text:
# Dust depletion and abundance pattern in damped Ly𝛼 systems: a sample of Mn and Ti abundances at 𝑧<2.2Based on observations carried out at the European Southern Observatory (ESO), La Silla, under prog. ID No. 56.B-0261 and 59.B-0797, and during Science Verification of the UVES instrument at the ESO Very Large Telescope, Paranal (Chile). Also based on Hubble Space Telescope data retrieved from the Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility archive.

## 1 Introduction

The association of damped Lyman-$`\alpha `$ (DLA) systems with galaxies, as first suggested by Wolfe et al. (1986), has been demonstrated at low and intermediate redshifts by the identification of a small sample of DLA systems at $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}1`$ (Le Brun et al. 1997). These absorbers have been extensively used to probe the chemical history and the properties of the gaseous halos of distant galaxies. Their metallicity was first derived from high-resolution spectroscopic observations of Zn ii absorption lines as this element is not significantly depleted onto dust grains in the Galactic interstellar medium (ISM). The derived $`N(`$H i$`)`$-weighted mean metallicity of DLA systems at $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}2.5`$ is about $`1/13Z_{}`$ with a large spread of two orders of magnitude (Pettini et al. 1997b). The value found at $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}<1.5`$ is only slightly larger, $`1/10Z_{}`$ (Pettini et al. 1999). These low metallicities point toward young galaxies, although the exact nature of high-redshift DLA systems is still controversial (see Prochaska & Wolfe 1997a; Ledoux et al. 1998). The wide range in metal enrichment and lack of significant evolution could be due to the presence of various populations of galaxies of different morphological types among the DLA absorbers, thus different star-formation histories.

The underabundance of Cr relative to Zn has been first attributed to the selective depletion of Cr onto dust grains (Pettini et al. 1994) by analogy to the Milky Way. Indeed, the high elemental abundance ratios \[Zn/Cr\] ($`\mathrm{log}[N(`$Zn$`)/N(`$H$`)]\mathrm{log}[N(`$Cr$`)/N(`$H$`)]`$) and/or \[S/Cr\] in DLA systems with detected H2 molecules demonstrates the presence of dust in these DLA absorbers (Ledoux et al. 2002; Petitjean et al. 2002). However, this interpretation has been challenged by Lu et al. (1996) and Prochaska & Wolfe (1997b). These authors studied the abundances of a large number of elements and suggested that the observed relative abundances may reflect the nucleosynthesis pattern of type II supernovae enrichment. It seems that several groups now tend to agree that both effects are present and that the \[Cr/Zn\] ratio is primarily an indicator of dust depletion (Pettini et al. 1997a; Kulkarni et al. 1997; Vladilo 1998; Prochaska & Wolfe 1999).

The main goal of this paper is to analyze a large sample of DLA systems at intermediate redshift to investigate these issues further. We search for a clear depletion pattern, in particular for elements less depleted than Fe in the Galactic ISM other than Zn, as Si. We then concentrate our analysis on Mn and Ti, elements which have not been extensively studied so far. Our sample of 24 DLA/moderate-DLA absorbers combines new high spectral resolution data on five systems at $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}<1.2`$ with previously published data on DLA/moderate-DLA systems at $`0.3<z_{\mathrm{abs}}<2.2`$. In all cases, the wavelength range of the expected, associated Mn ii transition lines has been observed.

We describe our observations in Sect. 2 and present our analysis of individual absorbers and our measurements in Sects. 3 and 4, emphasizing the importance of component-by-component analysis. In Sect. 5, we discuss the abundance pattern observed in DLA systems. As explained in Sect. 6, we then correct the observed abundance ratios for dust depletion effects to finally draw our conclusions in Sect. 7.

## 2 Observations and data reduction

### 2.1 HST FOS spectra

UV spectra were retrieved from the HST Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) archive to determine the H i column density from the Lyman-$`\alpha `$ line of the metal-rich absorbers toward Q 0058$`+`$019 (PHL 938), Q 0453$``$423 and Q (PKS) 2128$``$123. The observation log is summarized in Table 1. The spectra were reduced again using the best reference files available for on-the-fly re-calibration as provided by the Hubble Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility data reduction pipeline.

In the cases of Q 0058$`+`$019 and Q 2128$``$123, it was necessary to correct for scattered light for bringing the cores of the Lyman-$`\alpha `$ lines to the zero flux level (correction $`<`$10%). The signal-to-noise ratio in the adjacent continuum is of the order of 5 and 10 for Q 0058$`+`$019 and Q 2128$``$123 respectively. For Q 0453$``$423, no flux is actually observed in the G190H spectrum as is also the case shortward of about 3020 Å in the G270H spectrum, thereby revealing the existence of an optically thick Lyman-limit system at $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}2.3`$ along the line of sight.

### 2.2 VLT UVES data

High-resolution, high signal-to-noise ratio spectra were obtained with the UV and Visible Echelle Spectrograph (UVES) at the Kueyen VLT-UT2 8.2 m telescope on Cerro Paranal Observatory during UVES Science Verification (SV; February 6-17, 2000). Combining two standard dichroic settings: Dic#1 (grisms B346nm, R580nm) and Dic#2 (grisms B437nm, R860nm), to observe with both spectrograph arms, the full optical range was covered from $`3050`$ to 10000 Å with only a small gap between the two red CCDs (see Table 1). A slit width of $`0\stackrel{}{.}9`$ (resp. $`0\stackrel{}{.}8`$) in the Blue (resp. Red) was used in good seeing conditions and of $`1\stackrel{}{.}0`$ when the seeing was poor, yielding a spectral resolution $`42500<R<50000`$.

The calibrated data for Q 1122$``$168 was made available to the ESO community in May 2000. The data reduction was performed by the SV team using the UVES pipeline (Ballester et al. 2000), available as a context of the MIDAS software. The main characteristics of the pipeline is to perform a precise inter-order background subtraction, especially for master flat-fields, and to allow for an optimal extraction of the object signal rejecting cosmic rays and performing sky-subtraction at the same time. The pipeline results were checked step by step. We then converted the wavelengths of the reduced spectra to vacuum-heliocentric values and scaled, weighted and combined individual 1D exposures using the NOAO onedspec package of the IRAF software. The resulting unsmoothed spectra were re-binned to the same wavelength step (0.0415 Å pix-1), yielding a signal-to-noise ratio per resolution element of 100 (resp. 37) at 5500 Å (resp. 4000 Å).

### 2.3 ESO CASPEC data

High-resolution spectroscopy data of three quasars, Q 0058$`+`$019, Q 0453$``$423 and Q 2128$``$123, were obtained with the CASPEC echelle spectrograph at the ESO 3.6 m telescope at La Silla Observatory on November 18-21, 1995 and September 23-26, 1997. The observational details are summarized in Table 1. A spectral range of 1200 Å was covered per setting. The instrumental resolution FWHM is 0.16 Å (or 11 km s-1) and the accuracy in the wavelength calibration is of the order of one tenth of the resolution.

The data were reduced and analyzed using the echelle package of MIDAS. The object-flux weighted median of individual frames and cosmic-ray removal were performed simultaneously. The sky spectrum was difficult to extract in the blue due to the small spacing between orders. We thus carefully fitted the zero level to the bottom of the saturated lines in the extracted 1D spectra. The uncertainty in the flux zero level is about 5%. The mean signal-to-noise ratio of the final spectra is typically 10, 17 and 28 down to about 4000 Å, for Q 0058$`+`$019, Q 0453$``$423 and Q 2128$``$123 respectively.

## 3 Ionic column densities

Ionic column densities were derived from a least-squares technique using the fitlyman program (Fontana & Ballester 1995) in which Voigt profiles are convolved with the instrumental point spread function. The metal line profiles were fitted consistently assuming the same velocity for all the ions of a given component and a pure turbulent broadening. Whenever available, we used updated oscillator strength values (see Savage & Sembach 1996), or else the compilation by Morton (1991), except for the Fe ii$`\lambda \lambda `$2344,2374 lines for which we used the laboratory measurements of Bergeson et al. (1996). The column densities of Mg i, Mg ii, Si ii, Ca ii, Ti ii, Cr ii, Mn ii, Fe ii and Zn ii were derived simultaneously and the results are shown in Table 2. In this Table, the standard deviations given in parentheses for unsaturated line components were also obtained with fitlyman from a simultaneous fit of all the lines observed in a given absorber; they should be realistic if the above assumed model is correct. In what follows, we adopt the Solar abundances given by Savage & Sembach (1996).

We now comment on the five individual systems of the sample with new observations.

### 3.1 Q 0058$`+`$019, $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}=0.6125`$

The total neutral hydrogen column density of this absorber was derived from the available HST FOS spectrum. We get $`\mathrm{log}N(`$H i$`)=20.14\pm 0.09`$. We adopted the column density estimated by (Pettini et al. 2000) for Fe ii as it is based on the high signal-to-noise ratio detection of the weak, unsaturated Fe ii$`\lambda \lambda `$2249,2260 lines in a Keck HIRES spectrum. Our Mn ii measurement yields \[Mn/Fe$`]=0.15\pm 0.06`$, which is slightly sub-solar. A $`5\sigma `$ detection of Ti ii$`\lambda `$3384 was reported by Churchill et al. (2000a) using new Keck HIRES data. The measured column density, $`\mathrm{log}N(`$Ti ii$`)=12.53\pm 0.08`$ (Churchill, private communication), leads to an elemental ratio \[Ti/Fe$`]=0.10\pm 0.09`$.

### 3.2 Q 0453$``$423, $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}=0.7260`$ and $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}=1.1496`$

As mentioned in Subsect. 2.1, the existence of an optically thick Lyman limit system at $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}2.3`$ prevents a direct determination of the total H i column density of the $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}=0.7260`$ and 1.1496 strong metal-line systems. However, in both systems, $`w_\mathrm{r}(`$Fe ii$`\lambda `$2600$`)/w_\mathrm{r}(`$Mg ii$`\lambda `$2796$`)`$ is of order unity which, together with the strength of the Mg ii lines, $`w_\mathrm{r}(`$Mg ii$`\lambda `$2796$`)>1`$ Å, implies that $`N(`$H i$`)`$ is well in excess of a few $`10^{19}`$ cm-2. Both absorbers should thus be moderate-DLA if not DLA systems (see Bergeron & Stasińska 1986; Rao & Turnshek 2000). For the system at $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}=1.150`$, the Fe ii line profile is complex spanning about 550 km s-1. A simultaneous least-square fit of the Fe ii$`\lambda \lambda `$2249,2260 and Fe ii$`\lambda `$2344 profiles (the latter constraining the line parameters of the components 5 to 8; see Table 2) yields a total Fe ii column density, $`\mathrm{log}N(`$Fe ii$`)=15.18\pm 0.08`$, thus probably a high metallicity (\[Fe/H$`]>0.5`$). For the system at $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}=0.726`$, we measured $`\mathrm{log}N(`$Fe ii$`)=14.54\pm 0.04`$. The Mn abundances relative to Fe derived using the method outlined in Sect. 4 are over-solar, \[Mn/Fe$`]=+0.12\pm 0.09`$ and $`+0.34\pm 0.20`$ at $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}=0.726`$ and 1.150 respectively (see Table 3).

### 3.3 Q 1122$``$168, $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}=0.6819`$

This DLA system was recently studied by de la Varga et al. (2000) using ESO 3.6 m CASPEC and Keck HIRES data. From an HST FOS spectrum, these authors derived a total H i column density $`\mathrm{log}N(`$H i$`)=20.45\pm 0.05`$ from a fit of the Lyman-$`\alpha `$ and Lyman-$`\beta `$ lines. In our very high signal-to-noise ratio UVES spectra, we measured accurate column densities for Fe ii, Mn ii and Ti ii, and placed a stringent upper limit on the column density of Zn ii (see Table 2). The Ca ii lines are optically thin and their profile closely follows that of the Mg i$`\lambda `$2852 line from $`100`$ to $`+200`$ km s-1 (see Fig. 1). The Ca ii over Mg i column density ratio is indeed essentially the same for all the components in which both species are detected, $`\mathrm{log}(N(`$Ca ii$`)/N(`$Mg i$`))0.28`$, and is consistent with the prediction for warm gas with low depletion (e.g. Vladilo et al. 1997).

The Fe abundance derived from the weaker transitions of Fe ii is \[Fe/H$`]=1.40\pm 0.05`$. The non-detection of Zn ii yields \[Zn/Fe$`]<+0.29`$ and $`<+0.39`$ for components $`3+4`$ and 9 respectively (see Table 2 and 3). This DLA system thus appears to be essentially dust-free (see also de la Varga et al. 2000). The Mn ii column densities we derived for the components $`3+4`$ and 9 lead to sub-solar elemental ratios, \[Mn/Fe$`]=0.25\pm 0.09`$ and \[Mn/Fe$`]0.40\pm 0.12`$ respectively. Note that these values estimated for individual components are 0.3 to 0.4 dex higher than those integrated over the whole profile as given by de la Varga et al. (2000). This is due to a non-negligible contribution to the total Fe ii column density of components detected in Fe ii but not in Mn ii. This clearly demonstrates that systematic of this kind can dominate the abundance ratio variations in DLA systems. The Ti abundance is derived from a simultaneous fit of the Ti ii$`\lambda \lambda \lambda `$3073,3242,3384 lines. We get \[Ti/Fe$`]=+0.06\pm 0.09`$ and \[Ti/Fe$`]0.04\pm 0.12`$ for components $`3+4`$ and 9 respectively.

### 3.4 Q 2128$``$123, $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}=0.4298`$

Our determination of the total H i column density from the HST FOS spectrum is $`\mathrm{log}N(`$H i$`)=19.37\pm 0.08`$. Although the Lyman-$`\alpha `$ line has damped wings, this value is lower than the threshold usually adopted for DLA systems ($`20.3`$). Since $`\mathrm{log}N(`$H i$`)19.4`$ corresponds to an optical depth at the Lyman limit $`\tau _{\mathrm{LL}}150`$, ionization corrections should be small (e.g. Viegas 1995). Furthermore, we concentrate our discussion below on relative abundances and these elements have negligible differential ionization corrections (see Vladilo et al. 2001).

In our ESO 3.6 m CASPEC spectrum, the line profiles from low-ionization species show two separated components spanning $`\mathrm{\Delta }V75`$ km s-1, the strongest component being located on the profile red side. A two velocity-component model was used to fit the Fe ii and Mg ii doublets and the Mg i line detected in the observed wavelength range, 3600-4100 Å (see Table 2). The velocity broadening of the main component is constrained by the Fe ii$`\lambda `$2586 profile, whereas that of the satellite component is determined from the strong Mg ii doublet. Since the latter Fe ii line may be saturated, we give only a lower limit on the column density: $`\mathrm{log}N(`$Fe ii$`)>14.08`$ in the main component. From the non-detection of the Mn ii lines, we get \[Mn/Fe$`]<0.03`$ (see Table 3). From $`\mathrm{log}N(`$Ti ii$`)<11.21`$ (Churchill, private communication), we derive \[Ti/Fe$`]<0.29`$.

## 4 The DLA absorber sample

In order to investigate the abundance pattern of DLA systems and study dust depletion effects, we have built a sample of 24 DLA/moderate DLA (i.e. $`\mathrm{log}N(`$H i$`)>20.3`$/$`19.4\mathrm{log}N(`$H i$`)<20.3`$) systems at $`0.3<z_{\mathrm{abs}}<2.2`$, all with measurements of the Mn ii absorption lines. The sample, as shown in Table 3, includes seven DLA candidates selected on the basis of their large $`0.6w_r(`$Fe ii$`\lambda `$2600$`)/w_r(`$Mg ii$`\lambda `$2796$`)1.0`$ equivalent width ratio. We give the measured abundances of Si, Ti, Cr, Mn and Zn relative to Fe. The previously analyzed Mn samples are those of Lu et al. (1996), which includes seven Mn ii systems at $`0.86z_{\mathrm{abs}}2.14`$ of which three are associated with DLA candidates, and Pettini et al. (2000), which includes six Mn ii systems at $`0.61z_{\mathrm{abs}}1.42`$ of which one is in common with those of Lu et al. In our sample, there are nine Ti ii detections and three upper limits for systems at $`0.43z_{\mathrm{abs}}1.96`$. The Ti abundance measurements in the DLA systems toward Q 0058$`+`$019, Q 0454$`+`$039, Q 1622$`+`$238 and Q 2128$``$123 were kindly made available to us by C. W. Churchill. They were derived from Keck HIRES spectra obtained for another project (Churchill et al. 2000a, b). The sample of six Ti ii absorbers detected by Prochaska et al. (2001) covers a somewhat higher redshift range, $`1.78z_{\mathrm{abs}}2.10`$.

The relative abundances in the gaseous phase of DLA systems are usually determined from column densities integrated over the entire absorption profiles. This procedure leads to unbiased results only when all the components observed in the profiles of strong absorption lines are also detected in weaker transition lines. However, the optical depth of most of the Fe ii lines are larger than those of the Mn ii, Ti ii, Cr ii and Zn ii transitions. As the overall profiles of the weaker transitions are usually less extended than those of the Fe ii lines, the above procedure tends to overestimate the column density of Fe ii as compared to other species. For this reason, we have used a different approach. After performing the Voigt profile fits of all of the absorption profiles, we summed up only the column densities of the components detected in at least one of the Mn ii, Ti ii, Cr ii or Zn ii ions (note that these ions, when observed, are usually detected at the same time). These components correspond most often to the strongest part of the profiles.

Our procedure tends to minimize the impact of limitations due to finite signal-to-noise ratios whereas the standard procedure can lead to underestimate the abundances of rare elements relative to Fe by $`0.1`$ up to $`0.3`$ dex (as is the case for the DLA system toward Q 1122$``$168). For DLA systems at intermediate redshifts, we also applied this procedure to all the data taken from the literature when a detailed modeling was available (see Table 3). However, for the estimate of the absolute \[Fe/H\] abundances, we include all the components of Fe ii for comparison with previous studies.

## 5 Observed abundance pattern

We present in Table 3 the abundance of Fe and elemental abundance ratios relative to Fe for our sample. From the analysis of a DLA sample at intermediate redshift, Pettini et al. (1999) showed that there is no significant cosmic evolution of DLA metallicity (\[Zn/H\]) in our redshift range, $`0.3<z_{\mathrm{abs}}<2.2`$. The elemental abundance ratios presented in Fig. 2 and Table 4 do not exhibit any significant evolution with redshift either. The scatter of these abundance ratios is very small for \[Cr/Fe\] and about 1 dex for \[Mn/Fe\] and \[Zn/Fe\].

We examine below the observed abundance patterns to identify the elements which would clearly help separating the effects of star-formation history and depletion of refractory elements onto dust grains.

### 5.1 Zn and Cr

In DLA systems at $`0.3<z_{\mathrm{abs}}<2.2`$, Zn and Cr are both observed to be overabundant relative to Fe (see Fig. 2). The spread in \[Zn/Fe\] ranges from a solar ratio up to overabundances of about $`+0.8`$, with a mean of about $`+0.5`$ (see Table 4). It is unclear whether an overabundance of Zn relative to Fe can be explained by stellar nucleosynthesis models. The channels of Zn production in massive stars are not yet fully understood and the predictions of standard nucleosynthesis models lie at least a factor of 2 below the observed stellar abundances of Zn (Timmes et al. 1995; Thielemann et al. 1996; however see Umeda & Nomoto 2002). Additional processes might produce important amounts of Zn, such as axi-symmetrically deformed explosions in type II supernovae (Nagataki 1999) and p-processing in the neutrino-driven wind following the supernovae explosions (Hoffman et al. 1996), but quantitative results depend on uncertain parameters. Moreover, in Galactic thin disk stars the observed abundance of Zn follows that of Fe with \[Zn/Fe$`]=+0.04\pm 0.10`$ and in Galactic thick disk and halo stars the observed \[Zn/Fe\] ratio is in the range (0,$`+0.2`$) (see Prochaska et al. 2000, and references therein). Finally, in the Galactic ISM, Zn is mostly undepleted even in dust-rich regions.

We thus infer that, except maybe for elemental ratios \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}+0.2`$ (see also Sect. 6), dust depletion should be the main effect governing the observed \[Zn/Fe\] abundance pattern of DLA systems.

In DLA absorbers, the observed \[Cr/Fe\] ratio shows very little scatter whatever the metallicity (see Table 3), $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}`$ (see Fig. 2) or \[Zn/Fe\] (see Fig. 3). The overabundance of Cr relative to Fe ($`+0.15`$) was already noted (Lu et al. 1996; Prochaska & Wolfe 1999). It cannot be accounted for solely by dust depletion since it is present even in systems with only small amounts of dust ($`0[`$Zn/Fe$`]<0.3`$) or of low metallicity (\[Zn/H\]$`<1`$). Moreover, Cr and Fe are depleted onto dust grains by fairly similar amounts in the warm ISM of the Galaxy, \[Cr/Fe\]$`{}_{\mathrm{ISM}}{}^{}+0.13`$ (see Savage & Sembach 1996) and the ISM of the SMC (see Table 4). However, this elemental ratio is larger in DLA absorbers than in Galactic stars by a factor of about $`+0.15`$ dex and close to those observed in the stars of the SMC (see Table 4). In current chemical evolution models, the abundance of Cr closely follows that of Fe for a wide range of metallicities (e.g. Timmes et al. 1995; Goswami & Prantzos 2000). These models reproduce the trend observed in Galactic stars but not the SMC value. Therefore, in DLA absorbers dust depletion effects could be important, as well as nucleosynthesis ones as for SMC stars.

### 5.2 Mn, Si and Ti

In DLA absorbers, the abundance of Mn relative to Fe spans a larger range than previously found from smaller samples. For a substantial fraction of our sample, we get $`0.5[`$Mn/Fe$`]0`$, but there are also five systems at $`z_{\mathrm{abs}}<1.4`$ with \[Mn/Fe$`]>0`$ (see Fig. 2). Of the latter, only one is a confirmed DLA absorber with $`\mathrm{log}N(`$H i$`)>20.3`$. As can be seen in Table 4, the mean abundance of Mn, an odd-$`Z`$ Fe-peak element, in DLA systems is close to that observed in Galactic metal-poor halo stars (McWilliam et al. 1995; Ryan et al. 1996) and the cases with \[Mn/Fe$`]0`$ are similar to those of SMC stars. The dust depletion level of Mn is about the same as that of Fe in Galactic warm halo clouds and slightly lower in Galactic warm disk clouds (Savage & Sembach 1996). From the spread of values of \[Mn/Fe\] in DLA absorbers together with the small relative ionization correction factors for these elements (as well as for Ti: see e.g. Vladilo et al. 2001), we thus infer that both nucleosynthesis and dust depletion effects are needed to account for this elemental ratio.

The abundances of the two $`\alpha `$-elements Si and Ti are larger than solar in DLA absorbers, with a few cases slightly sub-solar for Ti (see Fig. 2). These elements are also overabundant in Galactic halo and SMC stars (see Table 4). The overabundance of Si can be a consequence of nucleosynthesis effects (Lu et al. 1996; Pettini et al. 2000) since in Galactic chemical evolution models the abundance of $`\alpha `$-elements is enhanced as compared to solar for metallicities $`2[`$Fe/H$`]1`$ (e.g. Timmes et al. 1995; McWilliam 1997). However, it is also consistent with a dust depletion pattern similar to that observed in Galactic warm disk and halo clouds (see Sect. 6). As Ti is observed to be more depleted onto dust grains than Fe in Galactic warm halo clouds, nucleosynthesis effects are most probably required to account for the observed over-solar \[Ti/Fe\] ratios of DLA systems, and this, whatever the dust content. However, dust depletion could be the dominant factor for the few cases with observed, sub-solar \[Ti/Fe\] ratio.

## 6 Depletion sequences

### 6.1 Method

When a uniform depletion fraction is assumed, the intrinsic abundances are simply given by:

$$10^{\left[\frac{\mathrm{X}}{\mathrm{Zn}}\right]_{\mathrm{dc}}}=10^{\left[\frac{\mathrm{X}}{\mathrm{Zn}}\right]_{\mathrm{obs}}}10^{\left[\frac{\mathrm{Zn}}{\mathrm{Cr}}\right]_{\mathrm{obs}}},$$
(1)
This depletion correction follows the observed composition of the gaseous phase, thus does not change the relative abundances. It should be used only for low depletion factors, \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}+0.3`$, i.e. for only a small fraction of our sample.

A simple method which takes into account the dust composition was developed by Vladilo (1998). Various depletion patterns can be used with different fractions, $`f_\mathrm{X}`$, of an element X locked onto dust grains. From Vladilo’s Eqs. (17) and (18), introducing explicitly in Eq. (18) the intrinsic \[Zn/Fe\] elemental ratio to allow for non-solar values, we derive the following general relation:

$$10^{\left[\frac{\mathrm{X}}{\mathrm{Fe}}\right]_{\mathrm{obs}}}=\frac{10^{\left[\frac{\mathrm{X}}{\mathrm{Fe}}\right]_{\mathrm{dc}}}\frac{\stackrel{~}{k}}{\stackrel{~}{Z}}f_\mathrm{X}10^{\left[\frac{\mathrm{Zn}}{\mathrm{Fe}}\right]_{\mathrm{dc}}}}{1\frac{\stackrel{~}{k}}{\stackrel{~}{Z}}f_{\mathrm{Fe}}10^{\left[\frac{\mathrm{Zn}}{\mathrm{Fe}}\right]_{\mathrm{dc}}}},$$
(2)
where the label “dc” refers to intrinsic (dust corrected) elemental ratios, and $`\stackrel{~}{k}`$/$`\stackrel{~}{Z}`$ is the dust-to-metal ratio normalized to the Galactic value.

To compute a “depletion sequence”, \[X/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ versus \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$, we need to assume a value for \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$. Since in Galactic stars of low metallicity and in SMC stars this ratio is observed to be slightly over-solar, $`0[`$Zn/Fe$`]+0.2`$ (see Table 4), we discuss in Sect. 7 the effect of a slight overabundance of Zn relative to Fe on the dust depletion correction.

### 6.2 Results

We present in Fig. 3 the observed abundance ratios of Si, Ti, Cr and Mn relative to Fe versus \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ together with depletion sequences for various depletion patterns, namely those of Galactic cold disk clouds, Galactic warm disk and Galactic warm halo clouds as provided by Welty et al. (1999). The observations show a correlation between \[Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ and \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$, detected at the $`2.9\sigma `$ significance level using a Kendall rank correlation test. A similar trend is present in the higher redshift sample analyzed by Prochaska & Wolfe (1999). Such a correlation is fully consistent with a dust depletion sequence. The best agreement between model and observations is obtained for the Galactic warm disk and warm halo cloud patterns. These patterns are similar to those observed in the ISM of the SMC (Welty et al. 2001). The Galactic warm halo cloud pattern is also close to that observed in the Magellanic Bridge (Lehner et al. 2001) where the overall metallicity may be even lower than in the SMC. In addition, the data allows for intrinsic elemental ratios slightly over-solar, 0$`<[`$Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}<+0.2`$. A good depletion sequence fit is then also obtained for \[Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}[`$Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}=+0.1`$. We thus conclude that, although some nucleosynthesis effects could be present (see Sect. 7), the variations of the observed \[Si/Fe\] elemental ratio should mainly be due to dust depletion.

Being fairly constant down to low depletion levels, the \[Cr/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ ratio is not well fitted by a depletion sequence, although a large fraction of the data points are roughly consistent with dust depletion if an intrinsic overabundance of Cr relative to Fe of $`+0.1`$ dex is considered (see Fig. 3). This small overabundance is not observed in Galactic metal-poor stars (McWilliam et al. 1995), whereas it is present in both the ISM and the stars of the SMC. Although current chemical evolution models reproduce satisfactorily a constant \[Cr/Fe$`]0`$ (see e.g. Timmes et al. 1995; Goswami & Prantzos 2000), they do not account for a slight overabundance of Cr relative to Fe.

The \[Mn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ ratios cannot be fitted by any dust depletion sequence (see Fig. 3), even if non-solar values are considered for the intrinsic \[Mn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$ ratio. The observed values can only be recovered if one assumes possible variations of this intrinsic elemental ratio in the range $`0.3`$ to $`+0.1`$ dex. For the 17 DLA systems with both Mn and Zn measurements, there is a trend for an increase of \[Mn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ with increasing \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$, detected at the $`3.2\sigma `$ significance level using a Kendall rank correlation test (limits are taken into account as true detections). This trend may be the consequence of a relation between depletion level and metallicity. To test this suggestion, we investigate the variations of \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ and \[Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ versus \[Zn/H$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$, Si being much less depleted than Mn, Cr and Fe in the Galactic ISM. They are presented in the upper panels of Fig. 4. For these two elemental ratios, there is a marginal correlation with metallicity, present only for both at the $`1.7\sigma `$ significance level. To confirm this possible correlation between depletion level and metallicity would require larger samples, in particular an extension at low metallicity, $`2.0[`$Zn/H$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}1.5`$. Whereas \[Cr/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ does not show any variation with metallicity there is a clear increase of \[Mn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ with increasing metallicity detected at the $`2.6\sigma `$ significance level. This correlation suggests for the first time that, on average, the intrinsic \[Mn/Fe\] ratio gets more sub-solar toward lower metallicity, a trend which is compatible with the pattern observed in Galactic halo stars (see Table 4).

Although the number of Ti measurements is small, the variation of \[Ti/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ with \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ cannot be fitted either by a single dust depletion sequence. As for Mn, this suggests a variation of the intrinsic \[Ti/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$ ratio. Since Ti is more depleted onto dust grains than Fe, the positive values of \[Ti/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ observed in most cases would imply, as for the other $`\alpha `$-element in our study, Si, an over-solar, intrinsic \[Ti/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$ elemental ratio (see below).

## 7 Discussion

We now discuss the intrinsic elemental ratios derived from Eq. (2) for the 24 DLA absorbers of our sample at $`0.3<z_{\mathrm{abs}}<2.2`$. Since the depletion pattern of Galactic cold disk clouds does not fit the correlation between \[Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ and \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ for an intrinsic elemental ratio \[Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}<+0.1`$, we use the dust depletion patterns of either Galactic warm disk or warm halo clouds. We present in Fig. 5 the dust-corrected abundance ratios versus metallicity, as given by \[Fe/H$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$. As most of the DLA absorbers of our sample have sub-solar abundances, we assume a value for \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$ equal to that observed in Galactic metal-poor and SMC stars (see Table 4), i.e. \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}=+0.1`$. This implies \[Si/Zn$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}=[`$Cr/Zn$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}=0`$ (see Fig. 3 and Subsect. 6.2). If we had assumed a solar \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$ ratio, the trends discussed below would be similar and there would be only very small shifts ($`0.05`$ dex) in the absolute values of the dust-corrected abundance ratios.

As discussed in Subsect. 6.2, the importance of nucleosynthesis effects is already revealed by the different behaviours of the observed abundances of Mn and Cr relative to Fe. The fractions of these two elements locked onto dust grains are similar (and also close to that for Fe) and they have comparable solar abundances relative to Fe. However, whereas the \[Cr/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ ratio is fairly constant whatever the metallicity, the correlation observed between \[Mn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ and metallicity (Fig. 4) implies an increase of the intrinsic abundance of Mn relative to Fe with metallicity.

To compare the intrinsic abundance patterns observed in DLA systems with those of Galactic and SMC stars, we also give in Fig. 5 the relation between the abundance ratios and metallicity observed in Galactic thin disk and halo stars (from the compilation of values by Prochaska et al. 2000) as well as the values for SMC stars (from the appendix of Welty et al. 1997). For the trend shown for Mn in Galactic stars, we took into account the hyper-fine structure splitting effects of the Mn i lines (Prochaska & McWilliam 2000) which leads to a slightly higher \[Mn/Fe\] mean ratio, now equal to $`0.05`$ at \[Fe/H$`]0.5`$.

We note that the intrinsic abundances of the two $`\alpha `$-elements, Si and Ti, relative to Fe show a similar trend versus metallicity, although the dust depletion pattern used to determine these intrinsic elemental ratios was derived from the correlation present between \[Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ and \[Zn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{obs}}`$ only. This strengthens our choice of warm dust depletion patterns and dust depletion correction method.

For the few DLA absorbers of fairly high metallicity, \[Fe/H$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}0.5`$, all four elemental ratios: \[Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$, \[Cr/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$, \[Ti/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$ and \[Mn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$ follow the trends present in Galactic stars and, at \[Fe/H$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}0`$, their abundances relative to Fe are about equal to the solar values. The chemical evolution of these DLA systems appears to be similar to that of our Galaxy.

At the metallicity of the SMC, \[Fe/H$`]0.6`$, the DLA dust-corrected abundances of Si, Ti and Cr relative to Fe, and in a lesser extent that of Mn, are close to those of SMC stars (see Fig. 5 and Table 4) with \[Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}[`$Ti/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}[`$Cr/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}+0.1`$ and \[Mn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}0`$.

However, at lower metallicity, \[Fe/H$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}<0.6`$, for a substantial fraction of DLA absorbers the intrinsic abundances of Si, Ti and Mn relative to Fe are closer to the solar values than for Galactic stars and show little variation with decreasing metallicity. The evolution of \[Mn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$ with metallicity is well accounted for by the odd-even effects for the Fe-peak elements using metallicity dependent yields (for Galactic models see e.g. Timmes et al. 1995; Goswami & Prantzos 2000). Furthermore, the systems with \[Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}[`$Ti/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}+0.10`$ (resp. $`>+0.10`$) are indeed also those with \[Mn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}>0.15`$ (resp. $`<0.15`$), i.e. there is an anti-correlation between \[Mn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$ and \[Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$ or \[Ti/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}`$. This strongly suggests that the contribution of type Ia supernovae to the chemical enrichment of the metal-poor DLA systems with \[Si/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}[`$Ti/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}+0.1`$ and \[Mn/Fe$`]_{\mathrm{dc}}0.1`$ is larger than for Galactic stars of comparable metallicity. This conclusion is consistent with the interpretations of Matteucci et al. (1997) and Legrand et al. (2000) based on other abundance ratios, which favor at least for some DLA absorbers an episodic or slow star-formation scenario. If they have experienced instantaneous starbursts, these DLA absorbers should thus be older than 50 Myr (see Matteucci & Recchi 2001). Since there is a wide spread of galactic morphological types among the identified DLA absorbers (Le Brun et al. 1997), the metal-poor DLA absorbers with abundance ratios fairly close to the solar values could indeed trace the H i-rich dwarf galaxy population.

Among the goals for future work, we identify the extension of DLA samples at low \[Zn/H\] to test the possible correlation between depletion level and metallicity, and observations of S and Zn in the same DLA systems to confirm the lack of depletion for Zn and distinguish further between different star-formation histories from a comparison of \[S/Fe or Zn\] in DLA absorbers and in Galactic/SMC stars.

###### Acknowledgements.

We are grateful to C. W. Churchill for making available to us unpublished data on the Ti abundances of four DLA systems and N. Prantzos for fruitful discussion. We thank R. Srianand for the reduction of the echelle spectrum of Q 0453$``$423. CL acknowledges support from an ESO postdoctoral fellowship. This work was supported by the European Community Research and Training Network: ”The Physics of the Intergalactic Medium”.


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# Realizations of Crystals

## 1. Introduction

Once we know the crystal associated with representations, we can read for example the branching rule, decomposition into irreducible components of tensor products, etc. Hence it is important to give the explicit crystal structure of representations. Several constructions are already known:

1. the description by using the elementary crystals $`B_i`$ (),
2. Littelmann’s path realizations (),
3. Young tableaux in $`𝔤𝔩_n`$-case, and their variants in the classical Lie algebra case ().
4. the realization using perfect crystals in the affine case (),

In this paper, we shall add two more realizations of crystals.

1. the monome realization,
2. the lattice realization.

The realization (5) is the one due to Hiraku Nakajima, and its variation.

## 2. Preliminary

Let $`P`$ be a weight lattice, $`\{\alpha _iP;iI\}`$ the set of simple roots, and $`\{h_iP^{};iI\}`$ the set of simple co-roots. Let $`P_+`$ be the set of dominant weights, $`P_+:=\{\lambda P;h_i,\lambda 0\text{ for any }i\}`$. Let $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_iP`$ be the fundamental weight: $`h_j,\mathrm{\Lambda }_i=\delta _{ij}`$.

We shall not recall here the notion of crystals (see e.g. ). We shall call $`I`$-crystal when we want to emphasize the index set $`I`$ of simple roots.

For a crystal $`B`$ let us denote by $`B^{}`$ the crystal obtained from $`B`$ by reversing the arrows : $`B^{}:=\{b^{};bB\}`$ with $`\mathrm{wt}(b^{})=\mathrm{wt}(b)`$, $`\epsilon _i(b^{})=\phi _i(b)`$, $`\phi _i(b^{})=\epsilon _i(b)`$, $`\stackrel{~}{e}_i(b^{})=(\stackrel{~}{f}_ib)^{}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{f}_i(b^{})=(\stackrel{~}{e}_ib)^{}`$.

For a dominant integral weight $`\lambda P_+`$, let us denote by $`B(\lambda )`$ the crystal associated with the irreducible representation $`V(\lambda )`$ with highest weight $`\lambda `$. Then $`B(\lambda ):=B(\lambda )^{}`$ is the crystal associated with the irreducible representation $`V(\lambda )`$ with lowest weight $`\lambda `$. Let us denote by $`B(\mathrm{})`$ the crystal associated with the negative part $`U_q^{}(𝔤)`$ of the quantized algebra $`U_q(𝔤)`$. Then $`B(\mathrm{}):=B(\mathrm{})^{}`$ is the crystal associated with the positive part $`U_q^+(𝔤)`$. For $`\lambda P`$, we denote by $`T_\lambda `$ the crystal $`\{t_\lambda \}`$ with $`\mathrm{wt}(t_\lambda )=\lambda `$, $`\epsilon _i(t_\lambda )=\phi _i(t_\lambda )=\mathrm{}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{e}_i(t_\lambda )=\stackrel{~}{f}_i(t_\lambda )=0`$. Then there is a strict embedding $`B(\lambda )B(\mathrm{})T_\lambda `$.

For an $`I`$-crystal $`B`$ and a subset $`J`$ of $`I`$, let us denote by $`\mathrm{\Psi }_J(B)`$ the $`J`$-crystal $`B`$ with the induced crystal structure from $`B`$.

A crystal $`B`$ is called semi-normal if for each $`iI`$ the $`\{i\}`$-crystal $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\{i\}}(B)`$ is a crystal associated with an integrable module. This is equivalent to saying that $`\epsilon _i(b)=\mathrm{max}\{n;\stackrel{~}{e}_i^nb0\}`$ and $`\phi _i(b)=\mathrm{max}\{n;\stackrel{~}{f}_i^nb0\}`$ for any $`bB`$ and $`iI`$. A crystal $`B`$ is called normal if for any subset $`J`$ of $`I`$ such that $`\{\alpha _i;iJ\}`$ is a root system for finite-dimensional semisimple Lie algebra, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_J(B)`$ is the crystal associated with an integrable $`U_q(𝔤_J)`$-module, where $`U_q(𝔤_J)`$ is the associated quantum group with $`\{\alpha _i;iJ\}`$.

The crystal $`B_i`$ is $`\{b_i(n);n\}`$ with $`\mathrm{wt}(b_i(n))=n\alpha _i`$,

$$\begin{array}{cc}\epsilon _j(b_i(n))=\{\begin{array}{cc}n\hfill & \text{for }j=i\hfill \\ \mathrm{}\hfill & \text{otherwise}\hfill \end{array}\hfill & \phi _j(b_i(n))=\{\begin{array}{cc}n\hfill & \text{for }j=i\hfill \\ \mathrm{}\hfill & \text{otherwise}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ \stackrel{~}{e}_j(b_i(n))=\{\begin{array}{cc}b_i(n+1)\hfill & \text{for }j=i\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{otherwise}\hfill \end{array}\hfill & \stackrel{~}{f}_j(b_i(n))=\{\begin{array}{cc}b_i(n1)\hfill & \text{for }j=i\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{otherwise}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \end{array}$$

Let $`\{i_n\}_{n=1,2,\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence in $`I`$ such that every element in $`I`$ appears infinitely many times in this sequence. Then $`B(\mathrm{})`$ is strictly embedded into the crystal $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}B_{i_2}B_{i_1}`$. This is the realization (1) in the introduction.

The following theorem is frequently used in this paper.

###### Theorem 2.1 ().

Let $`B`$ be a crystal satisfying the condition: for any subset $`J`$ of $`I`$ with at most two elements, any connected component of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_J(B)`$ containing a highest weight vector (i.e. a vector annihilated by any $`\stackrel{~}{e}_i(iJ)`$) is a crystal isomorphic to the crystal associated with an integrable highest weight $`U_q(𝔤_J)`$-module.

Then any connected component of $`B`$ containing a highest weight vector is isomorphic to $`B(\lambda )`$ for a dominant integral weight $`\lambda `$.

The following variation is proved similarly.

###### Theorem 2.2.

Let $`B`$ be a crystal satisfying the condition: for any subset $`J`$ of $`I`$ with at most two elements, any connected component of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_J(B)`$ containing a highest weight vector $`b`$ (i.e. a vector annihilated by any $`\stackrel{~}{e}_i(iJ)`$) is a crystal isomorphic to the $`J`$-crystal $`B_J(\mathrm{})T_{\mathrm{wt}(b)}`$. Here $`B_J(\mathrm{})`$ is the crystal associated with the negative part $`U_q^{}(𝔤_J)`$ of $`U_q(𝔤_J)`$.

Then any connected component of $`B`$ containing a highest weight vector $`b`$ is isomorphic to $`B(\mathrm{})T_{\mathrm{wt}(b)}`$ for a dominant integral weight $`\lambda `$.

## 3. Monôme realization

The following realization is due to Hiraku Nakajima ().

Let $``$ be the set of monômes in the variables $`Y_i(n)`$ ($`iI`$, $`n`$):

$$:=\{\underset{iI,n}{}Y_i(n)^{y_i(n)};\text{ }y_i(n)\text{ vanish except finitely many }(i,n)\}.$$

We set $`A_i(n)=Y_i(n1)Y_i(n+1)_{ki}Y_k(n)^{h_k,\alpha _i}`$. We assign to $`Y_i(n)`$ the weight $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_i`$, so that $`A_i(n)`$ has the weight $`\alpha _i`$. We define the crystal structure on $``$ as follows. For a monôme $`M=\underset{iI,n}{}Y_i(n)^{y_i(n)}`$, we set

$$\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{wt}(M)\hfill & =_i(_ny_i(n))\mathrm{\Lambda }_i,\hfill \\ \phi _i(M)\hfill & =\mathrm{max}\{_{kn}y_i(k);n\},\hfill \\ \epsilon _i(M)\hfill & =\mathrm{max}\{_{kn}y_i(k);n\}.\hfill \end{array}$$

We define

$$\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{~}{f}_i(M)\hfill & =\{\begin{array}{cc}0\hfill & \text{if }\phi _i(M)=0\text{,}\hfill \\ A_i(n_f+1)^1M\hfill & \text{if }\phi _i(M)>0\text{,}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ \stackrel{~}{e}_i(M)\hfill & =\{\begin{array}{cc}0\hfill & \text{if }\epsilon _i(M)=0\text{,}\hfill \\ A_i(n_e1)M\hfill & \text{if }\epsilon _i(M)>0\text{.}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \end{array}$$

Here

$$\begin{array}{cc}n_f\hfill & =\mathrm{min}\{n;\phi _i(M)=_{kn}y_i(k)\}\hfill \\ & =\mathrm{min}\{n;\epsilon _i(M)=_{k>n}y_i(k)\},\hfill \\ n_e\hfill & =\mathrm{max}\{n;\phi _i(M)=_{k<n}y_i(k)\}\hfill \\ & =\mathrm{max}\{n;\epsilon _i(M)=_{kn}y_i(k)\}.\hfill \end{array}$$

Note that $`y_i(n_f)>0`$, $`y_i(n_f+1)0`$ and $`y_i(n_e)<0`$, $`y_i(n_e1)0`$.

*It is in fact not true that $``$ is a crystal* (see Example 3.3). All the axioms for crystals hold but $`b^{}=\stackrel{~}{f}_ib\stackrel{~}{e}_ib^{}=b`$.

###### Conjecture 1.

For a product $`M`$ of positive powers of $`Y_i(n)`$, the connected component containing $`M`$ is isomorphic to $`B(\mathrm{wt}(M))`$.

This is checked in numerous examples by computer. The following fact is observed by the computer experiment in the connected component $`B`$ of the product of positive powers : for any $`i`$ and $`n`$, $`y_i(n)>0`$, $`y_i(n+1)<0`$ can never happen at once. This property implies $`\stackrel{~}{f}_i\stackrel{~}{e}_iM=M`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{e}_i\stackrel{~}{f}_iM=M`$ if they are not zero.

In fact we have

###### Proposition 3.1.

Let $`_{\mathrm{good}}`$ be a subset of $``$ satisfying the following properties.

* For $`M_{\mathrm{good}}`$ and $`i`$ $`n`$, $`y_i(n)>0`$ implies $`y_i(n+1)0`$.
* $`_{\mathrm{good}}`$ is stable by the $`\stackrel{~}{e}_i`$’s and the $`\stackrel{~}{f}_i`$’s.

Then $`_{\mathrm{good}}`$ has good properties. Namely it is a normal crystal, and the crystal generated by a highest weight vector of weight $`\lambda `$ is isomorphic to $`B(\lambda )`$.

Since the proof is similar to the proof of Theorem 4.3, we omit this.

###### Problem 1.

Find a subcrystal $`_{\mathrm{good}}`$ of $``$ which has the properties above (or modify the definition above so that $``$ is really a crystal).

###### Example 3.2.

For $`𝔤=𝔰𝔩_3`$,

$$Y_1(0)\stackrel{1}{}Y_1(2)^1Y_2(1)\stackrel{2}{}Y_2(3)^1$$

is the crystal isomorphic to $`B(\mathrm{\Lambda }_1)`$.

###### Example 3.3.

For $``$, all the axioms for crystals hold except

$$b^{}=\stackrel{~}{f}_ib\stackrel{~}{e}_ib^{}=b.$$

For example, for $`𝔤=𝔰𝔩_2`$.

$$Y(1)Y(2)^1\stackrel{\stackrel{~}{f}_1}{}Y(2)^1Y(3)^1$$

and the chain in $`_{\mathrm{good}}`$

$$Y(0)Y(1)\stackrel{\stackrel{~}{f}_1}{}Y(0)Y(3)^1\stackrel{\stackrel{~}{f}_1}{}Y(2)^1Y(3)^1.$$

So $`Y(1)Y(2)^1_{\mathrm{good}}`$, or $`\stackrel{~}{f}_1(Y(1)Y(2)^1)=0`$ (with another modified rule).

## 4. Variations

We shall define another structure of crystal on $``$. Let $`\mathrm{c}=\left(\mathrm{c}_{ij}\right)_{ijI}`$ be a set of integers such that

$$\mathrm{c}_{ij}+\mathrm{c}_{ji}=1.$$

We set

$$A_i(n)=Y_i(n)Y_i(n+1)\underset{ji}{}Y_j(n+\mathrm{c}_{ji})^{h_j,\alpha _i}.$$

For a monôme $`M=\underset{iI,n}{}Y_i(n)^{y_i(n)}`$, we set

$$\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{wt}(M)\hfill & =_i(_ny_i(n))\mathrm{\Lambda }_i,\hfill \\ \phi _i(M)\hfill & =\mathrm{max}\{_{kn}y_i(k);n\},\hfill \\ \epsilon _i(M)\hfill & =\mathrm{max}\{_{k>n}y_i(k);n\}.\hfill \end{array}$$

We define

$$\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{~}{f}_i(M)\hfill & =\{\begin{array}{cc}0\hfill & \text{if }\phi _i(M)=0\text{,}\hfill \\ A_i(n_f)^1M\hfill & \text{if }\phi _i(M)>0\text{,}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \\ \stackrel{~}{e}_i(M)\hfill & =\{\begin{array}{cc}0\hfill & \text{if }\epsilon _i(M)=0\text{,}\hfill \\ A_i(n_e)M\hfill & \text{if }\epsilon _i(M)>0\text{.}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \end{array}$$

Here

$$\begin{array}{cc}n_f\hfill & =\mathrm{min}\{n;\phi _i(M)=_{kn}y_i(k)\}\hfill \\ & =\mathrm{min}\{n;\epsilon _i(M)=_{k>n}y_i(k)\},\hfill \\ n_e\hfill & =\mathrm{max}\{n;\phi _i(M)=_{kn}y_i(k)\}\hfill \\ & =\mathrm{max}\{n;\epsilon _i(M)=_{k>n}y_i(k)\}.\hfill \end{array}$$

Note that $`y_i(n_f)>0`$, $`y_i(n_f+1)0`$ and $`y_i(n_e+1)<0`$, $`y_i(n_e)0`$.

Let us denote by $`_\mathrm{c}`$ the crystal $``$ thus defined.

In this case, one can prove easily the following peroposition.

###### Proposition 4.1.

$`_\mathrm{c}`$ is a semi-normal crystal.

For a family of integers $`(m_i)_{iI}`$, let us set $`\mathrm{c}^{}=(c_{ij}^{})_{ijI}`$, by $`c_{ij}^{}=c_{ij}+m_im_j`$. Then the map $`Y_i(n)Y_i(n+m_i)`$ gives a crystal isomorphism $`_\mathrm{c}\stackrel{}{}_\mathrm{c}^{}`$. Hence if the Dynkin diagram has no loop, the isomorphism class of the crystal $`_\mathrm{c}`$ does not depend on the choice of $`c`$.

Let $`\psi :`$ be the map defined by $`Y_i(n)Y_i(n)^1`$. Then one has

###### Proposition 4.2.

The map $`\psi `$ give an isomorphism of crystals: $`_{\mathrm{c}}^{}{}_{}{}^{}\stackrel{}{}_\mathrm{c}^{}`$ where $`\mathrm{c}_{}^{}{}_{ij}{}^{}=\mathrm{c}_{ji}`$. Here $`_{\mathrm{c}}^{}{}_{}{}^{}`$ is the crystal obtained from $`_\mathrm{c}`$ by reversing the direction of arrows.

###### Theorem 4.3.

For a highest wieght vector $`M_c`$, the connected component of $`_\mathrm{c}`$ containing $`M`$ is isomorphic to $`B(\mathrm{wt}(M))`$.

###### Proof.

It is enough to show for a subset $`J`$ of $`I`$ with cardinality $`2`$, any connected component $`B`$ of $`_\mathrm{c}`$ containing a highest weight vector is isomorphic to the crystal associated with an integrable highest wieight $`U_q(𝔤_J)`$-module. Assume $`J=\{1,2\}`$. Then we may assume that $`c_{1,2}=0`$ and $`c_{2,1}=1`$. Then one has

$$A_1(n)=Y_1(n)Y_1(n+1)Y_2(n+1)^{h_2,\alpha _1}\times \mathrm{}$$

and

$$A_2(n)=Y_2(n)Y_2(n+1)Y_1(n)^{h_1,\alpha _2}\times \mathrm{}.$$

Take $`\lambda (n)=_i\lambda _i(n)\mathrm{\Lambda }_iP`$ ($`n`$), which vanish except for finitely many $`n`$. Set $`K_n=B_1B_2T_{\lambda (n)}`$.

$$K:=\mathrm{}K_1K_0K_1\mathrm{}.$$

We define the map $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ from $`K`$ to $`_\mathrm{c}`$ by

$$\begin{array}{c}Kb:=\underset{n}{}\left(b_1(z_1(n))b_2(z_2(n))t_{\lambda (n)}\right)\hfill \\ \stackrel{\mathrm{\Phi }}{}M:=_{i,n}Y_i(n)^{\lambda _i(n)}A_1(n)^{z_1(n)}A_2(n)^{z_2(n)}_\mathrm{c}.\hfill \end{array}$$

Hence

$$\begin{array}{cc}y_i(n)\hfill & =_n\left(\lambda _i(n)+z_i(n)+z_i(n1)+_{\nu i}h_i,\alpha _\nu z_\nu (nc_{i,\nu })\right)\hfill \\ & =\{\begin{array}{cc}\lambda _1(n)+z_1(n)+z_1(n1)+h_1,\alpha _2z_2(n)\hfill & \text{for }i=1\text{,}\hfill \\ \lambda _2(n)+z_2(n)+z_2(n1)+h_2,\alpha _1z_1(n1)\hfill & \text{for }i=2\text{.}\hfill \end{array}\hfill \end{array}$$

One has

$$\epsilon _1(b)=\mathrm{max}\{z_1(n)\underset{k>n}{}\left(2z_1(k)+h_1,\alpha _2z_2(k)+\lambda _1(k)\right);n\}.$$

On the other hand

$$\begin{array}{cc}\epsilon _1(M)\hfill & =\mathrm{max}\{_{k>n}y_1(k);n\}\hfill \\ & =\mathrm{max}\{_{k>n}\left(\lambda _1(k)+z_1(k)+z_1(k1)+h_1,\alpha _2z_2(k)\right);n\}.\hfill \end{array}$$

Hence $`\epsilon _1(b)`$ and $`\epsilon _1(M)`$ are equal. One has

$$\begin{array}{cc}\epsilon _2(b)\hfill & =\mathrm{max}\{z_2(n)h_2,\alpha _1z_1(n)\hfill \\ & _{k>n}(2z_2(k)+h_2,\alpha _1z_1(k)+\lambda _2(k));n\},\hfill \end{array}$$

and

$$\begin{array}{cc}\epsilon _2(M)\hfill & =\mathrm{max}\{_{k>n}y_2(k);n\}\hfill \\ & =\mathrm{max}\{_{k>n}\left(\lambda _2(k)+z_2(k)+z_2(k1)+h_2,\alpha _1z_1(k1)\right);n\},\hfill \end{array}$$

and hence $`\epsilon _2(b)`$ and $`\epsilon _2(M)`$ are equal. It is easy to see the action of $`\stackrel{~}{f}_i`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{e}_i`$ commute with $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$. Hence $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is a crystal morphism.

On the other hand, one has. $`T_\lambda B_iB_iT_{s_i\lambda }`$ and $`T_\lambda T_\mu T_{\lambda +\mu }`$. Hence, one has an isomorphism

$$K𝒫T_\lambda 𝒫^{}$$

for some $`\lambda `$. Here $`B=B_1B_2`$, $`𝒫=\mathrm{}BB`$ and $`𝒫^{}=BB\mathrm{}`$. One knows $`𝒫=\underset{b𝒫^h}{}B(\mathrm{})T_{\mathrm{wt}(b)}`$ and $`𝒫^{}=\underset{b(𝒫^{})^{\mathrm{}}}{}B(\mathrm{})T_{\mathrm{wt}(b)}`$, where $`𝒫^h=\{b𝒫;\stackrel{~}{e}_ib=0\text{ for any }i\}`$ and $`(𝒫^{})^{\mathrm{}}=\{b(𝒫^{})^{\mathrm{}};\stackrel{~}{f}_ib=0\text{ for any }i\}`$. Hence $`K`$ is a disjoint union of $`B(\mathrm{})T_\lambda B(\mathrm{})B(\stackrel{~}{U}_q(𝔤))`$. Hence the connected component containing a highest weight vector is isomorphic to $`B(\lambda )`$ for some $`\lambda P_+`$. ∎

###### Corollary 4.4.

$`_\mathrm{c}`$ is a normal crystal.

The condition $`\mathrm{c}_{ij}+\mathrm{c}_{ji}=1`$ might be relaxed in the non simply-laced case.

For example, it seems that Theorem 4.3 holds when $`\mathrm{c}_{ij}+\mathrm{c}_{ji}1`$ in the $`A_1^{(1)}`$-case, checked by computer experiment.

###### Problem 2.

What is the condition for $`\mathrm{c}`$ in order that the above theorem holds?

###### Problem 3.

What is the connected component of $`_\mathrm{c}`$ containing a given highest weight vector?

## 5. Lattice realization

Let $`Q`$ be the root lattice $`_{iI}\alpha _i`$. Let us take a family $`𝔩=\{\mathrm{}_i\}_{iI}`$ of elements in $`Q^{}:=\mathrm{Hom}(Q,)`$, which satisfies the following property:

(5.1) $`\mathrm{}_i(\alpha _i)=1`$ for every $`iI`$.
Let us define the crystal $`B_𝔩=\{v(x);xQ\}`$ as follows. One has $`\mathrm{wt}(v(x))=x`$, $`\epsilon _i(v(x))=\mathrm{}_i(x)`$, $`\phi _i(b)=h_i,\mathrm{wt}(b)+\epsilon _i(b)`$, $`\stackrel{~}{e}_i(v(x))=v(x+\alpha _i)`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{f}_i(v(x))=v(x\alpha _i)`$.

###### Theorem 5.1.

Assume further that $`𝔩`$ satisfies the following condition:

(5.5) $`\begin{array}{c}\text{for every pair }(i,j)\text{ with }ij\text{, one has either}\hfill \\ \text{(i)}\text{ }\mathrm{}_i(\alpha _j)=h_i,\alpha _j\text{ and }\mathrm{}_j(\alpha _i)=0\text{, or}\hfill \\ \text{(ii)}\text{ }\mathrm{}_i(\alpha _j)=0\text{ and }\mathrm{}_j(\alpha _i)=h_j,\alpha _i\text{.}\hfill \end{array}`$
Then there is a strict embedding $`B(\mathrm{})B(\mathrm{})B_𝔩`$ sending $`u_{\mathrm{}}`$ to $`u_{\mathrm{}}v(0)`$. Hence $`B(\mathrm{})`$ is embedded into $`\mathrm{}B_𝔩B_𝔩`$.

###### Proof.

We may assume $`I=\{1,2\}`$. Assume that $`\mathrm{}_2(\alpha _1)=h_2,\alpha _1`$ and $`\mathrm{}_1(\alpha _2)=0`$. Then $`B_𝔩B_1B_2`$, and the result follows from the realization (1). ∎

###### Example 5.2.

For $`𝔤=A_n^{(1)}`$ ($`n2`$) with $`I=/(n+1)`$, if we take $`\mathrm{}_i(\alpha _j)=\delta _{i,j}+\delta _{i+1,j}`$, then $`B_𝔩`$ is the crystal associated with a coherent family of perfect crystals (). Hence the above result is proved in loco.cito.

###### Example 5.3.

For $`𝔤=A_1^{(1)}`$ with $`I=\{0,1\}`$, if we take

$$\mathrm{}_i(\alpha _j)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 1& \text{if }i=j\text{,}\hfill \\ \hfill 1& \text{for }ij\text{,}\hfill \end{array}$$

then $`B_𝔩`$ is the crystal associated with a coherent family of perfect crystals (). Hence $`B(\mathrm{})`$ is embedded into $`\mathrm{}B_𝔩B_𝔩`$, although $`𝔩`$ does not satisfy the condition (5.5) above.

###### Problem 4.

What is the condition for $`𝔩`$ in order that the above theorem holds?


text:
# The Distribution of Atomic Hydrogen Around Two Irregular Galaxies

## 1 Introduction

The atomic hydrogen gas in and around galaxies is the material out of which star-forming clouds are derived and, hence, the HI plays a crucial role in the evolution of galaxies. We have long been intrigued by the gas that extends beyond, and sometimes well beyond, the optical galaxy. In most irregulars, as in most spirals, the HI extends to about twice the Holmberg radius RH, defined as the radius at a photographic surface brightness level of 26.7 magnitudes per arcsec2 (see Figure 13 of Hunter  and references therein for a compilation of HI extents). However, some galaxies have gas extending as far as 7RH.

In order to determine the role of this extended gas in the life of irregular galaxies, we began a radio interferometric study of the gas around those with particularly large HI extents at high enough resolution to see interesting structure if it were present. The general questions we are addressing are: 1) What is the structure of extended gas disks around irregular galaxies; 2) What role does this potential gas reservoir play in the evolution of the galaxies; and 3) Can large primordial gas disks around irregulars survive without disruption? These questions are important to understanding the internal processes and evolution of irregulars, which are the most numerous type of star-forming galaxy. Additionally, if, as studies of damped Ly$`\alpha `$ systems indicate, the majority of galaxies were larger HI clouds in their youth (Rao, Turnshek, & Briggs 1995), nearby irregulars with large gas envelopes are local examples of high redshift damped Ly$`\alpha `$ systems, and this has been substantiated with observations of one such irregular that lies directly in front of a QSO (Bowen, Tripp, & Jenkins 2001). Understanding the state of these envelopes helps us understand the process of galaxy formation.

Two of the galaxies whose extended gas disks we have studied so far turned out to have HI envelopes that are most definitely not regular, quiescent disks. NGC 4449 is nearly surrounded by a large arc of gas that spans roughly 80 kpc (Hunter et al. 1998). Interestingly, not only is this gas cold (velocity dispersions of 5–10 km s-1), but it is also in regular rotation about the center of the galaxy. HI maps of IC 10 show that the extended gas is concentrated in three arm-like structures, and that IC 10 is merging with a large infalling cloud currently to the south of the disk (Wilcots & Miller 1998). A third galaxy, Sextans A, by contrast, does appear to have a smooth outer HI envelope (Wilcots & Hunter 2001).

To increase our sample, we obtained observations of two galaxies that were candidates for having unusually extended HI gas: UGC 199 and DDO 26 ($`=`$UGC 2053). UGC 199 was chosen from the Arecibo Observatory mapping of van Zee, Haynes, & Giovanelli (1995). DDO 26 was chosen from the list of Hunter & Gallagher (1985) that was derived from comparing HI fluxes obtained with single-dish radio telescopes with different beam sizes: the NRAO 140-foot and the NRAO 300-foot telescopes with beam sizes of 21′ and 10′, respectively. We present the results of new interferometric observations of these two galaxies here, and show that, in fact, neither of them is likely to have unusually extended HI emission.

Properties of UGC 199 and DDO 26 are given in Table 1. Both systems are classed as Im galaxies and were not known to be interacting systems. DDO 26 has an MB that is comparable to that of the SMC. We do not yet have an MB for UGC 199, but an estimate by van Zee et al. (1995) from a photographic magnitude would place UGC 199 as 2 magnitudes fainter than DDO 26. The star formation rates derived from H$`\alpha `$ luminosities are also given in Table 1. DDO 26 has a star formation rate per unit area that is between that of the SMC and LMC. UGC 199’s star formation rate is 16 times lower and is typical of irregulars (Hunter 1997). Thus, both objects are relatively low luminosity and appear to be fairly typical Im galaxies.

## 2 Observations

### 2.1 HI

We obtained 21 cm line-emission observations of UGC 199 and DDO 26 with the Very Large Array (VLA111 The VLA is a facility of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), itself a facility of the National Science Foundation that is operated by Associated Universities, Inc.) radio interferometer in its D-array configuration on 5 August 2000. We chose the D-array configuration in order to maximize sensitivity to low column density extended emission. Characteristics of the observations and maps are given in Table 2. The total bandwidth was 1.56 MHz with 128 channels and a channel separation of 12.2 kHz (2.6 km s-1). The data were on-line Hanning-smoothed, and the resulting velocity resolution is 5 km s-1.

We subtracted the continuum emission in the uv-plane using line-free channels on either end of the spectrum. To make maps, we employed a routine in NRAO’s Astronomical Image Processing System (AIPS) that enables one to choose a sample weighting that is in between the standard “natural” weighting, which gives the highest signal-to-noise but at the expense of long wings in the beam, and “uniform” weighting, which gives the best resolution but at the cost of signal-to-noise and the presence of negative sidelobes. We chose a sample weighting that gives a formal increase of only 5% in noise yet with a significant improvement in beam profile over what would have been achieved with “natural” weighting. The resulting synthesized beam profiles (FWHM) are given in Table 2. We also experimented with natural-weighted maps and with maps smoothed to twice the beam-size in order to explore possible missed emission at low column densities.

We deconvolved the maps until there were roughly comparable numbers of positive and negative components. To remove the portions of each channel map without emission that are only contributing noise to the map, we used the maps smoothed to twice the beamsize for a conditional transfer of data in the unsmoothed maps. The channel maps were blanked wherever the flux in the smoothed maps fell below 2.5$`\sigma `$. Flux-weighted moment maps were made from the resulting data cube.

### 2.2 V-band Images

We obtained V-band images of UGC 199 with the Perkins 1.8 m telescope at Lowell Observatory 1998 December and 1999 January. We used a SITe 2048$`\times `$2048 CCD binned 4$`\times `$4. The pixel scale was 0.61″ and the seeing was 2.2″. The night was clear. We took three 750 s exposures and combined them to remove cosmic rays.

DDO 26 was observed by P. Massey in V-band with the Kitt Peak National Observatory 4 m telescope 1997 October. The exposure was a single 60 s image. The detector was a Tektronix 2048$`\times `$2048 CCD. The night was clear. The pixel scale was 0.42″ and the seeing was 1.6″.

The electronic pedestal was subtracted using the overscan strip. Images were flat-fielded using observations of the twilight sky.

## 3 The HI Results

### 3.1 UGC 199

To examine continuum objects in the field of view of the radio map of UGC 199, we constructed and deconvolved maps from the D-array uv-data before the continuum was subtracted. The 21 cm continuum emission is illustrated in Figure 5. An outer HI contour of UGC 199 is shown superposed to outline the galaxy. We have not detected any continuum emission from UGC 199 itself. Other sources in the field of view of the primary beam are listed in Table 3 along with their fluxes.

Channel maps of the HI line-emission in UGC 199 are shown in Figure 5. We detected HI from 1740 km s-1 to 1870 km s-1. The channel maps show an elliptical distribution that does not change significantly from channel to channel and that appears to be similar to the beam shape. There is clear evidence of regular rotation.

The integrated HI map is shown superposed on our V-band image in Figure 5. The distribution is smooth and symmetrical. It is elongated at a position angle of $``$77°, close to that of the optical. The minor-to-major axis ratio of the HI is 0.77. If the intrinsic ratio is 0.3, as found in the optical for other irregulars by Hodge & Hitchcock (1966) and van den Bergh (1988), the observed ratio implies an inclination of 42°.

The flux in each channel of the HI data cube was integrated over a square 21′ on a side in order to determine the total HI flux detected in the map. The flux was corrected for attenuation by the primary beam. The integrated profile is shown in Figure 5 and compared to the single-dish profile obtained by Schneider et al. (1990). The beam of that observation was 3.3′, and so it is no surprise that our VLA observation detects more gas. We detect a total HI mass of $`8.5\times 10^8`$ M$`_{\mathrm{}}`$. For comparison van Zee et al. (1995) give a total HI mass of $`8.1\times 10^8`$ M$`_{\mathrm{}}`$. Thus, our VLA map includes 5% more HI. Maps of our data made with lower resolution but higher signal-to-noise do not detect any more flux.

Velocity field contours are shown superposed on our V-band image in Figure 5. There is clear and regular rotation at a position angle of $``$82°, close to the major axis of the integrated HI distribution. We have determined a rotation curve in the following manner. We began by allowing all parameters to be variables and fitting the entire field with a Brandt function. From the resulting solution we fixed the center coordinates at 00h 20m 50.9s, 12° 51′ 39″ (epoch 2000). We then fit the inner 40″ radius of the velocity field with solid body rotation and from that fixed the systemic velocity at 1800.5$`\pm 2.0`$ km s-1. This agreed to 0.3 km s-1 with the systemic velocity determined from the fit with the Brandt function as well. We then fit tilted ring models to annuli of 20″ width. Here the position angle was fixed at $``$82° from Figure 5 and the inclination at 42°, as discussed above. The resulting rotation curve is shown in Figure 5. We see UGC 199 attains a rotation speed of about 80 km s-1, for an inclination of 42°.

### 3.2 DDO 26

To examine continuum objects in the field of view of the radio map of DDO 26, we constructed and deconvolved maps from the D-array uv-data before the continuum was subtracted. The 21 cm continuum emission is illustrated in Figure 5. An outer HI contour of DDO 26 is shown superposed to outline the galaxy. We have not detected any continuum emission from DDO 26 itself. Other sources in the field of view of the primary beam are listed in Table 4 along with their fluxes.

Channel maps of the HI line-emission in DDO 26 are shown in Figure 5. We detected HI from 974 km s-1 to 1078 km s-1. There is clear division into two emission peaks from 977 km s-1 to 1039 km s-1. The channel maps also show an arm to the northwest of the galaxy center from 1031 km s-1 to 1068 km s-1. We also display the integrated HI map in Figure 5 so as to bring out the arm.

The integrated HI map is shown superposed on our V-band image in Figure 5 and on the H$`\alpha `$ image in Figure 5. The inner HI distribution is elongated along a position angle of 46°. This is rotated about 8° further to the east than the apparent position angle of the optical distribution that has a major axis position angle of 38° in the V-band (see also Swaters 1999). The outer HI contour is close to round even though the center of the HI distribution and the optical are clearly elongated. The second lowest contour, on the other hand, is more boxy than round. These changes in minor-to-major axis ratio with radius could indicate changes in inclination of the gas disk and be the result of a warp. Warps in gas disks are a common phenomenum, but usually in normal systems they are not as extreme as what we see here.

The integrated HI shows the two peaks with centers about 41″ apart. The H ii regions are clustered around these two peaks. The arm seen in the channel maps is apparent as a bulging of the contours to the northwest of the galaxy center. There is also a piece of emission that appears to the northwest of the arm in channels 1057 km s-1 to 1075 km s-1 and appears in the integrated HI map as a knob on the outer contour.

The flux in each channel of the HI data cube was integrated over a square 21′ on a side in order to determine the total HI flux detected in the map. The flux was corrected for attenuation by the primary beam. The integrated profile is shown in Figure 5 and compared to the NRAO 140-foot Telescope single-dish observation of Hunter & Gallagher (1985) that used a beam of 21′. In Figure 5 one can see that the 140-foot telescope and VLA profiles parallel each other, but the 140-foot profile is everywhere significantly higher. We detect a total HI mass of $`1.1\times 10^9`$ M$`_{\mathrm{}}`$ while Hunter and Gallagher detected $`2.0\times 10^9`$ M$`_{\mathrm{}}`$. Thus, we would appear to have detected only 56% of the HI detected with a single-dish telescope. We will return to this issue below.

Velocity field contours are shown superposed on our V-band image in Figure 5. The velocity field is fairly regular in the center, becoming disorganized in the outer parts. However, the major axis implied by the velocity field is about $``$29° (Swaters 1999 measured $``$37°). This is 75° to the northwest of the position angle defined by the major axis of the inner HI distribution. Thus, the rotation axis is quite divorced from the morphology of the HI and optical.

How common is such a large difference in the position angle of the kinematic and morphological major axes in Im galaxies? To address this we examined the sample of Im and Sm galaxies observed by Swaters (1999). We selected from his sample those galaxies with organized velocity fields and with ellipticities greater than 0.1 so that the optical major axis would not be ambiguous. These criteria left 47 galaxies from his larger sample. We determined the difference between the position angles of his HI kinematical axis and his R-band optical morphological axis. We checked most galaxies and adjusted three position angles: one obvious typographical error (UGC 6446) and two that disagreed by large amounts with RC3 values and with our own V-band image (UGC 10310, UGC 11861). The resulting number distribution is shown in Figure 5. The position of DDO 26 is marked. One can clearly see that most Im and Sm galaxies have morphologies and velocity fields that agree within 10°, although there is a tail in the distribution up to 40° difference. Only three galaxies, including DDO 26, have differences larger than this, and all three have differences of 60°—70°. Thus, we see that while DDO 26 is not alone in exhibiting such a large difference, it is unusual compared to most Im and Sm galaxies.

We show a position-velocity diagram in Figure 5, for slices one beam-width wide along the optical major axis and the HI kinematic axis. The slice along the optical major axis reflects the two HI peaks and the intensity minimum between them. Otherwise the two slices show a very broad range in velocity at a given location. Figure 5 shows profile cuts at the locations of the two HI peaks, integrated over a square approximating the beam-size. One can again see the wide velocity width (44 km s-1 and 51 km s-1 FWHM). The higher intensity peak (labeled 1 in the figure) has a shallow fall-off to higher velocities and the lower intensity peak (labeled 2 in the figure) appears to be the blending of two Gaussians.

Clearly, DDO 26 is not kinematically relaxed. The dramatic change in the position angle of the HI distribution, the large offset between the kinematical and morphological major axes, the messy kinematics in the outer parts of the velocity field, the broad profiles of the HI peaks, and the HI arm to the northwest combine to suggest that this galaxy has been perturbed sometime in the recent past. There is no obvious perturbing galaxy nearby; the nearest large galaxy (NGC 1012) is 330 kpc on the plane of the sky and 42 km s-1 different in radial velocity. However, the double peaked nature of the HI and optical suggest another possibility: that DDO 26 is two systems in the process of merging. In this scenario, the arm to the northwest would be the result of tidal forces. It is not always easy to tell galaxies that are irregular due to internal processes from galaxies that are irregular due to external processes. And certainly, normal Im galaxies are lumpy in the HI and optical. However, given the unusual characteristics of this system, a merging system is a possibility. If DDO 26 is two systems in the process of becoming one, the original systems must both have been small irregular galaxies to begin with because the mass and luminosity of the combined systems are low.

## 4 HI Extents

### 4.1 UGC 199

For UGC 199 we measure a maximum HI radius of 1.6′ at the outer contour of 2.2$`\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2 in Figure 5. Thus, the HI extent relative to the optical RHI/R25 is only 3.6. Estimating RH as 40% larger than R25, we have RHI/R$`{}_{H}{}^{}2.5`$. From data compiled from the literature for Im galaxies, Hunter (1997) shows a peak in the distribution of RHI/RH of 1.5—2. Note, however, that Hunter’s RHI is the extent measured to $`1\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2. The HI around DDO 26, therefore, is only marginally more extended than that of typical irregulars. There would have to be highly extended HI around UGC 199 at column densities 1—2$`\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2 for the extent of the HI around UGC 199 to be much larger. Since our smoothed data which reaches this sensitivity limit does not pick up any more flux, this possibility seems unlikely.

### 4.2 DDO 26

For DDO 26 we measure a maximum HI radius of 2.4′ at the outer contour of 3.1$`\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2 in Figure 5. Thus, RHI/R25 is 2.4. From Swaters’ (1999) R-band d25/d26.5 ratio for DDO 26, we estimate RHI/R$`{}_{H}{}^{}1.7`$, a value that is typical for Im galaxies. Thus, there would have to be considerable gas 1–3$`\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2 at large radii for DDO 26 to have unusually extended HI.

On the other hand, the comparison with Hunter & Gallagher’s (1985) single-dish observations says that we have only detected 56% of the gas emission. Furthermore, Hunter and Gallagher would predict an HI diameter greater than 10′, a factor of two larger than what we detect. There are three possible explanations. First, the extended emission is there but it is larger than the largest structure the VLA D-array is sensitive to and is absolutely smooth beyond our detection radius. This would require that the missing HI be extended $`>`$15′ radius. Since the two beam-sizes in Hunter and Gallagher’s flux comparison were 10′ and 21′, this is possible.

Second, the missing emission is at a column density below our detection limit of $`<3\times 10^{19}`$. In the worst case scenario, the missing emission—9$`\times 10^8`$ M$`_{\mathrm{}}`$—would be spread evenly over an annulus of radius from 2.4′, the extent of what we detect, to 10.5′, the half beam size of the Hunter & Gallagher (1985) observation. That would be a column density of 1$`\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2. Although Figure 5 only goes to 3$`\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2, we would easily have detected a column density of 1$`\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2 in our smoothed map, and we do not see this emission.

The third, explanation is that Hunter & Gallagher (1985) goofed and, in fact, the HI emission associated with DDO 26 is not highly extended. That this might be the case is suggested by Figure 5 where the Hunter and Gallagher integrated profile matches our VLA profile closely in shape but the Hunter and Gallagher profile is offset to higher flux values. If the Hunter and Gallagher profile is sitting on a 0.03 Jy pedestal, a 9% error in the peak, the two profiles could be brought into agreement. If we were simply missing extended HI that Hunter and Gallagher had detected, we might not expect that missing flux to be so evenly distributed in velocity as Figure 5 suggests. Thus, this explanation seems the most likely.

## 5 Summary

We have presented VLA D-array observations of two irregular galaxies that were candidates for unusually extended HI emission. The galaxies, UGC 199 and DDO 26, otherwise appeared to be normal, low-luminosity systems with modest star-formation rates. Our VLA data suggest that the HI around these two galaxies is not unusually extended.

The HI around UGC 199 appears as a regular, symmetric distribution with regular rotation and a maximum rotation speed of about 80 km s-1. We detect HI to 1.6′ at 2.2$`\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2. The ratio RHI/R25 is 3.4 which is similar to values for other irregulars.

By contrast, the HI around DDO 26 shows a concentration into two blobs with an arm to the northwest and some additional emission to the northwest of that. The major axis of rotation is 75° from the morphological major axis, and this is unusual for Im and Sm galaxies. We suggest that DDO 26 has been perturbed in some way and that it could be two dwarfs in the process of merging. We detect HI to a radius of 2.4′ at 3$`\times 10^{19}`$ cm-2. RHI/R25 is 2.4 which is typical of Im galaxies. However, we find that we are missing 56% of the flux detected in a single-dish observation and conclude that most likely the single-dish observation is in error.

We wish to thank the staff at the VLA who provided the support that made these observations possible. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AST-9616940 to DAH and AST-9616907 to EMW and the Lowell Research Fund.


text:
# Stern-Gerlach Entanglement in Spinor Bose-Einstein Condensates.

## Abstract

Entanglement of spin and position variables produced by spatially inhomogeneous magnetic fields of Stern-Gerlach type acting on spinor Bose-Einstein condensates may lead to interference effects at the level of one-boson densities. A model is worked out for these effects which is amenable to analytical calculation for gaussian shaped condensates. The resulting interference effects are sensitive to the spin polarization properties of the condensate.

PACS number: 03.75.Fi

(1) Departamento de Física Atómica, Molecular y Nuclear, Aptdo 1065, 41080 Sevilla

and Departamento de Física Aplicada I, Universidad de Sevilla

Sevilla, Spain

(2) Departamento de Física–Matemática, Instituto de Física, Universidade de São Paulo,

C.P. 66318, 05315-970 São Paulo, S.P., Brazil

(3) Departamento de Física, ICEX, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais,

C.P. 702, 30161-970 Belo Horizonte, M.G., Brazil

The classic Stern-Gerlach experiment is currently understood as providing for the spin analysis of a beam of particles using the entanglement of spin and spatial degrees of freedom through the action of inhomogeneous magnetic fields and subsequent spatial analysis of the scattered flux. In this paper we explore effects resulting from this same type of entanglement when an essentially static spinor Bose-Einstein condensate with large coherence length is subjected to Stern-Gerlach field gradients. In the case of pure condensates that are sufficiently dilute so that mean field effects are a minor correction, the involved dynamics can be treated in a rather straightforward and simple way for appropriate, non-trivial field configurations using the ideas recently developed in ref. .

A simple but still rather general model state for a pure spinor (spin 1 for definiteness) condensate is one in which all bosons occupy one same single-boson spin-orbital $`u(\stackrel{}{r},\sigma )`$, where $`\sigma =1,0,1`$ is the spin variable. This state can be expressed in terms of the creation operator

$$a^{}\underset{\sigma }{}d^3ru(\stackrel{}{r},\sigma )\psi _\sigma ^{}(\stackrel{}{r}),$$

where $`\psi _\sigma (\stackrel{}{r})`$ is the spinor bosonic field operator, as

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }^{(N)}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}}\left(a^{}\right)^N|0.$$

This state is completely characterized by its one-boson density, given by

$$\rho (\stackrel{}{r},\sigma ;\stackrel{}{r}^{}\sigma ^{})\mathrm{\Psi }^{(N)}|\psi _\sigma ^{}^{}(\stackrel{}{r}^{})\psi _\sigma (\stackrel{}{r})|\mathrm{\Psi }^{(N)}=Nu(\stackrel{}{r},\sigma )u^{}(\stackrel{}{r}^{},\sigma ^{}).$$

The spin and position degrees of freedom are entangled whenever the spin-orbital $`u(\stackrel{}{r},\sigma )`$ does not have the product form $`u(\stackrel{}{r})\chi (\sigma )`$. A slightly more general form for a non-entangled one-body density is

$$\rho (\stackrel{}{r},\sigma ;\stackrel{}{r}^{}\sigma ^{})u(\stackrel{}{r})u^{}(\stackrel{}{r}^{})\rho ^{(\mathrm{s})}(\sigma ;\sigma ^{})\rho ^{(\mathrm{pos})}(\stackrel{}{r};\stackrel{}{r}^{})\rho ^{(\mathrm{s})}(\sigma ;\sigma ^{})$$
(1)
where the second factor, representing the spin density matrix, is allowed to be a mixed state. This information if of course not sufficient to craracterize the underlying many-boson state. Considering, as an example, a case in which $`\rho ^{(\mathrm{s})}(\sigma ;\sigma ^{})`$ is diagonal, with eigenvalues $`N_\sigma `$ and $`_{\sigma =1}^1N_\sigma =N`$, both the pure $`N`$-boson state

$$|\{N_\sigma \}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{N_1!N_0!N_1!}}\underset{\sigma }{}\left(a_\sigma ^{}\right)^{N_\sigma }|0,a_\sigma ^{}d^3ru(\stackrel{}{r})\psi _\sigma ^{}(\stackrel{}{r})$$
(2)
and the statistical mixture represented by the many-boson density

$$\underset{\sigma }{}\left(a_\sigma ^{}\right)^N|0\frac{N_\sigma }{N}0|\left(a_\sigma \right)^N$$
(3)
lead to that same one boson density.

The condensates recently produced using all-optical confinement techniques  may possibly be associated with one-boson densities of type (1). This has been corroborated by applying a Stern-Gerlach magnetic field to the condensate and observing its splitting into three separate components. In general, the effect of Stern-Gerlach fields is to generate spin-position entanglement, by subjecting different spin components of the state to different boosts. One may note, moreover, that the spin components are defined with respect to a quantization axis associated to the field configuration itself, and are therefore open to manipulation. In particular, a mid-course change in the quantization axis will imply that the position amplitude associated with each of the new spin components will be a superposition of differently boosted components of the initial state. This will give interference effects at the level of the one-body density. Alternatively, a final spin selective observation scheme implemented in terms of a quantization axis different from that associated with the Stern-Gerlach field will also produce one-body interference effects. Both of these schemes will be developed in what follows.

The mechanism responsible for the one-body interference can be illustrated schematically in terms of a completely polarized “travelling” one-boson amplitude

$$\varphi (\stackrel{}{r},\sigma )=\frac{e^{i\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{r}}}{\sqrt{V}}|\sigma _z=0.$$

If the field gradient is applied along the $`x`$-axis, rotation of the state changes the spin factor to $`(|\sigma _x=1|\sigma _x=1)/\sqrt{2}`$. The Stern-Gerlach boosts then change the amplitude to (up to overall position independent phase factors)

$$\varphi (\stackrel{}{r},\sigma )\frac{1}{\sqrt{2V}}\left(e^{i\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{r}+i\kappa x}|\sigma _x=1e^{i\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{r}i\kappa x}|\sigma _x=1\right)$$

where $`\mathrm{}\kappa `$ is the momentum associated with the boosts. The spin states $`|\sigma _x=\pm 1`$ can then be re-expressed in the $`z`$ quantization axis as

$$|\sigma _x=\pm 1=\frac{1}{2}\left(|\sigma _z=1\pm \sqrt{2}|\sigma _z=0+|\sigma _z=1\right)$$

so that the spatial density associated with the $`z`$-component $`\sigma _z=1`$ (say) is, after the Stern-Gerlach entanglement

$$\rho (\stackrel{}{r},\sigma _z=1;\stackrel{}{r},\sigma _z=1)=\frac{1}{2V}\mathrm{sin}^2\kappa x$$

which shows interference fringes parallel to the $`z`$-axis. Note, in particular, that this is independent of the initial momentum $`\stackrel{}{k}`$ of the travelling amplitude. Eventually, an analogy may be discerned between this mechanism and that involved in Bragg diffraction experiments involving Bose-Einstein condensates. More specifically, the coherent superposition of amplitudes with different momenta resulting from the action of the Stern-Gerlach field after subsequent redefinition of the relevant quantization axis parallels that achieved through the action of the Bragg pulses in the first ref..

We now turn to the description of the dinamics of the spinor condensate under the field gradient. We assume that when the field is applied the condensate is dilute enough so that effects of the two-body interaction are negligible. The relevant dynamics is thus contained in a second-quantized Hamiltonian of the form

$$H=\underset{\sigma \sigma ^{}}{}d^3r\psi _\sigma ^{}^{}(\stackrel{}{r})\left[\frac{\mathrm{}^2^2}{2M}\delta _{\sigma \sigma ^{}}+\sigma ^{}|g\stackrel{}{S}\stackrel{}{B}(\stackrel{}{r})|\sigma \right]\psi _\sigma (\stackrel{}{r}).$$

The external magnetic field $`\stackrel{}{B}(\stackrel{}{r})`$ will be taken to be such that there is a suitable Cartesian frame in which it has the form, assumed to be valid throughout the spatial extention of the condensate ($`100\mu m`$),

$$\stackrel{}{B}(\stackrel{}{r})\stackrel{}{B}(x,z)=(B_0+b_1z)\widehat{z}b_1x\widehat{x}.$$

Typical values of the constants are $`B_050G`$ and $`b_12.5Gcm^1`$.

As shown in ref , the dynamics can be implemented in terms of a set of semi-classical propagators associated to eigenvalues of the projection of the spin operator onto the direction of the local magnetic field. In view of the orders of magnitude given above, this direction differs negligibly from the field $`z`$ axis. Therefore, if this axis makes an angle $`\theta `$ with the quantization axis used to express the spin density, in order to apply the semi-classsical propagators one has to consider the rotated spin density

$$\rho ^{(\mathrm{s})}(m;m^{})=\underset{\sigma \sigma ^{}}{}d_{\sigma m}^{}(\theta )\rho ^{(\mathrm{s})}(\sigma ;\sigma ^{})d_{\sigma ^{}m^{}}(\theta )$$

so that the complete initial density is given as

$$\rho (\stackrel{}{r},m;\stackrel{}{r}^{}m^{})=\rho ^{(\mathrm{pos})}(\stackrel{}{r};\stackrel{}{r}^{})\rho ^{(\mathrm{s})}(m;m^{}).$$

Propagation to time $`t`$ of each $`m`$ component is then performed by

$$x_f,z_f|U_m(t)|x,z\left(\frac{M}{2\pi i\mathrm{}t}\right)\mathrm{exp}\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}𝒮_{\mathrm{clas}}$$

where the classical action

$$𝒮_{\mathrm{clas}}=\frac{M}{2t}[(x_fx)^2+(z_fz)^2]\frac{1}{2}gmb_1t(z+z_f)\frac{(gmb_1)^2}{24M}t^3+gmB_0t$$

has been evaluated using $`m`$-dependent trajectories in the magnetic field. Note that $`m`$ is a constant of motion along the trajectories due to the special choice of reference frame. The evaluation of the above expression involved neglecting terms of the order $`(b_1\mathrm{\Delta }x/B_0)^2`$, with $`\mathrm{\Delta }x`$ of the order of the propagation range. Since the evolution in the $`y`$ direction is free, it has been ommited from the above expressions. The propagated density at time $`t`$ is therefore given by

$$\rho (\stackrel{}{r},m;\stackrel{}{r}^{}m^{},t)=d^3r_1d^3r_2\stackrel{}{r}|U_m(t)|\stackrel{}{r}_1\rho (\stackrel{}{r}_1,m;\stackrel{}{r}_2,m^{})\stackrel{}{r}_2|U_m^{}^{}(t)|\stackrel{}{r}^{}.$$

The spin inclusive observed spatial density after propagation in the Stern-Gerlach field is then given by the trace

$$\rho ^{(\mathrm{obs})}(\stackrel{}{r},t)=\underset{m}{}\rho (\stackrel{}{r},m;\stackrel{}{r},m,t).$$

In the case of an initial spin density which is diagonal in the magnetic field frame with weights $`3/5:1/5:1/5`$ for the components $`1,0,+1`$ and an initial gaussian spatial distribution one obtains the result shown in fig. 1(a), for $`t=15ms`$ and field gradient somewhat lower than the typical value quoted above. The resulting distribution closely resembles that given in ref. .

We next consider a mid-course change of the Stern-Gerlach field. After a first stage described by the above expressions and lasting for a time $`t_1`$ a sudden rotation by an angle $`\theta _B`$ of $`\stackrel{}{B}(x,z)`$ is performed around the $`y`$ axis. Strictly speaking, it is not important that the field values are maintained, so that the rotation can be achieved e.g. by superimposing an additional external field. The initial condition for the second stage of the evolution will be then, in the appropriate field frame

$$\rho ^{(2)}(\stackrel{}{r},m;\stackrel{}{r}^{}m^{},t_1)=\underset{m_1m_2}{}d_{m_1m}^{}(\theta _B)\rho (\stackrel{}{r},m_1;\stackrel{}{r}^{}m_2,t_1)d_{m_2m^{}}(\theta _B).$$

The propagation to $`t>t_1`$ is handled analogously to the first stage, in terms of a propagator $`\stackrel{~}{U}_m(tt_1)`$, leading to a final density

$$\rho ^{(2)}(\stackrel{}{r},m;\stackrel{}{r}^{}m^{},t)=d^3r_1d^3r_2\stackrel{}{r}|\stackrel{~}{U}_m(tt_1)|\stackrel{}{r}_1\rho ^{(2)}(\stackrel{}{r}_1,m;\stackrel{}{r}_2,m^{},t_1)\stackrel{}{r}_2|\stackrel{~}{U}_m^{}^{}(tt_1)|\stackrel{}{r}^{}.$$

The corresponding spin-inclusive final spatial density is now

$`\rho ^{(\mathrm{inc})}(\stackrel{}{r},t)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m}{}}\rho ^{(2)}(\stackrel{}{r},m;\stackrel{}{r},m,t)=`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{m}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{m_1m_2}{}}{\displaystyle d^3r_1d^3r_2\stackrel{}{r}|𝒰_{mm_1}(t)|\stackrel{}{r}_1\rho (\stackrel{}{r}_1,m_1;\stackrel{}{r}_2,m_2)\stackrel{}{r}_2|𝒰_{m_2m}^{}(t)|\stackrel{}{r}}`$
where

$$\stackrel{}{r}|𝒰_{mm^{}}(t)|\stackrel{}{r}^{}=d^3r_1\stackrel{}{r}|\stackrel{~}{U}_m(tt_1)|\stackrel{}{r}_1d_{m^{}m}^{}(\theta _B)\stackrel{}{r}_1|U_m^{}(t_1)|\stackrel{}{r}^{}$$

is the effective, spin non-diagonal propagator from time zero to time $`t`$. Note that, during the first stage, different $`m`$ components are subjected to different boosts. After the rotation $`\theta _B`$, the new $`m`$ components will in general be associated with coherent superpositions of differently boosted spatial amplitudes, leading to interferece patterns in the observed spin inclusive one-boson density, as can be seen in fig. 1. This interference will be absent in the special case in which the spin density is diagonal in the reference frame defined by the field acting in the first stage, due to the incoherent nature of the differently boosted components.

Alternatively, we may let the system evolve as in the first stage for a time $`t`$, and then consider the resulting one-boson density spin-selected along a quantization axis differing from the field $`z`$ axis by a rotation $`\theta _{\mathrm{sel}}`$ around the $`y`$ axis. In this case the spatial one-boson density selected for the component $`m`$ of the spin in the last frame will be given by

$$\rho ^{(\mathrm{sel})}(\stackrel{}{r},t)=\underset{m_1m_2}{}d_{m_1m}^{}(\theta _{\mathrm{sel}})\rho (\stackrel{}{r},m_1;\stackrel{}{r},m_2,t)d_{m_2m}(\theta _{\mathrm{sel}}).$$
(5)
which will also show interference effects for the same general reasons discussed in the previous case. In particular, in the special case in which the spin density is diagonal in the reference frame defined by the field, no interference occurs in the one-boson density. An example of this case is shown in fig. 2.

The initial (gaussian) spatial amplitudes leading to the patterns shown in Figs. 1 and 2 have been taken as real, and therefore the initial velocity field vanishes. The regime in which the two-body interaction effects becomes negligible is in general reached after release of the mean-field energy, which generates a non-vanishing velocity field. The argument given above in order to illustrate the one-boson interference mechanism indicates that this initial velocity field does not change the interference pattern generated by the Stern-Gerlach boosts. This has in fact been verified in the calculations, by starting from narrower gaussians and letting them spread freely for the appropriate time before applying the magnetic field.

In both cases, the typical fringe spacing is determined by the de Broglie wavelength associated with the relative velocities of the interfering amplitudes. This depends both on the value of the magnetic field gradient and on the duration of the first stage (in the first case above) or of the exposure time to the field (in the second case). For the $`F=1`$ states of 85Rb, fringes of the order of several microns correspond to times of the order of $`1ms`$ or shorter for $`b_11Gcm^1`$.

It should be stressed that the above analysis has been carried out at the level of the one-boson density. To the extent that laboratory observation is sensitive to many-boson correlations, further interference effects are to be expected. Notably, in the case of the pure many-boson initial state (2) the Monte Carlo procedure of ref.  will generate an interference pattern in the extended $`\stackrel{}{r},\sigma `$ space even when the initial Stern-Gerlach boosts are applied along the $`z`$-axis, which is however invisible at the one-boson level. No many-body interferences occur, under these conditions, in the case of the mixed many-boson state (3), due to the incoherece of the different spin components. If, however, the initial Stern-Gerlach boost is applied along a direction different from the $`x`$-axis, each one of the incoherent, completely polarized spin components of the mixed many-boson state will generate an interference pattern which seeps down to the one-body level. The restriction to the one-body level appears thus as a “filter” on the richer domain of many-body effects.

Acknowledgement. S. C.-B. has been partially supported by the Spanish CICyT, Project No. PB98-1111 and by the Pró-Reitoria de Pesquisa of the Universidade de São Paulo, and M.C.N. has been partially supported by by the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) and by the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq).