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HUTP-01/A073 RUNHETC-2002-06 hep-th/0202208

Orientifolds, Mirror Symmetry and Superpotentials

Bobby $`\mathrm{Acharya}^1`$, Mina $`\mathrm{Aganagic}^2`$, Kentaro $`\mathrm{Hori}^2`$ and Cumrun $`\mathrm{Vafa}^2`$

1Department of Physics, Rutgers University

Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA

2Jefferson Physical Laboratory

Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA

Abstract

We consider orientifolds of Calabi-Yau 3-folds in the context of Type IIA and Type IIB superstrings. We show how mirror symmetry can be used to sum up worldsheet instanton contributions to the superpotential for Type IIA superstrings. The relevant worldsheets have the topology of the disc and $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$.

1. Introduction

Mirror symmetry has been proven effective in the computation of superpotentials in four dimensional $`𝒩=1`$ supersymmetric theories \[1,,2,,3,,4,,5,,6,,7\]. In this paper we show how mirror symmetry can be used in the context of orientifolds of Calabi-Yau backgrounds to lead to computable superpotentials which receive corrections from worldsheet instantons. The worldsheet instantons have the topology of $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$ and, if there are D-branes around, the disc $`𝐃^\mathrm{𝟐}`$. In principle both contribute to the superpotential, as we will discuss. Along the way, we confirm a prediction of  (based on a large $`N`$ Chern-Simons conjecture) for the superpotential arising when we consider Type IIA superstrings propagating on an orientifold of the resolution of the conifold.

The organization of this paper is as follows: In section 2 we describe some general features of supersymmetric orientifolds of Type IIA and IIB string theories on Calabi-Yau manifolds. We describe the spacetime superpotential in the case of orientifolds of IIB. In section 3 we present examples of Type IIA orientifolds of non-compact Calabi-Yau threefolds, as well as their Type IIB mirrors. In section 4 we present further examples of non-compact CY orientifolds.

2. Superstrings and Calabi-Yau Orientifolds

Compactification of Type IIA or IIB superstring theory on a Calabi-Yau threefold $`X`$ gives rise to an $`𝒩=2`$ supersymmetric theory in $`d=4`$. We can also consider orientifolding this theory, by combining an involution symmetry $`I`$ on the Calabi-Yau with orientation reversal $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ on the worldsheet, i.e. we consider gauging the symmetry generated by $`I\mathrm{\Omega }`$. Due to their respective orientations, this orientifold is only well defined if $`I`$ preserves the orientation of $`X`$ in the case of the IIB string and reverses it in the case of IIA. Additionally, if $`I`$ obeys certain further properties, the orientifold theory will be an $`𝒩=1`$ supersymmetric theory in $`d=4`$: For Type IIA superstrings the involution $`I`$ has to exchange the holomorphic 3-form $`\omega `$, up to a phase, with the anti-holomorphic 3-form $`\overline{\omega }`$. This is because the left-moving space-time supercharge corresponds to the holomorphic 3-form and the right-moving space-time supercharge corresponds to the anti-holomorphic 3-form. This means that $`I`$ should be an anti-holomorphic involution in the context of Type IIA superstrings. For type IIB superstrings both the left- and right-moving supercharges correspond to the holomorphic 3-form on Calabi-Yau. Thus the involution should send $`\omega \pm \omega `$. This is a holomorphic involution.

If $`I`$ has fixed points $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ in $`X`$, we find orientifold planes of topology $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\times 𝐑^\mathrm{𝟒}`$. For Type IIA superstrings, the fixed point of the anti-holomorphic involution will be real codimension three. In other words, it is an O6 plane. To see this, note that in local coordinates on a point on orientifold plane an anti-holomorphic involution will have three $`1`$ eigenvalues and three $`+1`$ eigenvalues. For Type IIB, the orientifold plane could be O3, O5, O7 or O9, depending on the number of eigenvalues of the holomorphic involution on the tangent space of any point on the orientifold plane. Note that to have an O5 or O9 the involution takes $`\omega \omega `$, and for O3, O7 it takes $`\omega \omega `$. Note that we can have one or the other of these situations if we wish to preserve supersymmetry, but not both.

In compact Calabi-Yau threefolds, if we end up with orientifold planes, we need to cancel their D-brane charge by including appropriate space-time filling, Calabi-Yau wrapped D-branes. In the language of the ‘parent’ theory before orientifolding, this corresponds to including wrapped D-brane configurations which are invariant under the involution $`I\mathrm{\Omega }`$. In the non-compact case, we do not need to cancel the D-brane charge (except for the D9 brane charge) as the flux can go off to infinity. Nevertheless we can choose to include D-branes in the background.

Note that since Type IIA and IIB superstrings on mirror Calabi-Yau pairs are equivalent, it follows that the orientifold operation of IIA is equivalent to an orientifold operation for IIB on the mirror Calabi-Yau. In this case the O6-plane gets mapped to O3- and O7-planes $`\mathrm{𝚘𝚛}`$ O5- and O9-planes. Similarly D6-branes get mapped to D3- and D7-branes or D5- and D9-branes depending on which case we are in.

2.1. Space-time superpotential

Since we have $`𝒩=1`$ supersymmetry in $`d=4`$ a superpotential can in principle be generated by the orientifold operation. General arguments \[9,,10\] which relate the tensions of domain walls to the value of the superpotential can be used to propose a formula for the superpotential itself in various classes of string compactifications. These formulae have proven successful in Calabi-Yau compactifications \[9,,11,,12\], compactifications on $`G_2`$-manifolds, \[13\] and even $`Spin(7)`$-manifolds \[14\]. In the context of orientifolds of Type IIB string theory on Calabi-Yau threefolds, the BPS domain walls are actually D5-branes wrapped on supersymmetric 3-cycles in X. The fact that such 3-cycles are in fact calibrated by $`\omega `$ leads to the following formula for the superpotential,

$$W=H\omega $$
$`(2.1)`$
where $`H=dB_{RR}`$ denotes the RR 3-form field strength. As a check on this formula, note that in Type I theory, $`H`$ also includes contributions from the Chern-Simons 3-forms constructed out of the $`SO(32)`$ gauge field $`A`$ and the spin connection $`w`$. Thus, $`W`$ contains a term which is none other that the holomorphic Chern-Simons functional,

$$tr(AdA+\frac{2}{3}AAA)\omega $$
$`(2.2)`$
This is the known superpotential for Type I and heterotic string theory on a Calabi-Yau threefold \[15\]. In fact this is simply the expected superpotential from the viewpoint of topological B-model on the 9-brane . Moreover, the fact that $`H`$ is defined with the addition of the Chern-Simons 3-form in the type I theory, reflects that fact that an instanton on the 9-brane can be viewed as a 5-brane, which is the source of $`H`$-flux.

Since both D5-branes and O5-planes are sources for $`H`$, we can think of $`W`$ as being “generated” by D5-brane charge. All sources for $`H`$ contribute. Let $`D_i`$ denote the locations of the D5-brane charges (which includes O5-planes). Each $`D_i`$ is a 2-dimensional subspace of the Calabi-Yau. This is because locally we have that

$$dH=\underset{i}{}\delta _i$$
$`(2.3)`$
where the $`\delta _i`$ are four form currents supported at the D5 or O5 locations. These are Poincare dual to 2-cycles $`D_i`$.

Suppose we are considering the compact case. Then the total 5-brane charge is zero, which implies that $`_i[D_i]=0`$ where $`[D_i]`$ denotes the class in $`H_2(X,𝐙)`$ of $`D_i`$. This implies that there is a three dimensional subspace of the Calabi-Yau, $`C`$, such that its boundary is

$$C=\underset{i}{}D_i$$

Then we can view $`C`$ as the “flux tube” for the D5-brane charges. Of course $`C`$ is not unique. However the difference of any two choices gives a closed 3-cycle in the Calabi-Yau, which corresponds to turning on an integer $`H`$-flux in the Calabi-Yau. So for a given configuration of $`H`$-fluxes in the bulk Calabi-Yau, we get a class of $`C`$’s, whose difference is homologically trivial. The fact that $`C`$ is a flux tube for D5 brane charge means that

$$H\alpha =_C\alpha $$

for any closed 3-form $`\alpha `$. Applying this to (2.1) we find

$$W=H\omega =_C\omega $$
$`(2.4)`$
where $`C`$ is a 3-chain with $`C=_iD_i`$. This formula was derived in the compact case, but the idea also applies to the non-compact case. In that case we do not need a net 5 brane charge being zero, as the flux can go to infinity. Put differently we can assume we have a non-compact $`C`$ by taking the boundary at infinity corresponding to “5-brane charge at infinity”. Thus the same formula still applies. More precisely, in that case we can view (2.4) as defining the superpotential up to an addition of a constant corresponding to how we fix the boundary condition at infinity \[18,,1,,2\].

What does this correspond to at the level of worldsheet computations? The $`D_i`$ correspond to charges coming from physical D5 branes as well as O5 planes carrying D5 brane charge. As far as the computations of the physical D5 branes they correspond to contributions from worldsheet geometry being a disk \[17,,19,,20,,1\] . As far as the contribution to the superpotential due to the O5 planes, this should come from non-orientable worldsheets. Based on the requisite R-charge, it is possible to show that they can only come from $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$.

To see this, note that for worldsheet geometries being an $`𝐒^\mathrm{𝟐}`$, in the Berkovits formalism, computation of F-type terms leads to 4 fermionic zero modes on the worldsheet which contribute to space-time action

$$d^4\theta F(t_i)$$

where $`F`$ is the prepotential of $`N=2`$ theory in $`d=4`$ and $`t_i`$ denote the vector multiplet. Moreover $`F`$ is the partition function of topological strings on Calabi-Yau where $`t_i`$ is identified with the moduli of Calabi-Yau. If we consider $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$ geometry instead, the same analysis leads to only two fermionic zero modes (two being gotten rid of by the orientifold operation). Thus we end up with an $`𝒩=1`$ superpotential term

$$d^2\theta W(t_i)$$

where $`t_i`$ denote chiral fields which survive from the corresponding vector multiplet under the orientifold operation. Here $`W(t_i)`$ corresponds to the partition function of topological strings on $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$. In this case, it corresponds to the partition function of topological B-model on $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$.

We can also ask how these worldsheet computations arise in the context of Type IIA orientifolds. By mirror symmetry, the worldsheets will arise in the same way: Namely there will be contribution to the superpotential corresponding to disk amplitudes (with boundary on D6 branes) and there will also be a contribution to the superpotential from $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$. The superpotential in the IIA string theory can be computed by the topological A-model theory (The B-model computation that is relevant for the IIB superpotential ends up being equivalent to that described above .). Recall that the topological A-model, roughly speaking, counts the number of holomorphic maps from the worldsheet to the target, weighted by $`e^A`$ where $`A`$ is the area of the image. In the context of non-orientable worldsheet geometries the same is true when we go to the covering theory. In other words we consider the worldsheet geometries with crosscaps to be the $`𝐙_\mathrm{𝟐}`$ quotients of an orientable Riemann surface and we count holomorphic maps from the covering worldsheet to the target, compatible with the simultaneous $`𝐙_\mathrm{𝟐}`$ actions on the worlsheet and the target (in mathematical terminology these are known as $`𝐙_\mathrm{𝟐}`$ equivariant maps). In this way, once we know the mirror geometry, we can use the Type IIB result given by (2.4) to obtain the non-trivial worldsheet instanton generated superpotential in the Type IIA setup. At the level of disk amplitudes this was already done in \[1,,2\]. Here we will be mostly interested in the contribution from the $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$ diagrams to the superpotential, which correspond, in the Type IIB setup, to the contribution of the O5 planes to the superpotential.

We now turn to examples.

3. Examples

In this section we present a number of examples corresponding to IIA and IIB superstrings on orientifolds of Calabi-Yau threefolds. We consider non-compact models, starting with examples of two distinct orientifolds of the resolved conifold in the IIA setup. We also study its type IIB mirror and use that to compute the contribution of worldsheet instantons of the IIA theory with the topology of $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$ to the superpotential. We then generalize the discussion to some other non-compact examples.

3.1. Anti-holomorphic orientifolds of $`O(1)+O(1)\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$

We start with an example of local A-model geometry, a Calabi-Yau manifold $`X`$ that is an $`O(1)+O(1)`$ bundle over $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$.

The Calabi-Yau sigma-model can be obtained as the theory on the Higgs branch of a linear sigma model in two dimensions with $`N=(2,2)`$ supersymmetry . The linear sigma model associated to $`X`$ has gauge group $`G=U(1)`$ and two chiral fields $`X_{1,2}`$ of charge $`+1`$ and two fields $`X_{3,4}`$ of charge $`1`$. The Higgs branch is the space of minima of D-term potential:

$$|X_1|^2+|X_2|^2|X_3|^2|X_4|^2=r,$$

modulo $`G`$ action. As described in  , $`X`$ can naturally be viewed as a $`T^3`$ fibration over a toric base. The size of the $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ is set by the Fayet-Illiopolous parameter $`r`$. This is complexified by the theta angle of the gauge theory to give the complexified Kahler parameter $`t=ri\theta `$ on which the A-model amplitudes depend.

Worldsheet orientation reversal is a symmetry of topological A-model when accompanied with an anti-holomorphic involution of the target space. This is because the A-type twist correlates the chirality of the fermions and the $`U(1)_R`$ charge in such a way that, e.g., $`\psi _{}^i,\psi _+^{\overline{i}}`$ have the same topological charge. Orientation reversal $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ exchanges left and right moving fermions so in the A-model, it must be accompanied with an anti-holomorphic involution $`I`$ of the target space. This is in accord with the Type IIA superstring interpretation discussed in the introduction.

As anti-holomorphic involutions we take the following possible actions on chiral superfields

$$I^\pm :(X_1,X_2,X_3,X_4)(\overline{X}_2,\pm \overline{X}_1,\overline{X}_4,\pm \overline{X}_3).$$
$`(3.1)`$
The involution clearly commutes with $`G`$, and can be extended to a symmetry of the linear-sigma model Lagrangian for any value of the complexified Kahler parameter $`t`$. If we define $`z=X_1/X_2`$, coordinatizing the $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$, then these involutions act

$$I^\pm :z\pm \frac{1}{\overline{z}}$$

These are the unique, up to diffeomorphism, involutions of $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$. $`I^{}`$ has no fixed points and the quotient of $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ by $`I^{}`$ is $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$. Therefore, $`I^{}`$ has no fixed points on the bundle over $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$. $`I^+`$ has a circle of fixed points in $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ given by $`|z|=1`$. This circle is naturally regarded as a copy of $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$. Its fixed points in the $`O(1)+O(1)`$ bundle over $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ are easily seen to be a bundle over $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$. The fibers are all copies of $`𝐑^\mathrm{𝟐}`$. Thus in this case we get an O6-plane $`L`$ which is this rank two real bundle over $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$. To be completely explicit, the fixed point set is given by

$$|X_1|^2=|X_2|^2,|X_3|^2=|X_4|^2,\underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}\theta _i=0.$$
$`(3.2)`$
and modulo $`G`$ action and the D-term equation. Here $`\theta _i`$ is the phase of $`X_i`$, $`X_i=|X_i|e^{i\theta _i}`$. By construction, the fixed point set must be a Lagrangian submanifold of the Calabi-Yau. In fact it is in the family of Lagrangians constructed in . There, a 1-dimensional moduli space of Lagrangians was found. This family is $`I^+`$-invariant at just one point - which is exactly the 3-submanifold $`L`$ described here. See fig 1.

There is an alternative description of both $`X`$ and the orientifold action in terms of coordinates invariant under complexified gauge group $`G_C=𝐂^{}`$. These are $`x_{13},x_{24},x_{14},x_{23}`$, where $`x_{ij}=X_iX_j`$, and they satisfy one constraint

$$x_{13}x_{24}=x_{14}x_{23},$$

which is the equation of the conifold.

Introducing a coordinate $`z=X_1/X_2`$

$$x_{14}=zx_{24},x_{13}=zx_{23},$$

solves $`x_{ij}=0`$, and defines transition functions of $`O(1)+O(1)𝐏^\mathrm{𝟏}`$, where $`z`$ is local coordinate on the $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ and $`x_{13},x_{14}`$ coordinates on fibers. The involution acts as The involution acts as $`I^\pm :(x_{14},x_{13},x_{24},x_{23})(\pm \overline{x}_{23},\overline{x}_{24},\overline{x}_{13},\pm \overline{x}_{14}),`$ or

$$I^\pm :(z,x_{13},x_{14})(\pm 1/\overline{z},\overline{x}_{14}/\overline{z},\pm \overline{x}_{13}/\overline{z}).$$

The involution $`I^{}`$ has no fixed points as noted before. The fixed point set for $`I^+`$ is $`|z|=1`$ and $`\overline{z}x_{14}=\overline{x}_{13}`$.

3.2. Mirror B-model geometry

Mirror symmetry exchanges the sign of the left moving $`U(1)_R`$ charge, so it maps the anti-holomorphic involution of the A-model into a holomorphic involution of the B-model. This is compatible with the target space interpretation where we expect for Type IIB that the orientifold operation will involve a holomorphic involution on the Calabi-Yau.

The mirror of $`O(1)+O(1)𝐏^\mathrm{𝟏}`$  is a Landau-Ginzburg theory in terms of four fields $`Y_i`$ that are constrained by

$$Y_1+Y_2Y_3Y_4=t,$$

and a superpotential

$$W=e^{Y_1}+e^{Y_2}+e^{Y_3}+e^{Y_4}.$$
$`(3.3)`$
The fields $`Y_i`$ are periodic, $`Y_iY_i+2\pi i`$. They are obtained  by dualization of the phases of linear sigma model fields $`X^i`$, and there is a relation

$$Re(Y_i)=|X_i|^2.$$
$`(3.4)`$
Above, $`t`$ is the complexified Kahler parameter of the A-model $`t=ri\theta `$.

At the level of the topological theory, the mirror can equivalently be thought of as a theory of variations of complex structures of a certain hypersurface $`Y`$  . The B-model has a sigma-model description based on

$$Y:xz=e^u+e^{uvt}+e^v+1.$$
$`(3.5)`$
Moreover the four terms on the right-hand side above arise from the four monomials in the superpotential. More precisely, equation (3.5) arises by writing $`Y_1=u+\lambda ,Y_2=u+v+t+\lambda ,Y_3=v+\lambda ,Y_4=\lambda `$. Choosing now projective coordinates gives the right-hand side of (3.3).

The anti-holomorphic involution maps $`|X_1|^2|X_2|^2`$ and $`|X_3|^2|X_4|^2`$, so the mirror map (3.4) implies that the mirror holomorphic involutions $`\widehat{I}^\pm `$ both act as

$$\widehat{I}^\pm :(Y_1,Y_2,Y_3,Y_4)(Y_2+i\pi ,Y_1+i\pi ,Y_4+i\pi ,Y_3+i\pi ).$$

More precisely, (3.4) and holomorphy fix the action up to additions of $`i\pi `$ . But $`\widehat{I}^\pm \mathrm{\Omega }`$ must be a symmetry of the theory, and for this the superpotential $`W`$ must be odd under $`\widehat{I}^\pm `$. This is because $`W`$ enters the Lagrangian of the Landau-Ginzburg theory as $`𝑑\theta ^+𝑑\theta ^{}W`$, and since $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ acts by exchanging superspace fermionic coordinates $`\theta ^+`$, and $`\theta ^{}`$, $`\widehat{I}^\pm `$ must take $`WW`$. From this we learn that the mirror involutions both act as

$$(x,z,e^u,e^v)(x,ze^v,e^{ut},e^v).$$

The action on $`x,z`$ follows from the projectivization of the superpotential–actually from this it follows that $`xzxze^v`$ and given the periodicity of $`v`$ we have to take either $`x`$ or $`z`$ to go to itself with an extra $`e^v`$ factor. The choice of sign on $`x,z`$ is not apriori determined. The choice made above turns out to be the correct one, as we shall see. The action on the other variables follows from the relation of the $`u,v`$ to the $`Y_i`$ and how the orientifold action acts on the $`Y_i`$.

The fixed point set (i.e. the IIB orientifold plane) is given by solutions to

$$x=x,z(1+e^v)=0,2ut=0,2v=0$$

which has only the two components $`x=0,v=i\pi ,u=t/2,t/2+i\pi ,`$ generically and these are complex curves parameterized by $`z`$. There is another solution when the manifold $`Y`$ becomes singular, at $`t=0`$, which is given by $`x=0,z=0,v=i\pi ,u=0`$. This corresponds to a new orientifold fixed plane at the conifold singularity. We will not need it for purposes of this paper.

To summarize, we have two orientifold five-planes that are two holomorphic curves parameterized by $`z`$, and located at

$$x=0,v=i\pi ,u=t/2andt/2+i\pi .$$

This is consistent with the results of  which showed that the D6 branes wrapping $`L`$ map to D5 branes wrapping holomorphic curve given by $`x=0`$, and a choice of a point on the Riemann surface $`0=e^u+e^{uvt}+e^v+1`$. This, in retrospect, justifies the choice of sign in the orientifold action on the $`x,z`$ we have made above.

3.3. Proposal for Mirrors

Note that two distinct orientifold actions on the A-model geometry are mirror to a single orientifold action in the B-model. However, to fully specify the theories with orientifolds we must decide on the signs of the corresponding cross-cap states. If there is an orientifold plane, the sign determines its RR-charge. In the Type IIA side, for each of $`I^+\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`I^{}\mathrm{\Omega }`$ there are two possibilities. For $`I^+\mathrm{\Omega }`$, in one theory $`L`$ is an $`O6^{}`$-plane, while it is $`O6^+`$ in the other. For $`I^{}\mathrm{\Omega }`$, there is no orientifold plane but still there are two possibilities. On the other hand, in the Type IIB side there are two O5-planes as noted above. Accordingly, there are four physically distinct possibilities corresponding to $`++`$,$``$,$`+`$ and $`+`$ charges.

We propose that the IIB orientifold with $`+`$ and $`+`$ charges are mirror to the two orientifolds of Type IIA by $`I^{}\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and that the $``$ and $`++`$ theories are respectively mirror to IIA with $`O6^{}`$ and $`O6^+`$. This is the only assignment of mirrors consistent with the total RR charges being the same in both theories. The total D5 charge of $``$ ($`++`$) is $`2`$ ($`+2`$) which is the total D6-brane charge of $`O6^{}`$ ($`O6^+`$). On the other hand, $`+`$ and $`+`$ theories both have zero total fivebrane charge which is mirror to the statement that the orientifold of IIA by $`I^{}\mathrm{\Omega }`$ has zero sixbrane charge. Note also that $`I^{}`$ acts on the circle $`|z|=1`$ as the shift by half period. It is known that the orientifold of $`S^1`$ by half-period shift is sent by T-duality to the orientifold of the dual $`S^1`$ with two fixed planes of the opposite signs . Our proposal is consistent with this fact.

3.4. Computation of space-time superpotential

As mentioned in section 2, the computation of the space-time superpotential for orientifolds of Calabi-Yau threefolds will involve the computation of topological string amplitudes with the topology of $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$. Moreover, if we add D-branes to this setup, there will be additional contributions to the superpotential which can be computed by evaluating the topological disk amplitudes as in . Here we will concentrate mainly on the contribution from $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$ to the superpotential as the disk amplitudes have been already well studied in the context of mirror symmetry \[1,,2\].

In the context of orientifolds of the A-model , the relevant maps for the $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$ worldsheet are holomorphic maps from $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ to Calabi-Yau which are $`𝐙_\mathrm{𝟐}`$-equivariant. Let $`z`$ denote the coordinates of the $`𝐏^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ in the target $`O(1)+O(1)`$ geometry and $`w`$ denote the coordinate of the $`𝐏^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ on the worldsheet. We are thus looking for maps $`z(w)`$ such that

$$z(1/\overline{w})=\pm 1/\overline{z}$$

where $`\pm `$ depends on which orientifold $`I^\pm `$ we are considering. Examples of such maps include $`z=w^{2n}`$ for $`I^+`$ and $`z=w^{2n+1}`$ for $`I^{}`$. It is not difficult to show that quite generally the parity of the degree of the map is correlated with $`\pm `$ choice in $`I^\pm `$ as the above representative maps suggest. Therefore for the $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$ amplitude one expects an infinite sum over odd or even degrees of maps depending on whether one is considering $`I^{}`$ or $`I^+`$. We will now see that this follows from the mirror description we have obtained.

Mirror symmetry implies the equivalence between topological A-model amplitudes on the Calabi-Yau and topological B-model amplitudes on the mirror. In particular, as noted in section 2, the computation of the superpotential corresponds to computing the integrals of the holomorphic 3-form (2.4) on 3-chains with boundaries given by D-brane charges. In the local models under consideration it was shown in  that this computation reduces to certain definite integrals (of the Abel-Jacobi map) on the Riemman surface

$$0=e^u+e^v+e^{uvt}+1.$$

The integral is of the form $`_\gamma \lambda `$ where $`\lambda `$ is a particular one form $`vdu`$ and $`\gamma =`$ points where the D5 brane charges are localized on the Riemann surface, including the sign and multiplicity of the D5 brane charge. This charge can arise from physical D5 branes or O5 planes carrying D5 brane charge. In other words, the integral over the three chain $`C`$ reduces to an integral over the 1-chain $`\gamma `$ on the Riemann surface.

As discussed above, the mirror of $`I^+`$ orientifold are two $`O5`$ planes of the same charge, and the mirror of $`I^{}`$ orientifold are two $`O5`$ planes of opposite charge. The contribution of the orientifold $`++`$ and $`+`$ five planes to the superpotential is thus

$$W=_u^{}^{u=t/2}v(u)𝑑u\pm _u^{}^{u=t/2+i\pi }v(u)𝑑u.$$

where we have put $`\pm `$ on the second term because the choice of the $`D5`$ brane charge on the second orientifold plane depends on whether we are considering $`I^\pm `$. Note that each O5 plane carries $`\pm 1`$ unit of D5 brane charge. The above formula gives $`W`$ up to a choice of an arbitrary base point $`u^{}`$ on the Riemman surface. The need to pick $`u^{}`$ is due to non-compactness of the D-brane, and corresponds to the boundary condition at infinity  . Explicitly,

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill W& =_u^{}^{t/2}\mathrm{log}\frac{1e^{ut}}{1e^u}du\pm _u^{}^{t/2+i\pi }\mathrm{log}\frac{1e^{ut}}{1e^u}du\hfill \\ & =2\underset{n=1}{}\{1\pm (1)^n\}\frac{e^{nt/2}}{n^2}\hfill \end{array}.$$
$`(3.6)`$
The term in the sum weighted by $`e^{nt/2}`$ in the language of topological A-model comes from a map that is an $`n`$-fold cover of $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$, as the action of the instanton wrapping $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}/𝐙_\mathrm{𝟐}`$ once is one half the size of the $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ in the covering space. Moreover we see that for $`I^+`$ we get contributions only from even degree whereas for $`I^{}`$ we get contributions only from odd degrees, as was expected.

In  it is predicted that the A-model amplitudes coming from unorientable worldsheets have integrality properties analogous to A-model amplitudes on Riemman surfaces with boundaries. The two factors above then correspond to two BPS bound states of D2 branes wrapping the $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ in the covering space and “ending” on the orientifold, in the sense that due to orientifolding, they propagate only in two dimensions. Note that their contributions to the partition function are exchanged, up to an overall sign, by $`tt+2\pi i`$. This has the interpretation  that the two states differ by $`1/2`$ unit of $`D0`$ brane charge. This is so as the sum over $`n`$ corresponds to existence of a bound state with $`n`$ D0 branes for every primitive BPS state. Shifting $`t`$ by $`2\pi `$ corresponds to shifting the $`B`$ field through the $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ by an amount corresponding to $`1`$ unit of $`D0`$ brane.

Fig.1: The mirror orientifold action has two fixed points on the Riemman surface $`e^u+e^v+e^{t+uv}+1=0`$, at $`u=t/2`$ and $`u=t/2+i\pi `$. This corresponds to orientifold five-planes in the full geometry. The possibilities for charge assignments – equal or opposite charges – correspond to different orientifold actions in the A-model.

We can also add D6 branes to the A-model in which case the disk amplitude will also be non-vanishing. We can compute this as in  ,

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill W_{D5branes}& =_u^{}^ulog\frac{1e^{ut}}{1e^u}𝑑u+_u^{}^{ut}log\frac{1e^{ut}}{1e^u}𝑑u\hfill \\ & =2\underset{n=1}{}\{\frac{e^{nu}}{n^2}+\frac{e^{n(tu)}}{n^2}\}\hfill \end{array}$$
$`(3.7)`$
The two contributions correspond to a single primitive disk ending on the D6 brane and the image of this under $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ (see figure 2).

Fig.2: The orientifold of IIA on $`O(1)+O(1)𝐏^\mathrm{𝟏}`$. The orientifold 6-plane has topology $`C\times S^1`$, and projects to a line in the toric base. Superpotential receives contribution from unoriented maps to the $`\mathrm{𝐂𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟏}`$. In presence of additional D6 brane and its image, superpotential receives contributions from the disk as well.

Note that the result for $`I^{}`$ has been obtained previously by a different method . Namely, this orientifold of type IIA string theory has been considered previously in the context of duality with large $`N`$ $`SO`$ and $`Sp`$ Chern Simons theory on $`S^3`$ , that generalized the original large $`N`$ conjecture of  for unitary groups. In this case, the free-energy of the Chern-Simons theory

$$F_{SO,Sp}(g_s,t)=\pm \frac{1}{2}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}[1(1)^n]\frac{e^{nt/2}}{2nsin(ng_s/2)}+\frac{1}{2}\underset{n=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{e^{nt}}{n[2sin(ng_s/2)]^2}$$
$`(3.8)`$
provides prediction for all genus amplitudes of the $`O(1)+O(1)𝐏^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ orientifold. The first term in the above expression was interpreted in  as corresponding to contributions of all non-orientable Riemann surfaces with a single crosscap, as only odd powers of $`g_s`$ appear. Note that $`\chi _{\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}}=1`$ and that three crosscaps can be traded for a handle with a single crosscap. For example, the partition function $`F_{g=0,c=1}`$ of the $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$ diagram is the coefficient of $`g_s^1`$ and is easily seen to agree with the expression we obtained above using mirror symmetry, up to over-all normalization. The second term, on the other hand, corresponds to oriented maps, and in the superstring language corresponds to superpotential like terms generated from $`𝒩=2`$ amplitudes by turning on RR flux, and is the $`U(N)`$ Chern-Simons amplitude, up to normalization, as discussed in . It would be interesting to generalize the mirror symmetry methods to also derive these higher genus predictions of large $`N`$ duality for Chern-Simons theory.

4. Other Examples

It is easy to give more examples along the lines we have discussed, which involve more intricate contributions to the superpotential. Orientifold seven-planes have vanishing superpotentials, and by mirror symmetry the disk amplitude of D6 branes that are two dimensional in the toric base vanishes as well. To have a non-vanishing superpotential, the Type IIB theory must have D5 brane charge, although this is only a necessary condition. Thus we consider here examples whose mirror on the type IIB side involve the orientifold operation $`\omega \omega `$. Moreover, analogous to what was found in \[1,,2\], it is only the “half”-orientifolds – those whose fixed point set has topology of $`R^2`$ in the B-model, that give non-zero superpotential in type IIB string theory.

Since the setup is very similar to what we have done above, we limit our presentation to showing on the figures in two examples how the orientifold operation acts on the toric base. In figure 3, the example depicts a case where there is no superpotential generated, and figure 4 depicts a case where there is a superpotential generated (as there is “half”-orientifold planes).

Fig.3: The orientifold of IIA on $`O(K)𝐏^\mathrm{𝟏}\times 𝐏^\mathrm{𝟏}`$ that acts as $`I\mathrm{\Omega }:(|z_1|,|z_2|)(1/|z_1|,1/|z_2|)`$. The orientifold does not generate superpotential and this is related to the fact the orientifold action projected to the base, fixes a line meeting the boundary at a point in the interior.

Fig.4: The orientifold of IIA that does generate superpotential. This has $`G=U(1)^5`$. In addition to the superpotential, $`𝐙_\mathrm{𝟐}`$ action projects out $`2`$ out of five complexified Kahler moduli.

It goes without saying that all these constructions corresponding to type IIA orientifolds can also be lifted up to M-theory involving $`G_2`$ holonomy metrics, possibly with singularities in geometry. It is known that the simple $`O6^{}`$ lifts up to smooth Atiyah-Hitchin manifold  while $`O6^+`$ lifts to a D4-singularity that is frozen by a discrete flux \[24,,27\]. D6-branes may add more singularity of A and D-types. In this context both the disc instanton and the $`\mathrm{𝐑𝐏}^\mathrm{𝟐}`$ instanton correspond to oriented Eulidean M2 brane instantons.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank I. Brunner and R. Myers for discussions. B.A. is grateful to Harvard University, and M.A. and C.V. to Rutgers University where some of this work was done. The research of M.A., K.H. and C.V. is supported in part by NSF grants PHY-9802709 and DMS 0074329.

References

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text:
# New possible source of huge neutrino bursts

## Abstract

It is shown that primordial black holes (PBHs) of masses $`M5\times 10^{14}g`$ are able to absorb white dwarfs (WD) completely for the time of their existence, giving rise to formation of black holes of WD mases. The WD absorption is accompanied by up to $`10^{52}erg`$ neutrino bursts which could both considerably contribute to the cosmic neutrino flux and open up a new way of PBHs detection, especially effective in placing new constraints on abundance of nonevaporating PBHs with masses $`M10^{15}g`$.

PBHs could have formed in the early universe zel ; haw1  from initial inhomogeneities, topological defects (strings, bubbles) or at cosmological phase transitions. PBHs provide a unique probe of the Big Bang and even their non-existence gives vital cosmological information car1 ; khl ; nov .

The Hawking radiation haw2  allows to set up severe constraints on the PBH abundance. In particular, the radiation of all the evaporated PBHs could have given its contribution to the diffuse cosmic flux car2 ; hal ; bug . Very stringent bound has been obtained from the absence of a detectable diffuse flux of 100 MeV photons car2 . It was claimed, however, that these bounds can be improved using available data on diffuse neutrino flux hal ; bug .

Another way of PBHs search consists in attempts to detect gamma car2  or neutrino hal  bursts accompanying the final stage of PBH evaporation. The PBHs which complete their evaporation at present have had the initial mass $`M_0`$ equal to the critical one (Hawking mass) $`M_{}5\times 10^{14}g`$. For all the time of their evaporation such PBHs could emit about $`M_{}c^25\times 10^{35}erg`$, where $`c`$ is the speed of light, what is much less, for example, than the energy of supernova explosion reaching $`3\times 10^{53}erg`$. The comparatively low energy release undoubtedly constrains the search possibilities of the most intensively evaporating PBHs and makes utterly ineffective that of weakly evaporating PBHs with $`MM_0M_{}`$, the constraints on which are more than ten orders lower than that on PBHs with $`M_0M_{}`$ car1 ; khl ; nov .

We would like to suggest here an alternative method of PBHs search, free of this deficiency. Namely, we will show that being trapped inside a white dwarf (WD) a PBH of mass $`M_0M_{}`$ can completely absorb it initiating a huge neutrino burst with the energy reaching $`10^{52}erg`$.

First, we will consider the simplest case of nonrotating cool WD and apply the general relativistic theory of spherical, steady-state, adiabatic accretion of continuous Pascal liquid sha ; mic  to show that the time of a complete WD absorption by a Schwarzschild PBH can be less than the age of the universe. A special consideration has shown that the heating caused by PBH Hawking radiation, WD matter compression and neutronization does not violate the high degeneracy of WD matter. The mass-energy density $`E`$ and pressure $`P`$ of the degenerate WD matter are given by the equations sha ; mic ; lan

$`E(n)=\mu c^2n+{\displaystyle \frac{m_e^4c^5}{8\pi ^2\mathrm{}^3}}[x(2x^2+1)\sqrt{1+x^2}`$
$`\text{Arsh}x]{\displaystyle \frac{3}{4}}\alpha ^{}m_e^2c^3x,`$ (1)
$$P(n)=n\frac{dE}{dn}E(n),$$
(2)
where $`n`$ is the electron number density,

$$x=x(n)=\frac{p_F(n)}{m_ec}$$
(3)
is the electron Fermi momentum $`p_F(n)=(3\pi ^2n)^{1/3}\mathrm{}`$ expressed in $`m_ec`$ units, $`m_e`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$ are the electron mass and the Planck constant, respectively. $`\mu `$ is the WD matter mass which falls at one electron. We will consider the most widespread case of carbon WDs for which $`\mu 2m_n`$, where $`m_n`$ is the nucleon mass. The term of Eq.(1) containing the small parameter

$$\alpha ^{}=\frac{4}{5}\left(\frac{3}{2\pi }\right)^{1/3}\alpha Z^{2/3}1,$$
(4)
where $`\alpha 1/137`$ and $`Z`$ is the atomic number, describes the Coulomb correction sha  which is principally important in the case of low WD density.

The spherical, steady-state accretion flow of degenerate Fermi gas is described by the radial component of 4-velocity $`u`$ and the electron number density $`n`$. Both of them depend only on the radial Schwarzschild coordinate measured from the PBH center and obey sha ; mic  the electron conservation equation

$$\dot{M}=4\pi \mu n(r)cu(r)r^2=\text{const}$$
(5)
which gives the rest mass accretion rate as well as the relativistic Bernoulli equation

$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{E(n)+P(n)}{\mu c^2n}}\right)^2\left(1+u^2{\displaystyle \frac{r_g}{r}}\right)`$
$`=\left({\displaystyle \frac{E(n_0)+P(n_0)}{\mu c^2n_0}}\right)^2=\text{const}.`$ (6)
containing the gravitational radius $`r_g=2GM/c^21.5(M/10^{15}g)10^{15}m`$ where $`G`$ is the Newton’s constant. The steady-state accretion assumes that $`nn_0=\text{const}`$ at $`r\mathrm{}`$. The constant signs in Eqs. (5) and (6) reflect the independence on $`r`$.

The basic point of the theory sha ; mic  consists in existence of a special (sonic) point $`r=r_s`$ at which the relations

$$u_s^2=u^2(r_s)=\frac{a_s^2}{1+3a_s^2}=\frac{r_g}{4r_s}$$
(7)
hold where $`a_s=a(r_s)`$ is the sound speed $`a=(dP/dE)^{1/2}`$ expressed in $`c`$ units and taken at $`r=r_s`$. Using the Emden solution sha ; lan  for the WD density distribution one can make sure that, if a PBH with mass $`M`$ is situated at the WD center, the uniformity condition in the essential accretion region $`rr_s`$ is fulfilled at $`M10^3M_{WD}`$ where $`M_{WD}`$ is the WD mass. The electron number density $`n_0`$ in Eq. (6) can be considered as that at the WD center in this case.

Substituting Eqs. (1), (2) and (7) into Eq. (6) one obtains in the first order with respect to $`m_e/\mu 2.74\times 10^4`$ the equation

$$\frac{2+x_s^2}{\sqrt{1+x_s^2}}\alpha ^{}x_s=2\left(\sqrt{1+x_0^2}\alpha ^{}x_0\right)$$
(8)
connecting $`x_s=x(n(r_s))`$ with $`x_0=x(n_0)`$. Eq. (8) demonstrates that the Coulomb correction is indeed essential at the density $`\rho =E/c^2100g/cm^3`$ giving rise to the existence of two solutions of Eq. (8) at $`x_0<2\alpha ^{}`$ ($`\alpha ^{}0.015`$ at $`Z=6`$). However here we will consider the usual case of much denser WDs in which $`x_02\alpha ^{}`$ and Eq. (8) has a single solution taking the simple form

$$x_s2x_0+\frac{1}{4(1\alpha ^{})x_0}+O\left(\frac{1}{x_{0}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}}\right)$$
(9)
or $`\rho (r_s)8\rho _0`$ in the ultrarelativistic limit of $`x_01`$, $`\rho _02\times 10^6g/cm^3`$. Eqs. (5) and (6) also allow one to calculate the parameter (3) maximum value

$$x_{max}=x(r_g)\frac{(1+x_s^2)^{1/4}}{2^{4/3}}\left(\frac{3\mu }{m_e}\right)^{1/2}42(1+x_s^2)^{1/4}$$
(10)
at $`r=r_g`$. The corresponding Fermi energy $`\epsilon _F(r_g)m_ecx(r_g)`$ reaches $`20100MeV`$.

Substituting $`x_s`$ into Eq. (7) one finds the values $`n(r_s)`$, $`r_s`$ and $`u(r_s)`$ allowing to calculate the right hand side of Eq. (5) and to obtain the law

$$M(t)=\frac{M_0}{1t/T_{abs}}$$
(11)
of the PBH accretion mass growth starting from its initial value $`M_0=M(0)`$ and characterized by the time

$`T_{abs}={\displaystyle \frac{\pi \mathrm{}^3}{\sqrt{3}G^2\mu ^{5/2}m_e^{3/2}M_0}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{1+x_s^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha ^{}}{x_s}}\right)^{3/2}`$
$`={\displaystyle \frac{27}{(M_0/10^{15}g)}}({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{1+x_s^2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha ^{}}{x_s}})^{3/2}Gyr.`$ (12)
which can be considered as that of WD absorption. It should be emphasized that though Eq. (11) loses its applicability at $`M(t)10^3M_{WD}`$, the accuracy of the estimate (12) is quite high since Eq. (11) does not describe only a very small part $`\mathrm{\Delta }t/T_{abs}=M_0/(10^3M_{WD})`$ ($`10^{16}`$-th part at $`M_0M_{}`$) of the time (12). Thus, the approach sha ; mic  has led us to a very precise estimate of the time of WD absorption by a PBH.

Using the relation (8) of $`x_s`$ with $`x_0=x(n_0)`$ one can calculate the time (12) dependence on the WD central density $`\rho _0=E(n_0)/c^2`$. Fig. 1 demonstrates that a PBH with initial mass $`M_0=10^{15}g`$ can absorb relativistic ($`\rho _010^6g/cm^3`$) WDs for several $`Gyrs`$. Since $`T_{abs}M_0^1`$, PBHs with initial masses $`M_010^{17}g`$ will absorb WDs of any density for the time of their existence. The absorption process could give rise to formation of black holes of WDs masses which can not form in the star collapse process. Since WDs are quite abundant their absorption by PBHs could, in principle, be more productive source of star-mass black holes than the star collapse.

A WD absorption by a PBH would be observed as its sudden disappearance accompanied by a moderate light ($`x`$-ray) flash. Such a disappearance, however, is difficult to observe at distances exceeding $`100ps`$. We will show now that a WD absorption by a PBH is accompanied by a huge neutrino burst detectable at much longer distances.

Neutrinos will be produced in neutronization reactions ($`{}_{}{}^{12}C+e^{}`$$``$$`{}_{}{}^{12}B+\nu `$, $`{}_{}{}^{12}B+e^{}`$$``$$`{}_{}{}^{12}Be+\nu `$ in carbon WDs sha ) in the region with electron Fermi energy $`\epsilon _F(r)=m_ec^2\sqrt{1+x^2(r)}`$ exceeding the neutronization threshold energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\text{Z}`$ ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_\text{C}=13.88MeV`$, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\text{B}=12.17MeV`$). Since $`\epsilon _F(r_g)`$ exceeds $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\text{C}`$ considerably at any $`x_0`$ and $`\rho _0`$ (see Eqs. (8) and (10)) a PBH will give rise to the neutronization process in any carbon WD.

Both the local neutronization probability of a nucleus with atomic number $`Z`$ sha

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }_\text{Z}=\mathrm{\Gamma }_\text{Z}(\epsilon _F(r))=\frac{ln2}{T_{\text{Z-1}}}\frac{f(\mathrm{\Delta }_\text{Z},\epsilon _F)}{f(m_ec^2,\mathrm{\Delta }_\text{Z})},$$
(13)
where

$`f(\epsilon _1,\epsilon _2)={\displaystyle _{\epsilon _1}^{\epsilon _2}}f^{}𝑑\epsilon ,`$
$`f^{}=\epsilon (\epsilon ^2m_e^2c^4)^{1/2}(\epsilon \mathrm{\Delta }_\text{Z})^2,`$ (14)
and the accompanying neutrino emission intensity

$`I_\nu ^\text{Z}=I_\nu ^\text{Z}(\epsilon _F(r))={\displaystyle \frac{ln2}{T_{\text{Z-1}}f(m_ec^2,\mathrm{\Delta }_\text{Z})}}`$
$`\times {\displaystyle _{\mathrm{\Delta }_\text{Z}}^{\epsilon _F}}(\epsilon \mathrm{\Delta }_\text{Z})f^{}d\epsilon .`$ (15)
are determined by the local electron number density $`n(r)`$, the threshold energy $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\text{Z}`$ and the half-life $`T_{\text{Z-1}}`$ of the daughter nucleus ($`T_\text{B}=20.20ms`$, $`T_{\text{Be}}=21.31ms`$).

Neutronization begins at the ”neutronization radius” $`r_n>r_g`$ at which $`\epsilon _F(n(r_n))=\mathrm{\Delta }_\text{C}`$ and $`\rho _n=E(n(r_n))/c^2`$ $`=3.90\times 10^{10}g/cm^3`$ sha . According to Eq. (9) one has $`r_n=r_s`$ at the central WD density $`\rho _0\rho _n/84.90\times 10^9g/cm^3`$. Since most of WDs have much smaller ones let us assume that $`r_nr_s`$. The WD matter motion in the neutronization region $`r_g<r<r_n`$ is determined in this case rather by gravity than by pressure and is well described by the free fall equation

$$u(r)=\sqrt{r_g/r}$$
(16)
written in Lagrangian coordinates. Eq. (16) allows both to introduce a proper time $`\tau (r)=_r^{r_n}𝑑r/[cu(r)]`$, $`\tau (r_n)=0`$, of elementary volume motion from $`r_n`$ to $`r`$ and to write the electron number conservation equation $`r^2nu=\text{const}`$, which holds in neglect of electron absorption, in the form

$$x(r)=x_{max}\sqrt{r_g/r}.$$
(17)
Eqs. (8) and (10) obtained in the model of steady-state accretion sha ; mic  fail to describe the accretion rate saturation accompanied by the most intense neutrino emission. The last comes from the region $`rr_{max}`$ giving the main contribution to the integral determining the WD mass. According to the Emden solution for ultrarelativistic Fermi gas sha ; lan  $`r_{max}`$ equals $`0.237R_{WD}`$, where $`R_{WD}`$ is the WD radius. The WD matter with the initial density $`\rho (r_{max})=0.312\rho _0`$ experiences the attraction of the mass $`0.37M_{WD}`$. Though this mass is contracted in the process of absorption by a PBH it determines the constant value of $`r_g`$ in Eqs. (16) and (17) describing the final stage of accretion accompanied by neutronization. The nonuniformity of the region $`rr_{max}`$ giving the main contribution to the neutrino emission will be taken into consideration by using $`\rho (r_{max})`$ instead of $`\rho _0`$ in Eqs. (8) and (10) determining the $`x_{max}`$ value.

Let us introduce the $`C`$, $`B`$ and $`Be`$ nuclei fractions normalized by the equality $`c_\text{C}+c_\text{B}+c_{\text{Be}}=1`$ and satisfying the initial conditions $`c_\text{C}(0)=1`$, $`c_\text{B}(0)=c_{\text{Be}}(0)=0`$ at the moment $`\tau (r_n)=0`$ of passage through the neutronization radius. The first two fractions obey the equations

$`dc_\text{C}/d\tau =\mathrm{\Gamma }_\text{C}c_\text{C}`$
$`dc_\text{B}/d\tau =\mathrm{\Gamma }_\text{C}c_\text{C}\mathrm{\Gamma }_\text{B}c_\text{B}.`$ (18)
Eqs. (16) and (17) allow to pass to the variable $`r`$ in Eqs. (13) and (18) and easily integrate the last yielding the analytical expressions for $`c_\text{C}(r)`$ and $`c_\text{B}(r)`$, as well as for both the average neutrino number

$$<N_\nu >=22c_\text{C}(r_g)c_\text{B}(r_g)$$
(19)
which falls at one carbon nucleus and the average neutrino energy

$`<\epsilon _\nu >={\displaystyle \frac{1}{<N_\nu >}}{\displaystyle _{r_g}^{r_n}}[I_\nu ^\text{C}(r)c_\text{C}(r)`$
$`+I_\nu ^\text{B}(r)c_\text{B}(r)]{\displaystyle \frac{dr}{cu(r)}}.`$ (20)
The $`<N_\nu >`$ and $`<\epsilon _\nu >`$ dependencies on the central WD density $`\rho _0`$ are given, respectively, on Figs. 2(a) and (b) along with the same dependencies evaluated using a more sophisticated model taking into account the electron absorption, the pressure influence on accreting matter motion and the nonequilibrium heating of the last which accompanies the neutronization process bys . The negligible difference in predictions of these two models justifies the undertaken consideration of the simpler one.

Fig. 2(a) demonstrates the possibility of complete carbon and subsequent boron neutronization. The average and maximum neutrino energies can reach 30 (see Fig. 2(b)) and $`100MeV`$ (see Eqs. (9) and (10)), respectively. The dependence of the energy

$$E_\nu =\frac{M_{WD}}{Z\mu }<N_\nu ><\epsilon _\nu >$$
(21)
of the neutrino burst accompanying the total WD absorption on the central WD density is given on Fig. 2(c) demonstrating that $`E_\nu `$ can exceed $`10^{52}erg`$. The neutrino burst duration will not considerably exceed the free fall time, since neutrino will travel through the WD matter nearly freely. The huge neutrino flux, nevertheless, will heat the WD matter up to $`T10^7K`$ and, possibly, initiate the nuclear burning ger  in the most dense WDs. These processes will be considered elsewhere.

Thus, we have demonstrated that the energy of a purely neutrino burst accompanying a WD absorption by a PBH is only a few orders less than that of a neutrino-antineutrino burst accompanying a supernova explosion kla . If such a burst occurs at the typical distance of $`10kps`$ it will cause up to 50 events of $`\nu e`$ scattering in the Super-Kamiokande detector and, thus, can be detected with confidence. In fact, it looks feasible to design a detector able to detect most of the predicted neutrino bursts in our Galaxy hal ; kla . A possible frequency of these bursts depends on such uncertain factors as PBH abundance and mass distribution as well as on the probability of PBHs presence in WDs or capture by them. Taking into consideration the high WDs abundance in the Galaxy and assuming more or less uniform distribution of the moments of WDs complete absorption in time, optimistically one can hypothesize that the predicted neutrino bursts can be detected nearly every year.

According to Ref. bug  PBHs with masses $`M_0M_{}`$ contribute mostly to the diffuse neutrino flux, the study of which already allows to set up restrictions on the power of the ”blue” spectrum of initial density fluctuations. The possibility of intensive neutrino emission by WDs being absorbed by PBHs radically change this picture. First, since the energy (21) 11-16 orders exceeds the rest energy $`M_{}c^2`$, even a small number of PBHs absorbing most weakly rotating WDs can improve the bounds on PBHs absence by many orders. Second, since the heavier PBHs absorb WDs more readily, the diffuse neutrino flux, in fact, allows to set up the most stringent bounds on the $`nonevaporating`$ PBHs with masses $`M_0M_{}`$.

Thus, we have demonstrated that PBHs can absorb WDs for the time of their existence giving rise to formation of black holes of WD’s masses. The WDs absorption is accompanied by the neutrino bursts which can be detected directly and could have given a considerable contribution to the diffuse neutrino flux. Most considerably these neutrino bursts widen the possibilities of search of nonevaporating PBHs with masses $`M_010^{15}g`$.

The authors would like to thank Professor M. Ju. Khlopov and the members of his seminar for valuable discussion and Professor V. G. Baryshevsky for support of our work.


text:
# Acknowledgements.

## Acknowledgements.

SBE wishes to acknowledge the ongoing financial support of V.R. (Swedish Natural Sciences Research Council).


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

Models of gravity in two dimensions have been largely studied in recent years as toy models addressing issues that are too complex to be faced directly in four dimensions. However, the dynamics of two-dimensional gravity is rather different from its four-dimensional counterpart, since the Einstein-Hilbert action is a topological invariant in two dimensions and hence gives rise to trivial field equations. In order to derive the field equations from an action principle it is then necessary either to resort to higher-derivative theories  or to introduce an auxiliary scalar field $`\eta `$ (which in the following will be called dilaton) . This field may be interpreted as the inverse of a spacetime-dependent gravitational coupling constant, and hence, as has been remarked in , cannot be ignored in the discussion of the spacetime structure. In particular, its zeroes should be regarded as true physical singularities, since the gravitational force blows up there.

One of the main topics in the theory of gravitation is the study of cosmological models. Recently this subject has received a special attention also in the context of the investigation of gravitational entropy bounds , and their relation to the holographic principle . In  this problem has been addressed in a two-dimensional setting, using a Jackiw-Teitelboim action. It appears therefore useful to examine more closely the cosmology of two-dimensional models.

Actually, classical two-dimensional cosmology, which also emerges as a limiting case of string cosmology , has been studied in detail only in the context of a model where the curvature scalar is proportional to the trace of the energy-momentum tensor111Curiously, more attention has been devoted to two-dimensional quantum cosmology . . Although this model can be derived from a dilaton-gravity action , the role of the dilaton field has been neglected in these investigations. However, in our opinion its role is essential in the interpretation of the theory, since, as remarked above, in a cosmological context the dilaton can be considered as a time-varying Newton constant.

In the following we shall consider the simplest dilaton-gravity model in two dimensions, namely that of Jackiw and Teitelboim . Its specificity is that its action does not contain any kinetic energy term for the dilaton. Nevertheless, it can be related to a large class of equivalent models by conformal transformations .

The JT action for gravity coupled to matter reads:

$$I=d^2x\sqrt{g}\left(\eta \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{16\pi G}+L_M\right),$$
(1)
where $``$ is the curvature scalar, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is a cosmological constant and $`G`$ is the gravitational coupling constant, which is dimensionless and may be absorbed in a redefinition of $`\eta `$. $`L_M`$ is the action of two-dimensional matter. In analogy with the four-dimensional case, this can be taken to be proportional to $`\rho `$, with $`\rho `$ the mass density. However, the coupling of the matter with the dilaton $`\eta `$ is not fixed a priori. In fact, one may choose $`L_M=\eta ^\alpha \rho `$, for any $`\alpha `$, giving rise to a large variety of inequivalent models. In the following we shall consider the two simplest possibilities: $`\alpha =0`$ (minimal coupling) and $`\alpha =1`$ (conformal coupling). These are the most interesting for physics since are the closest to those employed in higher dimensions.

## 2 Minimally coupled matter

In this section, we consider the case of minimally coupled matter. This is the most straightforward generalization of the higher dimensional formalism. However, as we shall see, the metric decouples from matter in this model.

The field equations can be obtained by varying the action (1), with $`L_M=\rho `$. As in general relativity, in order to obtain the correct energy-momentum tensor the matter action must be subjected to a constrained variation . The field equation then read

$`=\mathrm{\Lambda },`$ (2)
$`(_\mu _\nu g_{\mu \nu }^2)\eta +{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}}g_{\mu \nu }\eta =8\pi GT_{\mu \nu },`$ (3)
with $`T_{\mu \nu }=pg_{\mu \nu }+(\rho +p)u_\mu u_\nu `$. The conservation law for the energy-momentum tensor, $`^\mu T_{\mu \nu }=0`$, can be obtained combining the covariant derivative of (3) with (2) and recalling that in two dimensions $`[^\mu ,_\nu ]A_\mu =\frac{1}{2}A_\nu `$, for any $`A_\mu `$.

It is evident from the field equations that in this model the only dependence on the matter content is through the dilaton, while the metric function is unaffected and depends only on the value of the cosmological constant. This is in accordance with our interpretation of the dilaton as a fundamental field of the theory.

We look for a solution of the form

$$ds^2=dt^2+R^2(t)dr^2,\eta =\eta (t),$$
(4)
The coordinate $`r`$ can be either compact, $`0r2\pi `$, or non-compact. This choice does not affect the field equations, that take the form

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\ddot{R}}{R}}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}},`$ (5)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{R}}{R}}\dot{\eta }={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}}\eta +8\pi G\rho ,`$ (6)
$`\ddot{\eta }={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}}\eta 8\pi Gp.`$ (7)
Eq. (5) admits the first integral

$$\dot{R}^2\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}R^2=a,$$
(8)
that can be immediately integrated to yield $`R`$. Only two of the field equations are independent. In fact, differentiating (6) and combining with (5) and (7), one obtains the energy-momentum conservation law

$$\dot{\rho }=(p+\rho )\dot{R}/R.$$
(9)
For a perfect fluid, the equation of state is $`p=\gamma \rho `$, with $`0\gamma 1`$, where $`\gamma =0`$ for dust and $`\gamma =1`$ for radiation. Substituting in (9) and integrating, one obtains

$$\rho R^{1+\gamma }=M/2\pi ,$$
(10)
with $`M`$ an integration constant. Substituting again in (6), one has

$$\dot{R}\dot{\eta }\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}R\eta =4GMR^\gamma ,$$
(11)
from which one can easily determine $`\eta `$. We distinguish three cases: 1) $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, 2) $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$, 3) $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$.

### 2.1 $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$

There are two possible solutions: either both $`R`$ and $`\eta `$ are constant, or $`R=At`$, with $`A=\sqrt{a}`$ and222 Here and in the following we choose the origin of time so that it simplifies the expression of the solutions.

$`\eta ={\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{A^{1+\gamma }}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{t^{1\gamma }}{1\gamma }}b\right)`$ $`\mathrm{if}\gamma 1,`$
$`\eta ={\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{A^2}}(\mathrm{log}tb)`$ $`\mathrm{if}\gamma =1,`$
with $`b`$ an integration constant. In both cases the spacetime is flat. However, if $`b>0`$, the time-dependent solutions have a zero of the dilaton at $`t_0=[(1\gamma )b]^{1/(1\gamma )}`$, which we interpret as an initial singularity. These solutions can therefore be viewed as expanding universes that begin at time $`t_0`$ with finite size $`At_0`$.

### 2.2 $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$

Integrating (8), one obtains

$$R=A\mathrm{sin}\lambda t,$$

where $`\lambda =\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }/2}`$, $`A=\sqrt{a}/\lambda `$. From (11), one can write down $`\eta `$ in terms of hypergeometric functions,

$$\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{cos}\lambda t+\frac{4GM}{A^{1+\gamma }\lambda ^2}\mathrm{F}\left(\frac{1}{2},\frac{1+\gamma }{2},\frac{1}{2},\mathrm{cos}^2\lambda t\right),$$

with $`\eta _0`$ an integration constant. In particular,

$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{cos}\lambda t+{\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{A\lambda ^2}}\mathrm{sin}\lambda t`$ $`\mathrm{if}\gamma =0,`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{cos}\lambda t+{\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{A^2\lambda ^2}}\left(1+\mathrm{cos}\lambda t\mathrm{log}\mathrm{tan}{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda t}{2}}\right)`$ $`\mathrm{if}\gamma =1.`$
The metric is that of anti-de Sitter spacetime and describes periodic solutions. However, for any $`\gamma `$, there is a range of values of $`\eta _0`$ for which the dilaton has a zero (corresponding to a physical singularity) at a finite time $`t=t_0`$. Such solutions can then be interpreted as universes which begin expanding with finite initial size at $`t_0`$ and then recollapse. Also solutions with both an initial and a final singularity of dilatonic type may occur for some values of the parameters.

### 2.3 $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$

In this case, the integration of (8) yields different results depending on the sign of $`a`$. Defining $`\lambda =\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }/2}`$, the metric function can assume three qualitatively different forms:

$`a<0`$ $`R=A\mathrm{cosh}\lambda t,`$
$`a=0`$ $`R=A\mathrm{e}^{\lambda t},`$
$`a>0`$ $`R=A\mathrm{sinh}\lambda t,`$
to which correspond dilaton solutions that are given, respectively, by

$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{sinh}\lambda t+{\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{\lambda ^2A^{1+\gamma }}}\mathrm{F}\left(\frac{1}{2},\frac{1+\gamma }{2},\frac{1}{2},\mathrm{sinh}^2\lambda t\right),`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{e}^{\lambda t}{\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{(2+\gamma )\lambda ^2A^{1+\gamma }}}\mathrm{e}^{(1+\gamma )\lambda t},`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{cosh}\lambda t{\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{(2+\gamma )\lambda ^2(A\mathrm{cosh}\lambda t)^{1+\gamma }}}\mathrm{F}\left(1+\frac{\gamma }{2},\frac{1+\gamma }{2},2+\frac{\gamma }{2},\frac{1}{\mathrm{cosh}^2\lambda t}\right).`$
In particular, for $`\gamma =0`$, the solutions reduce to

$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{sinh}\lambda t{\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{\lambda ^2A}}\mathrm{cosh}\lambda t,`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{e}^{\lambda t}{\displaystyle \frac{2GM}{\lambda ^2A}}\mathrm{e}^{\lambda t},`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{cosh}\lambda t+{\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{\lambda ^2A}}\mathrm{sinh}\lambda t.`$
For $`\gamma =1`$ one has instead

$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{sinh}\lambda t{\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{\lambda ^2A^2}}(1+\mathrm{sinh}\lambda t\mathrm{arctan}\mathrm{sinh}\lambda t),`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{e}^{\lambda t}{\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{3\lambda ^2A^2}}\mathrm{e}^{2\lambda t},`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{cosh}\lambda t+{\displaystyle \frac{4GM}{\lambda ^2A^2}}(1+\mathrm{cosh}\lambda t\mathrm{log}\mathrm{tanh}\lambda t/2).`$
In all cases, the solutions are locally de Sitter, but have different global properties. In particular, $`R`$ has a zero at finite time if $`a>0`$, but not in the other cases. Also for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ there is a large range of values of $`\eta _0`$ for which all solutions have a zero of the dilaton at time $`t_0`$, where $`R0`$; the physical behaviour of all of them is similar, and corresponds to universes starting at time $`t_0`$ with a finite size and expanding forever.

## 3 Conformal coupling

We consider now the case in which the matter is linearly coupled to the dilaton, i.e. $`L_M=\eta \rho `$. This model is invariant under rescaling of the dilaton, which is fixed up to a multiplicative constant $`\eta _0`$. The field equations read

$`=\mathrm{\Lambda }+16\pi G\rho ,`$ (12)
$`(_\mu _\nu g_{\mu \nu }^2)\eta +{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}}g_{\mu \nu }\eta =8\pi G\eta T_{\mu \nu }.`$ (13)
Contrary to the model studied in the previous section, one has now a direct coupling between the matter density and the curvature of spacetime.

Substituting the ansatz (4) into the field equation, one obtains

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\ddot{R}}{R}}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}}+8\pi G\rho ,`$ (14)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{R}}{R}}\dot{\eta }={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}}\eta +8\pi G\eta \rho ,`$ (15)
$`\ddot{\eta }={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}}\eta 8\pi G\eta p.`$ (16)
Combining (14-16), one can check that the conservation law (9) is still valid and hence also (10) holds. Eq. (15) can then be written as

$$\dot{R}\dot{\eta }=\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}R+4GMR^\gamma \right)\eta .$$
(17)
Moreover, using (10), eq. (14) can be integrated once to read

$`\dot{R}^2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}}R^2{\displaystyle \frac{8GM}{1\gamma }}R^{1\gamma }=a,`$ $`\mathrm{if}\gamma 1,`$ (18)
$`\dot{R}^2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2}}R^28GM\mathrm{log}R=a,`$ $`\mathrm{if}\gamma =1,`$ (19)
with $`a`$ an integration constant. The equations above can be integrated in terms of elementary functions only when $`\gamma =0`$ or when $`a=0`$ and $`\gamma 1`$, so in the following we shall limit our considerations to these cases. Again, we must distinguish three possibilities according to the sign of the cosmological constant.

### 3.1 $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$

In this case the integration of (18) for $`\gamma =0`$ gives

$$R=2GMt^2b,$$

with $`b=a/8GM`$. Integration of (17) gives for the dilaton

$$\eta =\eta _0t.$$

The dilaton is singular at $`t=0`$. Moreover, if $`b<0`$, the metric is always regular, while, if $`b0`$, a curvature singularity is located at $`t_0=\sqrt{b/2GM}`$. Depending on the value of $`b`$, the universe begins at $`t=0`$ with finite size, or at $`t=t_0`$ with zero size, and expands forever.

A special solution can be obtained also for $`0<\gamma <1`$ if the integration constant $`a`$ vanishes. In that case,

$$R=\left(\frac{2GM(1+\gamma )^2}{(1\gamma )}\right)^{1/(\gamma +1)}|t|^{2/(\gamma +1)},\eta =\eta _0|t|^{(1+\gamma )/(1\gamma )}.$$

Both the metric function $`R`$ and the dilaton have a zero at $`t=0`$, corresponding to a physical singularity, and grow monotonically with time.

### 3.2 $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$

If $`\gamma =0`$, the solution is

$`R=A\mathrm{sin}\lambda t+4GM/\lambda ^2,`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{cos}\lambda t,`$
where $`A=\lambda ^1\sqrt{a+(4GM/\lambda )^2}`$. A dilaton singularity occurs at $`t=0`$ and a curvature singularity at $`t_0=\mathrm{arccos}(4GM/A\lambda ^2)`$, if $`A<4GM/\lambda ^2`$. The universe begins expanding at $`t=0`$ or $`t=t_0`$ and then recollapses.

If $`\gamma 0`$ one can find also static solutions. These have positive $`\rho `$, but negative pressure, namely $`\rho =p=\mathrm{\Lambda }/16G\gamma `$.

Other exact solutions can be found if $`a=0`$ and $`\gamma <1`$. They read

$`R=\left|{\displaystyle \frac{8GM}{(1\gamma )\lambda }}\mathrm{sin}{\displaystyle \frac{(1+\gamma )\lambda t}{2}}\right|^{2/(1+\gamma )},`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\left|\mathrm{cos}{\displaystyle \frac{(1+\gamma )\lambda t}{2}}\right|^{2/(1+\gamma )}\left|\mathrm{sin}{\displaystyle \frac{(1+\gamma )\lambda t}{2}}\right|^{(1\gamma )/(1+\gamma )}.`$
At $`t=0`$ both the metric and the dilaton are singular. At $`t=\pi /(1+\gamma )\lambda `$, where the universe reaches its maximum expansion, the dilaton has a zero, and hence a physical singularity occurs.

### 3.3 $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$

For positive cosmological constant and $`\gamma =0`$, one can obtain three different solutions depending on the value of $`a`$ being lower, equal or greater than $`(4GM/\lambda )^2`$. Defining $`A=\lambda ^1\sqrt{|a(4GM/\lambda )^2|}`$, one has, respectively,

$`R=A\mathrm{cosh}\lambda t4GM/\lambda ^2,`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{sinh}\lambda t.`$
$`R=\lambda ^2(\mathrm{e}^{\lambda t}4GM),`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{e}^{\lambda t}.`$
$`R=A\mathrm{sinh}\lambda t4GM/\lambda ^2,`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\mathrm{cosh}\lambda t.`$
The first case is similar to the previous ones: a curvature singularity is present if $`A<4GM/\lambda ^2`$ (i.e. $`a<0`$), while the dilaton is always singular at $`t=0`$. In the remaining cases, a curvature singularity occurs at the zero of $`R`$, while $`\eta `$ is regular everywhere. In all cases the universe expands forever.

If one requires positive $`\rho `$, no static solutions exist for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$. Special solutions can be found for $`a=0`$, $`\gamma 1`$. They read

$`R=\left|{\displaystyle \frac{8GM}{(1\gamma )\lambda }}\mathrm{sinh}{\displaystyle \frac{(1+\gamma )\lambda t}{2}}\right|^{2/(1+\gamma )},`$
$`\eta =\eta _0\left|\mathrm{cosh}{\displaystyle \frac{(1+\gamma )\lambda t}{2}}\right|^{2/(1+\gamma )}\left|\mathrm{sinh}{\displaystyle \frac{(1+\gamma )\lambda t}{2}}\right|^{(1\gamma )/(1+\gamma )}.`$
These solutions are qualitatively similar to those occurring for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$, $`a=0`$. A curvature and a dilaton singularity occur at $`t=0`$, after which $`R`$ and $`\eta `$ grow monotonically.

## 4 Particle horizons

An important property of cosmological models is the existence of particle horizons, defined as the location of the most distant place from which a light ray can have reached us since the beginning of the universe. It is easy to see that its distance is proportional to the integral

$$_{t_0}^t\frac{dt^{}}{R(t^{})}$$
(22)
where $`t_0`$ is the initial time. If this integral is infinite, no particle horizon is present.

For our models, one must distinguish two cases: when the initial singularity is a dilatonic one, the metric is regular at $`t_0`$ and therefore the integral (22) cannot diverge, and a particle horizon always exists. When one has an initial curvature singularity, instead, a computation of the integral (22) shows that in all cases, except the de Sitter solutions $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$, $`a<0`$ of section 2.3, it diverges at the initial singularity, and hence no particle horizon is present.

## 5 Final remarks

We have studied two-dimensional cosmologies in the context of the Jackiw-Teitelboim model, in the case of minimally coupled and conformally coupled matter. All solutions present initial singularities. However, these can be either of metric or dilatonic nature. In the latter case, the universe can have a finite size at its beginning. The universe expands forever or recollapses depending on the value of the cosmological constant. In general, a particle horizon only exists in the case of dilaton singularities.