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# 1 Motivation

## 1 Motivation

One of the remarkable features of classical gravity is that it can wrap up regions of spacetime thereby producing surfaces which act as one way membranes. The classic example is that of a Schwarzschild blackhole which has a compact, observer independent, surface which acts as an event horizon. Another example is the deSitter universe which also has an one way membrane though the location of this compact surface depends on the observer. The existence of one-way membranes, however, is not necessarily a feature of gravity or curved spacetime and can be induced even in flat Minkowski spacetime, once we accept the notion of an observer dependent horizon. It is possible to introduce coordinate charts in Minkowski spacetime such that regions are separated by horizons, a familiar example being the Rindler frame which has a non-compact surface acting as a coordinate dependent horizon.

The study of QFT in these spacetimes suggests a natural way of associating a temperature with the spacetimes which have horizons, irrespective of whether the horizons are observer independent geometrical structures (as in the case of a blackhole) or observer/coordinate dependent (as in the case of deSitter or Rindler).1 The operator equations for QFT in the background metric are well defined in these spacetimes; but to make useful predictions we also need to choose a quantum state for the field. The Schwarzschild, deSitter and Rindler metrics are symmetric under time reversal and there exists a ‘natural’ definition of a time symmetric vacuum state in all these cases. Such a vacuum state will appear to be described a thermal density matrix in a subregion $``$ of spacetime with the horizon as a boundary. The QFT based on such a state will be manifestedly time symmetric and will describe an isolated system in thermal equilibrium in the subregion $``$. No time asymmetric phenomena like evaporation, outgoing radiation, irreversible changes etc can take place in this situation.

One would next ask whether one can associate an entropy with such spacetimes in a sensible manner, given that the notion of temperature arises very naturally. Conventionally there are two very different ways of defining the entropy, given the notion of temperature: (1) In statistical mechanics, the partition function $`Z(\beta )`$ of the canonical ensemble of systems with constant temperature $`\beta ^1`$ is related to the entropy $`S`$ and energy $`E`$ by $`Z(\beta )\mathrm{exp}(S\beta E)`$. (2) In classical thermodynamics, on the other hand, it is the change in the entropy, which can be operationally defined via $`dS=dE/T(E)`$. Integrating this equation will lead to the function $`S(E)`$ except for an additive constant which needs to be determined from additional considerations. Proving the equality of these two concepts was nontrivial and — historically — led to the unification of thermodynamics with mechanics.

In the case of time symmetric vacuum state, there will be no change of entropy $`dS`$ and the thermodynamic route is blocked. I will show, however, that it is possible to construct a canonical ensemble of a class of spacetimes with a fixed value for $`\beta `$ and evaluate the partition function $`Z(\beta )`$. For spherically symmetric spacetimes with a horizon at $`r=l`$, the partition function has the generic form $`Z\mathrm{exp}[S\beta E]`$, where $`S=(1/4)4\pi l^2`$ and $`|E|=(l/2)`$. This analysis reproduces the conventional result for the blackhole spacetimes and provides a simple and consistent interpretation of entropy and energy for deSitter spacetime, with the latter being given by $`E=(1/2)H^1`$. For the Rindler spacetime the entropy per unit transverse area turns out to be $`(1/4)`$ while the energy is zero.

I will also show how to construct radiating states in all these spacetimes such that the thermodynamic approach to entropy can also be realised. It will turn out that there is absolutely no mathematical distinction between the horizons which arise in the Schwarzschild, deSitter and Rindler spacetimes. There is no simple way one can associate entropy with blackholes without associating entropy with Rindler or deSitter. It is all or none.

## 2 A unified approach to spacetimes with horizons

Consider a (D+1) dimensional flat Lorentzian manifold $`𝒮`$ with the signature (+, $`,,\mathrm{})`$ and Cartesian coordinates $`Z^A`$ where $`A=(0,1,2,\mathrm{},D)`$. A four dimensional sub-manifold $`𝒟`$ in this (D+1) dimensional space can be defined through a mapping $`Z^A=Z^A(x^a)`$ where $`x^a`$ with $`a=(0,1,2,3)`$ are the four dimensional coordinates on the surface. The flat Lorentzian metric in the (D+1) dimensional space induces a metric $`g_{ab}(x^a)`$ on the four dimensional space which — for a wide variety of the mappings $`Z^A=Z^A(x^a)`$ — will have the signature $`(+,,,)`$ and will represent, in general, a curved four geometry. The quantum theory of a free scalar field in $`𝒮`$ is well defined in terms of the, say, plane wave modes which satisfy the wave equation in $`𝒮`$. A subset of these modes, which does not depend on the ‘transverse’ directions, will satisfy the corresponding wave equation in $`𝒟`$ and will depend only on $`x^a`$. These modes induce a natural QFT in $`𝒟`$. We are interested in the mappings $`Z^A=Z^A(x^a)`$ which leads to a horizon in $`𝒟`$ so that we can investigate the QFT in spacetimes with horizons using the free, flat spacetime, QFT in $`𝒮`$. \[This approach was used earlier in reference 2 for some special cases. But I use this technique with a different motivation, in a more general context, to draw some important conclusions.\]

For this purpose, I will restrict attention to a class of surfaces defined by the mappings $`Z^A=Z^A(x^a)`$ which ensures the following properties for $`𝒟`$: (i) The induced metric $`g_{ab}`$ has the signature $`(+,,,)`$. (ii) The induced metric is static in the sense that $`g_{0\alpha }=0`$ and all $`g_{ab}`$s are independent of $`x^0`$. \[The Greek indices run over 1,2,3.\] (iii) Under the transformation $`x^0x^0+i(\pi /g)`$, where $`g`$ is a non zero, positive constant, the mapping of the coordinates changes as $`Z^0Z^0,Z^1Z^1`$ and $`Z^AZ^A`$ for $`A=2,\mathrm{},D`$. It will turn out that the four dimensional manifolds defined by such mappings possess a horizon and most of the interesting features of the thermodynamics related to the horizon can be obtained from the above characterization. Let us first determine the nature of the mapping $`Z^A=Z^A(x^a)=Z^A(t,𝐱)`$ such that the above conditions are satisfied.

The condition (iii) above singles out the spatial coordinate $`Z^1`$ from the others. To satisfy this condition we can take the mapping $`Z^A=Z^A(t,r,\theta ,\varphi )`$ to be of the form $`Z^0=Z^0(t,r),Z^1=Z^1(t,r),Z^{}=Z^{}(r,\theta ,\varphi )`$ where $`Z^{}`$ denotes the transverse coordinates $`Z^A`$ with $`A=(2,\mathrm{},D)`$. To impose the condition (ii) above, one can make use of the fact that $`𝒮`$ possesses invariance under translations, rotations and Lorentz boosts which are characterized by the existence of a set of $`N=(1/2)(D+1)(D+2)`$ Killing vector fields $`\xi ^A(Z^A)`$. Consider any linear combination $`V^A`$ of these Killing vector fields which is timelike in a region of $`𝒮`$. The integral curves to this vector field $`V^A`$ will define time like curves in $`𝒮`$. If one treats these curves as the trajectories of a hypothetical observer, then one can set up the proper Fermi-Walker transported coordinate system for this observer. Since the four velocity of the observer is along the Killing vector field, it is obvious that the metric in this coordinate system will be static.3 In particular, there exists a Killing vector which corresponds to Lorentz boosts along the $`Z^1`$ direction that can be interpreted as rotation in imaginary time coordinate allowing a natural realization of (iii) above. Using the property of Lorentz boosts, it is easy to see that the transformations of the form $`Z^0=\pm lf(r)^{1/2}\mathrm{sinh}gt;Z^1=\pm lf(r)^{1/2}\mathrm{cosh}gt`$ will satisfy both conditions (ii) and (iii) where $`(l,g)`$ are constants introduced for dimensional reasons and $`f(r)`$ is a given function. This map covers only the two quadrants with $`|Z^1|>|Z^0|`$ with positive sign for the right quadrant and negative sign for the left. To cover the entire $`(Z^0,Z^1)`$ plane, we will use the full set

$`Z^0=\pm lf(r)^{1/2}\mathrm{sinh}gt;Z^1=\pm lf(r)^{1/2}\mathrm{cosh}gt`$ $`(\mathrm{for}|Z^1|>|Z^0|)`$ (1)
$`Z^0=\pm l[f(r)]^{1/2}\mathrm{cosh}gt;Z^1=\pm l[f(r)]^{1/2}\mathrm{sinh}gt`$ $`(\mathrm{for}|Z^1|<|Z^0|)`$ (2)
The inverse transformations corresponding to (1) are

$$l^2f(r)=(Z^1)^2(Z^0)^2;gt=\mathrm{tanh}^1(Z^0/Z^1)$$
(3)
Clearly, to cover the entire two dimensional plane of $`\mathrm{}<(Z^0,Z^1)<+\mathrm{}`$, it is necessary to have both $`f(r)>0`$ and $`f(r)<0`$. The pair of points $`(Z^0,Z^1)`$ and $`(Z^0,Z^1)`$ are mapped to the same $`(t,r)`$ making this a 2-to-1 mapping. The null surface $`Z^0=\pm Z^1`$ is mapped to the surface $`f(r)=0`$.

The transformations given above with any arbitrary mapping for the transverse coordinate $`Z^{}=Z^{}(r,\theta ,\varphi )`$ will give rise to an induced metric on $`𝒟`$ of the form

$$ds^2=f(r)(lg)^2dt^2\frac{l^2}{4}\left(\frac{f^2}{f}\right)dr^2dL_{}^2$$
(4)
where $`dL_{}^2`$ depends on the form of the mapping $`Z^{}=Z^{}(r,\theta ,\varphi )`$. This form of the metric is valid in all the quadrants even though we will continue to work in the right quadrant and will comment on the behaviour in other quadrants only when necessary. It is obvious that the $`𝒟`$, in general, is curved and has a horizon at $`f(r)=0`$.

As a specific example, let us consider the case of (D+1)=6 with the coordinates $`(Z^0,Z^1,Z^2,Z^3,Z^4,Z^5)=(Z^0,Z^1,Z^2,R,\mathrm{\Theta },\mathrm{\Phi })`$ and consider a mapping to 4-dimensional subspace in which: (i) The $`(Z^0,Z^1)`$ are mapped to $`(t,r)`$ as before; (ii) the spherical coordinates $`(R,\mathrm{\Theta },\mathrm{\Phi })`$ in $`𝒮`$ are mapped to standard spherical polar coordinates in $`𝒟`$: $`(r,\theta ,\phi )`$ and (iii) we take $`Z^2`$ to be an arbitrary function of $`r`$: $`Z^2=q(r)`$. This leads to the metric

$$ds^2=A(r)dt^2B(r)dr^2r^2d\mathrm{\Omega }_{2\mathrm{sphere}}^2;$$
(5)
with

$$A(r)=(lg)^2f;B(r)=1+q^2+\frac{l^2}{4}\frac{f^2}{f}$$
(6)
Equation (5) is the form of a general, spherically symmetric, static metric in 4-dimension with two arbitrary functions $`f(r),q(r)`$. Given any specific metric with $`A(r)`$ and $`B(r)`$, equations (6) can be solved to determine $`f(r),q(r)`$. As an example, let us consider the Schwarzschild solution for which we will take $`f=4\left[1(l/r)\right]`$; the condition $`g_{00}=(1/g_{11})`$ now determines $`q(r)`$ through the equation

$$(q^{})^2=\left(1+\frac{l^2}{r^2}\right)\left(1+\frac{l}{r}\right)1=\left(\frac{l}{r}\right)^3+\left(\frac{l}{r}\right)^2+\frac{l}{r}$$
(7)
That is

$$q(r)=^r\left[\left(\frac{l}{r}\right)^3+\left(\frac{l}{r}\right)^2+\frac{l}{r}\right]^{1/2}𝑑r$$
(8)
Though the integral cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions, it is obvious that $`q(r)`$ is well behaved everywhere including at $`r=l`$. The transformations $`(Z^0,Z^1)(t,r);Z^2q(r);(Z^3,Z^4,Z^5)(r,\theta ,\phi )`$ thus provide the embedding of Schwarzschild metric in a 6-dimensional space. \[This result was originally obtained by Frondsal;4 but the derivation in that paper is somewhat obscure and does not bring out the generality of the situation\]. As a corollary, we may note that this procedure leads to a spherically symmetric Schwarzschild-like metric in arbitrary dimension, with the 2-sphere in (5) replaced any $`N`$-sphere.

Incidentally, the choice $`lg=1,f(r)=[1(r/l)^2]`$ will provide an embedding of the deSitter spacetime in 6-dimensional space with $`Z^2=r,(Z^3,Z^4,Z^5)(r,\theta ,\varphi )`$. Of course, in this case, one of the coordinates is actually redundant and we can achieve the embedding in 5-dimensional space. A still more trivial case is that of Rindler metric which can be obtained with D=3, $`lg=1,f(r)=1+2gr`$; in this case, the “embedding” is just a reparametrization within four dimensional spacetime and — in this case — $`r`$ runs in the range $`(\mathrm{},\mathrm{})`$. The key point is that the metric in (4) is fairly generic and can describe a host of spacetimes with horizons located at $`f=0`$.

## 3 Dimensional reduction and emergence of CFT near a horizon

To investigate the nature of spacetimes with horizons, we only need to assume that $`f(r)`$ vanishes at some $`r=l`$ with $`f^{}(l)`$ being finite; such spacetimes have a horizon at $`r=l`$. Let us consider the example of a QFT for a self-interacting scalar field with a potential $`V(\varphi )`$, in a spacetime with the metric of the form in equation (4):

$$ds^2=f(r)(lg)^2dt^2\frac{l^2}{4}\left(\frac{f^2}{f}\right)dr^2g_{\alpha \beta }dx^\alpha dx^\beta ;g_{\alpha \beta }=g_{\alpha \beta }(r,𝐱_{})$$
(9)
where the line element $`g_{\alpha \beta }dx^\alpha dx^\beta `$ denotes the irrelevant transverse part corresponding to the transverse coordinates $`𝐱_{}`$, as well as any regular part of the metric corresponding to $`dr^2`$. For example, in the case of metric in (5) it is convenient to combine the $`(1+q^2)dr^2`$ term with the transverse part since it is regular at the horizon. The field equation for a scalar field in this metric $`_a^a\varphi =(V/\varphi )`$ can be expanded as

$$\ddot{\varphi }\frac{4g^2}{Q}\frac{f}{f^{}}\frac{}{r}\left[Q\frac{f}{f^{}}\frac{\varphi }{r}\right](lg)^2f\left[(_{}^2\varphi )+\frac{V}{\varphi }\right]=0$$
(10)
where we have set $`\sqrt{g}=(l^2g/2)f^{}(r)Q(r,𝐱_{})`$ with $`Q(r,𝐱_{})`$ giving the square root of the determinant of transverse metric. It is assumed that $`f`$ has a simple zero at some $`r=l`$ while $`Q`$ is regular at this point. We see from (10) that something drastic will happen if $`f`$ has a simple zero at some point $`r=l`$, signalling a horizon in the spacetime. Then the factor $`f`$ will kill the dependence of the solution on the transverse coordinates as well as on the potential and we will be left with essentially a $`2`$ dimensional scalar field theory, which – as is well known – acquires an extra symmetry of conformal invariance. Introducing the coordinate $`\xi =(1/2g)\mathrm{ln}f`$, equation (10) can be rewritten as

$$\frac{^2\varphi }{t^2}\frac{^2\varphi }{\xi ^2}=\left(\frac{2g}{f^{}}\right)^2\frac{f^2}{Q}\left(\frac{\varphi }{r}\right)\left(\frac{Q}{r}\right)+(lg)^2f\left[(_{}^2\varphi )+\frac{V}{\varphi }\right]$$
(11)
The right hand side vanishes as $`rl`$ because $`f`$ vanishes faster than all other terms. It follows that near the horizon we are dealing with a (1+1) dimensional field theory governed by

$$\frac{^2\varphi }{t^2}\frac{^2\varphi }{\xi ^2}0$$
(12)
which has an extra symmetry of conformal invariance.

If we take $`f(r)2g(rl)`$ near $`r=l`$ and separate the time dependence by $`\varphi =\varphi _\omega e^{i\omega t}`$, it is easy to see that near $`r=l`$, the solution has the universal form:

$$\varphi _\omega |rl|^{\pm (i\omega /2g)}\mathrm{exp}\left[\pm \frac{i\omega }{2g}\mathrm{ln}|\frac{r}{l}1|\right]$$
(13)
The fundamental wave modes are now

$$\varphi =e^{i\omega t\pm i\omega \xi }=e^{i\omega (t\pm \xi )}=(e^{i\omega z},e^{i\omega \overline{z}})$$
(14)
where $`\tau =it`$ and $`z(\xi +i\tau )`$ is the standard complex coordinate of the conformal field theory. The boundary condition on the horizon can be expressed most naturally in terms of $`z`$ and $`\overline{z}`$. For example, purely in-going modes are characterized by $`(f/\overline{z})=0;(f/z)0`$. Since the system is periodic in $`\tau `$, the coordinate $`z`$ is on a cylinder $`(R^1\times S^1`$) with $`\tau `$ being the angular coordinate ($`S^1`$) and $`\xi `$ being the $`R^1`$ coordinate. The periodicity in $`\tau `$ is clearer if we introduce the related complex variable $`\rho `$ by the definition $`\rho =\mathrm{exp}g(\xi +i\tau )=\mathrm{exp}(gz)`$. The coordinate $`\rho `$ respects the periodicity in $`\tau `$ and is essentially a mapping from a cylinder to a plane. (For a general discussion of conformal field theory, see reference .) It follows that the modes $`(e^{i\omega z},e^{i\omega \overline{z}})`$ become $`(\rho ^{i\omega /g},\overline{\rho }^{i\omega /g})`$ in terms of $`\rho `$.

The situation is simpler in the case of a free field with $`V=0`$. Then the general solution to the wave equation can be expanded in terms of the modes $`\varphi (t,r,𝐱_{})=F_\lambda (𝐱_{})\varphi _{\lambda \omega }(r)e^{i\omega t}`$ where the function $`F`$ is the eigenfunction of transverse Laplacian with (set of) eigenvalue(s) $`\lambda `$; that is $`_{D1}^2F=\lambda ^2F`$. In general, the radial part of the solution $`\varphi _{\lambda \omega }(r)`$ will depend both on $`\omega `$ and $`\lambda `$ and will have a complicated $`r`$ dependence. But if the spacetime has a horizon, then the mode functions have a unique behaviour \[given by (13)\] near the horizon. The corresponding two point function $`G(tt^{};r,r^{};𝐱_{},𝐱_{}^{})=0|\varphi (t,r,𝐱_{})\varphi (t^{},r^{},𝐱_{}^{})|0`$ will have the limit

$$G(tt^{};r,r^{};𝐱_{},𝐱_{}^{})\{\underset{\lambda }{}f_\lambda (𝐱_{})f_\lambda (𝐱_{}^{}\}\left\{\underset{\omega }{}e^{i\omega [(tt^{})\pm (\xi \xi ^{})]}\right\}$$
(15)
near $`rl,r^{}l`$. That is, the two point function factorises into a transverse and radial part with the radial part being that of a two dimensional massless scalar field. The latter is the same as the Green function of the standard conformal filed theory. Similar results exist for other two-point functions, like Feynman Green function etc.

The fact that the field modes have a unique behaviour near the event horizon has implications for the QFT in the bulk of the spacetime. Note that a free QFT is uniquely determined by the two-point function, say, the Feynman Green function which satisfies a local differential equation. Since this equation is hyperbolic in the Minkowski space, the boundary conditions required to specify the solution are nontrivial in general. Our analysis shows that the existence of a CFT near the horizon allows us to specify the boundary condition on the $`r=l+ϵ`$ surface, where $`ϵ`$ is an infinitesimal quantity. In other words, the QFT in the bulk of the spacetime is uniquely determined once we specified the boundary conditions on the surface of the event horizon (plus at infinity or origin depending on the location of bulk region wrt the horizon). This is a version of holographic principle in operation.

## 4 All horizons lead to temperature

There exists a natural definition of QFT in the original (D + 1)-dimensional space; in particular, we can define a vacuum state for the quantum field on the $`Z^0=0`$ surface, which coincides with the $`t=0`$ surface. By restricting the field modes (or the field configurations in the Schrodinger picture) to depend only on the coordinates in $`𝒟`$, we will obtain a quantum field theory in $`𝒟`$ in the sense that these modes will satisfy the relevant field equation defined in $`𝒟`$. In general, this is a complicated problem and it is not easy to have a choice of modes in $`𝒮`$ which will lead to a natural set of modes in $`𝒟`$. We can, however, take advantage of the fact proved in the last section — that all the interesting physics arises from the $`(Z^0,Z^1)`$ plane and the other transverse dimensions are irrelevant near the horizon. In particular, solutions to the wave equation in $`𝒮`$ which depends only on the coordinates $`Z^0`$ and $`Z^1`$ will satisfy the wave equation in $`𝒟`$ and will depend only on $`(t,r)`$. Such modes will define a natural $`s`$wave QFT in $`𝒟`$. I will now show that the positive frequency modes of the above kind will be a specific superposition of negative and positive frequency modes in $`𝒟`$ leading to a temperature $`T=(g/2\pi )`$ in the 4-dimensional subspace on one side of the horizon. There are several ways of proving this result, all of which depend essentially on the property that under the transformation $`tt+(i\pi /g)`$ the two coordinates $`Z^0`$ and $`Z^1`$ reverses sign.

Consider a positive frequency mode of the form $`F(Z^0,Z^1)\mathrm{exp}[i\mathrm{\Omega }Z^0+iPZ^1]`$ with $`\mathrm{\Omega }>0`$. This mode can be expressed in the 4-dimensional sector in the form $`\mathrm{\Phi }=F(t,r)=F[Z^0(t,r),Z^1(t,r)]`$. For simplicity, we shall measure time in units of $`(1/g)`$ thereby setting $`g=1`$ in what follows. The Fourier transform of $`F(t,r)`$ with respect to $`t`$ will be:,

$$K(\omega ,r)=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑te^{i\omega t}F[Z^0(t,r),Z^1(t,r)];(\mathrm{}<\omega <\mathrm{})$$
(16)
Thus a positive frequency mode in the higher dimension can only be expressed as an integral over $`\omega `$ with $`\omega `$ ranging over both positive and negative values. However, using the fact that $`tti\pi `$ leads to $`Z^0Z^1`$, it is easy to show that $`K(\omega ,r)=e^{\pi \omega }K^{}(\omega ,r)`$. This allows us to write

$$F(t,r)=_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{d\omega }{2\pi }[K(\omega ,r)e^{i\omega t}+e^{\pi \omega }K^{}(\omega ,r)e^{i\omega t}]$$
(17)
The second term represents the contribution of negative frequency modes in the the 4-D spacetime to the pure positive frequency mode in the embedding spacetime. A field mode of the embedding spacetime containing creation and annihilation operators $`(A,A^{})`$ can now be represented in terms of the creation and annihilation operators $`(a,a^{})`$ appropriate to the $`(t,r)`$ coordinates as

$$AF+A^{}F^{}=_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{d\omega }{2\pi }[(A+A^{}e^{\pi \omega })Ke^{i\omega t}+\mathrm{h}.\mathrm{c}.]=_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{d\omega }{2\pi }\frac{1}{N}[aKe^{i\omega t}+\mathrm{h}.\mathrm{c}.]$$
(18)
where $`N`$ is a normalization constant. Identifying $`a=N(A+e^{\pi \omega }A^{})`$ and using the conditions $`[a,a^{}]=1,[A,A^{}]=1`$ etc., we get $`N=[1\mathrm{exp}(2\pi \omega )]^{1/2}`$. It follows that the number of $`a`$particles in the vacuum defined by $`A|\mathrm{vac}>=0`$ is given by

$$<\mathrm{vac}|a^{}a|\mathrm{vac}>=N^2e^{2\pi \omega }=(e^{2\pi \omega }1)^1$$
(19)
This is a Planckian spectrum with temperature $`T=1/2\pi =g/2\pi `$ in normal units.

There is a more elegant way of obtaining this result which is due to Lee and I give here an adaptation of the same.6 The basic theme is illustrated in figure 1 in which the origin of $`r`$ is chosen such that $`f(r=0)=0`$ for simplicity. On the $`Z^0=t=0`$ hyper-surface one can define a vacuum state $`|\mathrm{vac}>`$ of the theory by giving the field configuration for the whole of $`\mathrm{}<Z^1<+\mathrm{}`$. This field configuration, however, separates into two disjoint sectors when one uses the $`(t,r)`$ coordinate system. Concentrating on the $`(Z^0,Z^1)`$ plane, we now need to specify the field configuration $`\varphi _R(Z^1)`$ for $`Z^1>0`$ and $`\varphi _L(Z^1)`$ for $`Z^1<0`$ to match the initial data in the global coordinates; given this data, the vacuum state is specified by the functional $`<\mathrm{vac}|\varphi _L,\varphi _R>`$.

Let us next consider the Euclidean sector corresponding to the $`(Z_E^0,Z^1)`$ plane where $`Z_E^0=iZ^0`$. The QFT in this plane can be defined along standard lines. The analytic continuation in $`t`$, however, is a different matter; the coordinates $`(gt_E=igt,f(r)^{1/2})`$ are like polar coordinates in this $`(T,Z^1)`$ plane with $`t_E`$ having a periodicity of $`(2\pi /g)`$. Figure 1 now shows that evolution in $`gt_E`$ from $`0`$ to $`\pi `$ will take the system configuration from $`Z^1>0`$ to $`Z^1<0`$. This allows one to prove that $`\mathrm{vac}|\varphi _L,\varphi _R\varphi _L|e^{\pi H/g}|\varphi _R`$; normalization now fixes the proportionality constant, giving

$$\mathrm{vac}|\varphi _L,\varphi _R=\frac{\varphi _L|e^{\pi H/g}|\varphi _R}{Tr(e^{2\pi H/g})^{1/2}}$$
(20)
To provide a simple proof of this relation, let us consider the ground state wave functional $`<\mathrm{vac}|\varphi _L,\varphi _R>`$ in the embedding spacetime expressed as a path integral. As is well known, ground state wave functional can be represented as a Euclidean path integral of the form

$$\mathrm{vac}|\varphi _L,\varphi _R_{Z_E^0=0;\varphi =(\varphi _L,\varphi _R)}^{Z_E^0=\mathrm{};\varphi =(0,0)}𝒟\varphi e^A$$
(21)
where $`Z_E^0=iZ^0`$ is the Euclidean time coordinate. From figure 1 it is obvious that this path integral could also be evaluated in the polar coordinates by varying the angle $`\theta =gt_E`$ from 0 to $`\pi `$. When $`\theta =0`$ the field configuration corresponds to $`\varphi =\varphi _R`$ and when $`\theta =\pi `$ the field configuration corresponds to $`\varphi =\varphi _L`$. Therefore

$$\mathrm{vac}|\varphi _L,\varphi _R_{gt_E=0;\varphi =\varphi _R}^{gt_E=\pi ;\varphi =\varphi _L}𝒟\varphi e^A$$
(22)
In Heisenberg picture this quantity can be expressed as a matrix element of the Hamiltonian $`H_R`$ in the $`(t,r)`$ coordinates giving us the result:

$$\mathrm{vac}|\varphi _L,\varphi _R_{gt_E=0;\varphi =\varphi _R}^{gt_E=\pi ;\varphi =\varphi _L}𝒟\varphi e^A=\varphi _L|e^{(\pi /g)H_R}|\varphi _R$$
(23)
Normalizing the result properly gives equation (20).

This result, in turn, implies that for operators $`𝒪`$ made out of field variables belonging to the right wedge, the vacuum expectation values become thermal expectation values. This arises from straightforward algebra of inserting a complete set of states appropriately:

$`\mathrm{vac}|𝒪(\varphi _R)|\mathrm{vac}={\displaystyle \underset{\varphi _L}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{\varphi _R^1,\varphi _R^2}{}}\mathrm{vac}|\varphi _L,\varphi _R^1\varphi _R^1|𝒪(\varphi _R)|\varphi _R^2\varphi _R^2,\varphi _L|\mathrm{vac}`$
$`={\displaystyle \underset{\varphi _L}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{\varphi _R^1,\varphi _R^2}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\varphi _L|e^{\pi H/g}|\varphi _R^1\varphi _R^1|𝒪|\varphi _R^2\varphi _R^2|e^{\pi H/g}|\varphi _L}{Tr(e^{2\pi H/g})}}={\displaystyle \frac{Tr(e^{2\pi H/g}𝒪)}{Tr(e^{2\pi H/g})}}`$ (24)
The most important conclusion which follows from all these is that the existence of the temperature is a purely kinematic effect arising from the coordinate system we have used. Dynamical evolution has no role to play. The main ingredients which have gone into this result are the following. (i) The singular behaviour of the $`(t,r)`$ coordinate system near $`r=l`$ separates out the $`Z^0=0`$ hyper-surface into two separate regions. (ii) In terms of real $`(t,r)`$ coordinates, it is not possible to distinguish between the points $`(Z^0,Z^1)`$ and $`(Z^0,Z^1)`$ but the transformation $`tt+i\pi `$ maps the point $`(Z^0,Z^1)`$ to the point $`(Z^0,Z^1)`$. Thus a rotation in the complex time plane encodes the information contained in the full $`Z^0=0`$ plane.

## 5 All horizons lead to entropy

The next logical question will be whether one can associate other thermodynamic quantities, especially the entropy, with such spacetimes. Given that the temperature can be introduced very naturally, using only the behaviour of metric near the horizon, one would look for a similarly elegant and natural derivation of the entropy. Such a derivation should not depend on the introduction of external degrees of freedom (like a scalar field) since we want to associate the entropy with the spacetime and not with an external field. Further, the thermodynamical description should depend only on the behaviour of the metric near the horizon. I will show that it is indeed possible to provide such a description for spacetimes of the form in

$$ds^2=f(r)dt^2f(r)^1dr^2dL_{}^2$$
(25)
where $`f(r)`$ vanishes at some surface $`r=l`$, say, with $`f^{}(l)B`$ remaining finite. When $`dL_{}^2=r^2dS_2^2`$ with $`[0r\mathrm{}]`$, equation (25) covers a variety of spherically symmetric spacetimes with a compact horizon at $`r=l`$. If $`r`$ is interpreted as one of the cartesian coordinates $`x`$ with $`(\mathrm{}x\mathrm{})`$ and $`dL_{}^2=dy^2+dz^2,f(x)=1+2gx,`$ equation (25) can describe the Rindler frame in flat spacetime. We shall first concentrate on compact horizons with $`r`$ interpreted as radial coordinate, and comment on the Rindler frame at the end.

Since the metric is static, Euclidean continuation is trivially effected by $`t\tau =it`$ and an examination of the conical singularity near $`r=l`$ \[where $`f(r)B(rl)`$\] shows that $`\tau `$ should be interpreted as periodic with period $`\beta =4\pi /|B|`$ corresponding to the temperature $`T=|B|/4\pi `$. Hence class of metrics in (25) with the behaviour $`[f(l)=0,f^{}(l)=B]`$ constitute a canonical ensemble at constant temperature since they all have the same temperature $`T=|B|/4\pi `$ . The partition function for this ensemble is given by the path integral sum

$$Z(\beta )=\underset{gϵ𝒮}{}\mathrm{exp}(A_E(g))=\underset{gϵ𝒮}{}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{16\pi }_0^\beta 𝑑\tau d^3x\sqrt{g_E}R_E[f(r)]\right)$$
(26)
where I have made the Euclidian continuation of the Einstein action and imposed the periodicity in $`\tau `$ with period $`\beta =4\pi /|B|`$. The sum is restricted to the set $`𝒮`$ of all metrics of the form in (25) with the behaviour $`[f(l)=0,f^{}(l)=B]`$ and the Euclidean lagrangian is a functional of $`f(r)`$. No source terms or cosmological constant (which cannot be distinguished from certain form of source) is included since the idea is to obtain a result which depends purely on the geometry. The spatial integration will be restricted to a region bounded by the 2-spheres $`r=l`$ and $`r=L`$, where the choice of $`L`$ is arbitrary except for the requirement that within the region of integration the Lorentzian metric must have the proper signature with $`t`$ being a time coordinate. Using the result

$$R=_r^2f\frac{2}{r^2}\frac{d}{dr}\left[r(1f)\right]$$
(27)
valid for metrics of the form in (25), a straight forward calculation shows that

$$A_E=\frac{\beta }{4}_l^L𝑑r\left[[r^2f^{}]^{}+2[r(1f)]^{}\right]=\frac{\beta }{4}[l^2B2l]+Q[f(L),f^{}(L)]$$
(28)
where $`Q`$ depends on the behaviour of the metric near $`r=L`$ and we have used the conditions $`[f(l)=0,f^{}(l)=B]`$. The sum in (26) now reduces to summing over the values of $`[f(L),f^{}(L)]`$ with a suitable (but unknown) measure. This sum, however, will only lead to a factor which we can ignore in deciding about the dependence of $`Z(\beta )`$ on the form of the metric near $`r=l`$. Using $`\beta =4\pi /B`$ (and taking $`B>0`$, for the moment) the final result can be written in a very suggestive form:

$$Z(\beta )=Z_0\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{1}{4}(4\pi l^2)\beta (\frac{l}{2})\right]\mathrm{exp}\left[S(l)\beta E(l)\right]$$
(29)
with the identifications for the entropy and energy being given by:

$$S=\frac{1}{4}(4\pi l^2)=\frac{1}{4}A_{\mathrm{horizon}};E=\frac{1}{2}l=\left(\frac{A_{\mathrm{horizon}}}{16\pi }\right)^{1/2}$$
(30)
In addition to the simplicity, the following features are noteworthy regarding this result:

(i) The partition function was evaluated with two very natural conditions: $`f(l)=0`$ making the surface $`r=l`$ a compact horizon and $`f^{}(l)=`$ constant which is the proper characterisation of the canonical ensemble of spacetime metrics. Since temperature is well defined for the class of metrics which I have considered, this canonical ensemble is defined without any ambiguity. This allows me to sum over a class of spherically symmetric spacetimes at one go rather than deal with, say, blackhole spacetimes and deSitter spacetime separately. Unlike many of the previous approaches (like, for example, ref. ), I do not evaluate the path integral in the WKB limit, confining to metrics which are solutions of Einstein’s equations.

(ii) In the case of the Schwarzschild blackhole with $`l=2M`$, the energy turns out to be $`E=(l/2)=M`$ which is as expected. (More generally, $`E=(A_{\mathrm{horizon}}/16\pi )^{1/2}`$ corresponds to the so called ‘irreducible mass’ in BH spacetimes). Of course, the identifications $`S=(4\pi M^2)`$, $`E=M`$, $`T=(1/8\pi M)`$ are consistent with the result $`dE=TdS`$ in this particular case.

(iii) Most importantly, our analysis provides an interpretation of entropy and energy in the case of deSitter universe. In this case, $`f(r)=(1H^2r^2)`$, $`a=H^1,B=2H`$. Since the region where $`t`$ is timelike is “inside” the horizon, the integral for $`A_E`$ in (28) should be taken from some arbitrary value $`r=L`$ to $`r=l`$ with $`l>L`$. So the horizon contributes in the upper limit of the integral introducing a change of sign in (28). Further, since $`B<0`$, there is another negative sign in the area term from $`\beta BB/|B|`$. Taking all these into account we get, in this case,

$$Z(\beta )=Z_0\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{1}{4}(4\pi l^2)+\beta (\frac{l}{2})\right]\mathrm{exp}\left[S(l)\beta E(l)\right]$$
(31)
giving $`S=(1/4)(4\pi l^2)=(1/4)A_{\mathrm{horizon}}`$ and $`E=(1/2)H^1`$. These definitions do satisfy the relation $`TdSPdV=dE`$ when it is noted that the deSitter universe has a non zero pressure $`P=\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }=E/V`$ associated with the cosmological constant. In fact, if we use the “reasonable” assumptions $`S=(1/4)(4\pi H^2),V=(4\pi /3)H^3`$ and $`E=PV`$ in the equation $`TdSPdV=dE`$ and treat $`E`$ as an unknown function of $`H`$, we get the equation $`H^2(dE/dH)=(3EH+1)`$ which integrates to give precisely $`E=(1/2)H^1.`$ This energy is also is numerically same as the total energy within the Hubble volume of the classical solution, with a cosmological constant:

$$E_{\mathrm{Hub}}=\frac{4\pi }{3}H^3\rho _\mathrm{\Lambda }=\frac{4\pi }{3}H^3\frac{3H^2}{8\pi }=\frac{1}{2}H^1$$
(32)
(The extra negative sign of $`E=E_{\mathrm{Hub}}`$ is related to a feature noticed in the literature in a different context; see for example, the discussion following equation (71) in the review . )

Finally, let us consider the spacetimes with planar symmetry for which (25) is still applicable with $`r=x`$ being a Cartesian coordinate and $`dL_{}^2=dy^2+dz^2`$. In this case $`R=f^{\prime \prime }(x)`$ and the action becomes

$$A_E=\frac{1}{16\pi }_0^\beta 𝑑\tau 𝑑y𝑑z_l^L𝑑xf^{\prime \prime }(x)=\frac{\beta }{16\pi }A_{}f^{}(l)+Q[f^{}(L)]$$
(33)
where we have confined the transverse integrations to a surface of area $`A_{}`$. If we now sum over all the metrics with $`f(l)=0,f^{}(l)=B`$ and $`f^{}(L)`$ arbitrary, the partition function will become

$$Z(\beta )=Z_0\mathrm{exp}(\frac{1}{4}A_{})$$
(34)
which suggests that planar horizons have an entropy of (1/4) per unit transverse area but zero energy. This includes Rindler frame as a special case. Note that if we freeze $`f`$ to its Rindler form $`f=1+2gx`$, then $`R=f^{\prime \prime }=0`$ as it should. In the action in (33), $`f^{}(l)f^{}(L)`$ will give zero. It is only because we are freezing $`f^{}(l)`$ but varying $`f^{}(L)`$ that we obtain an entropy for these spacetimes.

## 6 QFT in spacetimes with asymptotic horizons

The analysis so far was based on a strictly static 4-dimensional spacetime obtained as a subspace of the higher dimensional flat manifold. The blackhole metric, for example, corresponds to an eternal blackhole and the vacuum state which we constructed corresponds to the Hartle-Hawking vacuum of the Schwarzschild spacetime, describing a blackhole in thermal equilibrium.9 There is no net radiation flowing to infinity and the entropy and temperature obtained in the previous sections were based on equilibrium considerations.

Physically, one would like to have a situation which is asymmetric in time so that one can consider an irreversible flow of energy providing us with a $`dE`$ that can be used to define a $`dS=dE/T`$. Once it is realized that only the asymptotic form of the metric matters, we can simplify the above analysis by just choosing a time asymmetric vacuum and working with the asymptotic form of the metric with the understanding that the asymptotic form arose due to a time asymmetric process (like gravitational collapse). In the case of blackhole spacetimes this is accomplished — for example — by choosing the Unruh vacuum.10 The question arises as to how our unified approach fares in handling such a situation which is not time symmetric and the horizon forms only asymptotically as $`t\mathrm{}`$.

There exist analogues of the collapsing blackhole in the case of deSitter and even Rindler. The analogue in the case of deSitter spacetime will be an FRW universe which behaves like a deSitter universe only at late times. Emboldened by the analogy with blackhole spacetime one can also directly construct quantum states (similar to Unruh vacuum of blackhole spacetime) which are time asymmetric, even in the exact deSitter spacetime, with the understanding that the deSitter universe came about at late times through a time asymmetric evolution.

The analogy also works for Rindler spacetime which is also time symmetric. The coordinate system for an observer with time dependent acceleration will generalize the standard Rindler spacetime in a time dependent manner. For an observer who was inertial at early times and is uniformly accelerating at late times, an event horizon forms at late times exactly in analogy with a collapsing blackhole. It is now possible to choose quantum states which are analogous to Unruh vacuum - that will correspond to an inertial vacuum state at early times and will appear as a thermal state at late times.

It is easy to demonstrate these results in 2D using the emergence of CFT near horizon and calculating expectation values of the stress tensor especially near the horizon. Concentrating on the $`(t,r)`$ plane, one can introduce a series of natural coordinates of the form

$$ds^2=f(r)dt^2\frac{dr^2}{f(r)}=f(\xi )(dt^2d\xi ^2)=f[(vu)]dudv$$
(35)
where

$$\xi =\frac{dr}{f(r)};u=t\xi ;v=t+\xi $$
(36)
These coordinate systems are singular near the horizon $`rl`$. Assuming $`f(r)B(rl)`$ near $`r=l`$ \[with $`B=f^{}(l)`$\], it is easy to see that near the horizon the line element has the form $`ds^2Ble^{(B/2)(vu)}dvdu`$. This form suggests a natural coordinate transformation from $`(u,v)`$ to a non singular coordinate system $`(U,V)`$ with $`V=(2/B)\mathrm{exp}[(B/2)v];`$ $`U=(2/B)\mathrm{exp}[(B/2)u]`$ in terms of which the metric becomes $`ds^2=(4f/B^2UV)`$ $`dUdV`$. By construction, the $`(U,V)`$ coordinate system is regular on the horizon, since the combination $`(f/UV)`$ is finite on the horizon. (This will lead to the familiar Kruskal coordinate system in the case of Schwarzschild manifold.)

Since the mode functions are plane waves in conformally flat (1+1) spacetime, we can immediately identify two very natural set of modes \[and corrsponding vacuum states\] in the spacetime. The outgoing and ingoing modes of the kind $`(4\pi \omega )^{1/2}`$ $`[\mathrm{exp}(i\omega u),\mathrm{exp}(i\omega v)]`$ defines a static vacuum state (called Boulware vacuum in the case of Schwarzschild blackhole). The modes of the kind $`(4\pi \omega )^{1/2}[\mathrm{exp}(i\omega U),`$ $`\mathrm{exp}(i\omega V)]`$ defines another vacuum state (called Hartle-Hawking vacuum in the case of Schwarzschild blackhole). Finally, the modes of the kind $`(4\pi \omega )^{1/2}[\mathrm{exp}(i\omega U),`$ $`\mathrm{exp}(i\omega v)]`$ define the analogue of Unruh vacuum.

In any conformally flat coordinate system of the form $`ds^2=C(x^+,x^{})dx^+dx^{}`$, the expectation values of the stress-tensor component are given by5

$$<T_{\pm \pm }>=\frac{1}{12\pi }C^{1/2}_\pm ^2C^{1/2};<T_+>=\frac{C}{96\pi }R;R=4C^1_+_{}\mathrm{ln}C$$
(37)
Using this formula (with $`x^\pm `$ identified with $`(u,v)`$ coordinates and the relation $`_u=(\xi /u)(r/\xi )_r=(1/2)f(r)_r)`$ gives the expectation values in the Boulware vacuum:

$$==\frac{1}{96\pi }\left[ff^{\prime \prime }\frac{1}{2}(f^{})^2\right]$$
(38)
wherer $`f^{}=df/dr`$ etc. Identifying $`x^\pm `$ with $`(U,V)`$ coordinates gives the expectation values in the Hartle-Hawking vacuum:

$$<HH|T_{}|HH>=<HH|T_{++}|HH>=+\frac{f^{}(l)^2}{192\pi }$$
(39)
In both these cases, there is no flux since $`<T_{rt}>=0`$. Near the horizon, we have

$$\frac{f^{}(l)^2}{192\pi };<HH|T_{\pm \pm }|HH>0$$
(40)
An inertial observer near the horizon will use $`U`$ instead of $`u`$ and hence the actual values measured by an inertial observer near the horizon will vary as $`<B|T_{uu}|B>(du/dU)^2`$ and will diverge near the horizon in the Boulware vacuum.

A more interesting situation arises in the case of Unruh vacuum which differs from the Boulware vacuum only in the outgoing modes. If the cordinate $`x^{}`$ is replaced by $`X^{}F(x^{})`$, the conformally flat nature of the line element is maintained and the only stress tensor component which changes is

$$<T_{}><T_{}>+\frac{1}{24\pi }\left[\left(\frac{Q^{\prime \prime }}{Q}\right)\frac{1}{2}\left(\frac{Q^{}}{Q}\right)^2\right]$$
(41)
where $`Q=(1/F^{})`$. Using this we find that

$$=<HH|T_{}|HH>;=$$
(42)
thereby making $`<U|T_{}|U><U|T_{++}|U>`$. This leads to a flux of radiation with $`<U|T_{r^{}t}|U>=(B^2/192\pi )`$. It is also clear that the energy density, as measured by inertial observers, is finite near the horizon. We thus conclude that we have two acceptable vauum states in all these spacetimes: (i) the time symmetric Hartle-Hawking state describing thermal equilibrium and zero flux and (ii) the time-asymmetric Unruh vacuum with a flux of radiation.

We cannot, of course, use this trick in 4D away from the horizon and a formal analysis of this problem will involve setting up the in and out vacua of the theory, evolving the modes from $`t=\mathrm{}`$ to $`t=+\mathrm{}`$, and computing the Bogolibov coefficients. It is, however, not necessary to perform the details of such an analysis because all the three spacetimes (Schwarzschild, deSitter and Rindler) have virtually identical kinematical structure. In the case of Schwarzschild metric, it is well known that the thermal spectrum at late times arises because the modes which reach spatial infinity at late times propagate from near the event horizon at early times and undergo exponential redshift. The corresponding result occurs in all the three spacetimes (and a host of other spacetimes).

Consider the propagation of a wave packet centered around a radial null ray in a spacetime which - asymptotically - has the form in equation (4). The trajectory of the null ray which goes from the initial position $`r_{in}`$ at $`t_{in}`$ to a final position $`r`$ at $`t`$ is determined by the equation

$$tt_{in}=\pm \left(\frac{1}{2g}\right)_{r_{in}}^r\left(\frac{f^{}}{f}\right)\left(1+\mathrm{}\right)^{1/2}𝑑r$$
(43)
where the $`\mathrm{}`$ denotes terms arising from the transverse part containing $`dr^2`$ (if any), which are regular at $`r=l`$. Consider now a ray which was close to the horizon initially so that $`(r_{in}l)l`$ and propagates to a region far away from the horizon at late times. (In a black hole metric $`rr_{in}`$ and the propagation will be outward directed; in the deSitter metric we will have $`rr_{in}`$ with rays propagating towards the origin. ) Since we have $`f(r)0`$ as $`rl`$, the integral will be dominated by a logarithmic singularity near the horizon and the regular term denoted by $`\mathrm{}`$ will not contribute. Then we get

$$tt_{in}=\pm \left(\frac{1}{2g}\right)_{r_{in}}^r\left(\frac{f^{}}{f}\right)\left(1+\mathrm{}\right)^{1/2}𝑑r\pm \left(\frac{1}{2g}\right)\mathrm{ln}|f(r_{in})|+\mathrm{constant}$$
(44)
As the wave propagates away from the horizon its frequency will be redshifted by the factor $`\omega (1/\sqrt{g_{00}})`$ so that

$$\frac{\omega (t)}{\omega (t_{in})}=\left(\frac{g_{00}(r_{in})}{g_{00}(r)}\right)^{1/2}=\left[\frac{f(r_{\mathrm{in}})}{f(r)}\right]^{1/2}Ke^{\pm gt}$$
(45)
where $`K`$ is an unimportant constant. It is obvious that the dominant behaviour of $`\omega (t)`$ will be exponential for any null geodesic starting near the horizon and proceeding away since all the transverse factors will be subdominant to the diverging logarithmic singularity arising from the integral of $`(1/f(r))`$ near the horizon. Thus $`\omega (t)\mathrm{exp}[\pm gt]`$ and the phase $`\theta (t)`$ of the wave will be vary with time as $`\theta (t)=\omega (t)𝑑t\mathrm{exp}[\pm gt]`$. An observer at a fixed $`r`$ will see the wave to have the time dependence $`\mathrm{exp}[i\theta (t)]`$ which, of course, is not monochromatic. If this wave is decomposed into different Fourier components with respect to $`t`$, then the amplitude at frequency $`\nu `$ is given by the Fourier transform

$$f(\nu )e^{i\theta (t)i\nu t}𝑑t\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝑑te^{i(\nu tQ\mathrm{exp}[\pm gt])}$$
(46)
where $`Q`$ is some constant. Changing the variables from $`t`$ to $`\tau `$ by $`Qe^{\pm gt}=\tau `$, evaluating the integral by analytic continuation to Im $`\tau `$ and taking the modulus one finds that the result is a thermal spectrum:

$$|f(\nu )|^2\frac{1}{e^{\beta \nu }1};\beta =\frac{2\pi }{g}$$
(47)
The standard expressions for the temperature are reproduced for Schwarzschild, deSitter and Rindler spacetimes. This analysis stresses the fact that the origin of thermal spectrum lies in the Fourier transforming of an exponentially redshifted spectrum.

An interesting question is whether similar results hold for Rindler spacetime in 4D which, of course, is flat. To study this case we need to work with the metric for an observer who is moving with variable acceleration. The transformation from the flat inertial coordinates $`(\overline{t},\overline{x},\overline{y},\overline{z})`$ to the proper coordinates $`(t,x,y,z)`$ of an observer with variable acceleration is effected by $`\overline{y}=y,\overline{z}=z`$ and

$$\overline{x}=^{}\mathrm{sinh}\mathrm{\Theta }(t)𝑑t+x\mathrm{cosh}\mathrm{\Theta }(t);\overline{t}=^{}\mathrm{cosh}\mathrm{\Theta }(t)𝑑t+x\mathrm{sinh}\mathrm{\Theta }(t)$$
(48)
where the function $`\mathrm{\Theta }(t)`$ is related to the time dependent acceleration $`g(t)`$ by $`g(t)=(d\mathrm{\Theta }/dt)`$. The form of the metric in the accelerated frame is remarkably simple:

$$ds^2=(1+g(t)x)^2dt^2dx^2dy^2dz^2$$
(49)
We will treat $`g(t)`$ to be an arbitrary function except for the limiting behaviour $`g(t)0`$ for $`t\mathrm{}`$ and $`g(t)g_0`$=constant for $`t+\mathrm{}`$. Hence, at early times, the line element in (49) represent the standard inertial coordinates and the positive frequency modes define the standard Minkowski vacuum. At late times, the metric goes over to the Rindler coordinates and we are interested in knowing how the initial vacuum state will be interpreted at late times. The wave equation $`(\mathrm{}+m^2)\varphi =0`$ for a massive scalar field can be separated in the transverse coordinates as $`\varphi (t,x,y,z)=f(t,x)e^{ik_yy}e^{ik_zz}`$ where $`f`$ satisfies the equation

$$\frac{1}{(1+g(t)x)}\frac{}{t}\left(\frac{1}{(1+g(t)x)}\frac{f}{x}\right)=\chi ^2f$$
(50)
with $`\chi ^2m^2+k_x^2+k_y^2`$. It is possible to solve this partial differential equation exactly and obtain the solution

$$f(x,t)=f_{k_yk_z\eta }(x,t)=\mathrm{exp}i\chi \left[\mathrm{cosh}(\mathrm{\Theta }\eta )𝑑t+x\mathrm{sinh}(\mathrm{\Theta }\eta )\right]$$
(51)
where $`\eta `$ is another constant. For the limiting behaviour we have assumed for $`g(t)`$, we see that $`\mathrm{\Theta }(t)`$ vanishes at early times and varies as $`\mathrm{\Theta }(t)(g_0t+`$constant) at late times. Correspondingly, the mode $`f`$ will behave as

$$f(x,t)\mathrm{exp}i\chi \left[t\mathrm{cosh}(\eta )x\mathrm{sinh}(\eta )\right]$$
(52)
at early times $`(t\mathrm{})`$ which is just the standard Minkowski positive frequency mode with $`\omega =\chi \mathrm{cosh}\eta ,k_x=\chi \mathrm{sinh}\eta `$. At late times the mode evolves to

$$f(x,t)\mathrm{exp}i\left[(\chi /2g_0)(1+g_0x)e^{g_0t}\right]$$
(53)
We are once again led to a wave mode with exponential redshift at any given $`x`$. The metric is static in $`t`$ at late times and the out-vacuum will be defined in terms of modes which are positive frequency with respect to $`t`$. The bogolibov transformations between the mode in (53) and modes which vary as $`\mathrm{exp}(i\nu t)`$ will involve exactly the same mathematics as in equation (46). We will get a thermal spectrum at late times.

How do we interpret these results? In the case of Rindler spacetimes, the detection of any particle has always been attributed to the energy supplied by the source which is providing the acceleration — either constant or variable. The other two examples — the Schwarzschild and the deSitter — are more non trivial to interpret. In the case of blackholes, one considers the collapse scenario as “physical” and the natural quantum state is the Unruh vacuum. The notions of evaporation, entropy etc. then follow in a concrete manner. The eternal blackhole (and the Hartle-Hawking vacuum state) is taken to be just mathematical constructs not realized in nature. In deSitter spacetime there is no natural notion of energy (unlike in blackhole spacetimes which are asymptotically flat) or an “energy source” analogous to the mass of the blackhole. If the spacetime is asymptotically deSitter, should one interpret it as “evaporating” at late times with the cosmological constant changing with time ?

It may seem correct to conclude that the horizons always have temperature but it may not be conceptually straight forward to associate an entropy with the horizon in all cases. Unfortunately, there is no clear mathematical reason for such a dichotomous approach since: (i) The temperature and entropy for these spacetimes arise in identical manner due to identical mathematical formalism. It will be surprising if one has entropy while the other does not. (ii) Just as collapsing blackhole leads to an asymptotic event horizon, a universe which is dominated by cosmological constant at late times will also lead to a horizon. Just as we can mimic the time dependent effects in a collapsing blackhole by a time asymmetric quantum state (say, Unruh vacuum), we can mimic the late time behaviour of an asymptotically deSitter universe by a corresponding time asymmetric quantum state. Both these states will lead to stress tensor expectation values in which there will be a flux of radiation. One is almost forced to the conclusion that in such a scenario the cosmological constant is evaporating.

Acknowledgments

I thank Apoorva Patel for useful discussions.

References


text:
# Completable filiform Lie algebras

## 1 Complete Lie algebras

Complete Lie algebras first appeared in 1951, in the context of ScheNkman’s theory of subinvariant Lie algebras . In his famous derivation tower theorem, he proved that for centerless solvable Lie algebras the tower of derivation algebras $`Der^n𝔤=Der^{n1}\left(Der𝔤\right)`$ was finite, and that the last term, which is also centerless, had only inner derivations. However, the formal definition of complete Lie algeba was not given until 1962. Their relation with the tower theorem has proven the importance of these algebras, which also play a role in rigidity theory of algebraic structures. In the last years, different authors have concentrated on classifications and structural properties of complete Lie algebras , and various interesting results concerning these structures have been obtained.

For our purpose it will be more convenient to define completeness of Lie algebras in terms of cohomology. Therefore we recall the elementary facts: Let $`𝔤`$ be a Lie algebra. A $`p`$-dimensional cochain of $`𝔤`$ (with values in $`𝔤`$) is a $`p`$-linear alternating mapping of $`𝔤^p`$ in $`𝔤`$ $`\left(p^{}\right)`$. A $`0`$-cochain is a constant function from $`𝔤`$ to $`𝔤`$.
We denote by $`C^p(𝔤,𝔤)`$ as the space of the $`p`$-cochains and

$$C^{}(𝔤,𝔤)=_{p0}C^p(𝔤,𝔤).$$

Over the space $`C^{}(𝔤,𝔤)`$ we define the endomorphism

$$\delta :C^{}(𝔤,𝔤)C^{}(𝔤,𝔤)$$

$$\mathrm{\Phi }\delta \mathrm{\Phi }$$

by putting

$$\delta \mathrm{\Phi }\left(X\right)=X.\mathrm{\Phi }\text{if}\mathrm{\Phi }C^0(𝔤,𝔤)$$

$$\delta \mathrm{\Phi }(X_1,\mathrm{},X_{p+1})=\underset{1sp+1}{}(1)^{s+1}(X_s.\mathrm{\Phi })(X_1,\mathrm{},\stackrel{}{\widehat{X}}_s,\mathrm{},X_{p+1})+$$

$$+\underset{1stp+1}{}\left(1\right)^{s+t}\mathrm{\Phi }([X_s,X_t],X_1,\mathrm{},\stackrel{}{\widehat{X}_s},\mathrm{},\stackrel{}{\widehat{X}}_{t,\mathrm{}},X_{p+1})$$

if $`\mathrm{\Phi }C^p(𝔤,𝔤)`$, $`p1`$.
By this definition, $`\delta \left(C^p(𝔤,𝔤)\right)C^{p+1}(𝔤,𝔤)`$ and we can verify that

$$\delta \delta =0.$$

We denote by

$$\{\begin{array}{cc}Z^p(𝔤,𝔤)=Kerd|_{C^p(𝔤,𝔤)}& p1\\ B^p(𝔤,𝔤)=Imd|_{C^p(𝔤,𝔤)}& p1\end{array}$$

and $`H^p(𝔤,𝔤)=Z^p(𝔤,𝔤)|B^p(𝔤,𝔤),`$ $`p1`$. This quotient space is called the cohomology space of $`𝔤`$ of degree $`p`$ with values in $`𝔤`$ . For $`p=0`$, then we put $`B^0(𝔤,𝔤)=\left\{0\right\}`$ and $`H^0(𝔤,𝔤)=Z^0(𝔤,𝔤)`$. This last space can be identified to the space of all $`𝔤`$-invariant elements that is

$$\left\{X𝔤\text{such that}adY\left(X\right)=0Y𝔤\right\}.$$

Then $`Z^0(𝔤,𝔤)=Z\left(𝔤\right)`$ (the center of $`𝔤`$).
Further, we have

$$Z^1(𝔤,𝔤)=\{f:𝔤𝔤|\delta f=0\}.$$

But $`\delta f(X,Y)=[f\left(X\right),Y]+[X,f\left(Y\right)]f[X,Y]`$. Then $`Z^1(𝔤,𝔤)`$ is nothing but the algebra of derivation of $`𝔤`$:

$$Z^1(𝔤,𝔤)=Der𝔤.$$

It is the same for :

$$B^1(𝔤,𝔤)=\left\{adX,X𝔤\right\}.$$

Thus the space $`H^1(𝔤,𝔤)`$ can be interpreted as the set of the outer derivations of the Lie algebra $`𝔤`$.

###### Definition 1.

A Lie algebra $`𝔤`$ is called complete if $`H^0(𝔤,𝔤)=H^1(𝔤,𝔤)=\{0\}.`$

Therefore complete Lie algebras are centerless with only inner derivations. Classical examples are the semisimple Lie algebras, and by the Levi decomposition, the class to be analyzed respect to completeness is the one formed by solvable Lie algebras.

Let $`𝔫`$ be a nilpotent Lie algebra and $`𝔱Der\left(𝔫\right)`$ a maximal toral subalgebra, i.e., an abelian subalgebra whose elements are $`ad`$-semisimple and which is maximal for the inclusion relation. As known, the algebra $`𝔱`$ induces a root space decomposition over $`𝔫`$ :

$$𝔫=\underset{\alpha 𝔱^{}}{}𝔫_\alpha $$

where $`𝔱^{}=Hom(𝔱,)`$ and the root spaces are given by

$$𝔫_\alpha =\left\{X𝔫\right|[h,X]=\alpha \left(h\right).Xh𝔱\}$$

If $`𝔫_\alpha 0,`$ the form $`\alpha `$ is called a root of $`𝔫`$ . Let $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\left\{\alpha \right|𝔫_a0\}`$ be the root system of $`𝔫`$ (associated to the torus $`𝔱`$ ).

###### Proposition 1.

Let $`𝔱Der\left(𝔫\right)`$ be a torus of $`𝔫`$. Then there exists a system of generators $`\{X_1,..,X_n\}`$ of $`𝔫`$ and forms $`\{\alpha _1,..,\alpha _n\}𝔱^{}`$ such that $`[h,X_i]=\alpha _i\left(h\right)X_i,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}1}in`$.

###### Proof.

The action of $`𝔱`$ over $`𝔫`$ shows that the mapping $`\rho :𝔱Der\left(𝔫\right)`$ is a representation of $`𝔫`$, and as the root spaces are irreducible, the representation is completely reducible. As the commutator algebra $`C^1𝔫`$ is clearly a $`𝔱`$-submodule of $`𝔫`$, there exists a complementary submodule to $`C^1𝔫`$. This must generate the algebra, as the generators of a Lie algebra are extracted from the quotient by the derived algebra. We can therefore find a basis $`\{X_1,..,X_n\}`$ of the complementary $`𝔪`$ which satisfies the assumption. The minimality of the generator system is obvious. ∎

###### Definition 2.

The dimension $`r\left(𝔫\right)`$ of a maximal torus of the preceding form is called the rank of $`𝔫`$.

The rank is an invariant of the nilpotent Lie algebra. By abuse of notation, we often say that the semidirect product $`𝔫𝔱`$ is of rank $`r`$, where $`𝔱`$ is a maximal torus of $`𝔫`$ and $`dim\left(𝔱\right)=r`$. A system of generators $`\{X_1,..,X_n\}`$ satisfying the proposition will be called a $`t`$-msg.

###### Theorem 1.

Let $`𝔤`$ be a solvable complete Lie algebra. Then

1. $`𝔤`$ decomposes as $`𝔤=𝔱+𝔫`$, where $`𝔫`$ is the nilradical of $`𝔤`$ and $`𝔱`$ is a maximal toral subalgebra.
2. the restriction $`ad_𝔱h|_𝔫`$ is an abelian subalgebra of $`Der\left(𝔫\right)`$, and a maximal torus over $`𝔫`$.

This result, whose proof can be found in , allows to refer to the decomposition directly, which is of interest for the structural analysis of such a Lie algebra, since it shows that we can restrict ourselves to the class of decomposable Lie algebras . A nilpotent Lie algebra $`𝔫`$ will be called completable if $`𝔫𝔱`$ is complete, where $`𝔱`$ is a maximal torus of derivations of $`𝔫`$. Recall that the minimal number of generators is given by the first Betti number $`b_1\left(𝔫\right)=dim\left(\frac{𝔫}{C^1𝔫}\right)`$. We in particular obtain an interesting result for maximal rank Lie algebras, i.e., for nilpotent Lie algebras satisfying $`dim\left(𝔱\right)=b_1\left(𝔫\right)`$:

###### Theorem 2.

Let $`𝔫`$ be a nilpotent Lie algebra of maximal rank and $`𝔱`$ a maximal torus. Then the semidirect product $`𝔱𝔫`$ is a solvable complete Lie algebra.

This theorem, due to Zhu and Meng , has important consequences for the theory of complete Lie algebras. We ennounce a couple :

It is easy to see that two solvable complete Lie algebras of maximal rank are isomorphic if and only if their corresponding nilradicals are isomorphic. Moreover, it can be shown that if the nilradical is split, then it is of maximal rank if and only if any component is also of maximal rank. This allows to reduce the study to the determination of complete solvable algebras whose nilradical is nonsplit. Observe the analogy with the classical theory.

###### Remark 1.

It should be remarked that there exist complete Lie algebras whose nilradical is not of maximal rank. In low dimensions they have been classified, but for the general case there only exist partial results

From the action of the torus on $`𝔫`$ we deduce immediately that central elements must have non-zero eigenvalues, since otherwise we easily construct an outer semi-simple derivation.

###### Theorem 3.

Let $`𝔤`$ be a Lie algebra and $`𝔥`$ a Cartan subalgebra. Assume that following conditions are satisfied:

1. $`𝔥`$ is abelian
2. $`𝔤=𝔥_{\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }}𝔤_\alpha `$ with $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔥^{}\{0\}`$
3. there is a generating system $`\{\alpha _1,..,\alpha _l\}`$ of $`𝔥^{}`$ in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ such that $`dim𝔤_{\alpha _j}=1`$ for all $`j`$ and $`𝔥,𝔤_{\alpha _1},..,𝔤_{\alpha _l}`$ generate $`𝔤`$
4. Let $`0x_j𝔤_{\alpha _j}`$ and a basis $`\{\alpha _1,..,\alpha _r\}`$ of $`𝔥^{}`$. For $`r+1sl,`$

$$\alpha _s=\underset{i=1}{\overset{t}{}}k_{is}\alpha _{j_i}\underset{i=1+t}{\overset{r}{}}k_{is}\alpha _{j_i}$$

where $`k_{is}\{0\},(j_1,..,j_r)`$ is a permutation of $`(1,..,r)`$, and there is a formula

$`[\underset{k_{1s}}{\underset{}{x_{j_1},..,x_{j_1}}},..\underset{k_{ts}}{\underset{}{x_{j_t},..,x_{j_t}},}\mathrm{},x_{k_m}]`$
$`=`$ $`[\underset{k_{t+1s}}{\underset{}{x_{j_t+1},..,x_{j_t+1}}},..\underset{k_{rs}}{\underset{}{x_{j_r},..,x_{j_r}},x_s,x_{k_1}}\mathrm{},x_{k_m}]`$
without regard to the order or the way of bracketing, where $`m0`$ if $`t=r`$.

Then $`𝔤`$ is a complete Lie algebra.

See  for a proof.

## 2 Filiform Lie algebras

Filiform Lie algebras are the best known and most studied among the nilpotent Lie algebras . The importance of this class was pointed out from 1966 on, when Vergne used these algebras to derive important results on the irreducible components of the variety of nilpotent Lie algebra laws. Various authors have enlarged these results, which explains that this class is the best understoood among the nilpotent ones . In this section we recall the elementary facts about filiform Lie algebras which will be used.

Let $`𝔫`$ be a nilpotent finite dimensional Lie algebra. Let $`Y𝔫C^1(𝔫)`$ be a vector of $`𝔫`$ . Consider the ordered sequence

$$c(Y)=(h_1,h_2,\mathrm{},)$$

$`h_1h_2,\mathrm{},h_p,`$ where $`h_i`$ is the dimension of the $`i^{th}`$ Jordan block of the nilpotent operator $`adY`$. As $`Y`$ is an eigenvector of $`adY`$, $`h_p=1`$. Let $`Y_1`$ and $`Y_2`$ be in $`𝔫D^1(𝔫)`$. Let be $`c(Y_1)=(h_1,\mathrm{},h_{p_1}=1)`$ and $`c(Y_2)=(k_1,\mathrm{},k_{p_2}=1)`$ the corresponding sequences. We will say that $`c(Y_1)c(Y_2)`$ if there is an $`i`$ such that $`h_1=k_1,`$ $`h_2=k_2,`$ … , $`h_{i1}=k_{i1},`$ $`h_i>k_i.`$ This defines a total order relation on the set of sequences $`c(Y)`$.

###### Definition 3.

The characteristic sequence of the nilpotent Lie algebra $`𝔫`$ is :

$$c(𝔫)=Sup\{c(Y),Y𝔫C^1(𝔫)\}$$

It is an invariant of $`𝔫`$. A vector $`X𝔫`$ such that $`c(X)=c(𝔫)`$ is called a characteristic vector of $`𝔫`$.

###### Definition 4.

A $`n`$dimensional nilpotent Lie algebra $`𝔫`$ whose characteristic sequence is $`c(𝔫)=(n1,1)`$ is called filiform.

###### Lemma 1.

If $`𝔫`$ is a filiform Lie algebra, then $`r(𝔫)2`$.

For the proof, see . On the other hand, it is not difficult to prove that filiform Lie algebras satisfy $`b_1\left(𝔫\right)=2`$, in view of its characteristic sequence and vector. Therefore it is convenient to separate them by rank.

###### Proposition 2.

Every filiform Lie algebras of rank 2 is isomorphic to $`L_n`$ or $`Q_n`$, where $`L_n`$ and $`Q_n`$ are the $`n`$-dimensional Lie algebras defined by

$$L_n:\{[Y_1,Y_j]=Y_{1+j},j=2,\mathrm{},n1$$

$$Q_n=\{\begin{array}{c}[Y_1,Y_j]=Y_{1+j},j=2,\mathrm{},n1\hfill \\ [Y_i,Y_{ni+1}]=(1)^{i+1}Y_n,i=2,\mathrm{},p\hfill \end{array}\text{where }n=2p.$$

This shows that the preceding algebras, which are also the only naturally graded filiform Lie algebras , are of maximal rank. In view of the results in the preceding section we obtain:

###### Corollary 1.

Any naturally graded filiform Lie algebra is completable.

###### Theorem 1.

Every filiform Lie algebra of rank 1 and dimension n is isomorphic to one of the following Lie algebras

1. $`A_n^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{t1}),`$ $`t=\left[\frac{nk+1}{2}\right]`$ , $`2kn3`$

$$\{\begin{array}{c}[Y_1,Y_i]=Y_{i+1},\text{ }i=2,\mathrm{},n1\hfill \\ [Y_i,Y_{i+1}]=\lambda _{i1}Y_{2i+k1}\text{ },\text{ }2it\hfill \\ [Y_i,Y_j]=a_{ij}Y_{i+j+k2}\text{ },\text{ }2ij\text{ , }i+j+k2n\hfill \end{array}$$
2. $`B_n^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{t1})`$ $`n=2m`$ , $`t=\left[\frac{nk}{2}\right]`$ , $`2kn3`$

$$\{\begin{array}{c}[Y_1,Y_i]=Y_{i+1}\text{ }i=2,\mathrm{},n2\hfill \\ [Y_i,Y_{ni+1}]=\left(1\right)_n^{i+1}Y\text{ },\text{ }i=2,\mathrm{},n1\hfill \\ [Y_i,Y_{i+1}]=\lambda _{i1}Y_{2i+k1}\text{ },\text{ }i=2,\mathrm{},t\hfill \\ [Y_i,Y_j]=a_{ij}Y_{i+jk2}\text{ },\text{ }2i,jn2\text{ , }i+j+k2n2\text{ , }ji+1\hfill \end{array}$$
3. $`C_n(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _t)`$ , $`n=2m+2`$ , $`t=m1`$

$$\{\begin{array}{c}[Y_1,Y_i]=Y_{i+1}\text{ }i=2,\mathrm{},n2\hfill \\ [Y_i,Y_{ni+1}]=\left(1\right)_n^{i1}Y_n\text{ },\text{ }i=2,\mathrm{}m+1\hfill \\ [Y_i,Y_{ni2k+1}]=\left(1\right)^{i+1}\lambda _kY_n\text{ },\text{ }i=2,\mathrm{},n22k\text{ , }k=1,\mathrm{},m1\hfill \end{array}$$

The non defined brackets are equal to zero. In this theorem, $`[x]`$ denotes the integer part of $`x`$ and $`(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _t)`$ are non simultaneously vanishing parameters satisfying polynomial equations associated to the Jacobi conditions. Moreover, the constants $`a_{ij}`$ satisfy

$$a_{ij}=a_{ij+1}+a_{i+1,j}$$

and $`a_{ii+1}=\lambda _{i1}.`$

The semi-simple derivations of these algebras have been studied in  and  in order to determine their maximal tori.

###### Theorem 4.

Let $`𝔫`$ be a filiform Lie algebra of rank one. Then $`𝔫`$ is completable if and only if $`𝔫A_n^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{t1})`$ or $`𝔫B_n^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{t1})`$.

###### Proof.

Suppose that $`𝔫A_n^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{t1})`$. From the structure of the algebra it can be seen without difficulty that the basis chosen in the preceding theorem is a basis of eigenvectors for a diagonalizable derivation . We thus obtain that a maximal torus of derivations $`𝔱`$ is generated by the derivation $`fDer\left(A_n^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{t1})\right)`$ defined by

$`f\left(Y_1\right)=Y_1,f\left(Y_j\right)=\left(k2+j\right)Y_j,2jn`$
The weight system is therefore $`\{\alpha ,(k+j2)\alpha \}_{2jn}`$. Thus the semidirect product $`𝔱𝔫`$ decomposes as

$`𝔱𝔫=𝔱𝔫_\alpha {\displaystyle \underset{j=2}{\overset{n}{}}}(𝔫_{(k+j2)\alpha })`$
and $`\{\alpha ,k\alpha \}`$ generates $`𝔱^{}`$. As the algebra $`𝔱𝔫`$ satisfies the conditions of theorem 3, it is complete of non-maximal rank.
If $`𝔫B_n^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{t1})`$, the reasoning is quite the same, where a weight system for $`B_n^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{t1})`$ is given by $`\{\alpha ,k\alpha ,..,(k+2p+1)\alpha ,(2k+2p+1)\alpha \}`$. Let us therefore suppose that $`𝔫`$ is not isomorphic to the preceding Lie algebras. By theorem ? it must be isomorphic to $`C_n(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _t)`$. A maximal torus of derivations is generated by the semi-simple derivation $`f`$ defined by

$`f\left(Y_1\right)=0,f\left(Y_j\right)=Y_j,2jn1,f\left(Y_n\right)=2Y_n`$
Observe that condition (ii) of theorem 3 is not satisfied, since there is a zero weight. Consider the endomorphism $`h`$ defined by $`h\left(Y_2\right)=Y_{n1}`$ and zero elsewhere. It is obvious that $`hDer\left(C_n(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _t)\right)`$, and as $`Y_{n1}im(ad(X))`$ if and only if $`X=Y_1`$, the derivation is not inner and $`C_n(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _t)`$ cannot be completable. ∎

There remain those filiform Lie algebras of rank zero, i.e., those for which the Lie algebra of derivations is itself nilpotent . These algebras are definitively non completable since any nilpotent Lie algebra has an outer derivation. We can resume the preceding results in the following

###### Theorem 5.

A filiform Lie algebra of non-zero rank is completable if and only if it is isomorphic to $`L_n,Q_n,A_n^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{t1})`$ or $`B_n^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{t1})`$.

Let $`L^n`$ be the algebraic variety of complex Lie algebra laws on $`^n`$ . Consider the natural action of the algebraic group $`GL(n,)`$ on $`L^n`$ given by

$`GL(n,)\times L^n`$ $``$ $`L^n`$
$`(f,\mu )`$ $``$ $`f\mu `$
with $`(f\mu )(X,Y)=f^1(\mu (f(X),f(Y))`$ for all $`X,Y^n.`$ We note by $`𝒪(\mu )`$ the orbit of $`\mu `$.

###### Definition 5.

The Lie algebra law $`\mu `$ (or the complex Lie algebra $`𝔤`$ of law $`\mu )`$ is called rigid if $`𝒪(\mu )`$ is a Zariski open set of $`L^n.`$

###### Corollary 2.

Any filiform Lie algebra which is isomorphic to the nilradical of a solvable rigid law is completable.

## 3 Complete Lie algebras with $`dimH^2(𝔯,𝔯)n`$

In the previous section we have seen which of the filiform Lie algebras are completable. It has therefore sense to ask what happens for the second adjoint cohomology group $`H^2(𝔫𝔱,𝔫𝔱)`$, where $`𝔫𝔱`$ is complete. We will prove that the dimension of this group can be as high as wanted. Consider the Lie algebra $`A_{k+h+3}^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{[\frac{h}{2}]+1})`$ with $`k`$ even and $`4`$. Suppose moreover that $`3hk+3`$. Let us consider the basis $`\{Y_1,Y_k,..,Y_{2k+2h+1}\}`$, where the subindex makes reference to the weight of the vector by the action of the torus $`𝔱`$. The brackets of the algebra are given by

$`[Y_1,Y_{k+i}]=Y_{k+1+i},0i2k+2h`$
$`[X_{k+i},X_{k+j}]=a_{ij}X_{2k+i+j},0i,j[{\displaystyle \frac{h}{2}}]+1`$
We have that the coefficients $`a_{ij}`$ satisfy the equations

$`a_{ij}=a_{i,j1}a_{i+1,j1}`$ (1)
$`a_{i,i+1}=\lambda _{i+1}`$ (2)
for $`0i<j[\frac{p}{2}]`$.
The preceding relations are an immediate consequence of the Jacobi conditions related to the triples $`\{X_1,X_i,X_j\}`$, which are the only ones since $`3k+32k2+p`$. It is not difficult to see that, whenever $`\lambda _1`$ is non-zero, it can be normalized. In this manner we obtain $`[\frac{h}{2}]`$ essential parameters which separate isomorphism classes. From equations $`(1)`$ and $`(2)`$ we have that

$`a_{ij}={\displaystyle \underset{k=1}{\overset{[\frac{p}{2}]+1}{}}}\alpha _{ij}^k\lambda _k`$
where the $`\alpha _{ij}^k`$ are the integers coefficients obtained by the resolution of the systems associated to the Jacobi conditions giving the equations. If we define the functions

$`h_k\left(a_{ij}\right)=\alpha _{ij}^k,`$
we see that the bilinear alternated mapping $`\phi _k`$ defined by

$`(X_{k+i},X_{k+j})h_k\left(a_{ij}\right)X_{2k+i+j}`$
defines a linear deformation . Moreover, the $`\phi _k`$ cannot be coboundaries since otherwise the parameters $`\lambda _k`$ would not separate isomorphism classes. We obtain $`\phi _kZ^2(𝔯_h,𝔯_h)`$, where $`𝔯_h=A_{k+3+h}^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{t1})𝔱`$. We obtain

###### Theorem 6.

In the preceding conditions, the complete Lie algebra $`𝔯_h=A_{k+3+h}^k(\lambda _1,\mathrm{},\lambda _{[\frac{h}{2}]+1})𝔱`$ satisfies $`dimH^2(𝔯_h,𝔯_h)[\frac{h}{2}]`$.

###### Corollary 3.

For any $`n^+`$ there exists a complete Lie algebra $`𝔯`$ such that $`dimH^2(𝔯,𝔯)n`$.

The reasoning just described is essentially the same applied by Carles in  to construct the first examples of solvable rigid laws with non-vanishing second cohomology group. We remark that the examples presented by him in  were also complete Lie algebras.


text:
# DUST EMISSION FROM ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Although there is a bewildering array of AGN classes, a unified scheme has been emerging steadily (e.g. Antonucci 1993, 2002; Wills 1999). The nuclear activity is powered by a supermassive ($``$$`10^6`$$`10^9`$ $`M_{}`$) black hole and its accretion disk, which extends to $``$ 1 pc. This central engine is surrounded by a dusty toroidal structure, extending to $``$ 100 pc. Much of the observed diversity is simply the result of viewing this axisymmetric geometry from different angles. The torus provides anisotropic obscuration of the central region so that sources viewed face-on are recognized as Seyfert 1 galaxies, those observed edge-on are Seyfert 2. The primary evidence for the torus comes from spectropolarimetric observations of type 2 sources, which reveal hidden type 1 emission via reflection off material situated above the torus opening. While compelling, this evidence is only indirect in that it involves obscuration, not direct emission by the torus itself.

An obscuring dusty torus should reradiate in IR the fraction of nuclear luminosity it absorbs, providing direct evidence for its existence. Indeed, the continua from most AGN show significant IR emission. Silicates, whose presence is revealed by a spectral feature at 10 µm, are a major constituent of astronomical dust. Seyfert 2 sources display this feature in absorption—as expected for edge-on viewing of an optically thick torus. However, contrary to expectations for face-on viewing, quasars and Seyfert 1 galaxies do not show this feature in emission, (Roche et al 1991; recent claims by Clavel et al 2000 notwithstanding). This poses a serious problem to models of the dusty torus emission, which must suppress the silicate feature in type 1 objects while producing it in type 2. Laor and Draine (1993) studied the effects of altering the dust properties and conclude that suppression of the 10 µm feature requires significant silicate depletion or very large (up to 10 µm) grains (see also Maiolino et al 2001). This could explain type 1 SED but would require a different explanation for type 2 objects with their prominent 10 µm absorption feature.

Pier & Krolik (1992, 1993) were the first to explore the effects of toroidal geometry on dust radiative transfer. They note that the AGN dust must be in clumps to protect the grains, but because of the difficulties in modeling a clumpy distribution they approximate it with a uniform one instead. They also neglect scattering. In spite of these approximations, their results are encouraging. The directional dependence of their model radiation reproduces the gross features of observed SED, indicating that the toroidal geometry captures the essence of IR observations. Two major problems remain: the observed emission has a far-IR peak much broader than the models can produce, and the silicate emission feature is suppressed in face-on viewing only in a narrow, finely-tuned range of the model parameters. Rowan-Robinson (1995) notes that both problems could be alleviated by clumpiness. He argues that a spherical shell is an adequate proxy for a clump, and produces type 1 IR emission from a superposition of such concentric shells. But the shell/clump analogy is fundamentally problematic: Since the illuminated and dark faces of a clump produce widely different spectra, the observed SED varies with the angle between radiation source, clump and observer (see fig. DUST EMISSION FROM ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI). In contrast, outside an optically thick spherical shell the SED is always the same irrespective of observer location because only the dark side is ever visible (inside the shell, only the illuminated face is visible). Concentric spherical shells cannot substitute for clumps.

We performed a more adequate calculation of IR emission from an obscuring clumpy torus, combining realistic modeling of the emission from externally illuminated clumps with proper handling of cloud shadowing. The latter is an essential ingredient since the number of clouds along radial rays through the torus must be sufficiently large to ensure that x-rays from the central engine are virtually always attenuated in type 2 objects (Guainazzi et al 2001). Here we report the results of our effort, which show that the SED of both type 1 and type 2 objects are properly reproduced at different viewing angles of the same clumpy torus—in agreement with unified schemes. In a forthcoming publication we will provide a more detailed account of our calculations and the results.

## 2 EMISSION FROM A CLUMPY MEDIUM

Consider a medium where the dust is in clouds. For simplicity, each cloud has the same optical depth $`\tau _\lambda `$. Along a given path, the mean number of clouds encountered in segment $`ds`$ is $`d𝒩(s)=ds/\mathrm{}(s)`$, where $`\mathrm{}=(n_cA_c)^1`$ is the mean free path between clouds ($`A_c`$ is the cloud area perpendicular to the path and $`n_c`$ is the number density of clouds). As long as $`\mathrm{}R_c`$, where $`R_c`$ is the cloud radius, each cloud can be considered a point source of intensity $`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }`$, and the intensity generated along the segment is $`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }d𝒩`$. Denote by $`P_{\mathrm{esc}}`$ the probability that this radiation propagate along the rest of the path without absorption by any other cloud. Natta & Panagia (1984) show that Poisson statistics for the distribution of clumps yields

$$P_{\mathrm{esc}}=e^{t_\lambda },\text{where}t_\lambda =𝒩(s)(1e^{\tau _\lambda })$$
(1)
and $`𝒩(s)=_s𝑑𝒩`$ is the mean number of clouds along the rest of the path. The contribution of segment $`ds`$ to the emerging intensity is simply $`P_{\mathrm{esc}}S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }d𝒩`$ and the flux from the cloud distribution at distance $`D`$ is

$$F_\lambda ^\mathrm{C}=\frac{1}{D^2}𝑑Ae^{t_\lambda }S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }(s)𝑑𝒩(s)$$
(2)
where $`dA`$ is the surface area element perpendicular to the line of sight. Given the geometry, the flux can be calculated from this expression once $`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }`$ is known.

Clouds are heated by radiation from both the AGN and all other clouds. Consider first the direct heating by the AGN (figure DUST EMISSION FROM ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI). Since our interest is in optically thick clouds only, the dust temperature is much higher on the illuminated face than any other part of the surface. Therefore the cloud emission varies strongly with direction, and the corresponding source function $`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }^\mathrm{d}(r,\alpha )`$ depends on both distance $`r`$ and position angle $`\alpha `$. The clump shape is of course arbitrary, and we have constructed “synthetic clumps” by averaging the emission from an illuminated slab over all possible slab orientations. This procedure utilizes an exact solution of radiative transfer for external illumination and also reproduces the $`\alpha `$-dependence of the observed fraction of illuminated area on the surface of a spherical-like object.

We conducted detailed calculations with the code DUSTY (Ivezić, Nenkova & Elitzur 1999). The code preforms an exact solution of the slab radiative transfer problem including dust absorption, emission and scattering. The optical depth across the slab thickness at wavelength $`\lambda `$ is $`\tau _\lambda =q_\lambda \tau _\mathrm{V}`$ where $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ is the optical depth at visual and $`q_\lambda `$ is the proper efficiency factor of standard interstellar dust. With AGN luminosity $`L_{12}=L/10^{12}L_{}`$, the illuminating bolometric flux is $`F_e=L/4\pi r^2`$. Its spectral shape, typical for AGN, is $`\lambda f_\lambda `$ = constant in the wavelength range 0.01–0.1 µm and $`\lambda ^{0.5}`$ for 0.1–100 µm (cf Pier & Krolik 92, Laor & Draine 93). For any slab orientation, the solution of the radiative transfer problem determines the temperature run in the slab and the intensity it emits toward any direction. Therefore the dust temperature $`T_\mathrm{n}`$ on the illuminated face of a slab normal to the radius vector can replace the external flux $`F_e`$ as a specifier of location.

The top panel of figure DUST EMISSION FROM ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI shows typical results for $`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }^\mathrm{d}`$. The clump spectrum was constructed by averaging over all slab orientations the solutions for slabs with $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ = 100 at radial distances where $`T_\mathrm{n}`$ = 800 K (corresponding to $`r`$ = 4 $`L_{12}^{1/2}`$ pc). The 10 µm silicate feature is seen in absorption at small $`\alpha `$, switching to increasingly more pronounced emission as $`\alpha `$ increases and a larger fraction of the clump illuminated face becomes visible.

An exact calculation of the effects of diffuse radiation from all clouds is a formidable task, akin to a full solution of the radiative transfer problem in which individual dust particles themselves are dusty clouds. However, compared with the AGN radiation, heating by the diffuse radiation is highly inefficient because it involves long wavelengths, and thus can be neglected. Emission from clouds with direct view of the AGN is well described by $`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }^\mathrm{d}`$. But clouds whose line-of-sight to the AGN is blocked by another cloud will be heated only indirectly by the diffuse radiation. We approximate the diffuse radiation field at $`r`$ by angle-averaging over $`\alpha `$ the emission $`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }^\mathrm{d}(r,\alpha )`$ from clouds directly heated by the AGN. In this radiation field we imbed a sphere with constant density profile and solve for its temperature and emission. Our approximation for the source function of indirectly illuminated clouds is $`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }^\mathrm{i}=F/\mathrm{\Omega }`$, where $`F`$ is the flux and $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ the solid angle of such a sphere at a large distance. The bottom panel of figure DUST EMISSION FROM ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI shows a sample of $`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }^\mathrm{i}`$, together with the corresponding source functions for direct heating.

At distance $`r`$ the probability for unhindered view of the AGN is $`p(r)=e^{𝒩(r)}`$, where $`𝒩(r)=^r𝑑r/\mathrm{}`$ is the mean number of clouds to the AGN. Our approximation for the clump source function is

$$S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }=pS_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }^\mathrm{d}+(1p)S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }^\mathrm{i}.$$
(3)
The steps we outlined can be iterated to become an exact solution scheme for radiative transfer in clumpy medium. The small magnitude at short wavelengths, which control heating, of $`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }^\mathrm{i}`$/$`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }^\mathrm{d}`$ evident in figure DUST EMISSION FROM ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI indicates that this process should converge rapidly. Eq. 3 is equivalent to its first two steps.

## 3 MODEL RESULTS

We model the AGN obscuring region as a toroidal distribution of dusty clouds, shown in figure DUST EMISSION FROM ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI . Instead of the inner radius $`R_\mathrm{i}`$ we specify as input $`T_{\mathrm{n}\mathrm{i}}`$ = $`T_\mathrm{n}`$($`R_\mathrm{i}`$), the surface temperature of a normally illuminated slab at $`R_\mathrm{i}`$. In all calculations we set $`T_{\mathrm{n}\mathrm{i}}`$ = 1400 K, the temperature below which both silicate and graphite grains exist; this choice implies $`R_\mathrm{i}`$ = $`1.2L_{12}^{1/2}`$ pc for a $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ = 100 cloud. The geometry requires two additional input parameters: The torus thickness $`Y=R_\mathrm{o}/R_\mathrm{i}`$, equivalent to the lowest $`T_\mathrm{n}`$ in the torus, and $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$, the conical opening half-angle. Assuming power law variation for the mean free path $`\mathrm{}r^q`$, the cloud distribution is described by the two input parameters $`q`$ and $`𝒩_\mathrm{T}=_{R_\mathrm{i}}^{R_\mathrm{o}}𝑑r/\mathrm{}`$, the number of clouds along a radial ray through the torus. The final free parameter is $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$, the optical depth of each cloud. The grain efficiency factor $`q_\lambda `$ and the AGN spectral shape $`f_\lambda `$ are set to their standard values. The observed flux is determined from

$$F_\lambda =\frac{L}{4\pi D^2}f_\lambda e^{t_{\lambda \mathrm{T}}}+F_\lambda ^\mathrm{C}$$
(4)
where $`F_\lambda ^\mathrm{C}`$ is calculated from eq. 2 and $`t_{\lambda \mathrm{T}}`$ from eq. 1 with $`𝒩(s)=𝒩_\mathrm{T}`$ for type 2 sources and zero for type 1. Extracting the overall bolometric flux $`F_\mathrm{B}=L/4\pi D^2`$, the SED is controlled by $`T_{\mathrm{n}\mathrm{i}}`$ and five dimensionless free parameters: $`Y`$ and $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ specify the geometry, $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ the individual clouds and $`𝒩_\mathrm{T}`$ and $`q`$ the cloud distribution.

We performed extensive calculations and find a large range of the free parameters that yield satisfactory agreement with observations. A detailed report of our results will be provided elsewhere, here we show in figure DUST EMISSION FROM ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI a representative model. Our aim is to reproduce the typical SED of the type 1 and type 2 families, not to fit in detail any particular object. Data points for type 1 sources show average spectra for radio-quiet quasars (Sanders et al 1989, Elvis et al 1994) and Seyfert 1 galaxies (Granato & Danese 1994). Because of the high obscuration of the AGN in type 2 sources, fluxes for their nuclear regions properly extracted out of the contributions of the host galaxy and starburst regions are scarce. We show data for reliable measurements of four individual objects. The data were scaled for a rough match of the model results without attempting a best fit. Detailed fitting of type 2 objects, when warranted, will determine their bolometric flux $`F_\mathrm{B}`$, a quantity inaccessible for direct measurement because the bulk of the flux is emitted away from Earth.

Our models reproduce the broad IR bump extending to $``$ 100 µm, as observed. Furthermore, the 10 µm feature appears in absorption in equatorial viewing but is smeared out in axial viewing in spite of its prominence in emission from directly-heated individual clouds (fig. DUST EMISSION FROM ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI). The reason is that most of these clouds are blocked from view even along the axis. We find satisfactory results for conical opening $`\mathrm{\Theta }=45\pm 15^{}`$. The torus thickness can vary in the range $`Y`$ = 50–250, i.e., $`R_\mathrm{o}`$/$`L_{12}^{1/2}`$ = 60–300 pc. At smaller $`Y`$ the IR bump is not broad enough, larger $`Y`$ produce too much 20–100µm emission. The number of clouds is $`𝒩_\mathrm{T}`$ = 5–10. When $`𝒩_\mathrm{T}<5`$ the 10µm feature appears in emission in pole-on spectra, $`𝒩_\mathrm{T}>10`$ shifts the spectrum to longer wavelengths resulting in too little 1–10µm emission and too much 20–100µm. The power index should be $`q=1\pm 0.5`$. At larger $`q`$ the far-IR bump is not high enough, as is evident in figure DUST EMISSION FROM ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEI, at smaller $`q`$ it is too high.

Significantly, the only constraint on the optical depth of individual clouds is $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ $``$ 60. The results vary only slightly when $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ increases from 60 to 100, and hardly at all during further increase. The reason is simple. The dependence on $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ arises from the probability for photon escape and the cloud source function. From eq. 1, $`P_{\mathrm{esc}}=e^𝒩`$ whenever $`\tau _\lambda 1`$, and at $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ $``$ 60 this condition is met at all relevant wavelengths. Similarly, because the clouds are heated externally, only their surface is heated significantly when $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ is large. Increasing $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ further only adds cool material, thus $`S_{\mathrm{c}\lambda }`$ saturates for all relevant $`\lambda `$, similar to standard black-body emission. Extending our calculations all the way to $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ = 500, we have verified that increasing $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ indeed has no effect on the model results.

## 4 DISCUSSION

The cloud distribution is described by $`q`$ and $`𝒩_\mathrm{T}`$, individual clouds by the optical depth $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$. No other cloud property was specified. The cloud size enters only indirectly through the underlying assumption $`R_c\mathrm{}`$. If $`V_cA_cR_c`$ is the volume of a single cloud, the volume filling factor of the cloud population is $`\varphi =n_cV_c=R_c/\mathrm{}`$. Our calculations apply to small filling factors, $`\varphi 1`$, the Pier & Krolik model involves the opposite limit $`\varphi =1`$. The mean free path scale can be determined from $`\mathrm{}(R_\mathrm{i})/R_\mathrm{i}=(1/𝒩_\mathrm{T})_1^Yy^q𝑑y`$. The model with $`q`$ = 1, $`𝒩_\mathrm{T}`$ = 5 and $`Y`$ = 100 has $`\mathrm{}(R_\mathrm{i})=0.9R_\mathrm{i}=1.1L_{12}^{1/2}`$ pc. A reasonable realization of this model, though not unique, is a constant $`\varphi =0.1`$ throughout the torus so that $`R_c`$ = 0.09r. When $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ = 100 and $`L_{12}`$ = 1, the clouds vary from $`R_c`$ $``$ 0.1 pc with gas density $``$ 3 $`10^5`$ cm-3 in the torus inner regions to $`R_c`$ $``$ 10 pc with density $``$ 3 $`10^3`$ cm-3 at the outer edge. The torus could contain additional clouds with smaller $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ without significantly affecting the SED.

The properties we deduce for the torus agree with independent estimates. Based on 88 Seyfert galaxies Schmitt et al (2001) conclude that $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ = 48, at the center of the range we find. Our minimal cloud number $`𝒩_\mathrm{T}`$ = 5 implies a probability $`e^5`$ = 7 $`10^3`$ for unattenuated view of the AGN in type 2 sources, in agreement with the findings of Guainazzi et al (2001). From x-ray measurements of 73 Seyfert 2 galaxies Bassani et al (1999) find a large variation in column density, with a mean of $`310^{23}`$ cm-2 and $``$ $`10^{24}`$ cm-2 for as many as a third of the sources. The mean is comparable with the column density of our torus for 5 clouds of $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ $``$ 60 each and standard dust-to-gas ratio. Furthermore, the similarity of SED among type 2 sources in spite of the large x-rays column variation is a natural consequence of our model: $`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$ is bounded only from below, the SED remains the same at all $`\lambda 1\mathrm{\mu m}`$ for arbitrary increase in overall column. But x-ray absorption does vary with the latter because the optical depth for Thompson scattering is only $``$ $`10^2`$$`\tau _\mathrm{V}`$. Sources with small columns may show up in x-ray absorption while selectively excluded from IR observations because of their weak emission.

Our results add strong support for unification schemes of AGN. In accordance with such schemes, the IR emission from both type 1 and type 2 sources is reproduced at different viewing of the same geometry when proper account is taken of the torus clumpiness.

We have greatly benefitted from discussions with many colleagues, especially J. Conway, A. Laor, N. Levenson and H. Netzer. Support by NASA and NSF is gratefully acknowledged.