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# Kronecker-Weber plus epsilon

## 1. Introduction

We say that a group is almost abelian if every commutator is central and squares to the identity. Let $`G`$ be the Galois group of the algebraic closure of the field of rational numbers $``$ in the field $``$ of complex numbers. Let $`G^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}`$ be the quotient of $`G`$ universal for continuous homomorphisms to almost abelian profinite groups. Let $`G^ϵ`$ be the kernel of the natural map of $`G^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}`$ to the abelianization $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ of $`G`$. By construction the group $`G^ϵ`$ is central in $`G^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}`$ and killed by $`2`$. Let $`^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ (resp. $`^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}`$) be the Galois extension of $``$ in $``$ with Galois group $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ (resp. $`G^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}`$). The Kronecker-Weber theorem determines the structure of the group $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ and provides an explicit description of the field $`^{\mathrm{ab}}`$. The theory of \[Fröhlich 1983\] in principle determines the structure of the group $`G^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}`$ but does not provide an explicit description of the field $`^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}`$. Kummer theory identifies the Pontryagin dual of $`G^ϵ`$ with $`H^0(G^{\mathrm{ab}},^{\mathrm{ab}\times }/^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2})`$. Our purpose in this paper is to exhibit for the latter group an explicit $`/2`$-basis, thereby obtaining a description of the field $`^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}`$ as explicit as that provided for the field $`^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ by the Kronecker-Weber theorem. Our method is more or less elementary and independent of the theory of \[Fröhlich 1983\]. The inspiration for our work came from the recent studies \[Das 2000\] and \[Seo 2001\] of algebraic $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-monomials.

Our main results are as follows. Let $`𝒜`$ be the free abelian group on symbols of the form

$$[a](a),$$

modulo the identifications

$$[a]=[b]ab.$$

For all prime numbers $`p<q`$, if $`2<p`$ put

$$𝐚_{pq}:=\underset{i=1}{\overset{\frac{p1}{2}}{}}\left(\left[\frac{i}{p}\right]\underset{k=0}{\overset{\frac{q1}{2}}{}}\left[\frac{i}{pq}+\frac{k}{q}\right]\right)\underset{j=1}{\overset{\frac{q1}{2}}{}}\left(\left[\frac{j}{q}\right]\underset{\mathrm{}=0}{\overset{\frac{p1}{2}}{}}\left[\frac{j}{pq}+\frac{\mathrm{}}{p}\right]\right),$$

e. g.,

$$𝐚_{35}=\left[\frac{1}{3}\right]+\left[\frac{2}{15}\right]\left[\frac{4}{15}\right]\left[\frac{1}{5}\right],$$

and if $`2=p`$ put

$$𝐚_{pq}:=\left(\left[\frac{1}{4}\right]\underset{k=0}{\overset{\frac{q1}{2}}{}}\left[\frac{1}{4q}+\frac{k}{q}\right]\right)\underset{j=1}{\overset{\frac{q1}{2}}{}}\left(\left[\frac{j}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{2q}+\frac{j}{q}\right]\left[\frac{j}{2q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{4q}+\frac{j}{2q}\right]\right),$$

e. g.,

$$𝐚_{23}:=\left[\frac{1}{4}\right]\left[\frac{5}{12}\right]\left[\frac{1}{3}\right].$$

Let

$$\mathrm{sin}:𝒜^{\mathrm{ab}\times }$$

be the unique homomorphism such that

$$\mathrm{sin}[a]=\{\begin{array}{cc}2\mathrm{sin}\pi a\left(=\left|1e^{2\pi ia}\right|\right)& \text{if }0<a<1\hfill \\ 1& \text{if }a=0\hfill \end{array}(a[0,1)).$$

We prove that the family of real numbers

$$\left\{\sqrt{\mathrm{}}\right\}_{\mathrm{}:\text{prime}}\left\{\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq}\right\}_{\begin{array}{c}p,q:\text{prime}\\ p<q\end{array}}$$

projects to a $`/2`$-basis of the group $`H^0(G^{\mathrm{ab}},^{\mathrm{ab}\times }/^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2})`$ and hence that

$$^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}=^{\mathrm{ab}}\left(\left\{\sqrt[4]{\mathrm{}}\right\}_{\mathrm{}:\text{prime}}\left\{\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq}}\right\}_{\begin{array}{c}p,q:\text{prime}\\ p<q\end{array}}\right).$$

We actually prove more. We define a canonical injective homomorphism

$$𝐃:H^0(G^{\mathrm{ab}},^{\mathrm{ab}\times }/^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2})\stackrel{2}{}H^1(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)\left(=\stackrel{2}{}^\times /^{\times 2}\right)$$

and exhibit a preimage for each element of a natural $`/2`$-basis of the target. (In particular, it turns out that $`𝐃`$ is an isomorphism.) Our main results are the “Auxiliary Formula” (§3.4) and the “Main Formula” (§4.3.4). Our main technical tools are the “Log Wedge Formula” (§3.3) and a family of combinatorial identities of “Das type” (§4.2).

Now the fact that the homomorphism $`𝐃`$ is an isomorphism is not really new: one can easily deduce it from \[Fröhlich 1983, Theorem 4.10, p. 56\]. (See Remark 4.3.5 below for further discussion.) Rather, it is the explicit procedure developed here for inverting the map $`𝐃`$ that is really new.

A key role is played in this paper by the universal odd ordinary distribution $`U^{}`$, namely the quotient of $`𝒜`$ by the subgroup generated by all expressions of the form

$$[a]\underset{i=0}{\overset{N1}{}}\left[\frac{a+i}{N}\right],[a][1a](a,N\text{: positive integer}).$$

A study of $`U^{}`$ and related objects was made in \[Kubert 1978a\] and \[Kubert 1978b\], building on \[Sinnott 1978\]. In particular, it was proved that the torsion subgroup of $`U^{}`$ is killed by $`2`$. Kubert’s results combined with the idea behind the algebraicity criterion of \[Koblitz-Ogus 1979\] yield a more or less mechanical procedure for determining whether a given element of $`𝒜`$ represents a torsion element of $`U^{}`$. The double complex method of \[Anderson 1999\] yields a canonical $`/2`$-basis for the torsion subgroup of $`U^{}`$ indexed by finite sets of prime numbers of even cardinality. In \[Das 2000, Sec. 3 and Sec. 9\] it is proved that the family $`\{𝐚_{pq}\}_{2<p<q}`$ represents the “two-odd-prime” part of the canonical basis. The method of Das can easily be modified to prove that the family $`\{𝐚_{pq}\}_{p<q}`$ represents the “two-prime” part of the canonical basis.

The torsion subgroup $`U^{}`$ plays an important role in the theory of algebraic $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-monomials. Let

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }:𝒜^\times $$

be the unique homomorphism such that

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }\left([a]\right)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\sqrt{2\pi }/\mathrm{\Gamma }(a)& \text{if }0<a<1\hfill \\ 1& \text{if }a=0\hfill \end{array}(a[0,1)).$$

Now fix $`𝐚𝒜`$ representing a torsion element of $`U^{}`$. By straightforward manipulation of standard functional equations satisfied by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(s)`$ one verifies that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(𝐚)`$ is an algebraic number. Numbers of the form $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(𝐚)`$ are the so called algebraic $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-monomials. Under mild hypotheses, a reciprocity law \[Deligne-Milne-Ogus-Shih 1982, Thm. 7.15, p. 91\] due to Deligne links $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(𝐚)`$ to an analogously defined Jacobi sum Hecke character. Deligne reciprocity is the main motivation for studying algebraic $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-monomials.

In \[Das 2000\] the algebraic $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-monomials were related to algebraic sine-monomials and properties of the latter were investigated. Again fix $`𝐚𝒜`$ representing a torsion element of $`U^{}`$. By \[Das 2000, Thm. 6\], under mild hypotheses, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(𝐚)`$ factors as the root of a rational number times $`\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚}`$, and the factorization can in principle be worked out explicitly. For example, one has

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(𝐚_{35})=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{4}{15}\right)\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{1}{5}\right)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{1}{3}\right)\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{2}{15}\right)}=3^{\frac{1}{5}}5^{\frac{1}{12}}\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{sin}\frac{\pi }{3}\mathrm{sin}\frac{2\pi }{15}}{\mathrm{sin}\frac{4\pi }{15}\mathrm{sin}\frac{\pi }{5}}}=3^{\frac{1}{5}}5^{\frac{1}{12}}\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{35}}$$

and

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }(𝐚_{23})=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{5}{12}\right)\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{1}{3}\right)}{\sqrt{2\pi }\mathrm{\Gamma }\left(\frac{1}{4}\right)}=2^{\frac{1}{4}}3^{\frac{1}{8}}\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{sin}\frac{\pi }{4}}{2\mathrm{sin}\frac{5\pi }{12}\mathrm{sin}\frac{\pi }{3}}}=2^{\frac{1}{4}}3^{\frac{1}{8}}\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{23}}.$$

Indeed, for all primes $`p<q`$ one has

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(𝐚_{pq})}{\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq}}}& =& \{\begin{array}{cc}p^{\frac{(q1)^2}{16q}}q^{\frac{(p1)^2}{16p}}& \text{if }2<p\text{,}\hfill \\ & \\ 2^{\frac{q1}{8}}q^{\frac{1}{8}}& \text{if }2=p\text{,}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \end{array}$$

as is explained below in Remark 4.3.3. By \[Das 2000, Thm. 11\], under mild hypotheses, the extension $`^{\mathrm{ab}}\left(\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚}\right)/`$ is Galois, and in fact the latter is true in general; see Proposition 4.1.8 below. By \[Das 2000, Thm. 22\], if $`𝐚`$ represents an element of the canonical basis for the torsion subgroup of $`U^{}`$ indexed by a finite set of odd primes of cardinality at least four, then $`\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚}^{\mathrm{ab}}`$.

The theory of \[Das 2000\] begs the question as to the nature of the Galois extensions of the form $`^{\mathrm{ab}}\left(\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq}}\right)/`$. In order to begin answering that question, Das calculated (see \[Das 2000, end of Sec. 16\]) the structure of the central extension

$$1\{\pm 1\}\mathrm{Gal}\left((e^{2\pi i/60},\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{35}})/\right)(/60)^\times 1$$

explicitly and in particular proved that the middle group is nonabelian. That calculation of Das was the primary inspiration for this paper.

Another important inspiration was the striking result \[Seo 2001, Prop. 2.3\] according to which, for all odd primes $`p<q`$, one has

$$(1)^{v_q(\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq})}=\left(\begin{array}{c}p\\ q\end{array}\right),(1)^{v_p(\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq})}=\left(\begin{array}{c}q\\ p\end{array}\right)$$

where $`\left(\begin{array}{c}\\ \end{array}\right)`$ is the Legendre symbol, $`v_p`$ is any additive valuation of $`^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ above $`p`$ such that $`v_p\left(1e^{\frac{2\pi i}{p}}\right)=1`$, and $`v_q`$ is analogously chosen above $`q`$. It follows that if $`\left(\begin{array}{c}p\\ q\end{array}\right)=1`$ or $`\left(\begin{array}{c}q\\ p\end{array}\right)=1`$, then $`\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq}}`$ cannot belong to $`^{\mathrm{ab}}`$. Seo’s result greatly encouraged the author to attempt the calculations detailed in this paper.

## 2. Group-theoretical background

### 2.1. The category of $``$-profinite groups

We say that a topological group $`G`$ is $``$-profinite if $`G`$ is compact and there exists a chain $`U_1U_2U_3\mathrm{}`$ of open normal subgroups of $`G`$ forming a neighborhood base at the origin. A morphism of $``$-profinite groups is by definition a continuous homomorphism of topological groups; thus the $``$-profinite groups form a category. The Galois group of any Galois extension of countable fields is $``$-profinite. (But the Galois group of an algebraic closure of the field of rational functions in one variable over the field of complex numbers is not $``$-profinite.) A compact topological group $`G`$ is $``$-profinite if and only if $`G`$ has a countable neighborhood base consisting of open compact sets.

###### Proposition 2.2.

Let $`G`$ be an $``$-profinite group. Let $`H`$ be a closed normal subgroup of $`G`$. There exists a function $`\vartheta :GG`$ with the following properties:

* $`\vartheta `$ is continuous.
* $`\vartheta `$ is constant on cosets of $`H`$ in $`G`$.
* $`\vartheta (\sigma )\sigma H`$ for all $`\sigma G`$.

###### Proof.

Fix a descending chain $`U_1U_2U_3\mathrm{}`$ of open normal subgroups of $`G`$ forming a neighborhood base at the origin. Choose a set $`S_1`$ of representatives for the cosets of $`HU_1`$ in $`G`$. For each index $`i>1`$ choose a set $`S_iU_{i1}`$ of representatives for the cosets of $`HU_i`$ in $`HU_{i1}`$. For each index $`i`$ let $`\vartheta _i:GG`$ be the unique map collapsing each coset of $`HU_i`$ in $`G`$ to its unique representative in the finite set $`S_1\mathrm{}S_i`$. The uniform limit $`\vartheta `$ of the maps $`\vartheta _i`$ exists and has all the desired properties. ∎

### 2.3. Cochains, cocycles, coboundaries and cohomology classes

Let $`G`$ be a topological group. Let $`A`$ be a topological abelian group equipped with a continuous left $`G`$-action. For each nonnegative integer $`n`$, let $`C^n(G,A)`$ denote the group of continuous functions

$$a=((\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _n)a_{\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _n}):G^nA,$$

and equip the graded group

$$C^{}(G,A):=C^n(G,A)$$

with a differential $`\delta `$ of degree $`1`$ by the standard rule

$$(\delta a)_{\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _{n+1}}=\sigma _1a_{\sigma _2,\mathrm{},\sigma _{n+1}}+\mathrm{}+(1)^ia_{\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _i\sigma _{i+1},\mathrm{},\sigma _{n+1}}+\mathrm{}+(1)^{n+1}a_{\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _n}.$$

Elements of $`C^n(G,A)`$ will be called cochains of degree $`n`$. In low degree the differential $`\delta `$ takes the form

$$\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill (\delta a)_{\sigma _1}& =& \sigma _1aa\hfill & \text{if }n=0\text{,}\hfill \\ \hfill (\delta a)_{\sigma _1,\sigma _2}& =& \sigma _1a_{\sigma _2}a_{\sigma _1\sigma _2}+a_{\sigma _1},\hfill & \text{if }n=1\text{,}\hfill \\ \hfill (\delta a)_{\sigma _1,\sigma _2,\sigma _3}& =& \sigma _1a_{\sigma _2,\sigma _3}a_{\sigma _1\sigma _2,\sigma _3}+a_{\sigma _1,\sigma _2\sigma _3}a_{\sigma _1,\sigma _2}\hfill & \text{if }n=2\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

Elements of the groups

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill Z^n(G,A)& :=& \mathrm{ker}\left(\delta :C^n(G,A)C^{n+1}(G,A)\right),\hfill \\ \hfill B^n(G,A)& :=& \mathrm{image}\left(\delta :C^{n1}(G,A)C^n(G,A)\right),\hfill \\ \hfill H^n(G,A)& :=& Z^n(G,A)/B^n(G,A)\hfill \end{array}$$

will be called $`n`$-cocycles, $`n`$-coboundaries and cohomology classes of degree $`n`$, respectively. If $`G`$ is profinite and $`A`$ is discretely topologized, then $`H^n(G,A)`$ is the usual Galois cohomology group of degree $`n`$.

### 2.4. Cup product

Let $`G`$ be a topological group and let $`A`$ be a commutative topological ring equipped with a continuous $`G`$-action. Given $`aC^p(G,A)`$ and $`bC^q(G,A)`$, put

$$(ab)_{\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _{p+q}}=a_{\sigma _1,\mathrm{},\sigma _p}\sigma _1\mathrm{}\sigma _pb_{\sigma _{p+1},\mathrm{},\sigma _{p+q}},$$

thereby defining the cup product $`abC^{p+q}(G,A)`$ of the cochains $`a`$ and $`b`$. For $`p=q=1`$ one has

$$(ab)_{\sigma _1,\sigma _2}=a_{\sigma _1}\sigma _1b_{\sigma _2}.$$

In general one has

$$\delta (ab)=(\delta a)b+(1)^pa(\delta b)$$

and thus the cup product construction induces a product in $`H^{}(G,A)`$.

### 2.5. Extensions in the category of $``$-profinite groups

Let $`G`$ be an $``$-profinite group and let $`A`$ be an $``$-profinite abelian group equipped with a continuous left $`G`$-action. An exact sequence

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }:\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}1}A\stackrel{i}{}U\stackrel{p}{}G1$$

in the category of $``$-profinite groups such that

$$ui(a)u^1=i(p(u)a)(uU,aA)$$

is called an extension of $`G`$ by $`A`$ in the category of $``$-profinite groups. If $`A`$ is a trivial $`G`$-module, the homomorphism $`i:AU`$ takes values in the center of $`U`$; in such a case one says that $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is a central extension. Extensions $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$ of $`G`$ by $`A`$ are said to be isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism $`\psi :U\stackrel{}{}U^{}`$ of $``$-profinite groups such that $`\psi i=i^{}`$ and $`p^{}\psi =p`$. A set-theoretic splitting $`\vartheta :GU`$ of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is a continuous map such that $`p\vartheta =\mathrm{id}_G`$. Set-theoretic splittings exist by Proposition 2.2. We say that $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is trivial if there exists a set-theoretic splitting that is also a group homomorphism. Any two trivial extensions of $`G`$ by $`A`$ are isomorphic. Each set-theoretic splitting $`\vartheta `$ of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ gives rise to a cochain $`aC^2(G,A)`$ by the rule

$$\vartheta (\sigma )\vartheta (\tau )=i(a_{\sigma ,\tau })\vartheta (\sigma \tau )(\sigma ,\tau G).$$

Associativity of the group law in $`U`$ forces $`a`$ to be a $`2`$-cocycle. The cohomology class of the $`2`$-cocycle $`a`$ depends only the isomorphism class of the extension $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and accordingly is denoted $`[\mathrm{\Sigma }]`$. Every $`2`$-cocycle representing the cohomology class $`[\mathrm{\Sigma }]`$ arises from some set-theoretic splitting of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. The construction $`\mathrm{\Sigma }[\mathrm{\Sigma }]`$ puts isomorphism classes of extensions of $`G`$ by $`A`$ in the category of $``$-profinite groups into bijective correspondence with $`H^2(G,A)`$ and sends every trivial extension to $`0`$.

### 2.6. Almost abelian $``$-profinite groups

Let $`G`$ be an $``$-profinite group and put

$$[\sigma ,\tau ]:=\sigma \tau \sigma ^1\tau ^1(\sigma ,\tau G).$$

The abelianization $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ of $`G`$ is the abelian quotient of $`G`$ universal for morphisms to abelian $``$-profinite groups. One has

$$G^{\mathrm{ab}}=G/[G,G],$$

where $`[G,G]`$ is the closed subgroup of $`G`$ topologically generated by the set

$$\{[\sigma ,\tau ]\sigma ,\tau G\}.$$

We say that $`G`$ is almost abelian if $`[\sigma ,\tau ]`$ is central and $`2`$-torsion for all $`\sigma ,\tau G`$. We define $`G^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}`$ to be the almost abelian quotient of $`G`$ universal for morphisms to almost abelian $``$-profinite groups. One has

$$G^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}=G/[G,G]^ϵ,$$

where $`[G,G]^ϵ`$ is the closed subgroup of $`[G,G]`$ topologically generated by the set

$$\{[\sigma ,\tau ]^2\sigma ,\tau G\}\{[\sigma ,[\tau ,\eta ]]\sigma ,\tau ,\eta G\}.$$

Put

$$G^ϵ:=[G,G]/[G,G]^ϵ.$$

The preceding constructions fit together to form a canonical central extension

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }_G^ϵ:\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}1}G^ϵG^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}G^{\mathrm{ab}}1$$

of $``$-profinite groups. We remark that the Pontryagin dual of $`G^ϵ`$ is canonically isomorphic to $`H^1(G^ϵ,/2)`$ and that the latter is a vector space over $`/2`$ of at most countably infinite dimension.

###### Proposition 2.7.

Let $`G`$ be an $``$-profinite group. Let $`H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)^{}`$ be the quotient of $`H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)`$ by the subgroup consisting of all cohomology classes of the form $`[\mathrm{\Sigma }]`$ for some extension $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ of $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ by $`/2`$ the middle group of which is abelian. For each $`cH^1(G^ϵ,/2)`$, view $`c`$ as a continuous homomorphism $`G^ϵ/2`$, and let

$$(aca):H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},G^ϵ)H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)$$

be the map induced by $`c`$ in degree $`2`$ cohomology. The homomorphism

$$(cc[\mathrm{\Sigma }_G^ϵ]):H^1(G^ϵ,/2)H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)$$

followed by the projection

$$H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)^{}$$

is injective.

###### Proof.

Fix $`0cH^1(G^ϵ,/2)`$ and consider the extension

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }:\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}0}/2G^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}/\mathrm{ker}cG^{\mathrm{ab}}1.$$

Then

$$[\mathrm{\Sigma }]=c[\mathrm{\Sigma }_G^ϵ]$$

and the middle group of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is nonabelian by definition of $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$. ∎

###### Lemma 2.8.

Let $`G=_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}G_i`$ be an abelian $``$-profinite group decomposed as a countable product of cyclic profinite groups $`G_i`$. Let an extension

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }:\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}0}/2UG1$$

of $``$-profinite groups be given. Let

$$aZ^2(G,/2)$$

be any $`2`$-cocycle representing the cohomology class

$$[\mathrm{\Sigma }]H^2(G,/2).$$

For each index $`i`$ fix $`\sigma _iG`$ with the following properties:

* $`\sigma _i`$ projects to a topological generator of $`G_i`$.
* $`\sigma _i`$ projects to $`1G_j`$ for all indices $`ji`$.

Put

$$\alpha _{ij}:a_{\sigma _i,\sigma _j}+a_{\sigma _j,\sigma _i}mod2$$

for all indices $`i<j`$. Then the following hold:

1. $`\alpha _{ij}`$ vanishes for all but finitely many pairs of indices.
2. $`\alpha _{ij}`$ vanishes if and only if $`\sigma _i`$ and $`\sigma _j`$ have liftings to $`U`$ that commute.
3. $`\alpha _{ij}`$ depends only on the cohomology class $`[\mathrm{\Sigma }]`$.
4. If $`\sigma _i`$ or $`\sigma _j`$ is the square of an element of $`G`$, then $`\alpha _{ij}`$ vanishes.
5. The middle group $`U`$ of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ is abelian if and only if all the $`\alpha _{ij}`$ vanish.

###### Proof.

Fix a set-theoretic splitting $`\vartheta `$ of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ giving rise to the $`2`$-cocycle $`a`$.

1. By hypothesis one has

$$(\delta a)_{1,1,\sigma }(\delta a)_{\sigma ,1,1}a_{1,\sigma }+a_{\sigma ,1}0mod2(\sigma G)$$

and there exists an open normal subgroup $`VG`$ such that $`a_{\sigma ,\tau }`$ depends only on the pair of cosets $`(\sigma V,\tau V)`$. It follows that if either $`\sigma _iV`$ or $`\sigma _jV`$, then $`\alpha _{ij}`$ vanishes. But one has $`\sigma _iV`$ for all but finitely many indices $`i`$.

2. The following statements are equivalent:

* The coefficient $`\alpha _{ij}`$ vanishes.
* $`\vartheta (\sigma _i)`$ and $`\vartheta (\sigma _j)`$ commute.
* $`\sigma _i`$ and $`\sigma _j`$ have liftings to $`U`$ that commute.
* Any liftings of $`\sigma _i`$ and $`\sigma _j`$ to $`U`$ commute.

3. By what we have already proved, the coefficients $`\alpha _{ij}`$ depend only on the isomorphism class of the extension $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ and hence only on the cohomology class $`[\mathrm{\Sigma }]`$.

4. Suppose, say, that $`\sigma _i=\tau ^2`$ for some $`\tau G`$. Then

$$\vartheta (\tau )^2c=\vartheta (\sigma _i),\vartheta (\tau )\vartheta (\sigma _j)=\vartheta (\sigma _j)\vartheta (\tau )c^{}$$

where $`c`$ and $`c^{}`$ belong to the center of $`U`$, and hence

$$\vartheta (\sigma _i)\vartheta (\sigma _j)=\vartheta (\tau )\vartheta (\sigma _j)\vartheta (\tau )c^{}c=\vartheta (\sigma _j)\vartheta (\tau )c^{}\vartheta (\tau )c^{}c=\vartheta (\sigma _j)\vartheta (\sigma _i),$$

i. e., $`\vartheta (\sigma _i)`$ and $`\vartheta (\sigma _j)`$ commute, and hence the coefficient $`\alpha _{ij}`$ vanishes.

5. All the coefficients $`\alpha _{ij}`$ vanish if and only if the elements of the family $`\{\vartheta (\sigma _i)\}`$ commute among themselves. But the union of the latter family with $`\mathrm{ker}(UG)`$ generates $`U`$ topologically. ∎

###### Proposition 2.9.

Let $`G`$ be an abelian $``$-profinite group admitting decomposition as a countably infinite product of cyclic profinite groups. The cup product induces an isomorphism

$$\stackrel{2}{}H^1(G,/2)\stackrel{}{}H^2(G,/2)^{}$$

of vector spaces over $`/2`$, where $`H^2(G,/2)^{}`$ is as defined in Proposition 2.7.

###### Proof.

For each $`eZ^1(G,/2)=H^1(G,/2)`$, the cohomology class of the $`2`$-cocycle $`ee`$ vanishes in the quotient $`H^2(G,/2)^{}`$ by Lemma 2.8. Therefore the cup product induces a well defined map

$$\stackrel{2}{}H^1(G,/2)H^2(G,/2)^{}.$$

Fix a decomposition $`G=_{i=1}^{\mathrm{}}G_i`$ of $`G`$ as a countably infinite product of cyclic profinite groups $`G_i`$ and for each index $`i`$ fix $`\sigma _iG`$ with the properties specified in Lemma 2.8. Let $`I`$ be the set of indices $`i`$ such that $`G_iG^2`$. For each index $`iI`$ there exists a unique $`1`$-cocycle

$$e_iZ^1(G,/2)=H^1(G,/2)$$

such that

$$(e_i)_{\sigma _j}\delta _{ij}mod2$$

for all indices $`j`$. Then the family

$$\{e_i\}_{iI}$$

is a $`/2`$-basis for $`H^1(G,/2)`$ and hence the family

$$\{e_ie_j\}_{\begin{array}{c}i,jI\\ i<j\end{array}}$$

is a $`/2`$-basis for $`^2H^1(G,/2)`$. By Lemma 2.8 the cohomology classes of the $`2`$-cocycles belonging to the family

$$\{e_ie_j\}_{\begin{array}{c}i,jI\\ i<j\end{array}}$$

remain independent over $`/2`$ in $`H^2(G,/2)^{}`$. Therefore the map in question is injective. For any $`aZ^2(G,/2)`$ the cohomology class of the two-cocycle

$$a+\underset{\begin{array}{c}i,jI\\ i<j\end{array}}{}(a_{\sigma _i,\sigma _j}+a_{\sigma _j,\sigma _i})e_ie_j$$

vanishes in the quotient $`H^2(G,/2)^{}`$ by Lemma 2.8. Therefore the map in question is surjective. ∎

###### Proposition 2.10.

For any $``$-profinite group $`G`$, the group $`[G,G]^ϵ`$ is the intersection of all relatively open subgroups of $`[G,G]`$ that are of index $`2`$ in $`[G,G]`$ and normal in $`G`$.

###### Proof.

Let $`H`$ be the intersection of all relatively open subgroups of $`[G,G]`$ that are of index $`2`$ in $`[G,G]`$ and normal in $`G`$. Since the quotient $`G/H`$ is almost abelian, one has $`[G,G]^ϵH`$. Since the continuous linear functionals $`G^ϵ/2`$ separate points, one has $`H[G,G]^ϵ`$. ∎

## 3. The homomorphism $`𝐃`$

### 3.1. The setting for the rest of the paper

#### 3.1.1.

Let $`\overline{}`$ be the algebraic closure of the field $``$ of rational numbers in the field $``$ of complex numbers. Let $`^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ be the compositum of all subfields $`K\overline{}`$ abelian over $``$. Let $`^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}`$ be the compositum of all subfields $`K\overline{}`$ that are quadratic over $`^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ and Galois over $``$. (In the terminology of \[Das 2000\] such extensions $`K/`$ would be called double coverings of $`^{\mathrm{ab}}`$.) Let $`G`$ denote the Galois group of $`\overline{}/`$. One has

$$G^{\mathrm{ab}}=\mathrm{Gal}(^{\mathrm{ab}}/),G^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}=\mathrm{Gal}(^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}/),G^ϵ=\mathrm{Gal}(^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}/^{\mathrm{ab}})$$

by Proposition 2.10 and the definitions.

#### 3.1.2.

Put

$$S:=\{1\}\{\text{rational prime numbers}\}.$$

The family

$$\{pmod^{\times 2}\}_{pS}$$

is a $`/2`$-basis for $`^\times /^{\times 2}`$. For each $`pS`$ we define a $`1`$-cocycle

$$e_pZ^1(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)=H^1(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)$$

by the rule

$$\sigma \sqrt{p}=(1)^{(e_p)_\sigma }\sqrt{p}(\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}}).$$

By Kummer theory the family

$$\{e_p\}_{pS}$$

is a $`/2`$-basis for $`H^1(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)`$.

#### 3.1.3.

Let $`G_1G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ be the subgroup generated by the restriction of complex conjugation to $`^{\mathrm{ab}}`$. For each odd prime $`p`$, let $`G_pG^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ be the inertia subgroup at $`p`$. Let $`G_2G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ be the subgroup of the inertia subgroup at $`2`$ fixing $`\sqrt{1}`$. For all $`pS`$ the profinite group $`G_p`$ is cyclic and has nonzero $`2`$-rank. By the Kronecker-Weber theorem the family $`\{G_p\}_{pS}`$ is the family of “coordinate axes” for a decomposition of $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ into a product of cyclic profinite groups indexed by $`S`$. It follows by Proposition 2.9 that we can identify $`H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)^{}`$ with $`^2H^1(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)`$. Note that the family

$$\{e_pe_q\}_{\begin{array}{c}p,qS\\ p<q\end{array}}$$

is a $`/2`$-basis for$`^2H^1(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)`$.

#### 3.1.4.

For each $`pS`$ we arbitrarily fix a topological generator $`\sigma _p`$ of $`G_p`$. Note that $`\sigma _1`$ is the restriction to $`^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ of complex conjugation. Note that

$$(e_p)_{\sigma _q}\delta _{pq}mod2(p,qS),$$

i. e., the families $`\{\sigma _p\}_{pS}`$ and $`\{e_p\}_{pS}`$ are in a convenient way dual.

### 3.2. The definition of $`𝐃`$

We define

$$𝐃:H^0(G^{\mathrm{ab}},^{\mathrm{ab}\times }/^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2})\stackrel{2}{}H^1(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)$$

to be the injective homomorphism obtained as the composite of the following three homomorphisms:

* The canonical isomorphism

$$H^0(G^{\mathrm{ab}},^{\mathrm{ab}\times }/^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2})\stackrel{}{}H^1(G^ϵ,/2)$$

provided by Kummer theory combined with Proposition 2.10.
* The canonical injective homomorphism

$$H^1(G^ϵ,/2)H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)^{}$$

provided by Proposition 2.7.
* The inverse of the canonical isomorphism

$$\stackrel{2}{}H^1(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)\stackrel{}{}H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)^{}$$

provided by Proposition 2.9.

The map $`𝐃`$ is the focus of our investigation.

### 3.3. The Log Wedge Formula

We carry out the diagram-chase necessary to make the map $`𝐃`$ usably explicit.

#### 3.3.1.

Fix $`u^{\mathrm{ab}\times }`$ such that

$$(umod^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2})H^0(G^{\mathrm{ab}},^{\mathrm{ab}\times }/^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2}).$$

The $`1`$-cocycle

$$cZ^1(G^ϵ,/2)=H^1(G^ϵ,/2)$$

defined by the rule

$$\sigma \sqrt{u}=(1)^{c_\sigma }\sqrt{u}(\sigma G^ϵ)$$

is the one corresponding via Kummer theory to the class $`umod^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2}`$.

#### 3.3.2.

Let

$$\vartheta :G^{\mathrm{ab}}G^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}$$

be any set-theoretic splitting of the canonical central extension $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_G^ϵ`$. The $`2`$-cocycle

$$aZ^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)$$

defined by the formula

$$a_{\sigma ,\tau }=c_{\vartheta (\sigma )\vartheta (\tau )\vartheta (\sigma \tau )^1}(\sigma ,\tau G^{\mathrm{ab}})$$

represents the cohomology class $`c[\mathrm{\Sigma }_G^ϵ]H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)`$.

#### 3.3.3.

Let

$$\{v_\sigma \}_{\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}}}$$

be a locally constant family of elements of $`^{\mathrm{ab}\times }`$ such that

$$\sigma u=v_\sigma ^2u(\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}}).$$

Define a $`1`$-cochain

$$fC^1(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)$$

by the rule

$$\vartheta (\sigma )\sqrt{u}=(1)^{f_\sigma }v_\sigma \sqrt{u}(\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}}).$$

A straightforward if tedious calculation gives the formula

$$(1)^{a_{\sigma ,\tau }}\sqrt{u}=\vartheta (\sigma )\vartheta (\tau )\vartheta (\sigma \tau )^1\sqrt{u}=(1)^{(\delta f)_{\sigma ,\tau }}(\delta v)_{\sigma ,\tau }\sqrt{u}(\sigma ,\tau G^{\mathrm{ab}}).$$

The latter says that the $`2`$-cocycle

$$\delta \mathrm{log}_1vZ^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)$$

also represents the cohomology class $`c[\mathrm{\Sigma }_G^ϵ]`$, where

$$\mathrm{log}_1:\{\pm 1\}\stackrel{}{}/2$$

is the evident (and only) isomorphism.

#### 3.3.4.

Put

$$\alpha _{p,q}:=\frac{(\delta v)_{\sigma _p,\sigma _q}}{(\delta v)_{\sigma _q,\sigma _p}}=\frac{\sigma _pv_{\sigma _q}/v_{\sigma _q}}{\sigma _qv_{\sigma _p}/v_{\sigma _p}}\{\pm 1\}\left(\begin{array}{c}p,qS\\ p<q\end{array}\right).$$

By Lemma 2.8 one has $`\alpha _{p,q}=1`$ for all but finitely many pairs $`\{p<q\}`$ and the image in $`H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)^{}`$ of the cohomology class of the $`2`$-cocycle

$$\delta \mathrm{log}_1v+\underset{\begin{array}{c}p,qS\\ p<q\end{array}}{}\mathrm{log}_1\alpha _{p,q}e_pe_q$$

vanishes. We arrive finally at the result

$$𝐃(umod^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2})=\underset{\begin{array}{c}p,qS\\ p<q\end{array}}{}\mathrm{log}_1\alpha _{p,q}e_pe_q$$

to which in the sequel we refer as the Log Wedge Formula.

### 3.4. The Auxiliary Formula

Here is an easy first application of the Log Wedge Formula. Let $`\mathrm{}`$ be any prime number. One has $`\sqrt{\mathrm{}}(\zeta _4\mathrm{})^\times `$ and hence there exists a unique function

$$(\sigma v_\sigma ):G^{\mathrm{ab}}\{1,i\}$$

factoring through $`\mathrm{Gal}((\zeta _4\mathrm{})/)`$ such that

$$\sigma \sqrt{\mathrm{}}=v_\sigma ^2\sqrt{\mathrm{}}\left(\text{equivalently: }v_\sigma ^2=(1)^{(e_{\mathrm{}})_\sigma }\right)(\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}}).$$

For all $`p,qS`$ one has

$$\sigma _pv_{\sigma _q}/v_{\sigma _q}=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 1& \text{if }p=1\text{ and }q=\mathrm{}\text{,}\hfill \\ \hfill 1& \text{otherwise,}\hfill \end{array}$$

and hence

$$𝐃\left(\sqrt{\mathrm{}}mod^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2}\right)=e_1e_{\mathrm{}}$$

by the Log Wedge Formula. We refer to the result above as the Auxiliary Formula.

## 4. The Main Formula

### 4.1. The universal ordinary distribution and related apparatus

#### 4.1.1.

We denote by $`𝒜`$ the free abelian group on symbols of the form

$$[a](a)$$

modulo the identifications

$$[a]=[b]ab.$$

Put

$$𝐞(a):=e^{2\pi ia}(a).$$

We equip $`𝒜`$ with the unique action of $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ such that

$$\sigma [a]=[b]\sigma 𝐞(a)=𝐞(b)(a,b,\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}}).$$

#### 4.1.2.

For each prime number $`p`$ we define

$$Y_p:𝒜𝒜$$

to be the unique endomorphism such that

$$Y_p[a]:=[a]\underset{i=0}{\overset{p1}{}}\left[\frac{a+i}{p}\right](a).$$

The operator $`Y_p`$ is $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$-equivariant. The operators $`Y_p`$ commute among themselves. Put

$$U:=\frac{𝒜}{_pY_p𝒜},U^{}:=\frac{𝒜}{(1+\sigma _1)𝒜+_pY_p𝒜},$$

thereby defining the universal ordinary distribution and the universal odd ordinary distribution, respectively. The action of $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ on $`𝒜`$ descends to $`U`$ and $`U^{}`$. By \[Kubert 1978a\], the group $`U`$ is free abelian. It follows that the torsion subgroup of $`U^{}`$ can be identified with the cohomology group $`H^2(\sigma _1,U)`$, and in particular that the torsion subgroup of $`U^{}`$ is killed by $`2`$. By \[Kubert 1978b\], the group $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ operates trivially on the torsion subgroup of $`U^{}`$.

#### 4.1.3.

We denote by $`𝒜^{}`$ the subgroup of $`𝒜`$ generated by all symbols of the form

$$[a]\left(a\frac{1}{2}\right).$$

Notice that $`𝒜^{}`$ is stable under the action of $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ and stable also under the action of all the operators $`Y_p`$. We call a homomorphism

$$H:𝒜^{}𝒜^{}$$

a lifting operator if the identities

$$H^2=H,H+\sigma _1H\sigma _1=1$$

hold, in which case

$$𝒜^{}=H𝒜^{}\sigma _1H𝒜^{}$$

and one has implications

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill (1+\sigma _1)𝐱=0& & 𝐱=(1\sigma _1)H𝐱\hfill \\ \hfill (1\sigma _1)𝐱=0& & 𝐱=(1+\sigma _1)H𝐱\hfill \end{array}(𝐱𝒜^{}).$$

#### 4.1.4.

To each partition

$$(0,1)\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)=T\{1aaT\}$$

is attached a unique lifting operator

$$𝐇_T:𝒜^{}𝒜^{}$$

such that

$$𝐇_T[a]=\{\begin{array}{cc}[a]& \text{if }aT\hfill \\ 0& \text{if }aT\hfill \end{array}\left(a(0,1)\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)\right).$$

Following \[Das 2000\], we call

$$𝐇:=𝐇_{(0,1/2)}$$

the canonical lifting operator.

#### 4.1.5.

We define

$$\xi :𝒜^{\mathrm{ab}\times }$$

to be the unique homomorphism such that

$$\xi [a]=\{\begin{array}{cc}1𝐞(a)& \text{if }a0\hfill \\ 1& \text{if }a=0\hfill \end{array}(a[0,1)).$$

The homomorphism $`\xi `$ is Galois equivariant. One has

$$\xi \left(Y_p\left[a\right]\right)=\{\begin{array}{cc}1& \text{if }a0\hfill \\ p^1=(p^{1/2})^2& \text{if }a=0\hfill \end{array}(p\text{: prime},a[0,1))$$

and

$$\xi \left((1+\sigma _1)[a]\right)=\{\begin{array}{cc}1& \text{if }a=0\hfill \\ \left|1𝐞(a)\right|^2=4\mathrm{sin}^2\pi a& \text{if }a0\hfill \end{array}(a[0,1)).$$

It follows that $`\xi `$ induces a $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$-equivariant homomorphism

$$U^{}^{\mathrm{ab}\times }/^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2}$$

and hence a homomorphism

$$(\text{torsion subgroup of }U^{})H^0(G^{\mathrm{ab}},^{\mathrm{ab}\times }/^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2}).$$

Note also that $`\xi `$ kills $`_pY_p𝒜^{}`$.

#### 4.1.6.

We define a homomorphism

$$\mathrm{sin}:𝒜^{\mathrm{ab}\times }$$

by the rule

$$\mathrm{sin}[a]:=\{\begin{array}{cc}2\mathrm{sin}\pi a& \text{if }a(0,1)\text{,}\hfill \\ 1& \text{if }a=0\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

One then has

$$\mathrm{sin}𝐚=|\xi (𝐚)|(𝐚𝒜).$$

Let $`𝒜^{\prime \prime }`$ denote the subgroup of $`𝒜^{}`$ generated by elements of the form

$$[a](a(0,1)_2),$$

where $`_2`$ denotes the $`2`$-adic completion of $``$. Let

$$𝐏:𝒜^{\prime \prime }𝒜^{\prime \prime }$$

be the unique idempotent endomorphism such that

$$𝐏[a]=\{\begin{array}{cc}[a]& \text{if }a\text{ is a }2\text{-adic unit}\hfill \\ 0& \text{otherwise}\hfill \end{array}(a(0,1)_2).$$

Now $`a(0,1)_2`$ is a $`2`$-adic unit if and only if $`1a`$ is not a $`2`$-adic unit; it follows that one has an identity

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐚}+\sigma _1𝐏\sigma _1𝐚=𝐚(𝐚𝒜^{\prime \prime }).$$

Let

$$\mathrm{deg}:𝒜$$

be the unique homomorphism such that

$$\mathrm{deg}[a]=1(a).$$

###### Proposition 4.1.7.

One has

$$\mathrm{sign}\sigma \mathrm{sin}𝐚=\frac{\sigma \mathrm{sin}𝐚}{\mathrm{sin}\sigma 𝐚}=(1)^{\mathrm{deg}𝐏(1\sigma )𝐚}\left(\frac{\sigma \sqrt{1}}{\sqrt{1}}\right)^{\mathrm{deg}𝐚}(𝐚𝒜^{\prime \prime },\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}}).$$

###### Proof.

For each $`a_2`$ there exists a solution $`\stackrel{~}{a}_2`$ of the congruence

$$2\stackrel{~}{a}amod$$

unique modulo $``$ because $`(_2)/`$ is the subgroup of $`/`$ consisting of elements of odd order. For all $`a(0,1)_2`$ one has

$$\frac{a}{2}\stackrel{~}{a}+\frac{1}{2}moda\text{ is a }2\text{-adic unit.}$$

It follows that one has an identity

$$|1𝐞(a)|=2\mathrm{sin}\pi a=(1)^{\mathrm{deg}𝐏[a]}\frac{𝐞(\stackrel{~}{a})𝐞(\stackrel{~}{a})}{𝐞(1/4)}(a(0,1)_2).$$

Let

$$\stackrel{~}{\xi }:𝒜^{\prime \prime }^{\mathrm{ab}\times }$$

be the unique homomorphism such that

$$\stackrel{~}{\xi }[a]=𝐞(\stackrel{~}{a})𝐞(\stackrel{~}{a})(a(0,1)_2).$$

Then $`\stackrel{~}{\xi }`$ is $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$-equivariant and one has an identity

$$\mathrm{sin}𝐚=(1)^{\mathrm{deg}\mathrm{𝐏𝐚}}\frac{\stackrel{~}{\xi }(𝐚)}{𝐞(1/4)^{\mathrm{deg}𝐚}}(𝐚𝒜^{\prime \prime }),$$

whence the result. ∎

###### Proposition 4.1.8.

For every $`𝐚𝒜`$ representing a torsion element of $`U^{}`$, the extension $`^{\mathrm{ab}}(\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚})/`$ is Galois. (Cf. \[Das 2000, Thm. 11\].)

###### Proof.

For every $`𝐚𝒜`$ the ratio $`\xi (𝐚)/\mathrm{sin}𝐚`$ is a root of unity. Therefore the homomorphism

$$(\text{torsion subgroup of }U^{})H^0(G^{\mathrm{ab}},^{\mathrm{ab}\times }/^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2})$$

induced by $`\xi :𝒜^{\mathrm{ab}\times }`$ is also induced by $`\mathrm{sin}:𝒜^{\mathrm{ab}\times }`$. ∎

### 4.2. Identities of Das type

We carry out by ad hoc methods tailored to our needs what are in effect diagram-chases through the double complex employed by \[Das 2000\].

#### 4.2.1.

Fix a lifting operator

$$H:𝒜^{}𝒜^{},$$

distinct prime numbers $`p`$ and $`q`$, and $`𝐱𝒜`$ such that

$$Y_p𝐱,Y_q𝐱𝒜^{},(1\sigma _1)𝐱=0.$$

One has

$$(1\sigma _1)Y_p𝐱=0,(1\sigma _1)Y_q𝐱=0$$

and hence

$$Y_p𝐱=(1+\sigma _1)HY_p𝐱,Y_q𝐱=(1+\sigma _1)HY_q𝐱.$$

One has

$$(1+\sigma _1)(Y_qHY_pY_pHY_q)𝐱=(Y_q(1+\sigma _1)HY_pY_p(1+\sigma _1)HY_q)𝐱=0,$$

hence

$$(1\sigma _1)(HY_pHY_qHY_qHY_p)𝐱=(Y_pHY_qY_qHY_p)𝐱,$$

and hence

$$\begin{array}{cc}& 2(HY_pHY_qHY_qHY_p)𝐱\hfill \\ & \\ =& (Y_pHY_qY_qHY_p)𝐱+(1+\sigma _1)(HY_pHY_qHY_qHY_p)𝐱.\hfill \end{array}$$

We refer to the latter relation as the first Das identity.

#### 4.2.2.

Fix lifting operators

$$H,\overline{H}:𝒜^{}𝒜^{},$$

distinct prime numbers $`p`$ and $`q`$, and $`𝐱𝒜`$ such that

$$Y_p𝐱,Y_q𝐱𝒜^{},(1\sigma _1)𝐱=0.$$

Put

$$𝐚:=(HY_pHY_qHY_qHY_p)𝐱,\overline{𝐚}:=(\overline{H}Y_p\overline{H}Y_q\overline{H}Y_q\overline{H}Y_p)𝐱,$$

and

$$𝐛:=(Y_pH(H\overline{H})Y_qY_qH(H\overline{H})Y_p)𝐱,𝐜:=H(𝐚\overline{𝐚})H𝐛.$$

One has

$$(1+\sigma _1)(H\overline{H})Y_q𝐱=0,(1+\sigma _1)(H\overline{H})Y_p𝐱=0,$$

hence

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill (H\overline{H})Y_q𝐱& =& (1\sigma _1)H(H\overline{H})Y_q𝐱,\hfill \\ \hfill (H\overline{H})Y_p𝐱& =& (1\sigma _1)H(H\overline{H})Y_p𝐱,\hfill \end{array}$$

hence

$$(1\sigma _1)(𝐚\overline{𝐚})=(Y_p(H\overline{H})Y_qY_q(H\overline{H})Y_p)𝐱=(1\sigma _1)𝐛$$

and hence

$$𝐚\overline{𝐚}=𝐛+(1+\sigma _1)𝐜.$$

We refer to the latter relation as the second Das identity.

#### 4.2.3.

Fix a lifting operator

$$H:𝒜^{}𝒜^{},$$

distinct primes $`p`$ and $`q`$, and $`𝐱𝒜`$ such that

$$Y_p𝐱,Y_q𝐱𝒜^{},(1\sigma )𝐱=0(\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}}).$$

Put

$$𝐚:=(HY_pHY_qHY_qHY_p)𝐱.$$

For each $`\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ put

$$\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill 𝐛_\sigma & :=& Y_pH(1\sigma )HY_q𝐱Y_qH(1\sigma )HY_p𝐱\hfill & Y_p𝒜^{}+Y_q𝒜^{}\hfill \\ & & & \\ \hfill 𝐜_\sigma & :=& H(1\sigma )𝐚H𝐛_\sigma \hfill & 𝒜^{}.\hfill \end{array}$$

After making the substitution $`\overline{H}=\sigma H\sigma ^1`$ in the second Das identity and simplifying, one obtains the family of identities

$$(1\sigma )𝐚=𝐛_\sigma +(1+\sigma _1)𝐜_\sigma (\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}})$$

to which we refer in the sequel as the Das conjugation formula. Note that all the expressions $`𝐛_\sigma `$ belong to the kernel of the homomorphism $`\xi `$. It follows that the Das conjugation formula specializes under the homomorphism $`\xi `$ to a family of numerical identities

$$\sigma \xi (𝐚)=\xi (𝐚)/\mathrm{sin}^2𝐜_\sigma (\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}})$$

in which the expressions $`𝐛_\sigma `$ figure not at all.

###### Remark 4.2.4.

We got the idea for the technical tool that we are calling the Das conjugation formula from the intriguing example \[Das 2000, end of Sec. 16\].

### 4.3. Das classes and the statement of the Main Formula

#### 4.3.1.

Let a lifting operator

$$H:𝒜^{}𝒜^{}$$

and primes $`p<q`$ be given. Put

$$𝐚:=(HY_pHY_qHY_qHY_p)\{\begin{array}{cc}[0]& \text{if }2<p<q\text{,}\hfill \\ [0]+[1/2]& \text{otherwise.}\hfill \end{array}$$

In the present situation the identities of Das type have the following implications:

* $`𝐚`$ represents a $`2`$-torsion $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$-invariant element of $`U^{}`$ independent of $`H`$.
* $`\xi (𝐚)`$ is a real number and hence $`\xi (𝐚)=\pm \mathrm{sin}𝐚`$.
* $`\mathrm{sin}𝐚`$ represents a class in $`H^0(G^{\mathrm{ab}},^{\mathrm{ab}\times }/^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2})`$ independent of $`H`$.
* One has a family of numerical identities

$$\sigma \mathrm{sin}𝐚=\mathrm{sin}𝐚/\mathrm{sin}^2𝐜_\sigma (\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}})$$

where $`\{𝐜_\sigma \}`$ is the cochain figuring in the Das conjugation formula.

We call the torsion element of $`U^{}`$ represented by $`𝐚`$ the Das class associated to the pair $`\{p<q\}`$ of prime numbers.

#### 4.3.2.

For all primes $`p<q`$, put

$$𝐚_{pq}:=(𝐇Y_p𝐇Y_q𝐇Y_q𝐇Y_p)\{\begin{array}{cc}[0]& \text{if }2<p<q\text{,}\hfill \\ [0]+[1/2]& \text{otherwise,}\hfill \end{array}$$

thereby defining the canonical representative of the Das class associated to the pair $`\{p<q\}`$ of primes. For $`2<p<q`$ one has

$$𝐚_{pq}=\left(\underset{i=1}{\overset{\frac{p1}{2}}{}}\left(\left[\frac{i}{p}\right]\underset{k=0}{\overset{\frac{q1}{2}}{}}\left[\frac{i}{pq}+\frac{k}{q}\right]\right)\right)\left(\underset{j=1}{\overset{\frac{q1}{2}}{}}\left(\left[\frac{j}{q}\right]\underset{\mathrm{}=0}{\overset{\frac{p1}{2}}{}}\left[\frac{j}{pq}+\frac{\mathrm{}}{p}\right]\right)\right).$$

For $`2=p<q`$ one has

$$𝐚_{pq}=\left(\left[\frac{1}{4}\right]\underset{k=0}{\overset{\frac{q1}{2}}{}}\left[\frac{1}{4q}+\frac{k}{q}\right]\right)\underset{j=1}{\overset{\frac{q1}{2}}{}}\left(\left[\frac{j}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{2q}+\frac{j}{q}\right]\left[\frac{j}{2q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{4q}+\frac{j}{2q}\right]\right).$$

The discovery that $`𝐚_{pq}`$ for $`2<p<q`$ represents a torsion element of $`U^{}`$ is due to Das; see \[Das 2000, Sec. 9\].

###### Remark 4.3.3.

The double complex method of \[Anderson 1999\] gives rise to a canonical $`/2`$-basis for the torsion subgroup of $`U^{}`$ indexed by finite sets of prime numbers of even cardinality. In \[Das 2000, §3 and §9\] it is proved that the family $`\{𝐚_{pq}\}_{2<p<q}`$ represents the “two-odd-prime” part of the canonical basis. The method of Das can easily be modified to show that the family $`\{𝐚_{pq}\}_{p<q}`$ represents “two-prime” part of the canonical basis.

#### 4.3.4.

The main result of this paper is the relation

$$𝐃\left(\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq}mod^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2}\right)=e_pe_q(p<q\text{ prime})$$

to which we refer in the sequel as the Main Formula. The Main and Auxiliary Formulas together immediately imply that

$$^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}=^{\mathrm{ab}}\left(\left\{\sqrt[4]{\mathrm{}}\right\}_{\mathrm{}:\text{prime}}\left\{\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq}}\right\}_{\begin{array}{c}p,q:\text{prime}\\ p<q\end{array}}\right).$$

Thus we get a quite explicit description of the field $`^{\mathrm{ab}+ϵ}`$.

###### Remark 4.3.5.

The following is a corollary to the Main and Auxiliary Formulas:

> $`()`$ For $`G=\mathrm{Gal}(\overline{}/)`$, the canonical injective map
>
> $$(cc[\mathrm{\Sigma }_G^ϵ]):H^1(G^ϵ,/2)H^2(G^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)^{}$$
>
> defined in Proposition 2.7 is an isomorphism.

But $`()`$ is not really new. One can get it very easily from the theory of \[Fröhlich 1983\], as we now explain. Let $`S`$ be a finite set of primes of $``$ including $`2`$ and the infinite prime. Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be the maximal pro-$`2`$ quotient of $`G`$ unramified outside the primes in $`S`$. To prove $`()`$ it is enough to prove that the canonical injective map

$$(ee[\mathrm{\Sigma }_\mathrm{\Gamma }^ϵ]):H^1(\mathrm{\Gamma }^ϵ,/2)H^2(\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)^{}$$

is an isomorphism. Let $`(\tau \tau ^{\mathrm{ab}}):\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ be the canonical projection. For each odd finite prime $`pS`$, choose any $`\tau _p\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ such that $`\tau _p^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ topologically generates the inertia subgroup of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ at $`p`$. Choose any $`\tau _2\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ such that $`\tau _2^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ topologically generates the subgroup of the inertia subgroup of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ at $`2`$ fixing $`\sqrt{1}`$. Choose any $`\tau _{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ so that $`\tau _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{ab}}\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ is the automorphism induced by complex conjugation. The family $`\{\tau _p\}_{pS}`$ is then a minimal set of generators for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$; in particular, the $`2`$-rank of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mathrm{ab}}`$ is $`N`$, where $`N`$ is the cardinality of $`S`$. By \[Fröhlich 1983, Theorem 4.10, p. 56\] a complete set of defining relations for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ as a pro-$`2`$ group is lifted from the family of relations

$$\left(\tau _p^{\mathrm{ab}}\right)^{p1}=1(p:\text{odd finite prime in }S);\left(\tau _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{ab}}\right)^2=1.$$

It follows that the family of commutators

$$\{[\tau _p,\tau _q]\}_{\begin{array}{c}p,qS\\ p<q\end{array}}$$

projects to a $`/2`$-basis for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^ϵ`$; in particular, the $`2`$-rank of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^ϵ`$ is $`\frac{N(N1)}{2}`$. By Proposition 2.9, the $`2`$-rank of $`H^2(\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mathrm{ab}},/2)^{}`$ is $`\frac{N(N1)}{2}`$. By dimension-counting it follows that the injective map $`ee[\mathrm{\Sigma }_\mathrm{\Gamma }^ϵ]`$ is bijective. Thus $`()`$ is proved à la Fröhlich.

###### Remark 4.3.6.

Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }:𝒜^\times `$ be the unique homomorphism such that

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }\left([a]\right)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\sqrt{2\pi }/\mathrm{\Gamma }(a)& \text{if }0<a<1\hfill \\ 1& \text{if }a=0\hfill \end{array}(a[0,1)).$$

The well known functional equations satisfied by the $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-function become in the present context the identities

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }([a]+[a])=2\mathrm{sin}\pi a,\mathrm{\Gamma }(Y_p[a])=p^{1/2a}(a(0,1)).$$

For all primes $`p<q`$, we then have

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(𝐚_{pq})}{\sqrt{\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq}}}& =& \sqrt{\mathrm{\Gamma }((Y_p𝐇Y_qY_q𝐇Y_p)\left\{\begin{array}{cc}[0]& \text{if }2<p\hfill \\ [0]+[1/2]& \text{if }2=p\hfill \end{array}\right)}\hfill \\ & & \\ & =& \{\begin{array}{cc}p^{\frac{(q1)^2}{16q}}q^{\frac{(p1)^2}{16p}}& \text{if }2<p\hfill \\ & \\ 2^{\frac{q1}{8}}q^{\frac{1}{8}}& \text{if }2=p\hfill \end{array}\hfill \end{array}$$

by the first Das identity. The formula above (in the case $`2<p`$) was discovered by Das (see \[Das 2000, Sec. 9\]) and the proof of that formula is where we got the idea for the technical tool that we are calling the first Das identity.

###### Remark 4.3.7.

The relations standing between the Main Formula, the index formulas of \[Sinnott 1978\], Deligne reciprocity \[Deligne-Milne-Ogus-Shih 1982, Thm. 7.15, p. 91\], the theory of \[Fröhlich 1983\], the theory of \[Das 2000\], the theory of the group cohomology of the universal ordinary distribution (see \[Ouyang 2001\] and references therein) and Stark’s conjecture and its variants (see \[Tate 1984\]) deserve to be thoroughly investigated. We have only scratched the surface here. Stark’s conjecture is relevant in view of the well known expansion

$$\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{1}{(n+x)^s}=\frac{1}{2}x+s\mathrm{log}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(x)}{\sqrt{2\pi }}+O(s^2)$$

of the Hurwitz zeta function at $`s=0`$.

###### Remark 4.3.8.

The papers \[Thakur 1991\], \[Sinha 1997\], and \[Bae-Gekeler-Yin 2000\] (just to mention the first several coming to mind) suggest that there ought to be an analogue of the Main Formula over a global field of positive characteristic equipped with a distinguished place.

###### Remark 4.3.9.

Perhaps there is an analogue of the Main Formula over an imaginary quadratic field involving elliptic units. This possibility seems especially intriguing.

## 5. Proof of the Main Formula

Fix prime numbers $`p<q`$.

### 5.1. Reductions

#### 5.1.1.

Put

$$𝐱:=\{\begin{array}{cc}[0]& \text{if }2<p\text{,}\hfill \\ [0]+[1/2]& \text{if }2=p\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

Fix a partition

$$(0,1)\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)=T\{1aaT\}$$

and put

$$H:=𝐇_T.$$

Presently we are going to make an advantageous choice for the set $`T`$. Put

$$𝐚:=\left(HY_pHY_qHY_qHY_p\right)𝐱.$$

Then $`𝐚`$ represents the Das class associated to the pair $`\{p<q\}`$ of primes and

$$\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq}\mathrm{sin}𝐚mod^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2}.$$

#### 5.1.2.

In the present situation the Das conjugation formula reads

$$(1\sigma )𝐚=𝐛_\sigma +(1+\sigma _1)𝐜_\sigma (\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}})$$

where

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill 𝐛_\sigma & :=& \left(Y_pH(1\sigma )HY_qY_qH(1\sigma )HY_p\right)𝐱,\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill 𝐜_\sigma & :=& H(1\sigma )𝐚H𝐛_\sigma ,\hfill \end{array}$$

and one has a family of numerical identities

$$\sigma \mathrm{sin}𝐚=\mathrm{sin}𝐚/\mathrm{sin}^2𝐜_\sigma (\sigma G^{\mathrm{ab}}).$$

By construction the function

$$\left(\sigma \mathrm{sin}𝐜_\sigma \right):G^{\mathrm{ab}}^{\mathrm{ab}\times }$$

factors through $`\mathrm{Gal}\left(\left(𝐞\left(\frac{1}{2pq}\right)\right)/\right)`$ and takes values in $`\left(𝐞\left(\frac{1}{4pq}\right)\right)`$.

#### 5.1.3.

The Log Wedge Formula says that

$$𝐃\left(\mathrm{sin}𝐚_{pq}mod^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2}\right)=𝐃\left(\mathrm{sin}𝐚mod^{\mathrm{ab}\times 2}\right)=\underset{\begin{array}{c}r,sS\hfill \\ r<s\hfill \end{array}}{}\mathrm{log}_1\alpha _{rs}e_re_s$$

where

$$\alpha _{rs}:=\frac{\sigma _s\mathrm{sin}𝐜_{\sigma _r}/\mathrm{sin}𝐜_{\sigma _r}}{\sigma _r\mathrm{sin}𝐜_{\sigma _s}/\mathrm{sin}𝐜_{\sigma _s}}\{\pm 1\}.$$

(We employ $`r`$ and $`s`$ as dummy variables here since $`p`$ and $`q`$ have already been fixed.) Since all numbers of the form $`\mathrm{sin}𝐚`$ are positive real, we can calculate $`\alpha _{rs}`$ just by keeping track of signs, i. e., we have

$$\alpha _{rs}=\frac{\mathrm{sign}\sigma _s\mathrm{sin}𝐜_{\sigma _r}}{\mathrm{sign}\sigma _r\mathrm{sin}𝐜_{\sigma _s}}.$$

One has $`\mathrm{sin}𝐜_{\sigma _1}=1`$ and hence $`\alpha _{1,\mathrm{}}=1`$ for all primes $`\mathrm{}`$. For all primes $`\mathrm{}`$ distinct from $`p`$ and $`q`$, one has $`\mathrm{sin}𝐜_\sigma _{\mathrm{}}=\mathrm{sin}𝐜_1=1`$ and moreover $`\sigma _{\mathrm{}}`$ operates trivially on the field $`\left(𝐞\left(\frac{1}{4pq}\right)\right)`$. (Recall that $`\sigma _2\sqrt{1}=\sqrt{1}`$.) It follows that $`\alpha _{rs}=1`$ for all primes $`r<s`$ such that $`\{r,s\}\{p,q\}`$. It remains now only to prove that $`\alpha _{pq}=1`$.

### 5.2. Calculation of $`\alpha _{pq}`$ in the case $`2<p`$

Assume that $`2<p`$, i. e., that both $`p`$ and $`q`$ are odd.

#### 5.2.1.

We have

$$\alpha _{pq}=(1)^{\mathrm{deg}\left(𝐏(1\sigma _q)𝐜_{\sigma _p}𝐏(1\sigma _p)𝐜_{\sigma _q}\right)}$$

by Proposition 4.1.7. In this way we reduce the calculation of $`\alpha _{pq}`$ to an essentially combinatorial problem.

#### 5.2.2.

Put

$$\mathrm{\Theta }_p:=\sigma _p^0+\mathrm{}+\sigma _p^{\frac{p3}{2}},\mathrm{\Theta }_q:=\sigma _q^0+\mathrm{}+\sigma _q^{\frac{q3}{2}},$$

thereby defining elements of the integral group ring of $`G^{\mathrm{ab}}`$. The relations

$$\begin{array}{c}(1\sigma _p)\mathrm{\Theta }_p[a+b]=\left(1\sigma _p^{\frac{p1}{2}}\right)[a+b]=[a+b][a+b]\hfill \\ \\ (1\sigma _q)\mathrm{\Theta }_q[a+b]=\left(1\sigma _q^{\frac{q1}{2}}\right)[a+b]=[a+b][ab]\hfill \end{array}\}\left(a\frac{1}{p},b\frac{1}{q}\right)$$

figure crucially in our calculations.

#### 5.2.3.

We make an advantageous choice for the set $`T`$ now. We assume that $`T`$ has been chosen in such a way that the associated lifting operator $`H=𝐇_T`$ has the following properties:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill H\sigma _p^i\left[\frac{q}{p}\right]& =& \{\begin{array}{cc}\sigma _p^i\left[\frac{q}{p}\right]& \text{for }0i<(p1)/2\text{,}\hfill \\ & \\ 0& \text{for }(p1)/2i<p1\text{,}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill H\sigma _q^i\left[\frac{p}{q}\right]& =& \{\begin{array}{cc}\sigma _q^i\left[\frac{p}{q}\right]& \text{for }0i<(q1)/2\text{,}\hfill \\ & \\ 0& \text{for }(q1)/2i<q1,\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill H\sigma _p^i\sigma _q^j\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]& =& \{\begin{array}{cc}\sigma _p^i\sigma _q^j\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]& \text{for }0i<(p1)/2\text{ and }0j<q1\text{,}\hfill \\ & \\ 0& \text{for }(p1)/2i<p1\text{ and }0j<q1\text{.}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \end{array}$$

The reason for making this choice is to force a lot of cancellation. It was in order to have the freedom to make this choice that we took the trouble to formulate the definition of the Das class in terms of an arbitrarily chosen lifting operator.

#### 5.2.4.

We make some preliminary calculations. One has

$$Y_q\left[0\right]=\mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{p}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{p}{q}\right]\right),Y_p\left[0\right]=\mathrm{\Theta }_p\left(\left[\frac{q}{p}\right]+\left[\frac{q}{p}\right]\right),$$

hence

$$HY_q\left[0\right]=\mathrm{\Theta }_q\left[\frac{p}{q}\right],HY_p\left[0\right]=\mathrm{\Theta }_p\left[\frac{q}{p}\right],$$

and hence

$$H(1\sigma _q)HY_q\left[0\right]=\left[\frac{p}{q}\right],H(1\sigma _p)HY_p\left[0\right]=\left[\frac{q}{p}\right].$$

One then has

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill Y_pH(1\sigma _q)HY_q\left[0\right]& =& \left(\left[\frac{p}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{q}\right]\mathrm{\Theta }_p\left(\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]\right)\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill Y_qH(1\sigma _p)HY_p\left[0\right]& =& \left(\left[\frac{q}{p}\right]\left[\frac{1}{p}\right]\mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{p}\frac{1}{q}\right]\right)\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill Y_pHY_q\left[0\right]& =& \mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{p}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{q}\right]\mathrm{\Theta }_p\left(\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]\right)\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill Y_qHY_p\left[0\right]& =& \mathrm{\Theta }_p\left(\left[\frac{q}{p}\right]\left[\frac{1}{p}\right]\mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{p}\frac{1}{q}\right]\right)\right).\hfill \end{array}$$

#### 5.2.5.

It follows that

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill 𝐚& =& (HY_pHY_qHY_qHY_p)[0]\hfill \\ & & \\ & =& \mathrm{\Theta }_p\mathrm{\Theta }_q\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]H\mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{p}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{q}\right]\right)+H\mathrm{\Theta }_p\left(\left[\frac{q}{p}\right]\left[\frac{1}{p}\right]\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill H(1\sigma _p)𝐚& =& \mathrm{\Theta }_q\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]+H(1\sigma _p)H\mathrm{\Theta }_p\left(\left[\frac{q}{p}\right]\left[\frac{1}{p}\right]\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill HY_qH(1\sigma _p)HY_p\left[0\right]& =& H\left(\left[\frac{q}{p}\right]\left[\frac{1}{p}\right]\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill 𝐜_{\sigma _p}& =& H(1\sigma _p)𝐚HY_pH(1\sigma _p)HY_q[0]+HY_qH(1\sigma _p)HY_p[0]\hfill \\ & & \\ & =& \mathrm{\Theta }_q\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]+H(1\sigma _p)H\mathrm{\Theta }_p\left(\left[\frac{q}{p}\right]\left[\frac{1}{p}\right]\right)H\left(\left[\frac{q}{p}\right]\left[\frac{1}{p}\right]\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill H(1\sigma _q)𝐚& =& \mathrm{\Theta }_p\left(\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{p}\frac{1}{q}\right]\right)H(1\sigma _q)H\mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{p}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{q}\right]\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill HY_pH(1\sigma _q)HY_q\left[0\right]& =& \mathrm{\Theta }_p\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]H\left(\left[\frac{p}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{q}\right]\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill 𝐜_{\sigma _q}& =& H(1\sigma _q)𝐚HY_pH(1\sigma _q)HY_q[0]+HY_qH(1\sigma _q)HY_p[0]\hfill \\ & & \\ & =& \mathrm{\Theta }_p\left[\frac{1}{p}\frac{1}{q}\right]H(1\sigma _q)H\mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{p}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{q}\right]\right)+H\left(\left[\frac{p}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{q}\right]\right).\hfill \end{array}$$

#### 5.2.6.

Finally, one has

$$\begin{array}{cc}& 𝐏(1\sigma _q)𝐜_{\sigma _p}𝐏(1\sigma _p)𝐜_{\sigma _q}\hfill \\ & \\ =& 𝐏\left(\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{p}\frac{1}{q}\right]\right)𝐏\left(\left[\frac{1}{p}\frac{1}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{p}\frac{1}{q}\right]\right)\hfill \\ & \\ =& 𝐏\left[\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}\right]𝐏\left[\frac{1}{p}\frac{1}{q}\right].\hfill \end{array}$$

Now consider the rational numbers $`1\frac{1}{p}+\frac{1}{q}`$ and $`\frac{1}{p}\frac{1}{q}`$. Both numbers are $`2`$-adically integral and belong to the open unit interval of the real line, but one and only one of them (namely the former) is a $`2`$-adic unit. Therefore one has $`\alpha _{pq}=1`$.

### 5.3. Calculation of $`\alpha _{pq}`$ in the case $`2=p`$

Assume that $`2=p`$.

#### 5.3.1.

One has $`𝐜_{\sigma _2}=𝐜_1=0`$ in this case and hence

$$\alpha _{2q}=\mathrm{sign}\sigma _2\mathrm{sin}𝐜_{\sigma _q}.$$

#### 5.3.2.

We may assume that the set $`T`$ has been chosen in such a way that the lifting operator $`H=𝐇_T`$ has the following properties:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill H\sigma _q^i\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]& =& \{\begin{array}{cc}\sigma _q^i\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]& \text{for }0i<(q1)/2\text{,}\hfill \\ & \\ 0& \text{for }(q1)/2i<q1\text{,}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill H\left[\frac{\nu }{4}\right]& =& \{\begin{array}{cc}\left[\frac{\nu }{4}\right]& \text{for }\nu =q\text{,}\hfill \\ & \\ 0& \text{for }\nu =q\text{,}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill H\sigma _q^i\left[\frac{1}{2}+\frac{2}{q}\right]& =& \{\begin{array}{cc}\sigma _q^i\left[\frac{1}{2}+\frac{2}{q}\right]& \text{for }0i<(q1)/2\text{,}\hfill \\ & \\ 0& \text{for }(q1)/2i<q1\text{,}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill H\sigma _q^i\left[\frac{\nu }{4}+\frac{1}{q}\right]& =& \{\begin{array}{cc}0& \text{for }0i<q1\text{ and }\nu =1\text{,}\hfill \\ & \\ \sigma _q^i\left[\frac{\nu }{4}+\frac{1}{q}\right]& \text{for }0i<q1\text{ and }\nu =1\text{.}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \end{array}$$

#### 5.3.3.

Put

$$\mathrm{\Theta }_q:=\left(\sigma _q^0+\mathrm{}+\sigma _q^{(q3)/2}\right).$$

The relations

$$(1\sigma _q)\mathrm{\Theta }_q[a+b]=\left(1\sigma _q^{\frac{q1}{2}}\right)[a+b]=[a+b][ab]\left(a\frac{1}{4},b\frac{1}{q}/\right)$$

are crucial to our calculations.

#### 5.3.4.

Recall that in the case $`p=2`$ one has

$$𝐱=[0]+\left[\frac{1}{2}\right].$$

We have

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill Y_q𝐱& =& \mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{2}+\frac{2}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{2}\frac{2}{q}\right]\right)\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill HY_q𝐱& =& \mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{2}+\frac{2}{q}\right]\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill H(1\sigma _q)HY_q𝐱& =& \left(\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{2}+\frac{2}{q}\right]\right)\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill Y_2H(1\sigma _q)HY_q𝐱& =& \left(\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]\left[\frac{2}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{q}\right]\right)\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill Y_2𝐱& =& \left[\frac{q}{4}\right]\left[\frac{q}{4}\right]\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill HY_2𝐱& =& \left[\frac{q}{4}\right],\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill (Y_2HY_qY_qHY_2)𝐱& =& \mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]\left[\frac{2}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{q}\right]\right)\hfill \\ & & \\ & & +\left[\frac{q}{4}\right]\left[\frac{1}{4}\right]\mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{q}\right]+\left[\frac{1}{4}\frac{1}{q}\right]\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill 𝐚& =& \mathrm{\Theta }_q\left[\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{q}\right]H\mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]\left[\frac{2}{q}\right]\right)+H\left(\left[\frac{q}{4}\right]\left[\frac{1}{4}\right]\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill H(1\sigma _q)𝐚& =& \left[\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{q}\right]\left[\frac{1}{4}\frac{1}{q}\right]H(1\sigma _q)H\mathrm{\Theta }_q\left(\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]\left[\frac{2}{q}\right]\right),\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill HY_2H(1\sigma _q)HY_q𝐱& =& \left[\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{q}\right]H\left(\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]\left[\frac{2}{q}\right]\right)\hfill \\ & & \\ \hfill 𝐜_{\sigma _q}& =& H(1\sigma _q)𝐚HY_2H(1\sigma _q)HY_q𝐱+HY_qH(1\sigma _q)HY_2𝐱\hfill \\ & & \\ & =& \left[\frac{1}{4}\frac{1}{q}\right]+H(1(1\sigma _q)H\mathrm{\Theta }_q)\left(\left[\frac{4}{q}\right]\left[\frac{2}{q}\right]\right).\hfill \end{array}$$

#### 5.3.5.

Finally, one has

$$\frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}𝐜_{\sigma _q}}\mathrm{sin}\pi \left(\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{q}\right)\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}mod\left(\left(𝐞\left(\frac{1}{4q}\right)\right)\right)^\times $$

because the sines and cosines of all integral multiples of the angle $`\pi /q`$ belong to the field $`\left(𝐞\left(\frac{1}{4q}\right)\right)`$, and hence $`\alpha _{2q}=\mathrm{sign}\sigma _2\sqrt{2}=1`$. The proof of the Main Formula is complete.

## 6. Acknowledgements

I thank P. Das, Y. Ouyang and S. Seo for insightful conversations and correspondence on topics related to this paper. I also thank D. Thakur for very helpful criticism of a first draft of this paper.


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# Transparent Lyotropic Ferronematics

## Introduction

The goal of this letter is to discuss the nature of the transparency effect in lyotropic ferronematics. In general, the term ferronematic refers to a magnetically-sensitive complex fluid resulting from mixing together magnetic and liquid-crystalline components . At present, three kinds of those media can be distinguished. Namely, ferronematics can be synthesized by admixing of (i) a paramagnetic ion dopant to a thermotropic liquid crystal , (ii) a ferrocolloid to a thermotropic liquid crystal , and (iii) a ferrocolloid to a lyotropic liquid crystal . A ferrocolloid (often called ferrofluid) is a colloidal dispersion of superparamagnetic nanoparticles in a liquid carrier. The problem of primary importance for ferro-liquid-crystalline compositions is their ability to resist the spontaneous aggregation of the components. Recently, when solving the problem of colloidal stability for lyotropic ferrodispersions with high concentration of magnetic particles, we observed stable ferronematics, which were completely transparent in a white and polarized light .

The phenomenon of the liquid crystal transparency in thick samples ($`1`$ cm) is an issue of considerable interest . It is well known  that high turbidity of thermotropic liquid crystals is due to the director fluctuations so that non-oriented thermotropics completely depolarize and disperse light even in thin ($`0.1`$ mm) layers. With lyotropics we observed liquid crystals, which, being in the non-oriented state, completely depolarize light but are transparent. It is well known that occurrence of a similar effect in colloid systems means a low level of aggregation, i.e., the stability of the system. This property of ferrolyotropic dispersions helps a lot when investigating their phase diagrams .

A ferrolyotropic dispersion inherits transparency from both its components: a ferrofluid and a pure lyotropic solution PL/1D/Wt, immaterial in which of the two states—nematic or isotropic—the latter is. This transparency is preserved in a broad temperature and concentration ranges and is long living. In below we present a qualitative discussion of the phenomenon by comparing light scattering intensities of classical thermotropics with those for lyotropic liquid crystals and colloidal magnetic dispersions.

## Experimental

We use a lyotropic liquid crystal PL/1D/Wt, which is a ternary solution of potassium laurate (PL), 1-decanol (1D) and water (Wt). The said solution makes a lyotropic base for preparation of ferronematics. Potassium laurate is synthesized in the laboratory by alkalinization of lauric acid with potassium hydroxide. The details of synthesis are described in Ref. . At $`20`$ C the concentration ranges are normally 5–8.8 wt% for 1D and 62–68 wt% for water with the saturation pH value $`10`$. The obtained samples are completely transparent and uniform in both isotropic and nematic phases. The liquid crystal orients spontaneously, which process takes minutes in a thin ($`0.1`$ mm) glass capillary and a week in a thick ($`10`$ mm) glass tube. In non-oriented layers, these lyotropic solutions remain entirely transparent but depolarize the light completely , see the Fig. Figures(a,b).

For the studied PL/1D/Wt compositions, the clearing points are not observed, neither with respect to temperature nor to concentration. In the nematic region at 20 C, a positive uniaxial optical anisotropy is detected. Positive birefringence implies that the mesophase is organized as a discotic structure. The micelle concentration in the lyotropic solution is about $`10^{19}`$ cm-3. For similar systems in the same temperature range, the micelle diameter and thickness were found earlier by means of small-angle neutron scattering to be $`6.4`$ nm and $`2.3`$ nm, respectively .

Cationic ferrofluids are synthesized by the method described in Ref. . They are stable aqueous colloids of $`\gamma `$-Fe2O3 under standard conditions: $`pH2`$ and temperature 20 C. Saturation magnetization of the dispersed maghemite particles is about $`300G`$ . Their distribution is fairly well described by a log-normal function with the characteristic diameter 7–8 nm and the dispersion $`0.30.4`$. Concentration of the magnetic phase in the parent ferrofluid was about $`5`$ vol.%. The ferrofluids were optically isotropic under zero external magnetic field.

Lyotropic ferrodispersions are prepared with the method described in Ref.  that yields transparent and stable ferroliquid crystals, see Fig. Figures (c,d). The content of the magnetic component was 10-4–1 vol.%. Characteristic red-brown color due to the presence of ferroparticles was observed for all the samples. Strong magneto-orientational effects at 10–100 Oe were detected for ferronematic layers of the thickness 0.1-10 mm, see Refs. .

## Light Scattering by Liquid-Crystalline Materials

Let us begin with the case a thermotropic nematic liquid crystal. In the isotropic phase, the main part is played by the density fluctuations in the liquid. In the ordered phase, the principal contribution goes from the director fluctuations. After Ref. , the ratio of scattering cross-sections in the nematic and isotropic states is

$$\sigma _{\mathrm{nem}}^{(t)}/\sigma _{\mathrm{iso}}^{(t)}\left[\epsilon _a^{(t)}/\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{(t)}\right]^2\left[K^{(t)}q^2\kappa ^{(t)}\right]^1;$$
(1)
here $`q2\pi /\lambda `$, where $`\lambda `$ is the wavelength. In Eq. (1) the dielectric anisotropy $`\epsilon _a^{(t)}`$ and the reference elastic constant $`K^{(t)}`$ (Frank modulus) are the parameters inherent to the ordered state while the isothermal compressibility $`\kappa ^{(t)}`$ and the parameter $`\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{(t)}`$ characterize the isotropic state. Note that hereafter we mark the material parameters referring to thermotropic/lyotropic substances by superscripts “$`(t)`$” or “$`(\mathrm{})`$”. For the order of magnitude estimate one can take $`\epsilon _a^{(t)}\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{(t)}`$.

With the same accuracy, one may set $`\kappa a^3/U`$, where $`U`$ is the typical energy of the molecule coupling and $`a`$ is the reference molecular length, i.e., the size of the nematogenic chemical unit. For the elastic constant, in the same way one gets $`KU/a`$. Given that, Eq. (1) reduces to

$$\sigma _{\mathrm{nem}}^{(t)}/\sigma _{\mathrm{iso}}^{(t)}1/(qa)^2.$$
(2)
For small scattering angles: $`q<10^2`$ nm-1.

In thermotropics, the structural unit is a single molecule with $`a`$ 2–3 nm. In result, from Eq. (2) one finds that the ratio (2) is about $`10^6`$. This estimation, first given in Ref. , shows that the nematic phase of a thermotropic mesogenic substance is six orders of magnitude more opaque than its isotropic phase. This explains why thermotropic mesogens, on entering the ordered state, become completely turbid.

In a lyotropic solution, the elementary scattering unit is a micelle that floats in an isotropic liquid carrier. This entails a considerable difference between the light scattering mechanisms in lyotropic and thermotropic nematogens. Each micelle is an aggregate comprising a number of tensioactive molecules. In the considered here case of PL/1D/Wt, the micelles are anisometric with the maximum size $`a`$ about $`5`$ nm. However, despite being a multi-molecular object, a micelle still remains an entity, whose size is much smaller than the optical wavelength. This enables one to treat a lyotropic nematogen as a continuous medium.

Assuming, as in the case of thermotropics, that in the ordered phase the main scattering is due to the director fluctuations, we retain in the cross-section ratio $`\sigma _{\mathrm{nem}}^{(\mathrm{})}`$ only the term with the dielectric permeability anisotropy. Meanwhile, in the isotropic phase a lyotropic solution by its scattering abilities cannot differ much from the isotropic phase of thermotropic nematogens. Indeed, this scattering is caused by the long-wave density modulations, i.e., is determined by the volume elasticity (compressibility) of the liquid. Thence, constructing in the same way as in Eq. (1) the cross-section ratio for a lyotropic case, one gets

$$\sigma _{\mathrm{nem}}^{(\mathrm{})}/\sigma _{\mathrm{iso}}^{(\mathrm{})}\left[\epsilon _a^{(\mathrm{})}/\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{(\mathrm{})}\right]^2\left[K^{(\mathrm{})}q^2\kappa ^{(\mathrm{})}\right]^1.$$
(3)
The most important difference between thermotropic and lyotropic systems is that, experimentally, all the known lyotropics are low-birefringent: their dielectric anisotropy $`\epsilon _a^{(\mathrm{})}`$ is about $`10^3`$ of their isotropic dielectric constant.

Relating the reference values of the scattering ratios for thermotropics and lyotropics under assumption that $`\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{(t)}\epsilon _{}^{}{}_{}{}^{(\mathrm{})}`$, one gets

$$\sigma _{\mathrm{nem}}^{(t)}/\sigma _{\mathrm{nem}}^{(\mathrm{})}\left[\epsilon _a^{(t)}/\epsilon _a^{(\mathrm{})}\right]^2\left[K^{(\mathrm{})}/K^{(t)}\right]\varphi ^1,$$
(4)
where the factor $`\varphi `$ that is the volume fraction of micelles in the solution. It has appeared due to the fact that in the ordered state only the scattering from micelles is taken into account; we remark that in the PL/1D/Wt systems under study we have $`\varphi 0.1`$. The ratio $`\epsilon _a^{(t)}/\epsilon _a^{(\mathrm{})}`$ may be expressed in terms of the refraction indices. We set $`\epsilon _a^{(\alpha )}=[n_e^{(\alpha )}]^2[n_o^{(\alpha )}]^2n_o^{(\alpha )}\mathrm{\Delta }n^{(\alpha )}`$, where index $`\alpha `$ marks either of the nematics. For thermotropics one has $`\mathrm{\Delta }n^{(t)}10^1`$ and $`K^{(t)}10^7`$ dyn whilst for lyotropics: $`\mathrm{\Delta }n^{(\mathrm{})}10^3`$ and $`K^{(\mathrm{})}10^6`$ dyn; the values of $`n_o`$ for both substances are of the same order. This casts the ratio (4) in the form $`\sigma _{\mathrm{nem}}^{(t)}/\sigma _{\mathrm{nem}}^{(\mathrm{})}10^5/\varphi `$. As is shown in above, for a thermotropic nematogenic substance the scattering ratio is $`10^6`$ by itself, therefore for a lyotropic system the corresponding ratio, see Eq. (3), is $`10\varphi 1`$.

Thus we conclude that in the isotropic state thermotropic and lyotropic nematogens are equally transparent. On entering the nematic phase, a thermotropic nematogen becomes $`10^6`$ times more opaque whereas the transparency of a lyotropic liquid crystal is almost unaffected by the orientational phase transition. This falls in full agreement with the experimentally evidenced fact that even at a considerable sample thickness (tubes $`1`$ cm), lyotropic liquid crystals are completely transparent both in isotropic and nematic states.

In the case of a lyotropic ferronematic, the contribution to the light scattering that owes to the presence of magnetic grains should be taken into account. The main governing parameters are: the mean particle size $`d`$, particle number concentration $`c`$ and aggregation number $`m`$. The first two may be measured directly, and for our systems they are $`d8`$ nm and $`C10^{14}10^{15}`$ cm-3.

To estimate the aggregation number, it is necessary to select the appropriate scenario of aggregation in the lyotropic ferronematic. In the studied case, the magnetic dispersions are rather dilute: the volume fraction of particles does not exceed 0.01 vol.% and so is far from any of the phase separation thresholds, see the diagrams in Refs. . Under such conditions, the main cause of aggregation is the interparticle magnetic dipole-dipole interaction , the intensity of which is measured by the value of the dimensionless parameter $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\mu ^2/k_BTd^3`$ with $`\mu `$ being the particle magnetic moment and $`T`$ the temperature . For single-domain particles one has $`\mu =(\pi /6)M_sd^3`$, where $`M_s300`$ G is the magnetization of the colloidal maghemite; at room temperature $`k_BT410^{14}`$ erg.

According to Ref. , depending on the value of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, there are three qualitatively different modes of aggregation. At $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<1`$, the particles are well separated and do not aggregate. In the range around $`\mathrm{\Lambda }3`$ a considerable number of quasi-spherical droplets comprising several particles is present . At $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>10`$, the particles form multi-grain open loops and long chain structures. With the above-mentioned mean particle diameter, for our systems estimation gives $`\mathrm{\Lambda }3`$ that implies that the particles, in majority, are associated in quasi-spherical droplets with the aggregation number $`m`$ 4–6. Recalculating this into an effective aggregate diameter, one finds $`d^{(f)}16`$ nm.

Let us compare the Rayleigh scattering parameter of a ferrofluid, $`R^{(f)}`$, and that of a lyotropic colloid, $`R^{(\mathrm{})}`$. The pertinent formula, see Ref.  for details, simplified for the case of dilute colloids reads

$$R^{(f)}/R^{(\mathrm{})}\left[C^{(f)}/C^{(\mathrm{})}\right]\left[d^{(f)}/d^{(\mathrm{})}\right]^6(\delta n)^2,$$
(5)
where $`\delta n`$ is the difference between the refraction indexes of the micelle and the solvent, $`C^{(f)}`$ and $`C^{(\mathrm{})}`$ are the number concentrations of the scattering units. To estimate the ratio (5), we take for the concentrations $`C^{(f)}10^{14}`$ cm-3 and $`C^{(\mathrm{})}10^{19}`$ cm-3, for the mean diameters $`d^{(f)}16`$nm (a magnetic particle aggregate) and $`d^{(\mathrm{})}3`$nm (a micelle), and $`\delta n0.1`$ for the refraction indices difference. Hence, for the ratio (5) one finds $`R^{(f)}/R^{(\mathrm{})}1`$. This estimate agrees well with the evidence presented in Fig. Figures and proves explicitly that an admixture of magnetic nanoparticles up to $`\mathrm{\Phi }0.07vol.\%`$ does not cause any significant changes in the transparency of a lyotropic ferronematic in comparison with that of a “clean” lyotropic system.

## Conclusion

Synthesis of lyotropic nematic ferroliquid crystals, which are highly transparent, is reported that is done by admixing a cationic maghemite ferrofluid to the lyotropic solution PL/1D/Wt. According to qualitative considerations, the transparency is ensured by two principal circumstances. The first is quite universal and refers to the fact that light scattering is proportional to the square of the optical anisotropy $`\mathrm{\Delta }n`$. Since $`\mathrm{\Delta }n`$ is low in all lyotropic systems, accordingly, small is the corresponding contribution to the scattering. The second factor is synthesis-sensitive. If a ferrolyotropic dispersion is stable enough, as it happens for our samples, the mean aggregation number of magnetic nanoparticles does not exceed several units. Because of that, the light scattering caused by the dispersed solid phase remains less or at the same level as that of the micellar solution. Summarizing, one can characterize the reported lyotropic ferronematics as anisotropic fluids, which uniquely combine the low magnetic-field control over the optical axis direction and the high optical transparency.

## Figure Caption

Fig. 1. Specimens of lyotropic solutions: (a) pure lyotropic in a white light, (b) pure lyotropic in a polarized light, (c) ferronematic in a white light; a concentration of the magnetic phase $`\mathrm{\Phi }=0.04vol.\%`$, (d) ferronematic in a polarized light; the tube diameter is about $`1`$ cm.

## Figures

see the file.jpg in attach.