increasing the magnetic field and nearly crosses that of the $`X_s^{}`$ at $`15`$ T, consistent with the behavior predicted for the ”dark” triplet \[Whittaker, Wojs\]. A quantitative verification comes from the dependence of its binding energy on the magnetic field. It can be seen that it is very well described by $`0.1e^2/\epsilon l`$ (where $`\epsilon `$ is the dielectric constant). This functional dependence is indeed predicted for an ideal two-dimensional gas in the lowest Landau level \[Palacios\], with a numerical coefficient of $`0.0544`$. The discrepancy in the coefficient is settled in theoretical calculations that takes into account the finite well width and mixing with higher Landau levels \[Whittaker, Wojs\]. The magnetic field at which the singlet-triplet crossing occurs, $`15`$ T, is, however, substantially lower than predicted in these works ($`3040`$ T). Very recent calculations indicate that a slight displacement (of 0.5 nm) between the electron and hole would shift this crossing magnetic field to the range observed in our experiment \[Szlufarska\]. Such a displacement might naturally occur in our gated quantum well. We believe that this conclusive observation puts to rest the debate over the triplet charged exciton. It should be noted that an observation of the ”dark” triplet was recently reported by Munteanu et al., who have reinterpreted their previous high magnetic field experiment on a high density 2DEG ($`n_\text{e}=1.6\times 10^{11}`$cm-2) \[Munteanu\]. However, the reported behavior at low fields is inconsistent with that expected for a triplet charged exciton: Ref. \[Munteanu\] shows a very large zero-field binding energy, while the triplet is expected to be unbound.

Let us turn now to examine the dependence of the spectrum on filling factor. In Fig. 3a we show the measured spectra as the density is changed from $`1\times 10^{10}`$ to $`1.2\times 10^{11}`$ cm-2, at a constant magnetic field of $`10`$ T. This density range corresponds to varying $`\nu `$ between $`0.04`$ to $`0.5`$. In Fig. 3b we present the peak energies of the neutral and charged exciton lines as a function of $`\nu `$. It is seen that at as $`\nu `$ is increased from $`0.04`$ to $`0.13`$ the $`X^{}`$ spectrum remains unchanged, but the neutral exciton disappears. At this low density range the 2DEG is most likely strongly localized, and does not form quantum Hall states. With a further increase of the density the electron interactions become important and the $`X^{}`$ spectrum undergoes a drastic change: the two triplet lines, $`X_{t1}^{}`$ and $`X_{t2}^{}`$, gradually merge and at $`\nu =1/3`$ they form a single strong peak. At $`\nu >1/3`$ this merged peak gradually weakens, until it disappears from the spectrum at $`\nu 2/3`$ (a weak recovery is observed at $`\nu =1`$ ). The energy of the singlet state, on the other hand, changes smoothly as we cross $`\nu =1/3`$, with no shift or casp. This dependence on filling factor is general and is observed throughout the magnetic field range, as demonstrated by the images of Fig. 4. Each horizontal line in these images corresponds to a spectrum taken at a different gate voltage, with the PL intensity being coded by colors. It is seen that the energy separation between the lines vary with magnetic field, but the merging of the two triplets at $`\nu =1/3`$ is clearly evident in all the images. This observed behavior is in excellent quantitative and qualitative agreement with that recently predicted by Wojs et al. \[Wojs\], who calculated the recombination energy and oscillator strength of $`eX^{}`$ states of a low density 2DEG. These calculations correctly predicts the energy dependence of the various lines, and in particular - the merging of the two triplets at $`\nu =1/3`$ and the relative insensitivity of the singlet state to $`\nu `$. The fact that one can accurately obtain the PL spectrum around $`\nu =1/3`$ by considering the $`eX^{}`$ interaction only is an important reassuring evidence for the usefulness of the charged excitons in understanding the PL at the FQH regime.

We now wish to examine the dependence of the PL intensity on $`\nu `$ (Fig. 5). The behavior at $`\nu <1/3`$ is marked by a gradual decrease of $`X_{t1}^{}`$ intensity and a corresponding increase of $`X_{t2}^{}`$ with increasing $`\nu `$. The higher density range is characterized by a more drastic dependence of the PL intensity on $`\nu `$: the merged triplet exhibits strong enhancement at exactly $`\nu =1/3`$ (and a weaker one at $`2/5`$), and the singlet increases in a step-like fashion slightly above $`\nu =1/3`$. This behavior is general and is seen throughout the magnetic field range: the inset of Fig. 5 shows that the enhancements of the triplet occur consistently at $`\nu =1/3`$ and $`2/5`$. Comparing this behavior with the calculations of Ref. \[Wojs\] we find a qualitative agreement at $`\nu <1/3`$, but significant discrepancies around $`1/3`$.

The interaction of the charged-exciton with the surrounding electrons is sensitive to the compressibilty of the 2DEG. In the absence of the hole the 2DEG is spin polarized at the lowest Zeeman level and forms incompressible states at fractional filling factors. The introduction of a positively charged hole into the 2DEG creates a strong Coulomb attractive potential near it, and the system minimizes its energy by creating a doubly occupied bound state. In a dilute 2DEG ($`\nu 1/3`$ ) this implies bringing two electrons to the vicinity of the hole, forming either a spin-singlet or triplet states. Earlier studies of the $`D^{}`$ recombination in the presence of a 2DEG have shown that this bound state is only weakly coupled to the rest of the electrons: the quasi-hole that is formed at the lowest Zeeman level tends to migrate to the vicinity of the electron pair, while the remaining electrons move away into larger orbits \[Jiang\]. Thus, the bound state is an $`X^{}`$ that is effectively isolated from the 2DEG, as manifested in the spectra near $`\nu =0`$. As we approach $`\nu =1/3`$ interactions with the rest of the electrons and the formation of an incompressible state have to be taken into account. The enhancement of the triplet PL intensity at $`1/3`$ and $`2/5`$ is, therefore, surprising: as explained above, the triplet has a non-vanishing total angular momentum, hence it can recombine through scattering assisted processes only. The incompressibilty of the 2DEG at $`\nu =1/3`$ should suppress $`ee`$ scattering, and thus, give rise to a reduction in the triplet intensity. A possible explanation is that the incompressiblity of the 2DEG suppresses also its effectivity in screening the remote donors potential, and the fluctuations at the 2DEG plane grow. This fluctuating potential can scatter the triplet charged excitons and enable their recombination. It should be noted that the triplet state is not dark throughout the filling factor range: its intensity is significantly higher than calculated and is nearly the same as that of the singlet. This implies that scattering processes can efficiently transfer its excess angular momentum and enable it to recombine radiatively. The fluctuating donors potential could explain this behavior as well.

We wish to acknowledge very fruitfull discussion with A. Stern and A Esser. Special thanks to D. Sprinzak and Y. Ji for their assistance in the dilution refrigerator. This research was supported by the Minerva Foundation.


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# Weak Lensing Measurements of 42 SDSS/RASS Galaxy Clusters

## 1 Introduction

Galaxy clusters are massive, easily identifiable systems which can be studied with a rich variety of techniques. Scaling relations between their various measured properties reveal important details of clusters physics. The relation between the total mass and visible or X–ray luminosity provides insight into the relative amount of ordinary and dark matter in the cluster. Making the fair sample hypothesis, these scaling relations can be extrapolated to provide constraints on the cosmic density parameter, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$.

The total mass of a cluster is typically determined from the velocity dispersion of its galaxies, or the X–ray emission profile and temperature of the hot intracluster gas. An alternative estimate of the total mass is provided by weak gravitational lensing. Weak lensing has been used successfully to measure the mass of individual clusters of galaxies (Squires et al., 1996; Smail et al., 1997; Fischer & Tyson, 1997; Joffre et al., 2000). Weak lensing measurements require deep images, providing a high density of background objects. The imaging data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS, see Fukugita et al. (1996); Gunn et al. (1998); York et al. (2000)) is too shallow to measure the lensing signal from individual clusters with high precision. The large area of the survey, however, makes it ideal for measuring ensemble properties such as mean mass. These mean masses can be compared with any richness parameter; e.g. galaxy number density, optical luminosity, X–ray luminosity, etc, to reveal scaling relations. An analogous measurement of the ensemble properties of galaxy halos using SDSS data was reported in Fischer et al. (2000) (F00).

There is a large effort to identify clusters in the SDSS imaging data (Annis et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2000; Nichol et al., 2000). These studies will provide large, homogeneously selected cluster samples containing thousands of new clusters. They will provide an excellent opportunity to measure cluster scaling relations. As an initial exercise, clusters selected from SDSS commissioning data using the method of Annis et al. (2001) have been matched to sources in the Rosat All Sky Survey (RASS, see Voges et al. (1999)). This preliminary data set provides an opportunity to compare cluster masses and X–ray luminosities in a statistical way. Although this sample of 42 clusters is too small to meaningfully constrain the LX-M relation, we detect a clear correlation between lensing mass and X–ray luminosity. With the full SDSS data set we will measure the LX-M relation with high precision.

In §2 we outline the observations and cluster identification, and in §3 we discuss the techniques used in the lensing analysis. In §4 we present the basic measurements and fits to cluster models. Possible sources of systematic error are addressed in §5. Conclusions and future work are discussed in §6. Throughout this paper we use H0 = 100 h km/s, and assume a Friedman-Robertson-Walker cosmology with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_M`$ = 0.3, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ = 0.7.

## 2 Observations

### 2.1 Imaging Data and Reduction

Cluster selection and lensing analysis were performed on 225 square degrees of Sloan Digital Sky Survey commissioning data obtained March 20-21 1999 (runs 752 and 756), and another 170 square degrees of commissioning data taken September 19 and 25 1998 (runs 94 and 125). The data include drift scan imaging in the 5 SDSS filters, $`u^{}`$, $`g^{}`$, $`r^{}`$, $`i^{}`$, $`z^{}`$, to a limiting magnitude of $`r^{}`$= 23.0, with seeing ranging from 1′′ to 2′′. The lensing study was performed on the $`g^{}`$, $`r^{}`$, and $`i^{}`$ images only, as the $`u^{}`$ and $`z^{}`$ bands are comparatively less sensitive. The galaxy-galaxy lensing study of F00 also uses the March 1999 data set, and more details about the observations can be found there.

The SDSS photometric pipeline supplies fully calibrated photometric and astrometric data for each object, along with a wealth of other parameters including shapes (Lupton et al., 2000). Because high S/N shape determination is a priority for weak lensing studies (see §3), we independently measure the shape of each object. We find the quadratic moments of the light distribution, weighted by an elliptical gaussian adapted to the size and shape of the object through an iterative process (Bernstein et al., 2001):

$$Q_{i,j}=\frac{I_{k,l}G_{k,l}x_ix_j}{I_{k,l}G_{k,l}},$$
(1)
where $`I_{k,l}`$ is the sky subtracted surface brightness of the object at each pixel {k,l} and $`G_{k,l}`$ is the elliptical gaussian weight. We then form the ellipticity components from the quadratic moments:

$$e_1=\frac{Q_{1,1}Q_{2,2}}{Q_{1,1}+Q_{2,2}},e_2=\frac{2Q_{1,2}}{Q_{1,1}+Q_{2,2}}.$$
(2)
The PSF is then characterized from the $`e_1`$ and $`e_2`$ of stars, and the galaxy shapes are corrected for PSF anisotropy and blurring as outlined in F00.

### 2.2 Cluster Identification

The MaxBCG cluster identification algorithm (Annis et al., 2001) relies on the fact that brightest cluster galaxies (BCGs) form a narrowly defined class; they have a small dispersion in luminosity and an even tighter relation in color (see also Gladders & Yee (2000)). For each SDSS galaxy we calculate a “BCG likelihood” based on its color and magnitude. We combine this BCG likelihood with the number of neighboring galaxies found in the corresponding E/SO ridge line to define a cluster likelihood. This likelihood is calculated for every redshift from 0.0 to 0.6 at intervals of 0.01. The redshift is chosen to maximize the cluster likelihood. Elliptical galaxies, which have very regular colors, provide excellent photometric redshift targets. Since each cluster includes a number of these galaxies, photometric redshift estimates for these clusters are excellent. The dispersion between 2406 estimated BCG redshifts and their SDSS spectroscopic redshifts is $`\mathrm{\Delta }z`$ = 0.018. Figure 1 shows a schematic of the technique.

### 2.3 X–ray Matches

The X–ray data are taken from the ROSAT All-Sky Survey (Trümper, 1983; Voges et al., 1999). The combined RASS bright and faint source catalogs (Voges et al., 1999, 2000) are correlated with the MaxBCG sources discussed above to find X–ray emitting SDSS/RASS clusters (SRC). Matches were found based on a search radius of 80′′ which corresponds to a net purity of 75% based on comparison with random associations (see Figure 2). Initial optical selection allows us to identify X–ray emitting clusters at fluxes substantially below the flux limits of X–ray selected cluster surveys. This sample was then visually inspected and potentially contaminated cluster matches were excluded for the analysis discussed in this paper. This process yielded a conservative sample of 50 SRC clusters.

As the X–ray count rate for extended sources like clusters of galaxies in the RASS is not very accurate, we used both the Growth Curve Analysis of Böhringer et al. (2000) and an independent analysis to compute the count rates of these clusters. Both techniques agree within the uncertainties. These count rates are converted to bolometric X–ray luminosities using the photometric redshift, a luminosity–temperature relationship, and the ROSAT response matrix. Details are reported in Voges et al. (2001).

## 3 Lensing Analysis

Foreground mass distributions induce coherent distortions in the images of background galaxies. On average, background galaxies appear tangentially aligned with respect to the foreground lens. The tangential shear, $`\gamma _+`$, is related to the projected mass distribution of the foreground lens, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$, by

$$\gamma _+(R)=\overline{\kappa }(R)\overline{\kappa }(R),$$
(3)
where $`\kappa =\mathrm{\Sigma }/\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}`$ is the surface density normalized by $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}`$, the critical density for multiple lensing (Miralda-Escudé, 1991). The first term on the right hand side of equation 3 is the mean scaled density interior to projected radius $`R`$ and the second is the mean scaled density at $`R`$. The critical density depends only on the geometry of the source-lens-observer system:

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}=\frac{c^2}{4\pi G}\frac{D_S}{D_LD_{LS}},$$
(4)
where $`D_S`$ and $`D_L`$ are the angular diameter distances from observer to to source and lens, respectively, and $`D_{LS}`$ is the angular diameter distance from lens to source.

Assuming that the orientations of unlensed background galaxies are uncorrelated with the position of a foreground mass, the shear can be estimated directly from the shapes of background galaxies. It can be shown that the shear induced by weak lensing ($`\kappa <<1`$) is simply equal to half the induced ellipticity as measured in the tangential frame (Miralda-Escudé, 1991). We denote the tangential component of the ellipticity as $`e_+`$, and the orthogonal component as $`e_\times `$. Note the ellipticity parameter transforms as 2$`\theta `$ under rotations, so the “orthogonal” frame is rotated by 45$`\mathrm{°}`$ with respect to the tangential.

Galaxies are intrinsically elliptical, so the shear measurement must be done statistically by averaging the shapes of many source galaxies:

$$\widehat{\gamma }_+=\frac{1}{2S_{Sh}}e_+^i=\frac{1}{2S_{Sh}}\frac{w_ie_+^i}{w_i},$$
(5)
where $`S_{Sh}0.88`$ is the average responsivity of the source galaxies to a shear as defined in F00, and is similar to the shear polarizability defined in Kaiser et al. (1995). The $`w_i`$ are the weights for each shape measurement.

There are two dominant sources of random noise in shear measurements: the intrinsic variance in galaxy shape, or “shape noise” $`\sigma _{SN}=e_i^20.32`$, and the uncertainty in the shape measurement of each galaxy $`\sigma _i0.25`$. For optimal S/N we weight by $`1/N^2`$, $`w_i=1/(\sigma _i^2.+\sigma _{SN}^2)`$.

Because SDSS images are relatively shallow, the number density of source galaxies behind each lens is low, about 2 per square arcminute. For this cluster sample, the typical mean induced ellipticity within 600′′ is $`2\gamma _+<0.01`$. Thus our sensitivity, $`0.4/\sqrt{N_{Source}}`$, is insufficient to detect the shear induced by a single lens with precision. To improve the S/N, we average the shear from many lenses.

Averaging over many lenses increases the signal to noise of the shear measurement. Each lens has a different lensing strength, however, which scales as $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}^1`$. This means lenses with the same mass but different redshifts will not produce the same shear. We rescale the shear to a density contrast, which is a redshift independent quantity, by multiplying both sides of equation 3 by $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}`$:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }\mathrm{}\overline{\mathrm{\Sigma }}(R)\mathrm{\Sigma }(R)=\gamma _+\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}.$$
(6)
The weight for each measurement, $`w_i`$, must also be rescaled to $`W_i=w_i\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}^2`$.

The total weight for a given cluster is $`N_{source}/\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}^2`$, assuming that the measurement error is approximately the same for each source. Because the lensing signal is proportional to $`1/\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}`$, this is equivalent to weighting by the relative $`\left(S/N\right)^2`$. Nearby clusters will have larger $`N_{source}`$, whereas clusters at $`z0.15`$ will have large lensing strength $`1/\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}`$ (see figure 3(b)). The combination of these two effects conspires to give clusters at $`z0.09`$ the largest relative weight.

To find the average density contrast, we need to determine $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}^1`$, the lensing strength of each lens-source pair, which depends on the redshift of both lens and source. We have a good photometric redshift for each cluster, but we do not have a redshift for each source galaxy. As a result, we estimate the average lensing strength of each cluster by integrating over the source redshift distribution:

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}^1(z_L)=_{z_L}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}^1(z_L,z_s)P(z_s)𝑑z_s,$$
(7)
where P($`z_s`$) is the normalized source redshift distribution. The fact that some source galaxies are in front of the lens, and dilute the signal, is accounted for by beginning the integral at $`z_L`$.

To estimate the redshift distribution in equation 7 we first gather a sample of galaxies with known redshifts drawn from the SDSS and the Canada-France Redshift Survey (CFRS: Lilly et al. (1995)). CFRS galaxies have magnitudes measured in V and I. We convert these to $`r^{}`$ using the relation $`r^{}=I_{CFRS}+0.5(V_{CFRS}I_{CFRS})`$. This relation is empirically determined from galaxies observed by both SDSS and CFRS.

The redshift distributions of these galaxies, in bins of $`r^{}`$, are fit to the function (Baugh & Efstathiou (1993))

$$n(z)z^2exp((z/z_c)^{3/2}).$$
(8)
The values of $`z_c`$ are then used to derive a relationship between $`r^{}`$ and $`z_c`$. The derived $`z_c`$ vs. $`r^{}`$ relation has been independently confirmed by comparison of SDSS and CNOCII data (Yee et al., 2000).

For the lensing measurements, we choose “background,” or source galaxies with reddening corrected Petrosian magnitude 18.0 $`<`$ $`r^{}`$$`<`$ 22.0 and size 4$`\sigma `$ larger than the stellar locus (see F00). We have source galaxy catalogs with measured shapes in $`g^{}`$, $`r^{}`$, and $`i^{}`$ bands, containing 1.7, 2.4, and 2.1 million objects respectively. The magnitude distribution of each catalog is converted to a redshift distribution using the derived $`r^{}`$-$`z_c`$ relationship. The inferred redshift distribution for each of these catalogs is shown in Fig. 3(a), and 3(b) shows the lensing strength $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}^1(z_L)`$ derived from the redshift distributions.

Some source galaxies are in front of the lens, and this is accounted for in equation 7, but a few galaxies in our source catalog are physically associated with the clusters. The number density of these galaxies will decrease with physical radius from the center of the cluster and their inclusion in the analysis will radially bias the shear estimate. To correct for this effect, we compare the number of background galaxies around random points to those around

lenses. We choose 100 random points for each lens, and assume an excess of background galaxies is due to objects physically associated with the lens. We correct for this dilution by multiplying the measured shear by a radial correction factor F(r) = $`N_{lens}/N_{rand}`$, the ratio of source galaxies around lenses to that around random points. The average correction factor ranges from a factor of 1.5 in the innermost bin to 1.02 in the outermost (see §4.1).

It should be noted that the magnification of background sources by the foreground lens may also increase the number density of neighboring galaxies. The magnification will bring faint galaxies into our magnitude limited catalog. On the other hand, the geometric distortion introduced by the lens moves background galaxies apart, diluting the number density of sources. The relative change in the number density goes as $`N^{}/N_0\mu ^{2.5s1}`$, where $`\mu =1+ϵ`$ is the magnification and s is the slope of the galaxy number counts (Broadhurste, Taylor, and Peacock, 1995). For these clusters, $`ϵ`$ shear $`.01`$. Thus, for s on the order of 0.4, which it is for our background galaxies, the effect of magnification is small compared to the neighbor excess which is $`0.5`$.

## 4 Results

We begin with 50 clusters found in the SDSS imaging data and matched to RASS as described in §2.3. We then choose clusters with redshift $`z<0.4`$. The upper limit of z=0.4 is where photometric redshift estimation becomes less accurate as the 4000Å break passes between the $`g^{}`$ and $`r^{}`$ bandpasses. To ensure that residual systematic shape correlations do not bias the shear estimate, we demand that the azimuthal distribution of source galaxies around each lens be reasonably symmetric. After these cuts we are left with 42 clusters, with a photometric redshift distribution is shown in Figure 4. Their ROSAT bolometric X–ray luminosities range from 8.5$`\times 10^{41}`$ to 4.4$`\times 10^{44}`$ ergs/s, with a distribution of X–ray luminosities as shown in Figure 5

### 4.1 Cluster Density Profile

The shear in the annulus 20-2000 kpc, centered on the BCG, is $`(3.3\pm 0.5)\times 10^3`$, which is a detection at the $``$7-$`\sigma `$ level (see Table 1). Because the shear is a redshift dependent quantity, we rescale each shear measurement to a density contrast as discussed in §3. Fig. 6 shows the average density contrast measured in nine radial bins centered on the BCG. The independent radial bins have centers ranging from 150 to 1890 $`h^1`$ kpc. We have applied a correction factor for contamination by cluster members as described in §3 For this figure we have combined the measurements made in the $`g^{}`$, $`r^{}`$, and $`i^{}`$ bandpasses.

As a test to see if our signal is due to gravitational lensing, we have measured the orthogonal component of the shear, $`\gamma _\times =e_\times /2`$ in the same radial bins used for measurement of the tangential shear. This measurement is equivalent to measuring the curl of the gradient of $`\kappa `$ and should be zero (Kaiser, 1995; Stebbins, Mckay, & Frieman, 1996). We find that the $`\gamma _\times `$ profile is indeed a good fit to zero ($`\chi ^2`$ = 7.0/9). We have also run tests for systematics in the background galaxy shapes and bias in the shear measurement due to the faint tails of foreground galaxy light distributions. Both of these tests are null and details can be found in F00.

We fit the observed density contrast in $`g^{}`$, $`r^{}`$, and $`i^{}`$ to a power law of the form $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }(R)R^\gamma `$, using the full covariance matrix to estimate the chi squared statistic. We find $`\gamma =0.9\pm 0.3`$. A power law shear profile implies the same power law for the projected mass density profile. Note again that we have used the BCG as the center for our measurements. The use of any position for the center which is not the true center of mass will complicate the interpretation of these fits (see §5).

### 4.2 Cluster Model

The average cluster density contrast is consistent with that of a projected singular isothermal sphere (SIS); $`\gamma =1`$. Cluster density profiles inferred from lensing are typically well fit by an isothermal (Fischer & Tyson, 1997). We will use this model for the remainder of the paper to represent the average cluster density profile. The SIS model has projected density

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }(R)=116\left(\frac{\sigma _v}{1000\text{km/s}}\right)^2\left(\frac{R}{1\text{Mpc}}\right)^1\text{M}\text{}\text{ pc}\text{-2}.$$
(9)
To estimate masses, we simply fit the measured profile to a 1/R density with one free parameter, the velocity dispersion $`\sigma _v`$. Note that a SIS has a density contrast equal to the density itself, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Sigma }(R)=\mathrm{\Sigma }(R)`$.

Once the velocity dispersion is estimated, the density can be integrated to give the total mass within a projected radius $`R`$. The mass of an SIS within projected radius R is a factor of $`\pi /2`$ larger than the mass within the three dimensional radius r=R.

### 4.3 Mass vs. LX

Table 1 contains fits to equation 9 for the sample as a whole as well as two subsamples, split by their X–ray luminosity. The shear profiles for the subsamples are both consistent with isothermal. The average bolometric Lx is calculated by weighting the individual Lx of each cluster with its relative weight in the shear measurement $`N_{source}/\mathrm{\Sigma }_{crit}^2`$.

We use the fits to equation 9 to infer the velocity dispersion and the mass within 1 Mpc. The mass of the higher LX subsample is substantially higher than the low LX subsample. Because the clusters are different sizes, it is more meaningful to discuss the mass within a characteristic radius $`r_{500}`$, the radius within which the mean density falls to 500 times the critical density at that redshift. The fits to $`r_{500}`$ and the projected mass within $`r_{500}`$ are also shown in Table 1. Again, the mass of the higher LX subsample is substantially higher.

## 5 Systematic Error

Possible sources of systematic error in the mass measurements are errors in the correction for blurring by the PSF and inclusion of stars in the source galaxies. The blurring correction and stellar contamination were addressed in F00, and are less than 10% and 1% respectively. Other possibilities are variations of angular diameter distance with cosmological model, unertainties in the source galaxy redshift distribution, and offsets of the BCG from the true center of mass of the cluster.

Lensing masses were calculated in 3 different cosmologies: $`(\mathrm{\Omega }_M,\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ = $`(1.0,0.0)`$, $`(0.3,0.0)`$, $`(0.3,0.7)`$. We find that the mass estimates vary by less than 5% between these cosmologies.

The procedure for estimating the redshift distribution is based on the $`r^{}`$ magnitude distribution of the sources (see §3). In order to understand the uncertainty in the derived distribution, we examined the range of allowed $`z_c`$ values in the fit to Eq. 8. Using the 68% confidence limits from our $`\chi ^2`$ fits, we find that the derived masses vary by less than 5%.

Differences in selection criteria between galaxies in CFRS and SDSS might also bias the assumed source redshift distribution. We intend to address this limitation in the future by directly obtaining redshifts for a sub-sample of the source galaxy catalog.

In this paper we have used the BCG as the center for our lensing measurements. As we have stated above, the use of any center other than the true center of mass may bias the mass estimates. An alternative is to use the RASS position, but these are ill-determined for these low-flux, extended sources (Voges et al., 2000). The mean offset between BCG and measured X–ray centroid is 85kpc (max $``$200kpc). However, because we use apertures much greater than 85kpc, we do not expect our mass measurements to differ significantly for these centroid shifts. We have repeated our analysis using the X–ray centroid as the center and the signal remained within the 1-$`\sigma `$ error limits.

We have further checked our sensitivity to offsets by repeating the analysis with centers artificially offset from the BCG by various amounts and in random directions. Figure 7 shows the $`i^{}`$-band shear in a 1.1Mpc aperture measured as a function of artificial centroid shift. The shear is not changed substantially for shifts less than about 200kpc. Our mass estimates are also unchanged for shifts less than 200kpc. Furthermore, the shear becomes consistent with zero for shifts that approach the size of the aperture. Because we do not know the true mass distribution of these objects, we cannot measure the offsets with this data alone. However, this test is consistent with the assumption that the true center is within the aperture and is less than 200kpc from the BCG. Until we can find the true center of mass, or at least estimate the mean size of the offsets, we will not be able to quantitatively determine the effect of these offsets on our mass estimates. This issue will be dealt with in a future paper.

An issue related to centroid offsets is the problem of sub-structure within clusters. If there are substantial sub-clumps in a cluster, not only is the BCG unlikely to be at the centroid, but the density profile will not be isothermal. In particular, the slope of the shear profile at large radii will become flatter than expected from an isothermal, as sub-clumps become included within the aperture (Clowe, Luppino, Kaiser, & Gioia, 2000). This will make an SIS model an inappropriate representation of the data. However, the reduced $`\chi ^2`$ for the SIS fits to 42 clusters is 3.3/8=0.4, suggesting that, in the ensemble average, sub-clumping is not a dominant source of error.

## 6 Conclusions

We have demonstrated the ability to measure ensemble cluster masses using SDSS imaging data. We detect the shear from 42 SRC clusters with high signal to noise, and find a correlation between the derived lensing mass and X–ray luminosity. The current sample represents only 4% of the final SDSS data set. Extrapolating, we expect $``$ 1000 MaxBCG/RASS clusters, and perhaps more with the addition of the catalogs of Kim et al. (2000) and Nichol et al. (2000). With the final sample, we will be able to measure the M-LX relation with high precision. The excellent 5-band photometry of the SDSS will yield measurements of the total light in each cluster. Furthermore, SDSS spectroscopy of the nearby clusters will yield an estimate their velocity dispersion. Thus in addition to the LX-M, we will measure scaling relations between lensing mass, visible light in 5 bandpasses, and velocity dispersion, all measured from SDSS data. These scaling relations will greatly enhance our understanding of cluster physics.

Scaling relations for other classes of objects can be studied in a similar fashion. Though individual galaxies and groups are much less massive than clusters, and hence are less effective lenses, they are far more common. As a result, our sensitivity to ensemble masses of galaxies (F00), groups, and clusters are similar. This new ability to measure ensemble masses for classes of objects should contribute substantially to our understanding of the relationship between mass and luminous matter in the universe.

We thank Gary Bernstein for helpful discussions, especially concerning shape measurements and corrections. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) is a joint project of The University of Chicago, Fermilab, the Institute for Advanced Study, the Japan Participation Group, The Johns Hopkins University, the Max-Planck-Institute for Astronomy, New Mexico State University, Princeton University, the United States Naval Observatory, and the University of Washington. Apache Point Observatory, site of the SDSS telescopes, is operated by the Astrophysical Research Consortium (ARC). Funding for the project has been provided by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, the SDSS member institutions, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy, and Monbusho. The SDSS Web site is http://www.sdss.org/. Tim Mckay acknowledges support through NSF PECASE AST9703282. Bob Nichol acknowledges support through NASA LTSA grant NAG5-6548. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.