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# Neutrino background spectra from primordial black hole evaporations: dependence on the initial mass spectrum.

## I Initial mass spectra of PBHs

The initial mass function of primordial black holes (or, it is better to say, the initial mass spectrum) is determined, first of all, by the peculiarities of a gravitational collapse near the threshold of a black hole formation. According to analytic calculations of seventies  a critical size of the density contrast needed for the PBH formation, $`\delta _c`$, is about $`1/3`$. Besides, it was argued that all PBHs have mass roughly equal to the horizon mass at a moment of the formation, independently of the perturbation size. However, it was shown recently that near the threshold of black hole formation the gravitational collapse behaves as a critical phenomenon . In this case the initial mass function will be quite different from the analogous function in the analytic calculations . The main feature is that the PBH mass formed depends on the size of the fluctuation ,

$$M_{BH}=kM_h(\delta \delta _c)^{\gamma _k}.$$
(1)
In this formula $`M_h`$ is the horizon mass at the time the fluctuation enters the horizon; $`\delta _c`$, $`k`$, $`\gamma `$ are parameters of a concrete model of the critical collapse . It is seen from Eq.(1) that PBH mass may be arbitrarily small independently of the value of $`M_h`$. Besides, the value of the critical overdensity, $`\delta _c`$, in such models is typically $`0.7`$, i.e., about a factor of 2 larger than the value found analytically .

The second important ingredient of a PBH initial mass function calculation is a taking into account the spread of horizon masses at which PBHs are formed. This problem exists independently of a nature of gravitational collapse. It is assumed very often that the majority of the black hole formation occurs at the shortest possible scale. In particular, the authors of ref. determined the PBH initial mass function under the assumption that all PBHs form at the same horizon mass. The accuracy of such approximation was studied in the work  using the excursion set formalism, and it was found that it is good enough, at least in the case of power-law density perturbation spectra with the spectral index close to $`1.2`$ (i.e., slightly ”blue” spectra, with the value of $`n`$ satisfying observational constraints).

Recently, in the works of Kim  and present authors  the expression for the PBH mass spectrum (for the critical collapse case) was obtained which takes into account the accumulation of PBHs formed at all epochs after the beginning of the ordinary radiation dominated era. The derivation is based on the Press- Schechter formalism . Resulting formula for the PBH mass spectrum, taking into account the spread of horizon masses, depends on the horizon crossing amplitude $`\sigma _H`$ which is a function of horizon mass $`M_h`$. In the present paper we assume a power law of primordial density perturbations for all scales, and in this case one has ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$)

$$\sigma _H(M_h)=C_n\delta _H(M_h),$$
(2)
$$\delta _H(M_h)210^5\left(\frac{M_{eq}}{M_{h0}}\right)^{\frac{1n}{6}}\left(\frac{M_h}{M_{eq}}\right)^{\frac{1n}{4}}.$$
(3)
In these formulas $`\delta _H(M_h)`$ is the non-smoothing horizon crossing amplitude (which is time-independent), $`M_{h0}`$ is the present horizon mass, $`M_{eq}`$ is the horizon mass at the moment of matter-radiation equality, $`C_n`$ is the numerical coefficient arising as a result of the smoothing procedure (the top-hat form of the window-function was used in all numerical calculations). The amplitude is normalized on COBE data (see  for detailes and references).

The expression for the PBH mass spectrum is

$$n_{BH}(M_{BH})=\frac{n+3}{4}\sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi }}\rho _iM_i^{1/2}M_{BH}^{5/2}\underset{\delta _c}{\overset{\delta _{max}}{}}\frac{1}{\sigma _H}\left|\frac{\delta ^2}{\sigma _H^2}1\right|e^{\frac{\delta ^2}{2\sigma _H^2}}\xi ^{3/2}𝑑\delta ,$$
(4)
$$\xi k(\delta \delta _c)^{\gamma _k}.$$

Here, $`\rho _i`$ amd $`M_i`$ are the background density and the horizon mass at $`t_i`$ ($`t_i`$ is the moment of a beginning of growth of the density fluctuations). The value of PBH mass $`M_{BH}`$ is connected with $`M_h`$ by the relation (1). The upper limit of integration in Eq.(4) is determined by the expression

$$\delta _{max}=min[\left(\frac{M_{BH}}{kM_i}\right)^{1/\gamma _k}+\delta _c,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}\hspace{0.17em}1}].$$
(5)
Note, that in ref. the upper limit of integration in the expression for $`n_{BH}(M_{BH})`$ was erroneously put equal to 1.

All numerical calculations were carried out with the following values of parameters :

$$k=3,\gamma _k=0.36,\delta _c=0.7.$$
(6)
The known formula  for the PBH mass spectrum in the standard collapse case can be obtained from Eq.(4) by using the substitutions

$$\gamma _k0,k\gamma ^{1/2},\delta _c\gamma $$
(7)
and the approximate relation

$$_\gamma ^1𝑑\delta ^{}\left(\frac{\delta ^{}^2}{\sigma _H^2}1\right)e^{\frac{\delta ^{}^2}{2\sigma _H^2}}\gamma e^{\frac{\gamma ^2}{2\sigma _H^2}}.$$
(8)
Substituting Eqs.(7) and (8) in Eq.(4) one obtains

$$n_{BH}(M_{BH})=\frac{n+3}{4}\sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi }}\gamma ^{7/4}\rho _iM_i^{1/2}M_{BH}^{5/2}\sigma _H^1\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{\gamma ^2}{2\sigma _H^2}\right).$$
(9)
In this case the relation between $`M_{BH}`$ and $`M_h`$ is independent on $`\delta `$:

$$M_{BH}=\gamma ^{1/2}M_h.$$
(10)
We carried out in this work the calculations of the neutrino background spectra from PBH evaporations using the mass spectrum given by Eq.(4) and, in parallel, the mass spectrum from ref.,

$$n_{BH}(M_{BH})=\frac{\rho _i\left(\frac{M_{BH}}{kM_i}\right)^{1/\gamma _k}}{\sqrt{2\pi }\sigma _HM_{BH}M_i\gamma _k}e^{\frac{\left[\left(\frac{M_{BH}}{kM_i}\right)^{1/\gamma _k}+\delta _c\right]^2}{2\sigma _H^2}}.$$
(11)
In this expression the amplitude $`\sigma _H`$ is determined by the same formula (2), as above, but with the constant value of $`M_h`$, $`M_h=M_i`$, in accordance with the assumption of authors of ref. that all PBHs form at the smallest scale.

Our approach has two free parameters: the spectral index $`n`$, giving the perturbation amplitude (normalized on COBE data on large scales) and $`t_i`$, the moment of time just after reheating, from which the process of PBHs formation started. The value of $`t_i`$ is connected with a value of the reheating temperature,

$$t_i=0.301g_{}^{1/2}\frac{M_{pl}}{T_{RH}^2}$$
(12)
($`g_{}100`$ is the number of degrees of freedom in the early universe).

Typical results of PBH mass spectrum calculations are shown on Fig.1. We use, for convenience, the following abbreviations: KL, NJ and BK signify, correspondingly, the PBH mass spectra calculated by formulae of Kim and Lee  (Eq.(9)), Niemeyer and Jedamzik  (Eq.(11)) and Bugaev and Konishchev  (Eq.(4)). One can see from Fig.1 that at large values of the spectral index there is a clear difference in a behavior of two mass spectra, NJ and BK, based both on a picture of the critical collapse: BK spectrum is less steep at $`M_{BH}>M_i`$. Of course, this difference is not so spectacular in cases when the spectral index $`n`$ is more close to 1 (it is proved by another method in ref.).

The common feature of NJ and BK spectra is the maximum at $`M_{BH}M_i`$. Besides, both spectra have same slope in the region $`M_{BH}<M_i`$.

## II Neutrino background spectra from PBHs evaporations

Evolution of a PBH mass spectrum due to the evaporation leads to the approximate expression for this spectrum at any moment of time:

$$n_{BH}(m,t)=\frac{m^2}{(3\alpha t+m^3)^{2/3}}n_{BH}\left((3\alpha t+m^3)^{1/3}\right),$$
(13)
where $`\alpha `$ accounts for the degrees of freedom of evaporated particles and, strictly speaking, is a function of a running value of the PBH mass $`m`$. In all our numerical calculations we use the approximation

$$\alpha =const=\alpha (M_{BH}^{max}),$$
(14)
where $`M_{BH}^{max}`$ is the value of $`M_{BH}`$ in the initial mass spectrum corresponding to the maximum of this spectrum. Special study shows that errors connected with such approximation are rather small.

The expression for the spectrum of the background radiation is

$`S(E)={\displaystyle \frac{c}{4\pi }}{\displaystyle 𝑑t\frac{a_0}{a}\left(\frac{a_i}{a_0}\right)^3𝑑m\frac{m^2}{(3\alpha t+m^3)^{2/3}}n_{BH}\left[(3\alpha t+m^3)^{1/3}\right]f(E(1+z),m)e^{\tau (E,z)}}`$ (15)
(16)
$`{\displaystyle F(E,z)d\mathrm{log}_{10}(z+1)}.`$ (17)
In this formula $`f(E,m)`$ is a total instantaneous spectrum of the background radiation (neutrinos or photons) from a black hole evaporation. It includes the pure Hawking term and contributions from fragmentations of evaporated quarks and from decays of pions and muons (see  for details). The exponential factor in Eq.(15) takes into account an absorption of the radiation during its propagation in space. The processes of the neutrino absorption are considered, in a given context, in ref..

In last line of Eq.(15) we changed the variable $`t`$ on $`z`$ using, for simplicity, the flat model with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }=0`$ for which

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dt}{dz}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{H_0(1+z)}}\left(\mathrm{\Omega }_m(z+1)^3+\mathrm{\Omega }_r(z+1)^4\right)^{1/2},`$ (18)
(19)
$`\mathrm{\Omega }_r=(2.410^4h^2)^1,h=0.67.`$ (20)
Several examples of $`z`$-distributions (the integrands of the integral over $`z`$ in Eq.(15)) are shown on Fig.2. Again one can see the rather strong difference of two cases: the existence of a tail of heavy masses in BK spectrum leads to a relative enhancement of low $`z`$-contributions. The effect becomes more distinct with a rise of the reheating temperature.

The sharp cut-off of all $`z`$-distributions near $`z10^7`$ is entirely due to the neutrino absorption . The shrinkage of $`z`$-distributions at large $`T_{RH}`$ in NJ-case is due to the absence of large masses in the spectrum (PBHs of small masses evaporated earlier, and their radiation today is more redshifted).

Some results of calculations of the neutrino background spectra are shown on Figs.3-5. The functional form of these spectra is qualitatively the same as in the standard collapse case : $`E^3`$ law at large neutrino energies and a flat part at low energies with the crossover energy depending on $`T_{RH}`$. The only new feature is the sharp steepening of the spectra at high values of $`T_{RH}`$ in NJ case (Fig.4) connected with the corresponding shrinkage of the $`z`$-range.

Fig.5 shows the sensitivity of background neutrino intensities to a chosen value of the spectral index $`n`$, at a fixed $`T_{RH}`$. One can see from this figure that the neutrino background flux from PBH evaporations is comparable with the atmospheric neutrino flux at $`100\text{ MeV}`$ if $`n1.29`$ (at $`T_{RH}10^9\text{ GeV}`$). Such large values of the spectral index are, probably, excluded by the recent large-scale experiments.

Next figure shows the constraints on the spectral index following from data of neutrino experiments, as a function of the reheating temperature. As in our previous work, we used for a description of these constraints the data of the Kamiokande atmospheric neutrino experiment  and the experiment on a search of an antineutrino flux from the Sun  (see  for details).

For completeness, we show on the same figure the constraints following from extragalactic diffuse gamma ray data; part of them (NJ case) is in qualitative agreement with the results of ref.. It is seen that the constraints are much more weak in NJ case (at $`T_{RH}10^{10}\text{ GeV}`$). It is again the result of an absence of the tail of large masses in NJ spectrum, leading to a shrinkage of the $`z`$-distriburions and to a steepening of the background neutrino spectra.

## III Conclusions

1. The initial concentration of PBH’s is larger in the case of the standard picture of the gravitational collapse (as compared with the critical collapse case). It is due to relatively small value of the critical overdensity ($`\delta _c^{st}=\gamma =1/3`$). In the region near the maximum of PBH mass spectra the ratio of intensities is given by the approximate relation

$$\frac{n_{BH}^{(KL)}}{n_{BH}^{(BK)}}e^{\frac{\delta _c^2\gamma ^2}{2\sigma _H^2}}.$$
(21)
Correspondingly, densities of the neutrino and gamma backgrounds produced by PBH’s evaporations are smaller and spectral index constraints are weaker in the critical collapse case.

2. The summation over all epochs of PBH’s production (i.e., the transition from NJ to BK case) leads to an appearing of the tail of large PBH masses in the PBH mass spectrum. This tail is especially sufficient if the spectral index $`n`$ is relatively large.

3. In scenarios with high reheating temperatures, $`T_{RH}10^910^{10}\text{GeV}`$, the summation over all epochs leads to a strong enhancement of a high energy part of the background neutrino spectra.

4. Spectral index constraints following from the comparison of neutrino background predictions with existing data of neutrino experiments are rather weak if the purely power law of primordial density fluctuations is assumed for all scales (and, correspondingly, the normalization on COBE data is used). However, it does not mean that neutrino background intensities from PBH’s evaporations cannot be noticeable. If, for example, the spectrum of primordial density fluctuations is a combination of two simple power law spectra , i.e.,

$`\sigma _H(M_h)M_h^{\frac{1n_s}{4}},M_h<M_{h_c}<M_{eq};`$ (22)
(23)
$`\sigma _H(M_h)M_h^{\frac{1n_l}{4}},M_{eq}>M_h>M_{h_c},`$ (24)
then the small value of $`n_l1`$ ($`n_l10`$) which follows, in particular, from COBE data, does not contradict with the possibility that $`n_s1`$ is large and, correspondingly, $`\sigma _H`$ at small scales is also large. If $`M_{h_c}`$ and $`n_l`$ are known from somewhere, one can easily obtain from the neutrino data the constraints on the small scale spectral index $`n_s`$, in the same manner as it is done above for the all scale spectral index $`n`$. Several cosmological models of such kind, which predict a large density fluctuation amplitude just on small scales (while the amplitude on large scales is constrained by the small CMBR anisotropy) appeared recently (see, e.g., ).


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# Untitled Document

Structures de Poisson sur une intersection complète à singularités isolées

Benoit Fresse

14/2/2002

Résumé. — On étudie les structures de Poisson sur des variétés singulières. On considère dans ce but le complexe de Koszul associé aux équations d’une intersection complète. Ce complexe forme une algèbre différentielle graduée qui est équivalente à l’algèbre de la variété. On montre qu’une structure de Poisson est équivalente à la donnée d’une famille de multidérivations sur le complexe de Koszul. Si notre variété a des singularités isolées, alors peut construire une telle famille de multidérivations de forme réduite.

Poisson structures over a complete intersection with isolated singularities

Abstract. — We study Poisson structures over singular varieties. In this purpose, we consider the Koszul complex associated to the equations of a complete intersection. This complex forms a differential graded algebra which is equivalent to the algebra of the variety. We show that a Poisson structure is equivalent to a sequence of multiderivations over the Koszul complex. If our variety has isolated singularities, then we can construct a sequence of multiderivations of reduced form.

Abridged English Version

Suppose given a commutative algebra $`𝒪`$. This algebra is equipped with a Poisson structure if we have a biderivation $`\{,\}:𝒪𝒪𝒪`$ such that $`\{f,\{g,h\}\}+\{g,\{h,f\}\}+\{h,\{f,g\}\}=0`$, for all $`f,g,h𝒪`$. We would like to study such structures in the case $`𝒪`$ is the algebra of a complete intersection with isolated singularities. Our idea is to replace the algebra of a singular affine scheme by an equivalent free differential graded algebra.

1) Differential graded modules. — We work in the category of differential graded $`𝐂`$-modules (dg-modules, for short). We adopt the following classical conventions. A dg-module $`V`$ is either lower graded $`V=V_{}`$ or upper graded $`V=V^{}`$. The relation $`V^d=V_d`$ makes a lower grading equivalent to an upper grading. The notation $`|v|`$ refers to the lower degree of a homogeneous element $`vV`$. The differential of $`V`$ is denoted by $`\delta :VV`$. The homology of the complex associated to $`V`$ is denoted by $`H_{}(V)`$. A morphism of dg-modules $`VW`$ is quasi-iso if the induced morphism $`H_{}(V)H_{}(W)`$ is iso.

The tensor product of dg-modules $`V`$ and $`W`$ is the dg-module such that $`(VW)_n=_𝐙V_{}W_n`$. The differential of a tensor $`vwVW`$ is given by the classical formula $`\delta (vw)=\delta (v)w+\pm v\delta (w)`$, where $`\pm =(1)^{|v|}`$. We have a symmetry isomorphism $`VWWV`$ defined by $`c(vw)=\pm wv`$, where $`\pm =(1)^{|v||w|}`$. In the sequel, the notation $`\pm `$ refers to the sign produced by a permutation of homogeneous elements, whose explicit determination follows from the definition of the symmetry isomorphism.

The module of homogeneous morphisms from $`V`$ to $`W`$ is the upper graded dg-module such that $`Hom^n(V,W)=_𝐙Hom(V_{+n},W_{})`$. The differential of a homogeneous morphism $`fHom^{}(V,W)`$ is provided by the commutator of $`f`$ with the differentials of $`V`$ and $`W`$. We have explicitly $`\delta (f)=\delta f\pm f\delta `$, where $`\pm =(1)^{|f|}`$. A $`0`$-cocycle $`fHom^0(V,W)`$ is equivalent to a morphism of dg-modules $`f:VW`$.

2) Differential graded algebras. — A commutative dg-algebra is a dg-module $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ equipped with a product $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ which is associative and commutative. The commutativity relation involves a sign because of the definition of the symmetry isomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$.

By convention, a polynomial algebra $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}=𝐂[\stackrel{~}{u}_1,\mathrm{},\stackrel{~}{u}_r]`$ denotes a commutative dg-algebra which, as a graded commutative algebra, is freely generated by homogeneous elements $`\stackrel{~}{u}_1,\mathrm{},\stackrel{~}{u}_r\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$. Let us mention that the differential of $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ is determined by the differential of the generators $`\delta (\stackrel{~}{u}_1),\mathrm{},\delta (\stackrel{~}{u}_r)\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$.

3) Resolutions. — A resolution of a commutative algebra $`𝒪`$ is a polynomial dg-algebra $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ such that $`H_0(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})=𝒪`$ and $`H_{}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})=0`$ if $`>0`$. Equivalently, we assume that $`𝒪`$ is a dg-algebra concentrated in degree $`0`$. The resolution $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ is a dg-algebra equipped with an augmentation morphism $`ϵ:\stackrel{~}{𝒪}𝒪`$ which is quasi-iso.

Let us assume that $`𝒪`$ is the algebra of a complete intersection $`h_1(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)=\mathrm{}=h_m(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)=0`$. In this case, a resolution of $`𝒪`$ is provided by the Koszul complex of the sequence $`(h_1,\mathrm{},h_m)`$, which is nothing but the dg-algebra $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}=𝐂[x_1,\mathrm{},x_n,\stackrel{~}{h}_1,\mathrm{},\stackrel{~}{h}_m]`$, where $`|\stackrel{~}{h}_j|=1`$ and $`\delta (\stackrel{~}{h}_j)=h_j(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)`$.

4) On Kähler differentials. — The definition of the algebra of Kähler differentials $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})`$ can be extended to the case of a dg-algebra $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$. Precisely, we consider the dg-algebra over $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ generated by the elements $`df`$, where $`f\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$, together with the relations $`d(fg)=dfg+\pm fdg`$, where $`\pm =(1)^{|f|}`$. We have also $`|df|=1+|f|`$ and $`\delta (df)=d(\delta (f))`$. (The differential symbol $`d`$ is equivalent to a tensor of degree $`1`$.) The homogeneous component $`\mathrm{\Omega }^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})`$ is the dg-module generated by the products $`f_0df_1\mathrm{}df_s\mathrm{\Omega }^{}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})`$ (with $`s`$ differentials).

Similarly, we have a dg-module of multivectors $`T^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^{}`$ which is defined by the identity $`T^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^m=Hom_{\stackrel{~}{𝒪}}^n(\mathrm{\Omega }^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪}),\stackrel{~}{𝒪})`$. An element $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }T^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^m`$ is equivalent to an antisymmetric multiderivation $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }:\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ which decreases the degree by $`ms`$. The superscript $`s`$ (respectively, $`m`$) refers to the order (respectively, to the degree) of the multivector $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }`$.

5) Poisson structures. — The dg-module of multivectors is endowed with the Schouten-Nijenhuis bracket $`[,]:T^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^mT^t(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^nT^{s+t1}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^{m+n1}`$ as in the classical differential calculus. Furthermore, a Poisson structure is equivalent to a bivector $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_2T^2(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^2`$ such that $`\delta (\stackrel{~}{\pi }_2)=0`$ and $`[\stackrel{~}{\pi }_2,\stackrel{~}{\pi }_2]=0`$. We define a homotopy Poisson structure as a sequence of multivectors $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_sT^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^2`$, $`s2`$, whose sum $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{}=_s\stackrel{~}{\pi }_s`$ verifies the Maurer-Cartan equation $`\delta (\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{})+1/2[\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{},\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{}]=0`$.

We have obtained the following results:

6) Theorem. — Let $`𝒪`$ be a commutative algebra over $`𝐂`$ equipped with a Poisson structure. Let us fix a free differential graded resolution of $`𝒪`$ as in paragraph (3). The algebra $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ has a homotopy Poisson structure $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{}T^{}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})`$ such that $`ϵ(\stackrel{~}{\pi }_2(df,dg))=\{ϵ(f)),ϵ(g)\}`$, for all $`f,g\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$.

7) Theorem. — Let $`𝒪`$ be a commutative algebra over $`𝐂`$ equipped with a Poisson structure. We assume that $`𝒪`$ is the algebra of a complete intersection with isolated singularities $`h_1(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)=\mathrm{}=h_m(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)=0`$. We consider the Koszul resolution of $`𝒪`$ introduced in the paragraph (3). We localize these algebras at $`𝒫Spec𝒪`$. There is a germ of homotopy Poisson structure $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{}T^{}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_𝒫)`$, as in the theorem (6), such that, for $`2snm`$, we have

$$\stackrel{~}{\pi }_s(df_1,\mathrm{},df_s)=\{\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{~}{\varpi }_s(df_1,\mathrm{},df_s,dh_1,\mathrm{},dh_m),\text{if}\mathrm{deg}(f_1)=\mathrm{}=\mathrm{deg}(f_s)=0,\\ 0,\text{otherwise},\end{array}$$

where $`\stackrel{~}{\varpi }_s:\mathrm{\Omega }^{s+m}(𝐂[x_1,\mathrm{},x_n]_𝒫)(\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_𝒫)_{s2}`$.

Soit $`𝒪`$ une algèbre commutative sur $`𝐂`$. Une structure de Poisson sur $`𝒪`$ est la donnée d’une bidérivation $`\{,\}:𝒪𝒪𝒪`$ vérifiant la relation $`\{f,\{g,h\}\}+\{g,\{h,f\}\}+\{h,\{f,g\}\}=0`$, quelque soient $`f,g,h𝒪`$. On voudrait étudier ces structures quand $`𝒪`$ est l’algèbre d’une intersection complète à singularités isolées. L’idée consiste à remplacer l’algèbre d’un schéma affine singulier par une algèbre différentielle graduée libre équivalente.

§1. Calcul différentiel gradué

1.1) Modules différentiels gradués. — On travaille dans la catégorie des modules différentiels gradués sur $`𝐂`$ (pour abréger, on parlera de dg-modules). On adopte les conventions classiques suivantes. Un dg-module $`V`$ est soit gradué inférieurement $`V=V_{}`$ soit gradué supérieurement $`V=V^{}`$. La relation $`V^d=V_d`$ rend une graduation inférieure équivalente à une relation supérieure. La notation $`|v|`$ renvoie au degré d’un élément homogène $`vV`$. La différentielle de $`V`$ est notée $`\delta :VV`$. L’homologie du complexe associé à $`V`$ est notée $`H_{}(V)`$. Un morphisme de dg-modules $`VW`$ est quasi-iso si le morphisme induit $`H_{}(V)H_{}(W)`$ est iso.

Le produit tensoriel des dg-modules $`V`$ et $`W`$ est le dg-module tel que $`(VW)_n=_𝐙V_{}W_n`$. La différentielle d’un tenseur $`vwVW`$ est donnée par la formule classique $`\delta (vw)=\delta (v)w+\pm v\delta (w)`$, où $`\pm =(1)^{|v|}`$. On a un isomorphisme de symétrie $`VWWV`$ défini par $`c(vw)=\pm wv`$, où $`\pm =(1)^{|v||w|}`$. En général, la notation $`\pm `$ renvoie au signe produit par une permutation d’éléments homogènes, dont la valeur résulte de la définition de l’isomorphisme de symétrie.

Le module des morphismes homogènes de $`V`$ dans $`W`$ est le dg-module gradué supérieurement tel que $`Hom^n(V,W)=_𝐙Hom(V_{+n},W_{})`$. La différentielle d’un morphisme homogène $`fHom^{}(V,W)`$ est donnée par le commutateur de $`f`$ avec les différentielles de $`V`$ et $`W`$. On a explicitement $`\delta (f)=\delta f\pm f\delta `$, avec $`\pm =(1)^{|f|}`$. Un $`0`$-cocycle $`fHom^0(V,W)`$ est équivalent à un morphisme de dg-modules $`f:VW`$.

1.2) Algèbres différentielles graduées. — Une dg-algèbre commutative est un dg-module $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ muni d’un produit $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ qui est associatif est commutatif. La relation de commutativité comporte un signe dû à la définition de l’isomorphisme de symétrie $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$.

Par convention, une algèbre polynomiale $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}=𝐂[\stackrel{~}{u}_1,\mathrm{},\stackrel{~}{u}_r]`$ désigne une dg-algèbre commutative qui, en tant que dg-algèbre, est librement engendrée par des éléments homogènes $`\stackrel{~}{u}_1,\mathrm{},\stackrel{~}{u}_r\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$. La différentielle de $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ est déterminée par la différentielle des générateurs $`\delta (\stackrel{~}{u}_1),\mathrm{},\delta (\stackrel{~}{u}_r)\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$.

1.3) Résolutions. — Une résolution d’une algèbre commutative $`𝒪`$ est une algèbre polynomiale $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ telle que $`H_0(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})=𝒪`$ et $`H_{}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})=0`$ si $`>0`$. De façon équivalente, on suppose que $`𝒪`$ est une dg-algèbre concentrée en degré $`0`$. La résolution $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ est une dg-algèbre munie d’un morphisme d’augmentation $`ϵ:\stackrel{~}{𝒪}𝒪`$ qui est quasi-iso.

Supposons par exemple que $`𝒪`$ est l’algèbre d’une intersection complète $`h_1(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)=\mathrm{}=h_m(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)=0`$. On a alors une résolution de $`𝒪`$ qui est fournie par le complexe de Koszul de la suite $`(h_1,\mathrm{},h_m)`$. Ce complexe n’est rien d’autre que l’algèbre différentielle graduée $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}=𝐂[x_1,\mathrm{},x_n,\stackrel{~}{h}_1,\mathrm{},\stackrel{~}{h}_m]`$$`|\stackrel{~}{h}_j|=1`$ et $`\delta (\stackrel{~}{h}_j)=h_j(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)`$. On note simplement que $`\stackrel{~}{h}_i\stackrel{~}{h}_j=\stackrel{~}{h}_j\stackrel{~}{h}_i`$, d’après la règle de commutation des variables homogènes.

§2. Structures de Poisson homotopiques

2.1) Formes de Kähler. — La définition de l’algèbre des formes de Kähler s’étend au cadre différentiel gradué. Ainsi, on définit $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})`$ comme la dg-algèbre sur $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ engendrée par les éléments $`df`$, avec $`f\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$, et quotientée par les relations $`d(fg)=dfg+\pm fdg`$, où $`\pm =(1)^{|f|}`$. On a aussi $`|df|=|f|+1`$ et $`\delta (df)=d(\delta (f))`$. (Le symbole de différentielle $`d`$ est équivalent à un tenseur de degré $`1`$.) La composante homogène $`\mathrm{\Omega }^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})`$ est le dg-module engendré par les produits $`f_0df_1\mathrm{}df_s\mathrm{\Omega }^{}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})`$ (comportant $`s`$ différentielles).

2.2) Multivecteurs. — On a également un dg-module de multivecteurs $`T^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^{}`$ défini par la relation $`T^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^m=Hom_{\stackrel{~}{𝒪}}^m(\mathrm{\Omega }^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪}),\stackrel{~}{𝒪})`$. Un élément $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }T^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^m`$ équivaut à une multidérivation antisymétrique $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }:\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ qui diminue le degré de $`ms`$. L’exposant $`s`$ (respectivement, $`m`$) renvoie à l’ordre (respectivement, au degré) du multivecteur $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }`$.

On munit le dg-module des multivecteurs du crochet de Schouten-Nijenhuis

$$[,]:T^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^mT^t(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^nT^{s+t1}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^{m+n1}$$

comme dans le calcul différentiel classique. On a explicitement $`[P,Q]=PQ+\pm QP`$, où $`PQ(df_1,\mathrm{},df_{s+t1})=\pm P(df_{i_1},\mathrm{},df_{i_{s1}},dQ(df_{j_1},\mathrm{},df_{j_t}))`$, pour tout multivecteurs $`PT^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^{}`$ et $`QT^t(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^{}`$. Les signes sont déterminés par la règle de commutation des tenseurs. La somme s’étend sur l’ensemble des décompositions $`\{1,\mathrm{},s+t1\}=\{i_1,\mathrm{},i_{s1}\}\{j_1,\mathrm{},j_t\}`$.

2.3) Structures de Poisson. — Une structure de Poisson homotopique est une suite de multivecteurs $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_sT^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^2`$, $`s2`$, dont la somme $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{}=_s\stackrel{~}{\pi }_s`$ (définie formellement) vérifie l’équation de Maurer-Cartan $`\delta (\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{})+1/2[\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{},\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{}]=0`$. On obtient les équations que vérifient les multivecteurs $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_s`$, $`s2`$, en développant les composantes d’ordre homogène de cette équation. On a explicitement:

$$\delta (\stackrel{~}{\pi }_s)+\frac{1}{2}\underset{p+q=s+1}{}[\stackrel{~}{\pi }_p,\stackrel{~}{\pi }_q]=0,$$

pour tout $`s2`$. En particulier, pour $`s=2`$, on obtient l’équation $`\delta (\stackrel{~}{\pi }_2)=0`$. Pour $`s=3`$, on obtient $`\delta (\stackrel{~}{\pi }_3)+1/2[\stackrel{~}{\pi }_2,\stackrel{~}{\pi }_2]=0`$.

Une structure de Poisson équivaut à une structure de Poisson homotopique telle que $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_s=0`$ pour $`s2`$. Considérons les multidérivations $`\{,\mathrm{},\}_s:\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ associées aux multivecteurs $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_sT^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})^2`$, $`s2`$. On a par définition $`\{f_1,\mathrm{},f_s\}_s=\pm \stackrel{~}{\pi }_s(df_1,\mathrm{},df_s)`$. Le signe provient de la commutation des symboles différentiels $`d`$ avec les éléments $`f_1,\mathrm{},f_s`$. La composante d’ordre $`s=2`$ de l’équation de Maurer-Cartan équivaut à la relation $`\delta \{f_1,f_2\}_2=\{\delta (f_1),f_2\}_2+\pm \{f_1,\delta (f_2)\}_2`$. La composante d’ordre $`s=3`$ se réécrit:

$$\{\{f_1,f_2\}_2,f_3\}_2+\pm \{\{f_2,f_3\}_2,f_1\}_2+\pm \{\{f_3,f_1\}_2,f_2\}_2=\pm \delta (\stackrel{~}{\pi }_3)(df_1,df_2,df_3).$$

Ainsi, en général, on suppose seulement que la relation de Jacobi est vérifiée modulo un cobord (qui est représenté par le trivecteur $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_3`$).

On a en fait défini un type particulier de structure de Poisson homotopique. On renvoie le lecteur au travail de Ginot pour une notion de structure homotopique plus générale dans le cadre analogue des algèbres de Gerstenhaber (cf. ). Ces structures interviennent dans les travaux de Kontsevich et Tamarkin sur la formalité des complexes de Hochschild (cf. ).

On a le résultat suivant:

2.4) Théorème. — Soit $`𝒪`$ une algèbre commutative sur $`𝐂`$ munie d’une structure de Poisson. On fixe une résolution de $`𝒪`$ comme dans le paragraphe (1.3). L’algèbre $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$ a une structure de Poisson homotopique $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{}T^{}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪})`$ telle que $`ϵ(\stackrel{~}{\pi }_2(df,dg))=\{ϵ(f),ϵ(g)\}`$, pour tout $`f,g\stackrel{~}{𝒪}`$.

On construit la suite des multivecteurs pas à pas. On observe que le morphisme d’augmentation $`ϵ:\stackrel{~}{𝒪}𝒪`$ induit un quasi-isomorphisme

$$Hom_{\stackrel{~}{𝒪}}^{}(\mathrm{\Omega }^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪}),\stackrel{~}{𝒪})Hom_{\stackrel{~}{𝒪}}^{}(\mathrm{\Omega }^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪}),𝒪)$$

et que les modules $`Hom_{\stackrel{~}{𝒪}}^{}(\mathrm{\Omega }^s(\stackrel{~}{𝒪}),𝒪)`$ ont une composante de degré $`=2`$ nulle dès que $`s>2`$. Il s’ensuit que les obstructions à l’existence des multivecteurs $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_s`$ sont nulles.

§3. Cas des intersections complètes

3.1) Théorème. — Soit $`𝒪`$ une algèbre commutative sur $`𝐂`$ munie d’une structure de Poisson. On suppose que $`𝒪`$ est l’algèbre d’une intersection complète à singularités isolées $`h_1(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)=\mathrm{}=h_m(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)=0`$. On considère la résolution de Koszul de $`𝒪`$ introduite dans le paragraphe (1.3). On localise ces algèbres en $`𝒫Spec𝒪`$. Il existe un germe de structure de Poisson homotopique $`\stackrel{~}{\pi }_{}T^{}(\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_𝒫)`$, comme dans le théorème (2.4), tel que, pour $`2snm`$, on ait

$$\stackrel{~}{\pi }_s(df_1,\mathrm{},df_s)=\{\begin{array}{c}\stackrel{~}{\varpi }_s(df_1,\mathrm{},df_s,dh_1,\mathrm{},dh_m),\text{si}\mathrm{deg}(f_1)=\mathrm{}=\mathrm{deg}(f_s)=0,\\ 0,\text{sinon},\end{array}$$

$`\stackrel{~}{\varpi }_s:\mathrm{\Omega }^{s+m}(𝐂[x_1,\mathrm{},x_n]_𝒫)(\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_𝒫)_{s2}`$.

On considère la famille des complexes de Koszul généralisés associés à la matrice Jacobienne $`((h_i)_j^{})`$ des polynômes $`(h_1,\mathrm{},h_m)`$ (cf. \[7, Appendice C\]). On utilise que ces complexes sont acycliques (le lieu singulier de notre variété étant de codimension $`nm`$). On forme le produit tensoriel de ces complexes de Koszul généralisés avec le complexe de Koszul de $`(h_1,\mathrm{},h_m)`$. On obtient ainsi un bicomplexe. On construit les morphismes $`\stackrel{~}{\varpi }_s:\mathrm{\Omega }^{s+m}(𝐂[x_1,\mathrm{},x_n]_𝒫)(\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_𝒫)_{s2}`$ comme le bord de certains cycles dans ce bicomplexe.

3.2) Exemple des hypersurfaces. — On suppose $`m=1`$ et $`𝒪=𝐂[x_1,\mathrm{},x_n]/(h)`$. On a alors $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}=𝐂[x_1,\mathrm{},x_n,\stackrel{~}{h}]`$, avec $`|\stackrel{~}{h}|=1`$ et $`\delta (\stackrel{~}{h})=h`$. Le théorème ci dessus entraine que le crochet de Poisson de $`𝒪`$ est donné par une formule de la forme

$$\{f,g\}=\underset{i,j,k}{}p_{ijk}f_i^{}g_j^{}h_k^{}.$$

(On prend simplement $`p_{ijk}=\stackrel{~}{\varpi }_2(dx_i,dx_j,dx_k)`$.) On a aussi une relation de la forme

$$\{\{f_1,f_2\},f_3\}+\{\{f_2,f_3\},f_1\}+\{\{f_3,f_1\},f_2\}=h\underset{i,j,k,l}{}q_{ijkl}(f_1)_i^{}(f_2)_j^{}(f_3)_k^{}h_l^{}.$$

(On considére les polynômes $`q_{ijkl}`$ tels que $`\stackrel{~}{\varpi }_3(dx_i,dx_j,dx_k,dx_l)=\stackrel{~}{h}q_{ijkl}`$ dans $`\stackrel{~}{𝒪}_1`$.)

Comme application, on retrouve les formules que Alev et Lambre ont obtenues par un calcul direct pour le crochet de Poisson symplectique des surfaces de Klein (cf. ). Les polynômes $`p_{ijk}`$ sont alors nécessairement constants pour des raisons d’homogénéité. On peut également supposer que les polynômes $`q_{ijkl}`$ sont nuls dans ce cas.

3.3) Homologie de Poisson. — Le théorème de structure ci-dessus nous permet d’obtenir des résultats sur l’homologie de Poisson des intersections complètes à singularités isolées. On considère l’homologie de Poisson $`H_{}^{𝒫ois}(𝒪,𝒪)`$ telle qu’elle est définie dans la théorie des opérades de Koszul (cf. ). L’homologie de Poisson définie par Koszul et Brylinski (cf. ) est notée $`H_{}^{can}(𝒪,𝒪)`$ et sera désignée comme l’homologie canonique de $`𝒪`$. On rappelle que l’on a une suite spectrale $`E_{s,t}^1=HH_{s+t}^{(s)}(𝒪,𝒪)H_{s+t}^{𝒫ois}(𝒪,𝒪)`$, où $`HH_{}^{(s)}`$ désigne la composante de poids $`s`$ de l’homologie de Hochschild. On a obtenu le résultat suivant:

3.4) Théorème. — Si $`𝒪`$ est l’algèbre d’une intersection complète à singularités isolées, alors la suite spectrale $`E_{s,t}^1=HH_{s+t}^{(s)}(𝒪,𝒪)H_{s+t}^{𝒫ois}(𝒪,𝒪)`$ dégénère au rang $`2`$. On a de plus $`H_{}^{𝒫ois}(𝒪,𝒪)=H_{}^{can}(𝒪,𝒪)`$ en degré $`dim𝒪`$ et $`H_{}^{𝒫ois}(𝒪,𝒪)=HH_{}(𝒪,𝒪)`$ en degré $`dim𝒪`$.

On utilise que les composantes de poids de l’homologie de Hochschild sont déterminées par l’homologie des complexes de Koszul généralisés introduits précédemment (cf. ).

On peut énoncer un résultat plus précis dans le cas d’une hypersurface:

3.5) Théorème. — On suppose que $`𝒪`$ est l’algèbre d’une hypersurface à singularités isolées $`h(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)=0`$ telle que $`h(h_1^{},\mathrm{},h_n^{})`$. On a alors $`H_{}^{𝒫ois}(𝒪,𝒪)=H_{}^{can}(𝒪,𝒪)`$ pour $`n1`$ et $`H_{}^{𝒫ois}(𝒪,𝒪)=𝒪/(h_1^{},\mathrm{},h_n^{})`$ pour $`n1`$.

Références

1. J. Alev, T. Lambre, Comparaison de l’homologie de Hochschild et de l’homologie de Poisson pour une déformation des surfaces de Klein, in “Algebra and operator theory, Tashkent, 1997”, Kluwer Acad. Publ. (1998), 25-38.

2. B. Fresse, Homologie de Quillen pour les algèbres de Poisson, C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris Sér. I Math. 326 (1998), 1053-1058.

3. G. Ginot, Homologie et modèle minimal des algèbres de Gerstenhaber, prépublication (2001).

4. M. Kontsevich, Operads and motives in deformation quantization, Lett. Math. Phys. 48 (1999), 35-72.

5. J.-L. Koszul, Crochet de Schouten-Nijenhuis et cohomologie, in “Elie Cartan et les mathématiques d’aujourd’hui”, Astérisque hors série (1985), 257-271.

6. A. Lago, A.G. Rodicio, Generalized Koszul complexes and Hochschild (co)-homology of complete intersections, Invent. Math. 107 (1992), 433-446.

7. D.G. Northcott, Finite free resolutions, Cambridge tracts in mathematics 71, Cambridge university press, 1976.

Addresse: Benoit Fresse,

Laboratoire J.A. Dieudonné,

Université de Nice,

Parc Valrose,

F-06108 Nice Cedex 02 (France).

Courriel: fresse@math.unice.fr


text:
# Are there quantum bounds on the recyclability of clock signals in low power computers?

## 1 . Introduction

To invent new methods of low power computation is an important goal of research. In the middle future, the physical limits of miniaturization and reduction of power consumption will play a crucial role. The fact that thermodynamic laws give constraints to the energy consumption in information processing, has already been recognized by Landauer in the sixties . The statement, that whenever the information $`n`$ bits are lost during the computation process the energy $`\mathrm{ln}2nkT`$ is dissipated (where $`k`$ is Boltzmann’s constant and $`T`$ is the absolute temperature) is nowadays known as Landauer’s principle. The fact that any logical function can be embedded in a logically reversible network by Toffoli gates  shows that Landauer’s principle does not give any obvious lower bounds for the dissipation during the computation process. However, this argument is not sufficient to show that computation without dissipation is possible. Even if the logical gates act thermodynamically reversibly on the register the implementation may consume energy if the process is controlled by an external clock signal. However, the quantum cellular automaton described in  indicates that this problem can in principle be avoided by doing computation without refering to a global clocking mechanism.

Here we consider the problems that may appear if one wants to keep the usual concept of global clocking with a clock signal that should not be ‘used up’ when it controls the gate implementations. The key problem is to what extent timing information can be read out without destroying it, i.e., to what extent timing information is quantum information that is impossible to clone.

We assume the clock signal to be given by the state of a micro-physical system represented by a quantum density matrix. In Section 2 we show that at every moment where the clock signal controls another physical system it will necessarily be disturbed by the system’s back-action. Using results of modern quantum information research we show that it is impossible in principle to extract information about the actual time from a micro physical clock (represented by a finite dimensional density matrix) without disturbing the clock’s state. Generalizations to infinite dimensional systems and quantitative statements on this result are subject of further research.

However, we can give quantitative statements in a slightly different situation. If one tries not only to extract some timing information from the clock but wants to copy as much timing information as possible to another system one necessarily destroys some timing information in the original clock. This partial destruction of the original clock signal gets more and more relevant if low energy signals are considered. These bounds are sketched in Section 3. The proofs can be found in .

## 2 Every clock is disturbed when it is read out

Let $`\rho _t`$ be the finite dimensional density matrix of the clock at time $`t`$. Since it is assumed to be a closed physical system it is evolving according to the evolution

$$\rho _t=\mathrm{exp}(iHt)\rho \mathrm{exp}(iHt)$$

where $`H`$ is the clock’s Hamiltonian.

For the following reason it is not possible to extract any information about $`t`$ without disturbing the state $`\rho _t`$ if no prior knowledge about $`t`$ is given. Consider two states $`\rho _{t_1}`$ and $`\rho _{t_2}`$. Following  we conclude that a measurement distinguishing between those states can be implemented without changing the states if and only if the following condition holds: Let $`_j=`$ be the decomposition of the clock’s Hilbert space into those maximal subspaces that are invariant under the action of $`\rho _{t_1}`$ and $`\rho _{t_2}`$. Let $`A_j`$ and $`B_j`$ be the corresponding block matrices of $`\rho _{t_1}`$ and $`\rho _{t_2}`$, respectively. Then there exists a number $`j`$ such that $`tr(A_j)tr(B_j)`$. An appropriate observable for the distinction is for example the projection onto the Hilbert space $`_j`$.

This gives a rule for constructing disturbance free measurements if we are sure that either $`t=t_1`$ or $`t=t_2`$ by prior knowledge. If nothing is known about the time we have to find common invariant subspaces of all $`\rho _t`$. Those have clearly to be invariant under the action of $`H`$. But the trace of the block matrices on those dynamically invariant subspaces is conserved. There is hence no way to gain information about $`t`$ without disturbing the system. The derivation of quantitative bounds on minimal disturbance is a difficult task. The information about $`t`$ has to be quantified as well as the disturbance.

Note that the statement that there is no extraction of information about $`t`$ relies essentially on the continuity of $`t`$. The necessary and sufficient condition above allows to construct systems where a discrete set of states $`\rho _{t_1},\rho _{t_2},\mathrm{}`$ can indeed be distinguished without disturbing the system. This shows that if an external clock tells us that the actual time $`t`$ is in the set $`\{t_1,t_2,\mathrm{}\}`$ we can read out our ”‘discrete clock’ without disturbing it. Remarkably, the fact that readout without disturbance is in principle possible in the discrete case shows the advantage of controlling information processing by external clock signals: Let now $`\rho _t`$ be the density matrix of any micro physical device. Use the clock signal to switch on an interaction between the considered device and another system. Then the sequence of states $`\rho _1,\rho _2,\mathrm{}`$ at the times $`t_1,t_2,\mathrm{}`$ can control the other system without back-action (see Fig.1).

The relevance of the above observations for the reusability of clock signals has to be subject of further discussions. Clearly the gate has extracted some information about the actual time from the clock signal when it is triggered. This results in a disturbance of the clock signal’s quantum state. However, one may find systems where this extracted timing information flows back to the signal after the implementation is performed. But as long as the triggered implementation is still running the gate has some timing information and the clock signal’s state is still disturbed.

## 3 Copying a clock signal or its timing information

In the last section we have shown that we cannot extract timing information without disturbing the clock signal. However, we were not able to make quantitative statements about the tradeoff between information gain and disturbance. In the following situation, we can find quantitative results: It is natural to ask whether it is possible to read out all the information about the actual time that is contained in the signal, i.e., to copy it. In the following we will specify precisely what it means to ‘copy the timing information’. We use Fisher timing information, a quantity that is actually well-known in a more general context of estimating parameterized quantum or classical statistical states . In  it is used in the specific context of investigating the quality of clocks, explicitly using the terminology ‘Fisher timing information’. One might think of the Fisher timing information $`F`$ of a system with statistical states $`\rho _t`$ as the quotient $`1/(\mathrm{\Delta }t)^2`$ if $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ is the error for the optimal estimation of $`t`$ that is achievable by measuring the state. The correct and formal definition of $`F`$ is given in the appendix. But the rough explanation of $`F`$ can be taken literally in many simple examples: assume $`\rho _t`$ to be pure quantum states with a Gaussian energy distribution with standard deviation $`\mathrm{\Delta }E`$. Then $`F=4(\mathrm{\Delta }E)^2`$ (where we have measured the energy in the unit $`\mathrm{}`$) and one can easily construct measurements allowing an estimation of $`t`$ with standard deviation $`1/\sqrt{F}`$ and no better estimation can exist due to Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation. Another example where $`F`$ has a simple intuitive meaning is the following. Consider a classical pulse, i.e., a classical quantity $`f`$ that changes in time according to the function $`tf(t)`$. This system has infinite timing information for any non-trivial function $`f`$ since the determination of $`f(t)`$ allows to distinguish between $`t`$ and $`t^{}`$ for arbitrarily small $`tt^{}`$. If we introduce an unknown time delay of the signal with Gaussian statistics the timing information of the ‘smeared out’ signal is the standard deviation $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ of the delay (see Fig.2). One might think of $`f(t)`$ as the classical current or voltage of any device or even the intensity of a (classical) light field. One can equivalently think of a classical signal moving with the velocity $`v`$. If the exact position of the signal is unknown according to a Gauss distribution with uncertainty $`\mathrm{\Delta }x`$ the timing information is given by $`v^2/(\mathrm{\Delta }x)^2`$.

If $`\rho _t`$ is a finite dimensional density matrix of a quantum system evolving according to the Hamiltonian $`H`$, the quantity $`F`$ is less simple to calculate and is given by

$$F=tr(\dot{\rho }\mathrm{\Gamma }^1\dot{\rho }),$$

where $`\dot{\rho }:=i[H,\rho ]`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^1`$ is the pseudo-inverse of the super-operator $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }a:=1/2(\rho a+a\rho )`$ acting on the set of self-adjoint matrices .

In  we derived the following quantum bound for copying timing information:

Assume a signal with Fisher timing information $`F`$ enters a device (an amplifier for example) and triggers two outgoing signals with Fisher information $`F_1`$ and $`F_2`$, respectively. Then one has

$$1/F_1+1/F_22/F+2/E^2,$$
(1)
where $`E`$ is the total energy of the outgoing signals and $`E^2`$ is the expectation value of the square of this energy. Accordingly, the time uncertainties $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_2`$ of the 2 outgoing signals triggered by an in-going signal with time uncertainty $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ satisfy the following inequality:

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }t_1)^2+(\mathrm{\Delta }t_2)^22(\mathrm{\Delta }t)^2+2/E^2.$$

Trying to give both signals the same timing information, i.e., $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_1=\mathrm{\Delta }t_2`$, one obtains

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }t_1)^2(\mathrm{\Delta }t)^2+1/E^2.$$

We conclude that low energy signals loose part of their timing information when they are copied (see Fig.3).

In  we have constructed an example showing that $`\mathrm{\Delta }t_1=\mathrm{\Delta }t_2=\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ is indeed possible in the limit $`\mathrm{\Delta }E\mathrm{}`$. Note that this does not imply that a high amount of energy is dissipated when the signal is copied. The energy has only to be available. Whether the disturbance of the clock signal (as explained in Section 2) results necessarily in energy consumption, is unclear but if the signal looses some of its timing information it is unclear how to run a reversible process if the clock signal is included in the consideration.

Note that whenever the clock signal controls a device part of the signal’s timing information is copied. This is illustrated in Fig.4.

## 4 New thermodynamical constraints by a quasi-order of clocks

The proof of inequality (1) can be found in  and relies on a formal concept called quasi-order of clocks classifying physical systems (quantum or classical) with respect to their timing information. Here timing information is not to be understood in the sense of a single quantity but refers to the statistical distinguishability of the quantum or classical states $`\rho _t`$ at different times $`t`$. So to speak, it classifies the quality of clocks. This quality has many aspects: The physical system $`A`$ can be better than the system $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ with respect to the distinguishability the states at the times $`t_1`$ and $`t_2`$ and nevertheless $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ may be better than $`A`$ with respect to the distinguishability between the states at the times $`t_3`$ and $`t_4`$. We write $`A\stackrel{~}{A}`$ if $`A`$ is not worse than $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ with respect to any criterion. The physical meaning is that is is possible in principle to realize a process with input $`A`$ and output $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ such that the process has not to be controlled by an external clock. This idea can be formalized by describing the process by completely positive maps . The fact that no external clock is allowed to run the process corresponds to the condition that this map has to be covariant with respect to the time evolution of $`A`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$. For instance, if $`H`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{H}`$ are the Hamiltonians of the input and output quantum system, a process $`G`$ is a completely positive trace-preserving map from the set of possible density matrices of the system $`A`$ to the set of density matrices of $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$. It can be implemented without referring to external clocks if it satisfies the covariance condition

$$G([H,.])=[\stackrel{~}{H},G(.)].$$

The condition states that the process is the same if it is implemented at a later time since it does not matter whether we let the input system $`A`$ evolve for the time $`t`$ and apply then the process $`G`$ or we apply $`G`$ first and then wait for the time $`t`$ such that the output system $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ is evolving in time.

The output clock is not better than the input clock. As shown in  this principle gives constraints to many physical processes. Remarkably, the covariance condition also appeared in a rather different context in . There we found thermodynamic constraints on processes that can be run with a negligible amount of implementation energy.

## 5 . Relative timing information and synchronization

The considerations above refer to clocks showing the absolute time. At first sight one might think that the relevance of these results is restricted, since computation relies rather on the fact that gate implementations have to be synchronized and not that the gates are implemented at specific times. Hence one will rather be interested in relative timing information than in absolute timing information discussed in the previous sections. However, as we have shown in , the problem of measuring the quality of synchronization of two signals can be reduced to the problem of measuring the localization in time of a single signal. We have introduced a formal concept called quasi-order of synchronism that is shown to be mathematically isomorphic to the quasi-order of clocks.

## 6 . Why the signal energy is relevant

The fact that our bound for copying timing information depends on the signal energy, might be astonishing. The tradeoff between information gain about a quantum state and the disturbance of the system does not refer a priori to the energy of the quantum system . Nevertheless it is easy to get a rough idea why energy is a relevant quantity if the timing information of a system should be copied: An unknown quantum state $`\rho \rho _1,\rho _2,\mathrm{}`$ can be perfectly copied (‘broadcasted’) if and only if all the density matrices $`\rho _i`$ commute (see  for the proof and the definition of broadcasting quantum states). Consider now the states $`\rho _t`$ of the Hamiltonian time evolution. It is easy to see that all the states $`\rho _t`$ commute if and only if the time evolution is trivial, i.e. all states are the same. But it may be possible to find times $`t_1,t_2,\mathrm{}`$ such that all the states $`\rho _{t_i}`$ commute and we can copy the states perfectly if the prior information $`t\{t_1,t_2,\mathrm{}\}`$ is given. For systems with high energy spread these times can be arbitrarily close together. An example is a pure quantum state given by the equal superposition

$$|\psi :=\frac{1}{\sqrt{n}}\underset{jn}{}|j$$

where $`j`$ is an energy eigenstate with energy $`jE`$. Then the states at the times $`t=j2\pi E/n`$ are mutually orthogonal for different $`j`$, i.e., they can be copied without disturbance. The average energy of the system is $`En/2`$, i.e., the distinguishable states get closer and closer together (compare ) for $`n\mathrm{}`$. Even if no prior information about $`t`$ is given, one can imagine that it is possible to extract some information about $`t`$ while disturbing the state only a little bit as long as one wants to know $`t`$ only up to an error that is much larger than $`E/n`$. One can sketch the idea of these remarks by claiming that the timing information in systems with low energy is essentially quantum information and timing information in systems with high energy spread can have a high part of classical information that can be extracted without disturbing the system too much.

The result has an interesting implication for low power computation: consider a fanout in low power circuits. Then the two out-going signals cannot have the same localization in time as the in-going signal.

These results suggest the following problem of extremely low power computation: if one uses low power clock signals it is difficult to copy the signal and distribute it to many devices. If the signals contain more energy the question of the reusability becomes more relevant.

## 7 Conclusions

We have shown that every clock signal, as far as it is given by a finite dimensional quantum system is necessarily disturbed when it controls a device. Quantitative results concerning the tradeoff between the effect of the clock on the network and the back-action are the subject of further research. A first step towards such a quantitative analysis shows that strong disturbance of the signal is inevitable if most of the signal’s timing information is transfered to the triggered system. Our bounds on the disturbance become relevant if the signal energy is in the order of $`\mathrm{}/\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ where $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ is the signal’s accuracy in time. To what extent this result implies bounds on energy dissipation for all computation processes with a global clocking mechanism is unclear. It is not even clear how to define such a mechanism formally. However, it indicates serious difficulties that may appear if the usual concept of clocking is maintained in future low power technology.

## Acknowledgements

Thanks to Michael Frank for an interesting email discussion. His statements encouraged us to figure out the relevance of former results for the reusability of clock signals.

This work has been supported by DFG-grants of the ‘Schwerpunktprogramm Verlustarme Informationsverarbeitung’.

## Appendix

The Fisher timing information $`F`$ of a quantum or classical system is defined as follows . Let $`𝒜`$ be the (unital) $`C^{}`$-algebra of observables of the system  and $`\rho `$ be the system’s state, i.e., a positive funtional from $`𝒜`$ onto the set $``$ with $`\rho (1)=1`$. Let $`(\alpha _t)_t`$ be the time evolution of the system, i.e., a strongly continuous one parameter group of automorphisms on $`𝒜`$. Then we define $`F`$ as

$$F:=\underset{A}{sup}\frac{(d/dt\rho (\alpha _t(A)))^2}{\rho (A^2)}$$

where the supremum is taken over all self-adjoint $`A𝒜`$.


text:
# Infinite and natural numbers

## 1 Introduction

Let us examine the natural numbers starting from the $`apeiron`$ concept. In classical Greece $`peiron/peras`$ is what delimits a thing from another (a finite boundary, a contour). $`Apeiron`$ is what is limitless or endless. In Homer $`apeiron`$ is endless and without internal distinctions and for Anaximander $`apeiron`$ is the principle from which the $`kosmoi`$ are derived. If we consider the conception, appeared in the VI B.C. century among the pythagoreans, of the number as the essence of all the things, we have that $`apeiron`$ is what does not have number in the pythagoric sense, what does not have measure nor limit, the immensurable, the formless, what does not have essence.

Since $`apeiron`$ is infinite and formless, the ancient Greeks considered $`infinite`$ as being imperfect and incomplete. This meaning coexisted and prevailed on the idea of infinite as perfection and completeness beyond any limit.

The crucial point in Aristotle’s conception of infinite is that there is no transition from $`kosmos`$ to $`apeiron`$, that infinite is not the $`apeiron`$ of his predecessors, that it is not something formless and so involving that nothing exists beyond $`apeiron`$ that is not itself. For Aristotle infinite means that whatever is beyond does not distinguish from whatever is on this side in terms of order. Aristotle allows infinite to exist just in a restricted sense :

> For generally the infinite has this mode of existence: one thing is always being taken after another, and each thing that is always finite, but always different.

The succession of finite natural numbers is endless, that is, infinite. Considering that there is for all set the cardinal number of the set, there is no way the set of the natural numbers be a set of finite numbers and the number of elements of the set be a natural number. Which the cardinality of the set of digits that the natural numbers possess? In  we showed that there are natural numbers with an endless number of digits; we considered that the limit of a sequence $`n`$ of zeros, when $`n`$ tends to infinite, is an infinite sequence of zeros. Representing by $`2^n`$ the 1 preceded of $`n`$ zeros, in the binary system, we considered

$$\underset{n\mathrm{}}{lim}2^n>j\text{for all}jN$$
(1)
where $`N`$ is the set of the finite natural numbers.

In the section 2 we defined the infinite numbers of the set $`M`$ of finite and infinite natural numbers starting from the sequence $`0\mathrm{\Phi }`$, where 0 is the first natural number, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ a succession of symbols S and $`x`$S is the successor of the natural number $`x`$. In the section 3 the limit concept is extended and (1) explained. Theorems about operations with elements of $`M`$ are presented in the section 4, this section is contained in . The sections 5 to 7 treat of equivalence and equality of numbers, distance between elements of $`M`$ and the order of the elements. The section 8 contains a comment.

As used in this article, $`apeiron`$ is neither the chaos nor the indefinable, but it is what is indefinite and is, at least partially, definable. $`Apeiron`$ is also associated with ignorance or uncertainty about itself.

## 2 The set M of natural numbers

Be the axioms

0 is a natural number.

For every natural number $`x`$ another number natural $`x`$S, denominated successor of $`x`$, exists.

let us define the sequence, denoted by $`y`$, constituted of 0 followed by S’s satisfying the following condition

| $`y`$ |  | 0 | S | S | S |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |  |  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  |
|  |  |  | 1 | 2 | 3 |  |

(5)
where the numbers put into one-to-one correspondence with symbols of $`y`$ belong to the set of the finite natural numbers, denoted by $`N`$.

Be the sequence $`0\mathrm{\Delta }`$, such that $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a sequence of S’s and the set formed by S’s of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is not equivalent to any proper subset of itself. Let us notice that the sequence $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is indefinite, but $`0\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is not formless: there is in $`0\mathrm{\Delta }`$ a certain order shared with finite natural numbers. The sequence 0SSSS is a $`0\mathrm{\Delta }`$ instance, it contains a defined sequence, more ordinate, and it represents a natural number.

Let us consider the sequence such $`0\mathrm{\Phi }`$ that $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is an endless sequence of S’s. The sequence $`0\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is more indefinite than $`y`$, because in $`0\mathrm{\Phi }`$ it is not made the one-to-one correspondence between all S’s of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ and the elements of $`N`$. In the same way that numbers belonging to $`N`$ are instances of $`0\mathrm{\Delta }`$, there are natural numbers no belonging to $`N`$ that are $`0\mathrm{\Phi }`$ instances.

Be the sequence $`0\mathrm{\Phi }`$ written as

0$`𝔖𝔖𝔖`$$`𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖`$SSSSSSSS… (6)
where the symbols S indicated in the form $`𝔖`$ are into one-to-one correspondence with the elements of $`N`$ in the following way

| $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ |  | $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |
| 0 | 2 | 4 | 6 |  | 7 | 5 | 3 | 1 |

(10)
Let us notice that the sequence 0$`𝔖𝔖𝔖`$$`𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖`$ is an instance of 0$`\mathrm{\Phi }`$.

###### Definition 2.1

The sequence $`0𝔖𝔖𝔖`$$`𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖`$ of (6) is an infinite natural number.

Let us denote by $`M`$ the set of all the finite and infinite natural numbers.

###### Definition 2.2

A1. $`0`$ is a natural number.

A2. For every natural number $`x`$ another number natural $`x\mathrm{S}`$, denominated successor of $`x`$, exists.

A3. $`0x\mathrm{S}`$ for every natural number $`x`$.

A4. If $`x\mathrm{S}`$ = $`y\mathrm{S}`$, then $`x`$ = $`y`$.

A5. If a set of natural numbers, denoted by $`M`$, contains 0 and also the successor of any natural number in $`M`$, then all the natural numbers are in $`M`$.

The Definition 2.2 generalizes the Peano’s axioms substituting $`N`$ by $`M`$.

###### Definition 2.3

Be $`K`$ a number, greater than zero, belonging to the set of natural numbers $`M`$

$`M=\{0,1,2,3,4,\mathrm{},K_3,K_2,K_1,K,K_1,K_2,K_3,\mathrm{}\}`$  (11)
where $`K_n`$ denotes the $`n`$-th successor of $`K`$ and $`K_n`$ denotes the $`n`$-th predecessor of $`K`$. If $`K`$ is such that the set

$`\{K,K_1,K_2,K_3,\mathrm{},3,2,1,0\}`$  (12)
is equivalent to $`N`$, that is,

| $`\{`$ | $`K,`$ | $`0,`$ | $`K_1,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`K_2,`$ | $`2,`$ | $`K_3,`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  |
| $`\{`$ | $`0,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`2,`$ | $`3,`$ | $`4,`$ | $`5,`$ | $`6,`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |

(16)
then $`K`$ is an infinite number.

$`K`$ and the sequence 0$`𝔖𝔖𝔖\mathrm{}𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖`$ of (6) are two general forms of representing an infinite natural number.

Let us consider the following instance of $`0\mathrm{\Phi }`$:

0$`𝔖\mathrm{SS}𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖\mathrm{SSSSSSSS}𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖\mathrm{}`$ (17)
This instance can be reordained in the form of the column on the right of the list

| 0 | $`0𝔖`$ |
| --- | --- |
| 1 | $`\mathrm{SS}`$ |
| 2 | $`𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖`$ |
| 3 | $`\mathrm{SSSSSSSS}`$ |
| 4 | $`𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖`$ |
| $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |

(24)
In (24) the elements of the column on the left are the finite natural numbers and the $`i`$+1-th sequence of S’s has the double of symbols that the $`i`$-th sequence of S’s. The right column of (24) can be represented by the sequence of symbols

…11111111111 (25)
where the first 1 from the right to the left corresponds to S of the row 1 of (24), the second 1 from the right to the left corresponds to S’s of the row 2 of (24), the $`n`$-th 1 from the right to the left corresponds to S’s of the row $`n`$ of (24), where $`nN`$, and so forth.

The form (25) is an instance of

$`\mathrm{}f_5f_4f_2f_2f_1`$ (26)
where $`f_i\{0,1\}`$ and $`iN`$.

To a representation (26) with $`f_i=0`$ corresponds an instance of 0$`\mathrm{\Phi }`$, such that the list in the form (25) possesses the $`i`$-th row empty of symbols S. The instances of (26) in which for any $`f_i`$ exists some $`f_j`$ such that $`j>i`$ and $`f_j=1`$ are instances of $`0\mathrm{\Phi }`$. An instance of (26) in the which exists some $`iN`$ such that $`f_j=0`$ for $`j>i`$, is a simplified form of representing

$`f_i\times 2^{i1}+\mathrm{}+f_4\times 2^3+f_3\times 2^2+f_2\times 2^1+f_1\times 2^0`$ (27)
Let us also notice that the form (26) does not represent all instances of $`0\mathrm{\Phi }`$, as shows the following theorem:

###### Theorem 2.1

The successor of the natural number represented in the form (26) such that $`f_i=1`$ for every $`iN`$, is not representable in the form (26).

Proof:

Be the natural number represented in the form (26) such that $`f_i=1`$ for every $`iN`$, we denominate this number $`w`$. Since every $`f_i`$ is equal to 1, it does not exist $`f_i`$ to be changed from 0 to 1 in the representation of $`w`$S in the form (26). Therefore, for $`w`$S no $`f_i`$ is equal to 0. If $`w`$S is such that $`f_i=1`$ for every $`iN`$, then $`w`$S$`=w`$. Since a natural number cannot be the immediate successor of itself, we concluded that $`w`$S is not representable in the form (26).
The successors of $`w`$ are indicated by

$`w_1,w_2,w_3,\mathrm{}`$ (28)
therefore

$`M=\{0,1,2,\mathrm{},w,w_1,w_2,w_3,\mathrm{}\}`$ (29)
## 3 Concepts of limit and M

Besides the limit definition by Heine and Weierstrass

> If, given any $`ϵ`$, there is a $`\delta _0`$ such that for $`0<\delta <\delta _0`$ the difference $`f(x_0\pm \delta )L`$ is smaller in absolute value than $`ϵ`$, then $`L`$ is the limit of $`f(x)`$ for $`x=x_0`$.

the word $`limit`$ usually indicates (i) the existence of boundaries, (ii) exclusion which either are not passed over or cannot or may not be (iii) part or extreme point.

Let us adopt $`limit`$ firstly indicating point not to be passed. Be it denoted by

$`1\mathrm{}_n11`$ (30)
the sequence containing $`n`$ symbols 1 with $`iN`$ and by $`L`$ the set constituted by the elements of $`M`$ represented in the form (26). What is the limit of (30) when the number $`n`$ of symbols 1, being $`n`$ belonging to $`L`$, does tend to infinite? This limit is $`\mathrm{}f_5f_4f_3f_2f_1`$ with $`f_i=1`$ for every $`iN`$. Therefore

$$\underset{(nL,n\mathrm{})}{lim}1\mathrm{}_n11=w$$
(31)
The leminiscate $`\mathrm{}`$ just means $`limitless`$. Let us also notice that the limit does not exist

$$\underset{(nN,n\mathrm{})}{lim}n$$
(32)
and that

$$\underset{(nL,n\mathrm{})}{lim}2^n=\underset{(nL,n\mathrm{})}{lim}[(1\mathrm{}_n11)+1]=[\underset{(nL,n\mathrm{})}{lim}(1\mathrm{}_n11)]+1=w_1$$
(33)
Let us now examine $`limit`$ indicating extreme part. What is the limit of $`n`$ belonging to $`M`$ when $`n`$ tends to infinite? Something that is beyond $`M`$ is not a natural number, it is what there is in $`0\mathrm{\Phi }`$ that cannot be instantiated as natural number. In certain a way

$$\underset{xtr(nM,n\mathrm{})}{lim}n$$
(34)
where $`xtr`$ denotes $`limit`$ as extreme part, is an instance of the concept $`apeiron`$. Let us notice that

$$\underset{xtr(nN,n\mathrm{})}{lim}n=K$$
(35)
## 4 Operations with $`K`$

###### Definition 4.1

Be $`0X`$ such that $`X`$ is a sequence of S’s. The natural number $`n`$ is the cardinal number of a set $`A`$ when there is one-to-one correspondence between the elements of $`A`$ and the symbols S of the sequence $`0X`$ that represents the number $`n`$.

The cardinal number of $`A`$ is denoted by $`|A|`$. In the case of the set of natural numbers $`N`$, we have

| $`N`$ |  | $`\{0,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`2,`$ | $`3,`$ | $`4,`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  |
| $`|N|`$ | 0 | S | S | S | S | S | $`\mathrm{}`$ |

(39)
Let us notice that

$`K=|N|`$ (40)
###### Definition 4.2

The every pair of natural numbers $`x,y`$, we can attribute a natural number, denominated $`x+y`$, such that

1. $`x`$ is the cardinal number of a set $`A`$
2. $`y`$ is the cardinal number of a set $`B`$
3. $`AB=\mathrm{}`$
4. $`x+y`$ is the cardinal number of the set $`AB`$

$`x+y`$ is denominated the sum of $`x`$ and $`y`$, or the number obtained by the addition of $`y`$ to $`x`$.

###### Theorem 4.1

The sum $`K+n`$ is equal to $`K`$.

Proof:
Let the disjoint sets

$`A=\{a_1,a_2,a_3,\mathrm{},a_n\}`$ (41)
where $`nN`$, and

$`B=\{K,K_1,K_2,K_3,\mathrm{},3,2,1,0\}`$ (42)
From (40), (41) and (42) we have

$`|A|=n`$ (43)
and

$`|B|=|N|=K`$ (44)
We can establish the following one-to-one correspondence of $`AB`$ with $`N`$

| $`\{a_1,`$ | $`a_2,`$ | $`a_3,`$ | $`\mathrm{},`$ | $`a_n,`$ | $`K,`$ | $`0,`$ | $`K_1,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  |
| $`\{0,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`2,`$ | $`\mathrm{},`$ | $`n+1`$ | $`n+2`$ | $`n+3`$ | $`n+4`$ | $`n+5`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |

(48)
therefore

$`|AB|=|N|`$ (49)
Since $`A`$ and $`B`$ are disjoint sets, we can affirm

$`|A|+|B|=|AB|`$ (50)
Substituting (43), (44) and (49) in (50), we conclude

$`K+n=K`$ (51)
###### Theorem 4.2

The difference $`Kn`$ is equal to $`K`$.

Proof:

Let

$`A=\{K,K_1,K_2,K_3,\mathrm{},3,2,1,0\}`$ (52)
and

$`B=\{K,K_1,K_2,K_3,\mathrm{},K_n\}`$ (53)
where $`nN`$. Let us consider

$`|A|=K`$ (54)
$`|B|=n`$ (55)
and

$`|AB|=|A||B|`$ (56)
We can establish the following one-to-one correspondence of $`AB`$ with $`N`$:

| $`\{K_{(n1)},`$ | $`0,`$ | $`K_{(n2)},`$ | $`1,`$ | $`K_{(n3)},`$ | $`2,`$ | $`K_{(n4)},`$ | $`3,`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  |
| $`\{0,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`2,`$ | $`3,`$ | $`4,`$ | $`5,`$ | $`6,`$ | $`7,`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |

(60)
that is

$`|AB|=|N|=K`$ (61)
Substituting (54), (55) and (61) in (56), we conclude

$`Kn=K`$ (62)
###### Theorem 4.3

The sum $`K+K`$ is equal to $`K`$.

Proof:

Let the disjoint sets

$`A=\{K,K_1,K_2,K_3,\mathrm{},3,2,1,0\}`$ (63)
and

$`B=\{b_1,b_2,b_3,\mathrm{},b_K\}`$ (64)
Let us note

$`|A|=K`$ (65)
and

$`|B|=K`$ (66)
We can establish the following one-to-one correspondence of $`AB`$ with $`N`$:

| $`\{K,`$ | $`0,`$ | $`b_K,`$ | $`b_1,`$ | $`K_1,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`b_{K_1},`$ | $`b_2,`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  |
| $`\{0,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`2,`$ | $`3,`$ | $`4,`$ | $`5,`$ | $`6,`$ | $`7,`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |

(70)
therefore

$`|AB|=|N|`$ (71)
Since $`A`$ and $`B`$ are disjoint sets, we have

$`|A|+|B|=|AB|`$ (72)
Substituting (65), (66), (71) and (40) in (72), we conclude

$`K+K=K`$ (73)
###### Definition 4.3

What $`\kappa `$ represents can be either number $`K`$ or a finite natural number.

###### Theorem 4.4

The difference $`KK`$ is equal to $`\kappa `$.

Proof:

Let the sets

$`A=\{a_0,a_1,a_2,a_3,\mathrm{},a_K\}`$ (74)
$`B=\{b_0,b_1,b_2,b_3,\mathrm{},b_K\}`$ (75)
where

$`BA`$ (76)
and

$`C=AB`$ (77)
If the elements of $`B`$ can be put in the sequence of elements of $`A`$, so that no element of $`A`$ belonging to $`B`$ immediately succeeds or immediately precedes another element of $`A`$ belonging to $`B`$; then each set of elements of $`A`$ belonging to $`C`$ between two elements of $`A`$ belonging to $`B`$ can be put into one-to-one correspondence with a natural number and

$`|C|=K`$ (78)
For instance, for

$`A=\{c_0,c_5,b_0,c_1,b_1,c_2,c_9,b_2,c_{20},\mathrm{},c_4,b_3,\mathrm{}\}`$ (79)
where $`c_i`$ belongs to $`C`$, we have

| $`\{`$ | $`c_0,c_5,`$ | $`c_1,`$ | $`c_2,c_9,`$ | $`c_{20},\mathrm{},c_4,`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  |
| $`\{`$ | $`0,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`2,`$ | $`3,`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |

(83)
Considering

$`|AB|=|A||B|`$ (84)
$`|A|=K`$ (85)
$`|B|=K`$ (86)
we conclude that, after we substitute (77), (78), (85) and (86) in (84),

$`KK=K`$ (87)
If the elements of $`A`$ can be put in the form

$`A=\{c_0,\mathrm{},c_n,b_0,b_1,b_2,b_3,\mathrm{}\}`$ (88)
with

$`|C|=n`$ and $`nN`$ (89)
then substituting (77), (85), (86) and (89) in (84), we have

$`KK=n`$ (90)
From (87) and (90) we have $`KK`$ is either $`K`$ or a finite number, that is,

$`KK=\kappa `$ (91)
###### Theorem 4.5

The product $`K\times n`$ is equal to $`K`$.

Proof:

Let $`(K+)_n`$ be the sum of the $`n`$ portions equal to $`K`$ and $`nN`$

(i) For $`n=1`$, we have

$`K\times 1=(K+)_1=K`$ (92)
(ii) Let us assume

$`K\times n=(K+)_n=K`$ (93)
(iii)

$`K\times (n+1)=(K+)_{n+1}`$ (94)
$`K\times (n+1)=(K+)_n+K`$ (95)
$`K\times (n+1)=K+K`$ (96)
applying the Theorem 4-3 to (96), we have

$`K\times (n+1)=K`$ (97)
(iv) If $`K\times n=K`$ holds for $`n`$, then $`K(n+1)=K`$ holds

(v) Therefore, from steps (i) and (iv), we have $`K\times n=K`$ for every $`n`$.

###### Theorem 4.6

The quotient $`K÷n`$ is equal to $`K`$.

Proof:

Let the sets

| $`A=`$ | $`\{(c_1,b_1),`$ | $`(c_2,b_1),`$ | $`(c_3,b_1),`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | $`(c_1,b_2),`$ | $`(c_2,b_2),`$ | $`(c_3,b_2),`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
|  | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
|  | $`(c_1,b_n),`$ | $`(c_2,b_n),`$ | $`(c_3,b_n),`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |

(102)
$`B=\{b_1,b_2,b_3,\mathrm{},b_n\}`$ (103)
and

$`C=\{c_1,c_2,c_3,\mathrm{}\}`$ (104)
such that

$`|A|=K`$ (105)
and

$`|B|=n>0`$ and $`nN`$ (106)
The quotient $`K÷n`$ is the number of elements per row of (102); considering that each row constitutes an equivalent set to $`A`$, we have

$`K÷n=K`$ (107)
###### Theorem 4.7

The product $`K\times K`$ is equal to $`K`$.

Proof:

Let the sets

| $`A=`$ | $`\{(b_1,c_1),`$ | $`(b_1,c_2),`$ | $`(b_1,c_3),`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | $`(b_2,c_1),`$ | $`(b_2,c_2),`$ | $`(b_2,c_3),`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
|  | $`(b_3,c_1),`$ | $`(b_3,c_2),`$ | $`(b_3,c_3),`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
|  | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |

(112)
$`B=\{b_1,b_2,b_3,\mathrm{}`$ (113)
and

$`C=\{c_1,c_2,c_3,\mathrm{}\}`$ (114)
such that

$`|B|=K`$ (115)
and

$`|C|=K`$ (116)
Let us simplify the representation of the elements ($`b_i,c_j`$) to ($`i,j`$). Disposing the elements of $`A`$ as in the Table 1 and applying the diagonalizing technique, we can establish the one-to-one correspondence between the pairs ($`i,j`$) with $`N`$.

| $`A`$ |  | $`(1,1)`$ | $`(1,2)`$ | $`(2,1)`$ | $`(3,1)`$ | $`(2,2)`$ | $`(1,3)`$ | $`(1,4)`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  |
| $`N`$ |  | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | $`\mathrm{}`$ |

(120)
Table 1

The number of rows of $`A`$ is $`K`$ and the number of columns is $`K`$; therefore, the number of elements of $`A`$ is $`K\times K`$. Since the number of elements of $`A`$ is $`|N|`$, we conclude that

$`K\times K=K`$ (121)
###### Theorem 4.8

The quotient $`K÷K`$ is equal to $`\kappa `$.

Proof:

Let the sets

| $`A=`$ | $`\{(b_1,c_1),`$ | $`(b_1,c_2),`$ | $`(b_1,c_3),`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | $`(b_2,c_1),`$ | $`(b_2,c_2),`$ | $`(b_2,c_3),`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
|  | $`(b_3,c_1),`$ | $`(b_3,c_2),`$ | $`(b_3,c_3),`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
|  | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |

(126)
$`B=\{b_1,b_2,b_3,\mathrm{}\}`$ (127)
and

$`C=\{c_1,c_2,c_3,\mathrm{}\}`$ (128)
such that

$`|A|=K`$ (129)
$`|B|=K`$ (130)
and

$`|C|=K`$ (131)
The number of elements per row of (126) is $`K÷K`$. Considering that each row constitutes an set equivalent to $`C`$ and (131), we have

$`K÷K=K`$ (132)
If

$`|C|=n`$ and $`nN`$ (133)
we have

| $`A=`$ | $`\{(b_1,c_1),`$ | $`(b_1,c_2),`$ | $`\mathrm{},`$ | $`(b_1,c_n)`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | $`(b_2,c_1),`$ | $`(b_2,c_2),`$ | $`\mathrm{},`$ | $`(b_2,c_n)`$ |
|  | $`(b_3,c_1),`$ | $`(b_3,c_2),`$ | $`\mathrm{},`$ | $`(b_3,c_n)`$ |
|  | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\}`$ |

(138)
The number of elements per row of (138) is $`K÷K`$. Considering that each row constitutes a set of cardinality $`n`$, we have

$`K÷K=n`$ (139)
From (132) and (139) we have that $`K÷K`$ can be either $`K`$ or a finite number, that is,

$`K÷K=\kappa `$ (140)
###### Theorem 4.9

$`K+\kappa =K`$

Proof:

If $`\kappa `$ is equal to $`K`$, then $`K+K=K`$ (Theorem 4.3); if $`\kappa `$ is equal to $`n`$ and $`nN`$, then $`K+n=K`$ (Theorem 4.1). Therefore, $`K+\kappa =K`$.

###### Theorem 4.10

$`K\kappa =\kappa `$

Proof:

If $`\kappa `$ is equal to $`K`$, then $`KK=\kappa `$ (Theorem 4.4); if $`\kappa `$ is equal to $`n`$ and $`nN`$, then $`Kn=K`$ (Theorem 4.2). Therefore, $`K\kappa =\kappa `$.

###### Theorem 4.11

$`K\times \kappa =K`$

Proof:

If $`\kappa `$ is equal to $`K`$, then $`K\times K=K`$ (Theorem 4.7); if $`\kappa `$ is equal to $`n`$ and $`nN`$, then $`K\times n=K`$ (Theorem 4.5). Therefore, $`K\times \kappa =K`$.

###### Theorem 4.12

$`K÷\kappa =\kappa `$

Proof:

If $`\kappa `$ is equal to $`K`$, then $`K÷K=\kappa `$ (Theorem 4.8); if $`\kappa `$ is equal to $`n`$ and $`nN`$, then $`K÷n=K`$ (Theorem 4.6). Therefore, $`K÷\kappa =\kappa `$

###### Theorem 4.13

Be $`z(MN)`$ and identified by a structural-descriptive name in the form (26). The sum $`z+K`$ is equal to $`K`$.

Proof:

$`z`$ represents a given number of $`M`$, while $`K`$ represents any infinite number of $`M`$. From the Theorem 4.3 we have

$`K+K=K`$ (141)
instantiating the first portion of (141) to $`z`$, we concluded

$`z+K=K`$ (142)
###### Theorem 4.14

Be $`x`$ and $`y`$ belonging to $`MN`$ and identified by structural-descriptive names in the form (26). The sum $`x+y`$ is equal to $`K`$.

Proof:

$`x`$ and $`y`$ represent two given numbers of $`M`$, while $`K`$ represents any infinite number of $`M`$. Of the Theorem 4.3 we have

$`K+K=K`$ (143)
instantiating the first portion of (143) for $`x`$ and second parcel to $`y`$, we concluded

$`x+y=K`$ (144)
## 5 Equivalence and equality of numbers

###### Definition 5.1

Be (i) $`n`$ and $`m`$ belonging to $`M`$, (ii) $`X_n`$ and $`X_m`$ sequences of S’s and (iii) the sequences 0$`X_n`$ and 0$`X_m`$ representations of $`n`$ and $`m`$ in the form $`0X`$, respectively. If the set of symbols S of $`X_n`$ is a proper subset of the set of symbols S of $`X_m`$, then $`n<m`$. If the set of symbols S of $`X_m`$ is a proper subset of the set of symbols S of $`X_n`$, then $`n>m`$. If the set of symbols S of $`X_n`$ is equivalent to the set of symbols S of $`X_m`$, then $`n`$ is equivalent the $`m`$.

###### Theorem 5.1

If $`mM`$, $`nM`$ and $`n`$ is equivalent to $`K`$, then $`n`$ is greater or equivalent to $`m`$.

Proof:

If $`mN`$, we can write

| 0 | $`S`$ | $`S`$ | $`S`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`S`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`S`$ | $`S`$ | $`S`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  | $``$ |  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |
|  | $`\{0,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`2,`$ | $`\mathrm{},`$ | $`m,`$ | $`\mathrm{},`$ | $`K_2`$ | $`K_1`$ | $`K\}`$ |
|  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  | $``$ |  |  |  |  |
|  | $`\{0,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`2,`$ | $`\mathrm{},`$ | $`m\}`$ |  |  |  |  |
|  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  | $``$ |  |  |  |  |
| 0 | $`S`$ | $`S`$ | $`S`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`S`$ |  |  |  |  |

(152)
The first and last rows of (152) are $`n`$ and $`m`$ represented in the form $`0X`$. If $`mN`$, then so much $`m`$ as $`n`$ are represented in the form $`0X`$ by (156).

| 0 | $`S`$ | $`S`$ | $`S`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`S`$ | $`S`$ | $`S`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |
|  | $`\{0,`$ | $`1,`$ | $`2,`$ | $`\mathrm{},`$ | $`K_2`$ | $`K_1`$ | $`K\}`$ |

(156)
From (152), (156) and Definition 5.1, we concluded that $`n`$ is greater or equivalent to $`m`$.

###### Definition 5.2

Be $`n`$ and $`m`$ belonging to $`N`$. If $`n`$ is equivalent to $`m`$, then $`n`$ is equal to $`m`$, that is, $`n=m`$.

###### Definition 5.3

Be $`n`$ and $`m`$ belonging to $`M`$ and $`n`$ equivalent to $`m`$. If the structural-descriptive names of $`n`$ and $`m`$ identify the same number, then $`n`$ is equal to $`m`$, that is, $`m=n`$.

## 6 Distance between elements

Let us denote by $`P`$ the set of the elements belonging to $`MN`$ represented in the form (26).

###### Definition 6.1

Be $`x`$ and $`y`$ belonging to $`P`$ and represented by

$`\mathrm{}x_i,\mathrm{},x_3,x_2,x_1`$ (157)
and

$`\mathrm{}y_i,\mathrm{},y_3,y_2,y_1`$ (158)
If there is a $`j`$ belonging to $`N`$ such that (i) $`x_i=y_i`$ for $`i>j`$, (ii) $`x_j`$ is different from $`y_j`$ and (iii)

$`x_j,\mathrm{},x_3,x_2,x_1>y_j,\mathrm{},y_3,y_2,y_1`$ (159)
then the difference

$`(x_j,\mathrm{},x_3,x_2,x_1)(y_j,\mathrm{},y_3,y_2,y_1)`$ (160)
is the finite distance between $`x`$ and $`y`$.

Let us notice that there is no way obtaining the sum $`x+y`$ represented in the form (26) when $`x`$ and $`y`$ belong to $`P`$. For instance, be $`x`$ and $`y`$ identified by the same structural-descriptive name

> The represented number in the form (26) such that $`f_i=0`$ for $`i`$ odd and $`f_i=1`$ for $`i`$ even.

Assuming that the sum $`x+y`$ is equal to

$`\mathrm{}1010101010100`$ (161)
adding 1 the (161)

$`\mathrm{}1010101010101`$ (162)
and adding (162) to itself, we obtain

$`\mathrm{}0101010101010`$ (163)
But (163) is $`y`$, therefore

$`((y+y)+1)+((y+y)+1)=y`$ (164)
From (164) we concluded that it is false the hypothesis that resulted in (161) and (163).

## 7 The order of the elements

Let 0$`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ be the sequence

0$`𝔖𝔖𝔖\mathrm{}𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖SSSSSSSS\mathrm{}`$ (165)
such that

| $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ |  | $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ | $`𝔖`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |  | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ | $``$ |
| 0 | 2 | 4 | 6 |  | 7 | 5 | 3 | 1 |

(169)
shown in (6). We denote by $`o_1`$ the number represented by 0$`𝔖𝔖𝔖\mathrm{}𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖`$. Substituting $`o_1`$ in (165), we have

$`o_1SSSSSSSS\mathrm{}`$ (170)
Let us indicate in the form $`𝔖`$ a sequence of symbols S on the right of $`o_1`$ in (170) such that the sequence of S’s in the form $`𝔖`$ of (171) satisfies (169).

$`o_1𝔖𝔖𝔖\mathrm{}𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖SSSSSSSS\mathrm{}`$ (171)
Let us denote by $`o_2`$ the number represented by $`o_1𝔖𝔖𝔖\mathrm{}𝔖𝔖𝔖𝔖`$. Repeating the process obtains the succession

$`o_1,o_2,o_3,o_4,\mathrm{}`$ (172)
We adopt the following axiom:

A6. The number w is the last element of P (173)
Let be

$`Q=P\{w\}`$ (174)
Be $`C_1`$ the set of the elements of $`Q`$ that are at a finite distance to $`o_1`$. It is $`C_2`$ the set of the elements of $`Q`$ that are to a finite distance of $`o_2`$. Be $`C_n`$ the set of the elements of $`Q`$ that are to a finite distance of $`o_n`$, and so forth. With this ordination, we have

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill M& =\{0,1,2,3,\mathrm{},o_1^2,o_1^1,o_1,o_1^{+1},o_1^{+2},\mathrm{},o_2^2,o_2^1,o_2,o_2^{+1},o_2^{+2},\mathrm{},\hfill \\ & o_3^2,o_3^1,o_3,o_3^{+1},o_3^{+2},\mathrm{},w,w_1,w_3,w_3,\mathrm{}\}\hfill \end{array}$$
(175)
Attributing to $`o_i`$ the exponent 0, we have

$`\{\mathrm{},o_i^2,o_i^1,o_i^0,o_i^{+1},o_i^{+2},\mathrm{}\}`$ (176)
and abstracting the exponents of the $`C_i`$’s, we obtain

$`\{\mathrm{},3,2,1,0,1,2,3,\mathrm{}\}`$ (177)
Let us notice that (177) is the set of the integer numbers $`Z`$.

## 8 Comment

In the literature $`N`$ denotes the set of the natural numbers and to denominate $`N`$ as the set of the finite natural numbers is a redundancy, because the existence of infinite natural numbers is not considered. In this work, $`N`$ denotes the set of the finite natural numbers and $`MN`$ is the set of the infinite natural numbers. Why not give the $`MN`$ another denomination? Why not use natural with some prefix to denominate the numbers of $`MN`$? With other denomination for $`MN`$, we would avoid to mention finite natural numbers when refering to the elements of $`N`$, we would just say natural numbers . To reinforce the non denomination of the elements of $`MN`$ as natural numbers, there are important properties that distinguish $`MN`$ of $`N`$. For instance, the elements of $`N`$ are archimedeans, that is,

> If we took two numbers $`m`$ and $`n`$ belonging to $`N`$ such that $`n>m>0`$, it is always possible to add $`m`$ to itself a number $`p`$ of times, where $`pN`$, such that the sum is greater than $`n`$.

while the set $`MN`$ does not possess this property. However, (i) the most fundamental properties of $`N`$ (Peano’s axioms) and of $`M`$ (Definition 2.2) are given by axioms of same form, (ii) so much the elements of $`N`$ as the elements of $`MN`$ are instances of $`0X`$ and (iii), for instance, the limit

$$\underset{(nL,n\mathrm{})}{lim}1\mathrm{}_n11=w$$
(178)
is as valid as for non existence of the limit

$$\underset{(nN,n\mathrm{})}{lim}n$$
(179)