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# Duality in non-commutative gauge theories as a non-perturbative Seiberg–Witten map

## 1 Introduction

Quantum field theories over non-commutative spaces (for a review see ) seem to be relevant to the non-perturbative description of the string theory -.

Moreover, the non-commutative gauge models mimic some features expected in the string field theory introduced by E. Witten .

Thus, classical localised solutions called non-commutative solitons found in the framework of non-commutative theory - in the string picture were shown to correspond to branes .

In the non-commutative case, one can formally develop a perturbation expansion similar to the commutative one. It was found that a phenomenon called IR/UV mixing occurs due to non-commutativity . This again reflects a feature of open/closed duality in string theory. In the case of non-commutative field theories it prevents us from giving a direct proof of renormalisability of such theories.111An exception may occure, however, when in commutative theory no UV counterterms are needed at least at one loop e.g., like in Wess–Zumino model. In this case the IR/UV mixing is trivial and no problems with renormalisability arise .

On the other hand, string theory possesses a number of *dualities* relating various string backgrounds  (for reviews see ), *M-theory* being the name of the embracing non-perturbative model. In this context one naturally may ask if there are similar duality relations in the non-commutative field theory models. Indeed, in  it was found that gauge models on different but dual non-commutative tori are the same due to *Morita equivalence*.

In the case of non-commutative planes, it was shown in a $`p`$-dimensional non-commutative gauge model one can recover a set of $`p\pm 2k`$ dimensional gauge models as expansions around different non-perturbative solutions in the above model . Depending on whether $`p`$ is even or odd the models belong to the universality class of $`N=\mathrm{}`$ IKKT , or BFSS  M(atrix) models. The above matrix models arise as reductions of ordinary SU($`N`$) Yang–Mills model to, respectively, zero and one dimension. Such a relation between large $`N`$ reduced model and the noncommutative model appears to be an avatar of the old idea by Eguchi–Kawai (see ).

From a different point of view, the above map between different models can be interpreted as a non-perturbative Seiberg–Witten map since it is an explicit solution to the Seiberg–Witten equation , which depends non-perturbatively on the gauge coupling and the non-commutativity parameter.

Traditionally, attempts to solve and classify the solutions to Seiberg–Witten equations were made using the power expansion of non-commutativity parameter $`\theta `$ originally introduced in . Although, considerable progress was achieved since that time , this approach remains extremely complicated.

Here we propose an alternative way to find the Seiberg–Witten map starting from background independence. The background independent formulation in our context is the formulation of the non-commutative gauge model in terms of Hermitian (or as appropriately required) operators acting on a separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert space with no explicit dependence on the space coordinates or derivatives. The non-commutative spaces in this approach appear as classical background solutions to these models, which break (spontaneously) the background invariance. Seiberg–Witten map in this picture relates formulations of the model around different backgrounds. The particular property of the map we describe is that it is linear in fields.

In the present work we explore the duality realised by the map both in the non-perturbative case, when it relates the models in non-commutative spaces of different dimensionality , or models with different gauge groups, and in the perturbative case it corresponds to a smooth change of the non-commutativity parameter . We extend the analysis to the quantum case when duality is realised as a quantum symmetry in the path integral approach.

The plan of the paper is as follows. In section 2 we review the non-commutative gauge field theory. We introduce the gauge model of Yang-Mills interacting with a Higgs scalar multiplet as an expansion of the the bosonic part of $`N=\mathrm{}`$ matrix model around a classical solution of the model.222This approach is similar in its main lines to the one used in . Note, however, the difference in notations for the gauge field.. In section 3 we describe the dualities in the non-commutative gauge model first in their most general form and afterwards specialising to particular cases of dualities relating models with different gauge groups as well as relating models in different dimensions. In Section 4 we focus on the infinitesimal form of proposed transformation which appears to be a linear variant of the Seiberg–Witten map. Further, in Section 5 we analyse quantum implications of the symmetry realised by the map. Finally section six contains our conclusions and further remarks.

## 2 The Model

Large $`N`$ BFSS and IKKT matrix models were proposed to describe non-perturbative string theory . They are reductions of the ten dimensional SU$`(N)`$ Yang–Mills (YM) models to respectively zero and one dimensions. On the other hand, it can be shown that infinite-dimensional Hilbert space ($`N=\mathrm{}`$) models are again YM-like, but living either on commutative or non-commutative spaces. In the limit $`N\mathrm{}`$, such models were shown to have the infinite-dimensional gauge group of area preserving diffeomorphisms .

In spite of an apparent dissimilarity, these models are related to the “usual” non-commutative U(1) Yang–Mills model by an appropriate redefinition of the gauge fields.

Here, we will analyse the situation where Euclidean “space-time” coordinates are all non-commutative,

$$[x^\mu ,x^\nu ]=\mathrm{i}\theta ^{\mu \nu },det\theta ^{\mu \nu }0.$$
(1)
This can be easily generalised to degenerate $`\theta ^{\mu \nu }`$. In such a context, the commutative variable are treated as parameters.

The model we consider here corresponds to (the bosonic part of) the IKKT model. This model is given by the background invariant action of the following form,

$$S=\frac{1}{4g^2}tr[X_i,X_j]^2,$$
(2)
where the gauge fields $`X_i`$ are Hermitian operators acting on the Hilbert space $``$. In this form, the model is formulated entirely in terms of an abstract Hilbert space and Hermitian operators acting on it. It contains no explicit space-time data which we introduce later as particular solutions breaking this background invariance.

Equations of motion corresponding to the action (2) look as follows,

$$[X_i,[X_i,X_j]]=0.$$
(3)
Picking up a particular solution to the equations of motion in the form $`X_i^{(0)}=\mathrm{\Lambda }_i^\mu p_\mu `$, where $`p_\mu `$ is a complete irreducible set of operators, (i.e. ones satisfying,

$$[p_\mu ,p_\nu ]=\mathrm{i}\theta _{\mu \nu }^1,F:[p_i,F]F𝕀,$$
(4)
where the last expression is Schur’s lemma implying the irreducibility of the representation of the algebra generated by $`p_\mu `$), one can expand operators $`X_i`$ around this background as follows

$$X_i=\mathrm{\Lambda }_i^\mu (p_\mu +A_\mu )+\mathrm{\Phi }_i,$$
(5)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }_i\mathrm{\Lambda }_i^\mu =0`$.

By an appropriate linear transformation depending on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_i^\mu `$ one can make $`X_i`$ to acquire the following form,

$$X_\mu =p_\mu +A_\mu ,\mu =1,\mathrm{},p;X_a=\mathrm{\Phi }_a,a=p+1,\mathrm{},D.$$
(6)
Now, taking Weyl ordering with respect to operators $`x^\mu =\theta ^{\mu \nu }p_\nu `$ will mean that in the chosen background, the model describes a gauge field $`A_\mu (x)`$ interacting with a “multiplet” of scalars $`\mathrm{\Phi }_a(x)`$.

Indeed, the Weyl transformation maps an operator $`\varphi `$ to its symbol according to the following rule

$$\varphi (x)=\sqrt{det\theta }\frac{\mathrm{d}^pk}{(2\pi )^{p/2}}\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}kx}tr\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}k\times p}\varphi ,$$
(7)
where $`k\times p=k_\mu \theta ^{\mu \nu }p_\nu `$ and $`kx=k_\mu x^\mu `$. Under this map, the operator products are transformed into star products of symbols given by,

$$\varphi \chi (x)=\mathrm{e}^{\frac{\mathrm{i}}{2}\theta ^{\mu \nu }_\mu _\nu ^{}}\varphi (x)\chi (x^{})|_{x^{}=x},$$
(8)
where $`_\mu ^{}`$ denotes derivatives with respect to $`x^\mu `$. The derivatives can be expressed algebraically in terms of the star product as well,

$$_\mu \varphi =\mathrm{i}[p_\mu ,\varphi ]_{}(x),_\mu \varphi =\mathrm{i}[X_\mu ,\varphi ]_{}(x)=\mathrm{i}[(p_\mu +A_\mu ),\varphi ]_{}(x).$$
(9)
The Weyl map (7) is invertible. The inverse is given by

$$\varphi =\frac{\mathrm{d}^pk}{(2\pi )^p}dx\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}k\times p\mathrm{i}kx}\varphi (x).$$
(10)
The action can be written as a functional over non-commutative functions,

$$S=\mathrm{d}^px\left(\frac{1}{4g^2}(_{\mu \nu }\theta _{\mu \nu }^1)^2+\frac{1}{2g^2}_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }_a_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }_a\frac{1}{4g^2}[\mathrm{\Phi }_a,\mathrm{\Phi }_b]_{}^2\right),$$
(11)
where,

$`_{\mu \nu }=_\mu A_\nu _\nu A_\mu +[A_\mu ,A_\nu ]_{}`$ (12a)
$`_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }=_\mu \mathrm{\Phi }+[A_\mu ,\mathrm{\Phi }]_{},`$ (12b)
and the gauge coupling $`g^2`$ is defined by,
$$g^2=g^2\sqrt{det\theta }.$$
(12c)
The products in eq. (11) should be taken as star products, however, one star product in each monomial can be substituted by the usual product following the identity,

$$\mathrm{d}^px\varphi \chi =\mathrm{d}^px\varphi (x)\chi (x).$$
(13)
Let us note that the system possesses a “local” U(1) gauge symmetry which in the background invariant formulation is the unitary symmetry of the Hilbert space.

Another difference from the “standard” Yang–Mills model which can be observed in the gauge field part of the action (11) is that the field strength $`_{\mu \nu }`$ comes shifted by the quantity $`\theta _{\mu \nu }^1`$. Although, for constant $`\theta _{\mu \nu }^1`$ this shift has no effect on the equations of motion, it is in conformity with the presumed string theory origin of the model, where the gauge field appears in combination $`_{\mu \nu }+B_{\mu \nu }`$ with the stringy $`B_{\mu \nu }`$-field.

Two comments are in order:

* If in the solution, the set of operators $`p_\mu `$ is reducible in the sense that the second condition of (4) is not fulfilled, one should complete the set by appropriate operators to make it irreducible. Operators $`q_\alpha `$ $`\alpha =p+1,\mathrm{},p^{}`$ commuting with $`p_\mu `$,

$$[p_\mu ,q_\alpha ]=0,$$
(14)
form a closed algebra,

$$[q_\alpha ,q_\beta ]=\mathrm{i}c_{\alpha \beta }(q).$$
(15)
In particular, this can be a finite dimensional Lie algebra or another piece of the Heisenberg algebra. In the last case, we have new additional non-commutative coordinates which the fields should depend on, while in the first case one has a non-abelian gauge symmetry corresponding to representations of the algebra (15). We don’t know to which extent the representation of the algebra (14) can depend on the space “points” $`x^\mu =\theta ^{\mu \nu }p_\nu `$ in general, but the simplest case is when the Hilbert space is split as $`^{}V`$, where $`^{}`$ is the infinite dimensional subspace of the Hilbert space on which restriction of $`p_\mu `$ generate an irreducible representation while $`V`$ realises an irreducible representation of the algebra (14).

For example, for $`p_\mu =𝕀_{(n)}p_\mu ^{}`$, where $`p_\mu ^{}`$ form an irreducible set and $`𝕀_{(n)}`$ is the $`n\times n`$ unity matrix one has the set of matrices $`\sigma _\alpha `$, $`\alpha =1,\mathrm{},n^21`$ commuting with $`p_\mu `$. In this case, an arbitrary fluctuation of the field $`X_i`$ around this background can be expanded in terms $`n\times n`$-matrix valued functions, the Weyl map generalises to,

$$\varphi (x)=\sigma ^\alpha \sqrt{det\theta }\frac{\mathrm{d}^pk}{(2\pi )^{p/2}}\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}kx}tr(\sigma ^\alpha \mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}k\times p})\varphi ,$$
(16)
where $`\sigma ^\alpha `$ are generators of su$`(n)`$ with the normalisation given by the $`n\times n`$-matrix trace,

$$tr_{(n)}\sigma ^\alpha \sigma ^\beta =\delta ^{\alpha \beta }.$$
(17)
* Beyond the basic set of fields in (2) one can also try to add some “mater” fields in the fundamental representation. Let us note, however, that any real field in the background invariant representation corresponds to a Hermitian operator which realises the adjoint representation of the Hilbert space unitary symmetry. In the star form such fields belong to adjoint representation of the gauge group. When trying to add complex fields in the fundamental representation of the gauge group, one finds only fields in the bi-fundamental representation of $`G\times G`$ where $`G`$ is the gauge group. Indeed, the complex field $`\varphi `$ in the fundamental representation should satisfy $`_\mu \varphi (x)=\mathrm{i}p_\mu \varphi (x)`$. Therefore, its action in the background form should look like follows,

$$S_{\mathrm{fund}}=tr\left(\frac{1}{2}X_\mu \varphi \varphi ^{}X_\mu V(\varphi \varphi ^{})\right).$$
(18)
Obviously, beyond the desired symmetry,

$$\varphi U^1\varphi ,\varphi ^{}\varphi ^{}U,UG,$$
(19)
there is another one

$$\varphi \varphi V,\varphi ^{}V^1\varphi ^{},VG.$$
(20)

## 3 The Hilbert Space Picture

As we have seen in the previous section, the model (2) may look like a Yang–Mills model with scalar multiplet in various dimensions or with various gauge groups depending on the background solution chosen.

The common origin of these models leads to duality relations among them. The roots of this duality are as follows. As we know algebras of functions on different non-commutative spaces and with different gauge groups are all isomorphic to the algebra of operators on the infinite dimensional separable Hilbert space and, therefore isomorphic among themselves. In particular, they are Morita equivalent. What is important is that this isomorphism can relate smooth functions to smooth i.e. preserves the topology of the algebra of functions. This is in contrast to what one has in the commutative case.

In this section we are going to consider maps relating such models. We will consider maps relating models with different gauge groups and maps between models in different dimensions. In the next section we consider even more particular case of map changing only the non-commutativity parameter $`\theta ^{\mu \nu }`$.

Before going to particular cases let us discuss some general aspects of the map.

Consider two different backgrounds $`p_{\mu _1}^{(1)}`$ and $`p_{\mu _2}^{(2)}`$ each having the form

$$p_{\mu _l}^{(l)}=p_{\mu _l}^{}𝕀_{n_l},$$
(21)
where $`p_l^{}`$, satisfy,

$$[p_{\mu _l}^{},p_{\nu _l}^{}]=\mathrm{i}\theta _{(l)\mu _l\nu _l}^1,det\theta _{(l)}0,$$
(22)
and form a complete irreducible set of operators on $`_{(l)}^{}`$, $`l=1,2`$.

The ranges $`I(\mu _1)`$ and $`I(\mu _2)`$ of indices $`\mu _1`$ and $`\mu _2`$ are two subsets of orders respectively $`p_{(1)}`$ and $`p_{(2)}`$ of the sequence $`1,\mathrm{},D`$.

Operators $`p^{(l)}`$, as given by eq. (21) fail to form a complete irreducible set due to their degeneracies when $`n_l>1`$. These degeneracies are solved according to the previous section by sets of $`n_l\times n_l`$-dimensional Pauli matrices $`\sigma _{\alpha _l}^{(l)}`$, $`\alpha _l=1,\mathrm{},n_{(l)}^21`$, which together with $`\sigma _0`$ generate the algebra u$`(n_l)`$. Correspondingly, the Hilbert space is split into,

$$_{(l)}^{}V_{(l)},l=1,2.$$
(23)
Now, using the definitions for the Weyl map and inverse Weyl map (16) and (10), one can write down the formula for passing from one background to another. Thus, for a non-commutative function $`\varphi _{(1)}(x_{(1)})`$ with respect to the first background one has a unique image $`\varphi _{(2)}(x_{(2)})`$ with respect to the second one, which is given by the following covariant map,

$$\begin{array}{c}\varphi _{(2)}(x_{(2)})=\hfill \\ \hfill \sigma _{\alpha _2}^{(2)}\sqrt{det\theta _{(2)}}\frac{\mathrm{d}k_{(2)}}{(2\pi )^{p_{(2)}/2}}\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}k_{(2)}x_{(2)}}dx_{(1)}tr_{V_{(1)}}E^{\alpha _2}(k^{(2)};x_{(1)})\varphi _{(1)}(x_{(1)})\\ \hfill \left(SW_{21}\varphi _{(1)}\right)(x_{(2)}),\end{array}$$
(24)
where,

$$E^{\alpha _2}(k_{(2)};x_{(1)})=\sigma _{\alpha _1}^{(1)}\frac{\mathrm{d}k_{(1)}}{(2\pi )^{p_{(1)}}}\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}k_{(1)}x_{(1)}}tr\left(\sigma _{\alpha _1}^{(1)}\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}k_{(1)}\times p_{(1)}}\sigma _{\alpha _2}^{(2)}\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}k_{(2)}\times p_{(2)}}\right)$$
(25)
$`tr_{V_{(l)}}`$ is the trace taken over $`V_{(l)}`$ indices. Trace with no label is performed over the Hilbert space $``$.

This map defines transformation rules for all fields but gauge ones. The gauge field in different backgrounds, in fact, corresponds to Weyl symbols of different operators,

$$A_{\mu _l}^{(l)}=X_{\mu _l}p_{\mu _l}^{(l)}.$$
(26)
Therefore, beyond the “covariant” part of transformation given by formula analogous to eq. (24) there is also an inhomogeneous part.

Also, due to the fact that some indices which in the first background correspond to the gauge field in the second background may correspond to the scalar field and vice versa if $`\mu _1`$ and $`\mu _2`$ run different ranges ($`I(\mu _1)I(\mu _2))`$), the map may interchange the gauge field the scalar field.

Taking this into account one has for the map of the gauge field,

$`A_\alpha ^{(2)}=SW_{21}(p_\alpha ^{(1)}+A_\alpha ^{(1)})p_\alpha ^{(2)},`$ $`\alpha I(\mu _2)I(\mu _1),`$ (27a)
$`A_\alpha ^{(2)}=SW_{21}\mathrm{\Phi }_\alpha ^{(1)}p_\alpha ^{(2)},`$ $`\alpha I(\mu _2)\overline{I}(\mu _1),`$ (27b)
$`\mathrm{\Phi }_\alpha ^{(2)}=SW_{21}(p_\alpha ^{(1)}+A_\alpha ^{(1)}),`$ $`\alpha \overline{I}(\mu _2)I(\mu _1),`$ (27c)
$`\mathrm{\Phi }_\alpha ^{(2)}=SW_{21}\mathrm{\Phi }_\alpha ^{(1)},`$ $`\alpha \overline{I}(\mu _2)\overline{I}(\mu _1),`$ (27d)
where $`SW_{21}`$ is given by eq. (24). The notations in the above equations are as follows, $`\alpha I(\mu _1)I(\mu _2)`$ means that index $`\alpha `$ belongs to both range of $`\mu _1`$ and ones of $`\mu _2`$, $`\alpha I(\mu _1)\overline{I}(\mu _2)`$ means that $`\alpha `$ belongs to the range of $`\mu _1`$ but not to one of $`\mu _2`$, and so on. In the equations above we have not written the explicit dependence on $`x_{(l)}`$, but assume that fields with $`(l)`$ label depend on $`x_{(l)}`$, where $`l=1,2`$.

It is not difficult to verify that, under this map, gauge equivalent configurations are mapped into gauge equivalent ones. In particular, one has for the gauge fields,

$$\left\{\begin{array}{c}g_{(2)}^1(p_{(2)}+A_{(2)})g_{(2)}\\ g_{(2)}^1\mathrm{\Phi }_{(2)}g_{(2)}\end{array}\right\}=SW_{21}\left\{\begin{array}{c}g_{(1)}^1(p_{(1)}+A_{(1)})g_{(1)}\\ g_{(1)}^1\mathrm{\Phi }_{(1)}g_{(1)}\end{array}\right\},$$
(28)
where, $`(A_{(1)},\mathrm{\Phi }_{(1)})`$ map into $`(A_{(2)},\mathrm{\Phi }_{(2)})`$ according to (27) while $`g_{(1)}`$ maps into $`g_{(2)}`$ according to (24). This means that the map we have obtained is a *Seiberg–Witten* map.

In the following subsections we consider the particular examples realising either U(1)–U(2) duality or duality between models in different dimensions.

### 3.1 U(1) – U($`n`$) duality

Let us present the explicit construction for the map from U(1) to U(2) gauge model in the case of two-dimensional non-commutative space. The map we are going to discuss can be straightforwardly generalised to the case of arbitrary even dimensions as well as to the case of arbitrary U(n) group.

The two-dimensional non-commutative coordinates are,

$$[x^1,x^2]=\mathrm{i}\theta .$$
(29)
The non-commutative analog of complex coordinates is given by oscillator rising and lowering operators,

$$a=\sqrt{\frac{1}{2\theta }}(x^1+\mathrm{i}x^2),\overline{a}=\sqrt{\frac{1}{2\theta }}(x^1\mathrm{i}x^2)$$
(30)
$$a|n=\sqrt{n}|n1,\overline{a}|n=\sqrt{n+1}|n+1,$$
(31)
where $`|n`$ is the so-called oscillator basis formed by eigenvectors of $`N=\overline{a}a`$,

$$N|n=n|n.$$
(32)
The gauge symmetry in this background is non-commutative U(1).

We will now construct the non-commutative U(2) gauge model. For this, consider the U(2) basis which is given by following vectors,

$$|n^{},a=|n^{}e_a,a=0,1$$
(33)
$$e_0=\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 0\end{array}\right),e_1=\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ 1\end{array}\right),$$
(34)
where $`\{|n^{}\}`$ is the oscillator basis and $`\{e_a\}`$ is the “isotopic” space basis.

The one-to-one correspondence between U(1) and U(2) bases can be established in the following way ,

$$|n^{}e_a|n=|2n^{}+a,$$
(35)
where $`|n`$ is a basis element of the U(1)-Hilbert space and $`|n^{}e_a`$ is a basis element of the Hilbert space of U(2)-theory. (Note, that they are two bases of the same Hilbert space.)

Let us note that the identification (35) is not unique. For example, one can put an arbitrary unitary matrix in front of $`|n`$ in the r.h.s. of (35). This in fact describes all possible identifications and respectively maps from U(1) to U(2) model.

Under this map, the U(2) valued functions can be represented as scalar functions in U(1) theory. For example, constant U(2) matrices are mapped to particular functions in U(1) space. To find these functions, it suffices to find the map of the basis of the u$`(2)`$ algebra given by Pauli matrices $`\sigma _\alpha `$, $`\alpha =0,1,\mathrm{},3`$.

In the U$`(1)`$ basis Pauli matrices look as follows,

$`\sigma _0={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left(|2n2n|+|2n+12n+1|\right)𝕀,`$ (36a)
$`\sigma _1={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left(|2n2n+1|+|2n+12n|\right),`$ (36b)
$`\sigma _2=\mathrm{i}{\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left(|2n2n+1||2n+12n|\right),`$ (36c)
$`\sigma _3={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\left(|2n2n||2n+12n+1|\right),`$ (36d)
while the “complex” coordinates $`a^{}`$ and $`\overline{a}^{}`$ of the U(2) invariant space are given by the following,

$`a^{}={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\sqrt{n}\left(|2n22n|+|2n12n+1|\right),`$ (37a)
$`\overline{a}^{}={\displaystyle \underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\sqrt{n+1}\left(|2n+22n|+|2n+32n+1|\right).`$ (37b)
One can see that when trying to find the Weyl symbols for operators given by (36), (37), one faces the problem that the integrals defining the Weyl symbols diverge. This happens because the respective functions (operators) do not belong to the non-commutative analog of $`L^2`$ space (are not square-trace).

Let us give an alternative way to compute the functions corresponding to operators (36) and (37). To do this let us observe that operators

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_+=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}|2n2n|,$$
(38)
and

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_{}=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}|2n+12n+1|,$$
(39)
can be expressed as333Weyl symbols of $`a`$ and $`\overline{a}`$ are denoted, respectively, as $`z`$ and $`\overline{z}`$. The same rule applies also to primed variables.

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_+=\frac{1}{2}\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\left(1+\mathrm{sin}\pi \left(n+\frac{1}{2}\right)\right)|nn|\frac{1}{2}\left(1+\mathrm{sin}_{}\pi \left(\overline{z}z+\frac{1}{2}\right)\right),$$
(40)
and,

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_{}=𝕀\mathrm{\Pi }_+=\frac{1}{2}\left(1\mathrm{sin}_{}\pi \left(\overline{z}z+\frac{1}{2}\right)\right)=\frac{1}{2}\left(1\mathrm{sin}_{}\pi |z|^2\right),$$
(41)
where $`\mathrm{sin}_{}`$ is the “star” sin function defined by the star Taylor series,

$$\mathrm{sin}_{}f=f\frac{1}{3!}fff+\frac{1}{5!}fffff\mathrm{},$$
(42)
with the star product defined in variables $`z,\overline{z}`$ as follows,

$$fg(\overline{a},a)=\mathrm{e}^{\overline{}^{}\overline{}^{}}f(\overline{z},z)g(\overline{z}^{},z^{})|_{z^{}=z},$$
(43)
where $`=/z`$, $`\overline{}=/\overline{z}`$ and analogously for primed $`z^{}`$ and $`\overline{z}^{}`$. For convenience we denoted Weyl symbols of $`a`$ and $`\overline{a}`$ as $`z`$ and $`\overline{z}`$.

The easiest way to compute (40) and (41) is to find the Weyl symbol of the operator,

$$I_k^\pm =\frac{1\pm \mathrm{sin}\left(\overline{a}a+\frac{1}{2}\right)}{(\overline{a}a+\gamma )^k},$$
(44)
were $`\gamma `$ is some constant, mainly $`\pm 1/2`$.

For sufficiently large $`k`$, the operator $`I_k^\pm `$ becomes square trace for which the formula (7) defining the Weyl map is applicable. The Weyl symbol for smaller values of $`k`$ can be obtained using the following recurrence relation,

$$I_{km}^\pm (\overline{z},z)=\underset{m\text{ times}}{\underset{}{\left(|z|^2+\gamma \frac{1}{2}\right)\mathrm{}\left(|z|^2+\gamma \frac{1}{2}\right)}}I_k^\pm (\overline{z},z).$$
(45)
The last equation requires computation of only finite number of derivatives of $`I_k^\pm (\overline{z},z)`$ arising from the star product with polynomials in $`\overline{z},z`$.

From the viewpoint of the gauge theory (2), the configuration (37) can be seen as a solution to equations of motion in the U(1) theory, while operators (36) are the ones commuting with this solution, i.e. generators of its symmetry algebra.

### 3.2 Duality between models in different dimensions

Consider the situation when $`V`$ is another Hilbert space or product of Hilbert spaces. This topic was considered in  here we only shortly review this.

Consider the Hilbert space $``$ corresponding to two-dimensional non-commutative space (29), and $``$ which corresponds to four-dimensional non-commutative space generated by

$$[x^1,x^2]=\mathrm{i}\theta _{(1)},[x^3,x^4]=\mathrm{i}\theta _{(2)}.$$
(46)
In the last case non-commutative complex coordinates correspond to two sets of oscillator operators, $`a_1`$, $`a_2`$ and $`\overline{a}_1`$, $`\overline{a}_2`$, where,

$`a_1=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\theta _{(1)}}}}(x^1+\mathrm{i}x^2),`$ $`\overline{a}_1=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\theta _{(1)}}}}(x^1\mathrm{i}x^2)`$ (47a)
$`a_1|n_1=\sqrt{n_1}|n_11,`$ $`\overline{a}_1|n_1=\sqrt{n_1+1}|n_1+1,`$ (47b)
$`a_2=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\theta _{(2)}}}}(x^3+\mathrm{i}x^4),`$ $`\overline{a}_2=\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\theta _{(2)}}}}(x^3\mathrm{i}x^4)`$ (47c)
$`a|n_2=\sqrt{n_2}|n_21,`$ $`\overline{a}_2|n_2=\sqrt{n_2+1}|n_2+1,`$ (47d)
and the basis elements of the “four-dimensional” Hilbert space $``$ are $`|n_1,n_2=|n_1|n_2`$.

The isomorphic map $`\sigma :`$ is given by assigning a unique number $`n`$ to each element $`|n_1,n_2`$ and putting it into correspondence to $`|n`$ .

As we discussed earlier, this map induces an isomorphic map of connections and non-commutative functions from two to four dimensional non-commutative spaces.

This can be easily generalised to the case with arbitrary number of factors $`\mathrm{}`$ corresponding to $`p/2`$ “two-dimensional” non-commutative spaces. In this way, one obtains the isomorphism $`\sigma `$ which relates two-dimensional non-commutative function algebra with a $`p`$-dimensional one, for $`p`$ even.

It is worthwhile to note that in the case of the map which relates different dimensions, the flat connection is *never* mapped to flat one, since the tensor $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$ is different in $`_{(2)}`$ and $`_{(2)}_{(2)}`$. (Obviously in the first case it is two-dimensional while in the second one it is four-dimensional.) This map again solves the Seiberg–Witten condition that smooth bounded functions are mapped to smooth and bounded and gauge equivalent configurations are mapped to gauge equivalent ones, and therefore it is a non-perturbative Seiberg–Witten map. This map is singular when $`\theta =0`$.

In fact, the arguments above indicate that the model (2) is non-perturbatively independent on $`\theta _{\mu \nu }`$ or the dimensionality of the non-commutative Yang–Mills model. This fact is called background independence , also a presumable feature of string field theory .

## 4 Perturbative Seiberg–Witten Map

So far, we have considered maps which relate algebras of non-commutative functions in different dimensions or at least taking values in different Lie algebras. Due to the fact that they change considerably the geometry, these maps could not be deformed smoothly into the unit map. (At least it is not obvious that it can be done.) In this section we consider a more restricted class of maps which do not change either dimensionality or the gauge group but only the non-commutativity parameter. Obviously, this can be smoothly deformed into identity map, therefore one may consider infinitesimal transformations.

In the approach of the second section the non-commutativity parameter is given by the solution to the equations of motion. In this framework, the SW map is given by the change of the background solution $`p_\mu `$ to a slightly different one $`p_\mu +\delta p_\mu `$. Then, a solution with the constant field strength $`F_{\mu \nu }^{(\delta p)}`$ will change the non-commutativity parameter as follows,

$$\theta ^{\mu \nu }+\delta \theta ^{\mu \nu }(\theta _{\mu \nu }^1+\delta \theta _{\mu \nu }^1)^1=(\theta _{\mu \nu }^1+F_{\mu \nu })^1.$$
(1)
Note, that the above equation does not require $`\delta \theta `$ to be infinitesimal.

Since we are considering solutions to the gauge field equations of motion $`A_\mu =\delta p_\mu `$ one should fix the gauge for it. A convenient choice would be e.g. the Lorentz gauge, $`_\mu \delta p_\mu =0`$. Then, the solution with

$$A_\mu ^{(\delta p)}\delta p_\mu =(1/2)ϵ_{\mu \nu }\theta ^{\nu \alpha }p_\alpha $$
(2)
with antisymmetric $`ϵ_{\mu \nu }`$ has the constant field strength

$$F_{\mu \nu }^{(\delta p)}\delta \theta _{\mu \nu }^1=ϵ_{\mu \nu }+(1/4)ϵ_{\mu \alpha }\theta ^{\alpha \beta }ϵ_{\beta \nu }=ϵ_{\mu \nu }+O(ϵ^2).$$
(3)
This corresponds to the following variation of the non-commutativity parameter,

$$\delta \theta ^{\mu \nu }=\theta ^{\mu \alpha }ϵ_{\alpha \beta }\theta ^{\beta \nu }\frac{1}{4}\theta ^{\mu \alpha }ϵ_{\alpha \gamma }\theta ^{\gamma \rho }ϵ_{\rho \beta }\theta ^{\beta \nu }=\theta ^{\mu \alpha }\delta \theta _{\alpha \beta }^1\theta ^{\beta \nu }+O(ϵ^2).$$
(4)
Let us note that such kind of infinitesimal transformations were considered in a slightly different context in .

Let us find how non-commutative functions are changed with respect to this transformation. In order to do this, let us consider how the Weyl symbol (7) transforms under the variation of background (2). For an arbitrary operator $`\varphi `$ after short calculation we have,

$$\delta \varphi (x)=\frac{1}{4}\delta \theta ^{\alpha \beta }(_\alpha \varphi p_\beta (x)+p_\beta _\alpha \varphi (x)).$$
(5)
In obtaining this equation we had to take into consideration variation of $`p_\mu `$ and of the factor $`\sqrt{det\theta }`$ in the definition of the Weyl symbol (7).

By construction, this variation satisfies the “star-Leibnitz rule”,

$$\delta (\varphi \chi )(x)=\delta \varphi \chi (x)+\varphi \delta \chi (x)+\varphi (\delta )\chi (x),$$
(6)
where $`\delta \varphi (x)`$ and $`\delta \chi (x)`$ are defined according to (5) and variation of the star-product is given by,

$$\varphi (\delta )\chi (x)=\frac{1}{2}\delta \theta ^{\alpha \beta }_\alpha \varphi _\beta \chi (x).$$
(7)
The property (6) implies that $`\delta `$ provides an homomorphism (which is in fact an isomorphism) of star algebras of functions.

The above transformation (5) do not apply, however, to the gauge field $`A_\mu (x)`$ and gauge field strength $`F_{\mu \nu }(x)`$. This is the case because the respective operators are not background independent. Indeed, according to (6) $`A_\mu =X_\mu p_\mu `$, where $`X_\mu `$ is background independent. Therefore the gauge field $`A_\mu (x)`$ transforms inhomogeneously,

$$\delta A_\mu (x)=\frac{1}{4}\delta \theta ^{\alpha \beta }(_\alpha A_\mu p_\beta +p_\beta _\alpha A_\mu )+\frac{1}{2}\theta _{\mu \alpha }\delta \theta ^{\alpha \beta }p_\beta .$$
(8)
The transformation law for $`F_{\mu \nu }(x)`$ can be computed using (12a) and the “star-Leibnitz rule” (6) as well as the fact that it is the Weyl symbol of the operator,

$$F_{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{i}[X_\mu ,X_\nu ]\theta _{\mu \nu }.$$
(9)
Of course, both approaches give the same result,

$$\delta F_{\mu \nu }(x)=\frac{1}{4}\delta \theta ^{\alpha \beta }(_\alpha F_{\mu \nu }p_\beta +p_\beta _\alpha F_{\mu \nu })(x)\delta \theta _{\mu \nu }^1.$$
(10)
The infinitesimal map described above has the following properties:

1. It maps gauge equivalent configurations to gauge equivalent ones, therefore it satisfies the Seiberg–Witten equation,

$$U^1AU+U^1dUU^1^{}A^{}^{}U^{}+U^1^{}d^{}U^{}.$$
(11)
2. It is linear in the fields.
3. Any background independent functional is invariant under this transformation. In particular, any gauge invariant functional whose dependence on gauge fields enters through the combination $`X_{\mu \nu }(x)=F_{\mu \nu }+\theta _{\mu \nu }^1`$ is invariant with respect to (5)–(10). This is also the symmetry of the action provided that the gauge coupling transforms according to (12c).
4. Formally, the transformation (5) can be represented in the form,

$$\delta \varphi (x)=\delta x^\alpha _\alpha \varphi (x)=\varphi (x+\delta x)\varphi (x),$$
(12)
where $`\delta x^\alpha =\theta ^{\alpha \beta }\delta p_\beta `$ and no star product is assumed. This looks exactly like a coordinate transformation.

One may naturally raise the question: how is this connected with the “standard” SW map found in ?

In (2) we have chosen $`\delta p_\mu `$ independent of gauge field background. (In fact the gauge field background was switched-on later, after the transformation.) An alternative way would be to have nontrivial field $`A_\mu (x)`$ from the very beginning and to chose $`\delta p_\mu `$ to be of the form,

$$\delta _{\mathrm{SW}}p_\mu =\frac{1}{2}ϵ_{\mu \nu }\theta ^{\nu \alpha }A_\alpha .$$
(13)
Then, the transformation laws corresponding to such a transformation of the background coincide exactly with the standard SW map. The substitution (13) is possible because the function $`p_\mu =\theta _{\mu \nu }^1x^\nu `$ has the same gauge transformation properties as $`A_\mu (x)`$,

$$p_\mu U^1p_\mu U(x)U^1_\mu U(x).$$
(14)
## 5 The Quantum Theory

In the previous section we found that the map (2) changes the fields leaving the gauge invariant functionals including the action unchanged. To be a symmetry in the “quantum field theory” e.g. the path integral formulation of “quantum” theory, one should check the invariance of the quantum measure as well.

Consider the partition function corresponding to the model (11). In the traditional approach, the path integral representation for the partition function is obtained via canonical quantisation. This approach can be easily generalised also to models with spatial non-commutativity. In the case of non-degenerate space-time non-commutativity one can use path integral as the definition for the partition function and, generally, of the non-commutative “quantum” theory.

So, consider the path integral representation for the partition function

$$Z=[\mathrm{d}A][\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Phi }]detM\mathrm{e}^{\mathrm{i}S+\mathrm{i}S_{\mathrm{g}.\mathrm{f}.}},$$
(1)
where $`[\mathrm{d}A]`$ and $`[\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Phi }]`$ are usual functional measures for Weyl symbols, $`S_{\mathrm{g}.\mathrm{f}.}`$ is the gauge fixing term and $`detM`$ Faddeev–Popov determinant. For example generalised Lorentz gauge correspond to the choice,

$$S_{\mathrm{g}.\mathrm{f}.}^{\mathrm{Lorentz}}=\frac{1}{2\alpha }(_\mu A_\mu )^2,$$
(2)
and Faddeev–Popov determinant,

$$detM=det_\mu _\mu .$$
(3)
Let us analyse the background invariance properties of the quantum theory as given by the formal path integral (1). As established in the previous section, the classical action is invariant under changes of the background (2) provided respective rules for transformation of fields, products and couplings are applied. What remains to be established to generalise the “classical” results is the invariance of the functional measure.

Another source of trouble would be the gauge fixing term which was added to the theory during “quantisation” and which may spoil the background invariance. Apparently, it is difficult to find a gauge fixing term which would be background invariant. This happens because background invariant functionals are all gauge invariant. However, we claim that the way the gauge fixing term destroys gauge invariance is an in-offensive one, and indicates only that the gauge fixing prescription does depend on the background. Moreover at finite volume (finite Hilbert space) it is not necessary.

To establish the transformation properties of the measure, let us recall that the measure can be seen as the determinant of the invariant functional quadratic form,

$$\overline{\delta }A_\mu ^2=dx(\overline{\delta }A_\mu (x))^2,\overline{\delta }\mathrm{\Phi }^2=dx(\overline{\delta }\mathrm{\Phi }_a(x))^2,$$
(4)
where $`\overline{\delta }A_\mu (x)`$ and $`\overline{\delta }\mathrm{\Phi }_a(x)`$ are independent variations of field $`A_\mu (x)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_a(x)`$. The equations (4) can be rewritten as follows,

$$\overline{\delta }A_\mu ^2=(2\pi )^{p/2}\sqrt{det\theta }tr(\overline{\delta }X_\mu )^2,\overline{\delta }\mathrm{\Phi }^2=(2\pi )^{p/2}\sqrt{det\theta }(\overline{\delta }\mathrm{\Phi }_a)^2,$$
(5)
where in the last equations, the Hilbert space operators are used and $`\overline{\delta }A_\mu `$ is replaced by the equivalent $`\overline{\delta }X_\mu `$.

As one can see from the equations (5), the dependence of functional norm from the background enters only through factors $`(2\pi )^{p/2}\sqrt{det\theta }`$. (The first factor $`(2\pi )^{p/2}`$ is important only in the case when dimensionality changes, which is not the case for infinitesimal background transformations.) Therefore, variation of norms with respect to change of background (2) is as follows,

$`\delta \overline{\delta }A_\mu ^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\delta (\mathrm{ln}det\theta )\overline{\delta }A_\mu ^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\theta _{\alpha \beta }^1\delta \theta ^{\alpha \beta }\overline{\delta }A_\mu ^2`$ (6a)
$`\delta \overline{\delta }\mathrm{\Phi }_a^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\delta (\mathrm{ln}det\theta )\overline{\delta }\mathrm{\Phi }_a^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\theta _{\alpha \beta }^1\delta \theta ^{\alpha \beta }\overline{\delta }\mathrm{\Phi }_a^2.`$ (6b)
According, to Eqs. (6) the functional measure changes as follows,

$`\delta [\mathrm{d}A]=(p\theta _{\alpha \beta }^1\delta \theta ^{\alpha \beta }{\displaystyle dx})[\mathrm{d}A],`$ (7a)
$`\delta [\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Phi }]=((Dp)\theta _{\alpha \beta }^1\delta \theta ^{\alpha \beta }{\displaystyle dx})[\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Phi }],`$ (7b)
$`\delta [\mathrm{d}A][\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Phi }]=(D\theta _{\alpha \beta }^1\delta \theta ^{\alpha \beta }{\displaystyle dx})[\mathrm{d}A][\mathrm{d}\mathrm{\Phi }].`$ (7c)
Thus, we end up with an “anomaly”,

$$\frac{\delta Z}{\delta \theta ^{\alpha \beta }}=(D\theta _{\alpha \beta }^1𝒱)Z,$$
(8)
where $`𝒱`$ is the (regularised) volume of space-time.

Since the “anomaly”, we obtained in such a way is a constant proportional to the the volume of the space-time, it can be absorbed in a ($`\theta `$-dependent) renormalisation of the vacuum energy.

Let us note, that the “anomaly” is proportional to the factor $`D`$ which is the number of bosonic fields. Fermions, while transforming in the same way as the bosonic fields under the Seiberg–Witten map, the fermionic measure contributes with an opposite sign. Then, in supersymmetric models, or at least in models with equal numbers of bosons and fermions the “anomaly” (8) vanishes.

### 5.1 Remarks on Regularisation

All these results were obtained in the naive approach when no regularisation and renormalisation is taken into consideration. The regularisation and renormalisation may change drastically some conclusions concerning the fate of the classical symmetries of the theory and we will discuss this issue here.

For the case of pure non-commutative Yang–Mills–scalar model one can write down regularisation schemes satisfying all necessary criteria. Higher covariant derivative or dimensional regularisation schemes seem to satisfy the background invariance. A particularly interesting regularisation of the non-commutative Yang–Mills model would be the finite $`N`$ IKKT matrix model  obtained by the truncation of the Hilbert space to $`N`$ dimensions. This regularisation is non-perturbative, beyond this it is suitable for the numeric computations. The required properties follow from the explicit background invariant form of the action.

Although, the algebra (4) for finite $`N`$ is altered this model approaches the non-commutative Yang–Mills model in the background invariant form (2) in the limit $`N\mathrm{}`$. This method is good enough if we deal with a purely bosonic theory. For fermion containing models there can appear problems connected with fermionic spectrum doubling . Another potential problem of this method can be identified with the existence of non-compact directions in the path integral associated with flat directions in the action. For IKKT-type matrix models these are associated with flat directions in the potential. Such potential infinities have been investigated ,  both at finite N. It turns out that for sufficiently large N (typically larger than four) the measure of the path integral is convergent. Thus, finite-N truncation is a valid background invariant non-perturbative regularisation.

In continuum perturbation theory a momentum cutoff regularisation is the popular choice. For finite cutoff $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ IR-UV mixing implies the existence of IR singularities  reflecting the UV divergences of the commutative theory. No renormalisation procedure is yet known which deals with such singularities. Such singularities are logarithmic at one-loop in supersymmetric theories and as such, amenable to standard renormalisation. However, it was shown that power singularities appear at higher loops, and their resummation seems not possible . It has been argued  that such power IR singularities reflect linear potentials among constituent $`D_0`$ branes in a matrix model realisation of non-commutative theories indicating an instability for non-supersymmetric theories.

It is thus fair to say that in perturbation theory, a momentum cutoff regularisation and renormalisation of non-commutative theories is an open problem.

The use of finite-N truncation of the Hilbert space in the perturbative expansion is not popular. One reason is that it is not convenient in the continuum formulation of perturbation theory. Also, it seems to modify the “classical background” around which we do perturbation theory: the commutation relations $`[x^i,x^j]=\theta ^{ij}`$ with constant $`\theta `$ cannot be satisfied in a finite dimensional Hilbert space. We do believe however, that their slight modification by a projection operator, at large N, where N is the dimension of the Hilbert space is innocuous for the regularisation although it can contribute to finite quantities after renormalisation. From the other hand, it allows non-perturbative analysis in which the system may visibly choose the “preferred” background.

Combined with the aforementioned result, that Hilbert space truncation is a regularisation at large N, it seems to be the right scheme in order to discuss the fate of the classical dualities we have presented.

We have shown above that up to a constant renormalisation of the path integral, classical duality is a symmetry of the path integral and the unregulated measure. Thus, any “anomaly” to this symmetries will appear as a non-invariance of the cutoff.

In the finite-N truncation regularisation scheme it is straightforward to answer this question. We will consider as a motivating example the simplest classical map between a U(1) and an U($`n`$) non-commutative gauge theory with one non-commutative plane. Let us define in the U(1) case the regularised theory by truncating to the first $`nN`$ states of the harmonic oscillator Hilbert space. The Hilbert space of the U($`n`$) gauge theory is the tensor product of a $`n`$ dimensional vector space and the harmonic oscillator Hilbert space. We regularise the theory by keeping the first $`N`$ states of this Hilbert space. Then the classical map is one-to-one on the remaining finite vector spaces. This map introduces the correspondence between the cutoff parameters of these theories. Thus, the cutoff $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ in U(1) theory corresponds to the cutoff of order $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/n^{2/p}`$ in the U($`n`$) model.

This type of cutoff respects the duality symmetry. Similar cutoff procedures exist for the other duality maps. It is obvious however that singularities are expected if one considers the large $`n`$-limit of non-commutative U($`n`$) gauge theory.

In general the cutoffs in different backgrounds can be related via background invariant quantities. Thus, in the large $`N`$ limit one has background invariant trace,

$$N=tr𝕀=\frac{n}{(2\pi )^{p/2}\sqrt{det\theta }}_R\mathrm{d}^px=\frac{nR^p}{(2\pi )^{p/2}\sqrt{det\theta }},$$
(9)
where $`R`$ is the IR cutoff in the theory. This implies that under the equivalence maps,

$$\frac{nR^p}{(2\pi )^{p/2}\sqrt{det\theta }}=\frac{n\sqrt{det\theta }\mathrm{\Lambda }^p}{(2\pi )^{p/2}}=\text{invariant},$$
(10)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the UV cutoff and we also used the explicit relation between the IR and UV cutoffs, $`R^p=(det\theta )\mathrm{\Lambda }^p`$, which follows, e.g. from the fact that $`x^\mu =\theta ^{\mu \nu }p_\nu `$.

Perturbation theory in a given dual version breaks explicitly the duality invariance since different perturbation theories correspond to expansions around different backgrounds of the universal theory. It is thus, not surprising that different perturbation theories have different physics. What we claim here is that there is a non-perturbative definition of the theory which accommodates the classical duality symmetries with no anomalies. This heavily relies on the renormalisation procedure (that so far is not well understood) respecting the symmetry. It is in principle possible however that the symmetry be broken spontaneously due to dynamics. Whether this is realized is beyond our tools at the moment.

It seems that were it for the duality to survive a properly regularised theory, it would imply non-perturbative equaivalence of models in different number of non-commutative dimensions. In perturbation theory such theories are plagued by (generically) power IR singularities that render the physics of the theory obcure. Quantum validity of duality will imply that such divergences are artifacts of perurbation theory. They should not be there in a non-pperturbative treatement. On the other hand, resummation of subsectors of perturbation theory are not expected to lead to substancial iprovement.

## 6 Conclusion

In the present work we have studied dualities in the non-commutative gauge models. Classically, such dualities relate gauge models in different dimensions as well as models with different “local” gauge groups. “Smaller” transformations relate the same model on spaces with different non-commutativity parameter $`\theta `$. This is similar to the situation with the Seiberg–Witten map. Indeed, the map satisfies the condition that it maps gauge equivalent configurations to gauge equivalent ones and satisfies an appropriate differential equation.

Nevertheless, in the case of “small” maps when one can compare our solution with the Seiberg–Witten ansatz it appears to be different. The difference consists in the fact that our solution is linear in fields and has a different structure of singularities.

The above classical duality symmetries can be extended to the quantum theory. In the path integral approach this is equivalent to the invariance of the measure. Naively, i.e. neglecting the issues with IR/UV divergences, the functional measure is always duality invariant. For the consistency one should regularise and renormalise the theory. In the purely bosonic theory it is possible to present such a regularisation, and respective renormalisation. In the case of chiral fermions, however, problems can appear. In general since the duality symmetry is intrinsically connected with the gauge invariance we believe that gauge anomaly-free theories should possess also background invariance at the quantum level.

In the opposite case, quantum breaking of this symmetry (an anomaly) may not be fatal for the consistency of the theory. It may signal the appearance of inequivalent perturbative vacua. Non-perturbatively, the theory may favour some of these vacua relative to others.

Another interesting feature of the maps described here is that they relate models with different couplings and different cutoffs. This may reveal interesting information about various regimes of the gauge models. Unfortunately, so far there is no reliable description of the Quantum Non-perturbative Field theories even in the weak coupling regime due to problems related with IR/UV mixing.

It is an important open problem to understand better a background invariant renormalisation of non-commutative theories. Even in perturbation theory (which breaks background invariance) such a procedure is not understood. This will send light to the role duality maps play in the physics of non-commutativity.

###### Acknowledgments.

We would like to thank A. Koshelev and K. Anagnostopoulos for many discussions. The work of C.S. was partially supported by RFBR grant, Scientific School Support grant No. 00-15-96046, and INTAS grant No. 00-262 E.K. was partially supported by RTN contracts HPRN–CT–2000-00122 and –00131 and INTAS contract N 99 1 590.


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# Gelfand theory for non-commutative Banach algebras

## 1 Introduction, motivation, and definition

Let $`A`$ be a commutative Banach algebra with character space $`\mathrm{\Phi }_A`$. Then its Gelfand transform $`𝒢_A`$ is the algebra homomorphism from $`A`$ into $`𝒞_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_A)`$ defined through

(1)
$$(𝒢_Aa)(\varphi ):=a,\varphi (aA,\varphi \mathrm{\Phi }_A).$$

Without doubt, Gelfand theory is one of the most important tools in the theory of commutative Banach algebras.

At the first glance, Gelfand theory seems to be an exclusively commutative phenomenon: For non-commutative $`A`$, the character space $`\mathrm{\Phi }_A`$ is often empty, and even if $`\mathrm{\Phi }_A\mathrm{}`$, the Gelfand transform $`𝒢_A:A𝒞_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_A)`$ as defined in (1) vanishes on all commutators in $`A`$, so that a lot of information may be lost if we pass from $`A`$ to $`𝒢A`$. It thus doesn’t seem to make much sense to develop Gelfand theory for non-commutative Banach algebras.

The picture changes, however, if we adopt a more abstract point of view: $`𝒞_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_A)`$ is a $`C^{}`$-algebra, and $`𝒢_A^{}:𝒞_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_A)^{}A^{}`$ induces a homeomorphism of $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{𝒞_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_A)}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_A`$. The Gelfand transform is thus a homomorphism from $`A`$ into a $`C^{}`$-algebra $`𝔄`$ which induces a one-to-one correspondence between the maximal modular ideals of $`A`$ and $`𝔄`$.

For an arbitrary, not necessarily commutative Banach algebra, let $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_A`$ denote the set of maximal modular left ideals of $`A`$. For fixed $`A`$, we consider pairs $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ with the following properties:

* $`𝔄`$ is a $`C^{}`$-algebra, and $`𝒢:A𝔄`$ is a homomorphism.
* The assignment $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄L𝒢^1(L)`$ is a bijection between $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_A`$.
* For each $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$, the linear map $`𝒢_L:A/𝒢^1(L)𝔄/L`$ induced by $`𝒢`$ has dense range.

If $`A`$ is commutative, $`(𝒢_A,𝒞_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_A))`$ clearly satisfies (G 1), (G 2), and (G 3). It is less obvious that these properties already characterize the Gelfand transform of a commutative Banach algebra:

###### Proposition 1.1

Let $`A`$ be a commutative Banach algebra, let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a pair satisfying (G 1), (G 2), and (G 3). Then there is an isomorphism $`\theta :𝔄𝒞_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_A)`$ such that $`𝒢_A=\theta 𝒢`$.

* By (G 2) and (G 3), $`𝔄`$ is necessarily commutative. Since $`𝔄`$ is a commutative $`C^{}`$-algebra, $`𝒢`$ is automatically continuous by the classical Gelfand–Rickart theorem. The adjoint map $`𝒢^{}:𝔄^{}A^{}`$ induces a homeomorphism of the Gelfand spaces $`\mathrm{\Phi }_𝔄`$ and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_A`$. Identifying $`𝔄`$ and $`𝒞_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_𝔄)`$ via the Gelfand–Naimark theorem, we define

$$\theta :𝔄𝒞_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_A),ff𝒢^{}.$$

It is routinely verified that $`𝒢_A=\theta 𝒢`$. $``$

Proposition 1.1 motivates the following definition:

###### Definition 1.2

Let $`A`$ be a Banach algebra.

1. A pair $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ satisfying (G 1), (G 2), and (G 3) is called a Gelfand theory for $`A`$; the homomorphism $`𝒢`$ is called the corresponding Gelfand transform.
2. We say that two Gelfand theories $`(𝒢_1,𝔄_1)`$ and $`(𝒢_2,𝔄_2)`$ for $`A`$ are equivalent if there is an isomorphism $`\theta :𝔄_1𝔄_2`$ such that $`𝒢_2=\theta 𝒢_1`$.
3. If any two Gefland theories for $`A`$ are equivalent, we say that $`A`$ has a unique Gelfand theory.

* 1. By Proposition 1.1, commutative Banach algebras have a unique Gelfand theory, so that we can speak of the Gelfand transform of a commutative Banach algebra without ambiguity.
    2. From (G 2), it is obvious that the kernel of a Gelfand transform is the Jacoboson radical.
    3. It does not make much sense in Definition 1.2(ii) to require that $`\theta `$ be a -homomorphism: For example, let $`A`$ be a $`C^{}`$-algebra, and let $`\tau :AA`$ be an automorphism of $`A`$ which is not a -automorphism. If we had required that $`\theta `$ in Definition 1.2 be an -automorphism, then $`(\mathrm{id}_A,A)`$ and $`(\tau ,A)`$ would be inequivalent Gelfand theories for $`A`$.

With Definition 1.2 made, several questions arise naturally: Does every Banach algebra have a Gelfand theory? If not, which are the Banach algebras with a Gelfand theory? Is a Gelfand theory necessarily unique? Which properties do Gelfand theories in the sense of Definition 1.2 have in common with Gelfand theory for commutative Banach algebras?

We shall investigate these (and related) questions in this paper.

### Acknowledgment

The possibility of a Gelfand theory for homogeneous Banach algebra was indicated to the third author by D. W. B. Somerset during a visit to Aberdeen.

## 2 Basic properties of Gelfand transforms

It is an elementary fact, that the Gelfand transform of a commutative Banach algebra is continuous (in fact: contractive). In Definition 1.2, we have not required a Gelfand transform to be continuous. As our first theorem shows, a Gelfand transform is automatically continuous.

###### Lemma 2.1

Let $`A`$ be a Banach algebra, let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$, let $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$, and let $`\pi _L:𝔄(𝔄/L)`$ the corresponding irreducible representation of $`𝔄`$. Then $`\pi _L𝒢`$ is continuous.

* Let $`E_L`$ again be the image of $`𝒢_L`$ in $`𝔄/L`$, so that $`E_L`$ is a pre-Hilbert space. Since $`𝒢^1(L)`$ is a maximal modular ideal of $`A`$ by (G 2), it follows that

$$A(E_L),a(\pi _L𝒢)(a)|_{E_L}$$

is an irreducible representation of $`A`$ on a normed space and thus continuous by \[B–D, Theorem 25.7\], i.e. there is $`C0`$ such that

(2)
$$(\pi _L𝒢)(a)|_{E_L}_{(E_L)}Ca(aA).$$

By (G 3), $`E_L`$ is dense in $`𝔄/L`$ so that the left hand side of (2) is in fact the operator norm of $`(\pi _L𝒢)(a)`$ on $`𝔄/L`$. This yields the claim. $``$

###### Theorem 2.2

Let $`A`$ be a Banach algebra, and let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. Then $`𝒢`$ is continuous.

* Let $`(a_n)_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence in $`A`$ such that there is $`b𝔄`$ with

$$a_n0\text{and}𝒢(a_n)b.$$

For $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$ with corresponding irreducible representation $`\pi _L`$, the map $`\pi _L𝒢`$ is continuous by Lemma 2.1, so that

$$\pi _L(b)=\underset{n\mathrm{}}{lim}(\pi _L𝒢)(a_n)=0.$$

Since $`𝔄`$ is semisimple, i.e. $`_{L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄}\mathrm{ker}\pi _L=\{0\}`$, it follows that $`b=0`$. By the closed graph theorem, $`𝒢`$ is continuous. $``$

If $`A`$ is a commutative Banach algebra and $`a`$ is an element of $`A`$, then the spectra of $`a`$ in $`A`$ and $`𝒢_Aa`$ in $`𝒞_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_A)`$ essentially coincide:

(3)
$$\sigma _A(a)\{0\}=\sigma _{𝒞_0(\mathrm{\Phi }_A)}(𝒢_Aa)\{0\}.$$

Since $`\mathrm{\Phi }_A`$ may be compact for non-unital $`A`$, (3) is the best result we can hope for. It will turn out that the same is true for Gelfand transfroms in the sense of Definition 1.2.

###### Lemma 2.3

Let $`A`$ be a unital Banach algebra, and let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. Then $`𝔄`$ is unital, and $`𝒢`$ is a unital homomorphism.

* Let $`eA`$ be the identity of $`A`$. Let $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$, and let $`\pi _L`$ be the corresponding irreducible represenation of $`𝔄`$ on $`𝔄/L`$. As in the proof of Lemma 2.1, let $`E_L`$ denote the range of $`𝒢_L`$ in $`𝔄/L`$. It is clear that $`(\pi _L𝒢)(e)`$ acts as the identity on $`E_L`$. Since $`E_L`$ is dense in $`𝔄/L`$ by (G 3), it follows that $`(\pi _L𝒢)(e)=\mathrm{id}_{𝔄/L}`$. Since $`𝔄`$ is semisimple, this means that $`𝒢e`$ is the identity of $`𝔄`$. $``$

###### Lemma 2.4

Let $`A`$ be a Banach algebra, and let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. Then, for $`aA`$, the element $`𝒢a`$ is quasi-invertible in $`𝒢A`$ if and only if it is quasi-invertible in $`𝔄`$.

* Assume that $`𝒢a`$ is quasi-invertible in $`𝔄`$, but not in $`𝒢A`$. Consequently, $`a`$ cannot be left quasi-invertible in $`A`$. By \[Pal 2, Theorem 2.4.6(e)\], this means that there is $`\stackrel{~}{L}\mathrm{\Lambda }_A`$ such that $`a`$ is a right modular identity for $`\stackrel{~}{L}`$. By (G 2), there is a unique $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$ such that $`𝒢^1(L)=\stackrel{~}{L}`$. With $`E_L`$ and $`\pi _L`$ as in the proofs of Lemmas 2.1 and 2.3, respectively, let $`x:=𝒢_L(a+\stackrel{~}{L})E_L\{0\}`$, and note that

$$\pi _L(𝒢a)x=𝒢_L(a^2+\stackrel{~}{L})=𝒢_L(a+\stackrel{~}{L})=x.$$

Let $`b𝔄`$ be the quasi-inverse of $`𝒢a`$ in $`𝔄`$. Then we have

$$x=\pi _L(𝒢a)x=\pi _L(b𝒢ab)x=\pi _L(b)\pi _L(𝒢a)x\pi _L(b)x=\pi _L(b)x\pi _L(b)x=0,$$

which is a contradiction. $``$

* The proof of Lemma 2.4, is essentially a verbatim copy of the proof of \[Pal 2, Theorem 4.2.10(c) $``$ (a)\]. Note that we cannot just apply \[Pal 2, Theorem 4.2.10\] because $`𝒢A`$ need not be dense in $`𝔄`$.

In perfect analogy with the commutative situation, we have:

###### Theorem 2.5

Let $`A`$ be a Banach algebra, and let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. Then, if $`A`$ is unital,

(4)
$$\sigma _A(a)=\sigma _𝔄(𝒢a)(aA),$$

and, if $`A`$ is non-unital,

(5)
$$\sigma _A(a)=\sigma _𝔄(𝒢a)\{0\}(aA),$$

* It is immediate from Lemma 2.4 that

$$\sigma _A(a)\{0\}=\sigma _𝔄(𝒢a)\{0\}(aA),$$

no matter if $`A`$ has an identity or not. If $`A`$ is non-unital, $`0\sigma _A(a)`$ for every $`aA`$. This establishes (5).

Suppose that $`A`$ is unital. If $`0\sigma _A(a)`$, i.e. if $`a`$ is invertible in $`A`$, then $`𝒢a`$ is invertible in $`𝔄`$ by Lemma 2.3, so that $`0\sigma _𝔄(𝒢a)`$. Let $`aA`$ be such that $`0\sigma _𝔄(𝒢a)`$, and assume that $`0\sigma _A(a)`$, i.e. $`a`$ is not invertible in $`A`$. We first treat the case where $`a`$ is not left invertible. Then there is $`\stackrel{~}{L}\mathrm{\Lambda }_A`$ with $`aL`$, and by (G 2), there is a unique $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$ such that $`\stackrel{~}{L}=𝒢^1(L)`$. This, however, means that $`aL`$, which is impossible because $`𝒢a`$ is invertible in $`𝔄`$. Assume now that $`a`$ has a left inverse $`bA`$. Then $`𝒢b=(𝒢a)^1`$, so that $`0\sigma _𝔄(𝒢b)`$. Since $`b`$ has $`a`$ as its right inverse, $`b`$ cannot be left invertible in $`A`$ (otherwise $`b`$ would be invertible with inverse $`a`$ and thus $`0\sigma _A(a)`$). But as we have just seen, this is impossible. $``$

* In both Theorem 2.2 and 2.5, we have not made use of the fact that $`𝔄`$ is a $`C^{}`$-algebra. All we need is that $`𝔄`$ is semisimple.

## 3 Existence of Gelfand theories

Which Banach algebras do have Gelfand theories? Of course, the commutative ones. Also, if $`A`$ is a $`C^{}`$-algebra, then $`(\mathrm{id}_A,A)`$ is trivially a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. What about non-trivial examples?

Our first result is negative; it shows that there are Banach algebras without Gelfand theories.

###### Proposition 3.1

Let $`E`$ be the Banach space $`c_0`$ or $`\mathrm{}^p`$ with $`p(1,\mathrm{})\{2\}`$. Then there is no Gelfand theory for $`(E)`$.

* Assume that there is a $`C^{}`$-algebra $`𝔄`$ and a homomorphism $`𝒢:(E)𝔄`$ such that (G 2) and (G 3) are satisfied. Fix $`xE\{0\}`$. Then $`\stackrel{~}{L}:=\{T(E):Tx=0\}`$ is a maximal modular left ideal of $`(E)`$; note that $`A/\stackrel{~}{L}E`$. By assumption, there is a maximal modular left ideal $`L`$ of $`𝔄`$ such that $`\stackrel{~}{L}=𝒢^1(L)`$. Since, by Theorem 2.2, $`𝒢`$ is continuous, the same is true for $`𝒢_L:EA/\stackrel{~}{L}𝔄/L`$. Hence, since $`E`$ is separable, the Hilbert space $`𝔄/L`$ must be separable as well, i.e. $`𝔄/L\mathrm{}^2`$. Therefore, $`𝒢`$ induces a non-zero homomorphism from $`(E)`$ into $`(\mathrm{}^2)`$. This is impossible by \[B–P, 6.15 Corollary\]. $``$

Our first positive result is about homogeneous Banach algebras. Recall that a Banach algebra $`A`$ is called $`n`$-homogeneous for some $`n`$ if all its irreducible representations have dimension $`n`$. If we don’t want to emphasize for which $`n`$ the algebra $`A`$ is $`n`$-homogeneous, we call $`A`$ simply homogeneous.

###### Lemma 3.2

Let $`n`$, let $`A`$ be an $`n`$-homomogeneous Banach algebra, and let $`P\mathrm{\Pi }_A`$, the set of all primitive ideals of $`A`$. Then there is an algebra homomorphism $`\pi _P:A𝕄_n`$ with $`P=\mathrm{ker}\pi _P`$ and $`\pi _P\sqrt{n}`$.

* Let $`\pi :AA/P`$ be the quotient map. Since $`A`$ is $`n`$-homogeneous, we have (algebraically) $`A/P𝕄_n`$. By \[D–R, Lemma 2\], there is an isomorphism $`\alpha :A/P𝕄_n`$ with $`\alpha \sqrt{n}`$. Let $`\pi _P:=\alpha \pi `$. $``$

###### Theorem 3.3

Let $`A`$ be a unital homogeneous Banach algebra. Then there is a Gelfand theory for $`A`$.

* Let $`n`$ be such that $`A`$ is $`n`$-homogeneous. For each $`P\mathrm{\Pi }_A`$, let $`\pi _P:A𝕄_n`$ be as in Lemma 3.2. Define

$$𝒢:A\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}\text{-}\underset{P\mathrm{\Pi }_A}{}𝕄_n,a(\pi _P(a))_{P\mathrm{\Pi }_A},$$

and let $`𝔄`$ denote the $`C^{}`$-subalgebra of $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}\text{-}_{P\mathrm{\Pi }_A}𝕄_n`$ generated by $`𝒢A`$. Clearly, $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ satisfies (G 1).

Let $`P\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄`$. Since $`𝔄`$ — as a subalgebra of $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}\text{-}_{P\mathrm{\Pi }_A}𝕄_n`$ — satisfies the polynomial identity $`S_{2n}=0`$, it follows from \[A–D, Lemma 3.4\] that $`A/P𝕄_m`$ for some $`m`$ with $`mn`$. Let $`\pi :𝔄𝔄/P`$ be the quotient map. Then $`\pi 𝒢`$ is a non-zero algebra homomorphism from $`A`$ into $`A/P𝕄_m`$. Since $`A`$ is $`n`$-homomogeneous, and since $`mn`$, it follows that $`𝒢^1(P)=\mathrm{ker}(\pi 𝒢)\mathrm{\Pi }_A`$ (so that, in fact, $`m=n`$). We thus have a map

(6)
$$\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄\mathrm{\Pi }_A,P𝒢^1(P).$$

From the definition of $`A`$, it is clear that (6) is surjective. Let $`P_1,P_2\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄`$ with $`A𝒢^1(P_j)=A𝒢^1(P_2)`$, and let $`\pi _j:𝔄𝕄_n`$ be -homomorphisms such that $`P_j=\mathrm{ker}\pi _j`$ for $`j=1,2`$. The each $`\pi _j`$ induces a unital contractive homomorphism from $`\pi _P(A)`$ to $`𝕄_n`$. As unit preserving contractions, these homomorphisms are necessarily positive and thus -homomorphisms. Hence, they are unitarily equivalent. It follows that $`\pi _1`$ and $`\pi _2`$ are unitarily equivalent, so that $`P_1=\mathrm{ker}\pi _1=\mathrm{ker}\pi _2=P_2`$. Consequently, (6) is also injective. From the preceeding discussion, it has become clear that $`𝔄`$ is also $`n`$-homogeneous. Hence, for each $`P\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄`$, we have a canonical isomorphism

$$A/𝒢^1(P)𝔄/P.$$

It follows that $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ satisfies (G 2) and (G 3) as well and thus is a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. $``$

Let $`A`$ be a Banach -algebra. Then there is a largest $`C^{}`$-seminorm $`\gamma _A`$ on $`A`$; the completion of $`A/\mathrm{ker}\gamma _A`$ with respect to $`\gamma _A`$ is called the enveloping $`C^{}`$-algebra of $`A`$ and is denoted by $`C^{}(A)`$. If, for example, $`A=L^1(G)`$ for some locally compact group $`G`$, the enveloping $`C^{}`$-algebra $`A`$ is just the usual group $`C^{}`$-algebra. We denote the canonical -homomorphism from $`A`$ into $`C^{}(A)`$ by $`\iota _A`$. Recall that $`A`$ is said to be hermitian if each self-adjoint element of $`a`$ has real spectrum in $`A`$. It is thus immediate from Theorem 2.5 that $`(\iota _A,C^{}(A))`$ is a Gelfand theory for $`A`$ only if $`A`$ is hermitian.

In fact, the converse holds as well:

###### Proposition 3.4

Let $`A`$ be a Banach -algebra. Then $`(\iota _A,C^{}(A))`$ is a Gelfand theory for $`A`$ if and only if $`A`$ is hermitian.

* Suppose that $`A`$ is hermitian. Let $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_{C^{}(A)}`$, and let $`\varphi `$ be a pure state on $`C^{}(A)`$ such that

$$L=\{aC^{}(A):a^{}a,\varphi =0\}$$

(see \[Mur, Theorem 5.3.5\]). By \[Pal 2\], we have $`\iota _A^1(L)\mathrm{\Lambda }_A`$, and every maximal modular ideal of $`A`$ arises in this fashion. Since $`\iota _A(A)`$ is dense in $`C^{}(A)`$, a pure state on $`C^{}(A)`$ is already determined by the values it takes on $`A`$. This establishes (G 2). The density of $`\iota _A(A)`$ in $`C^{}(A)`$ also implies (G 3). $``$

## 4 Hereditary properties

What happens to the existence of Gelfand theories when we pass from a Banach algebra to a quotient, to a closed ideal, etc.?

We first deal with the question of how the existence of Gelfand theories is affected if we adjoin an identity. The following algebraic lemma is standard, but for the reader’s convenience, we outline a proof:

###### Lemma 4.1

Let $`A`$ be an algebra, let $`I`$ be an ideal of $`A`$, and let $`\pi `$ be an irreducible representation of $`I`$ on a linear space $`E`$. Then $`\pi `$ extends to a unique irreducible representation of $`A`$ on $`E`$. Conversely, if $`\pi `$ is an irreducible representation of $`A`$ on a linear space $`E`$, then $`\pi |_I`$ is an irreducible representation of $`I`$ on $`E`$.

* Let $`aA`$, and let $`xE`$. Since $`\pi `$ is irreducible, there are $`bI`$ and $`yE`$ such that $`x=\pi (b)y`$. Define $`\pi (a)x:=\pi (ab)x`$. It is routinely checked that this definition is independent of the choices of $`b`$ and $`x`$ and yields an irreducible representation of $`A`$ on $`E`$. Assume that $`\pi `$ has two such extensions $`\pi _1`$ and $`\pi _2`$. Let $`aA`$, and $`x=\pi (b)y`$ with $`bI`$ and $`yE`$. Then we have

$$\pi _1(a)x=\pi _1(a)\pi (b)y=\pi (ab)y=\pi _2(a)\pi (b)y=\pi _2(a)x,$$

so that $`\pi _1=\pi _2`$.

Let $`\pi `$ be an irreducible representation of $`A`$ on a linear space $`E`$. Let $`xE`$. Since $`\pi (I)x`$ is invariant under $`\pi (A)`$, it follows that $`\pi (I)x=E`$ or $`\pi (I)x=\{0\}`$. Hence, $`\pi |_I`$ is irreducible. $``$

The correspondence between irreducible representations and maximal modular left ideals (\[B–D, Proposition 24.5\]) then yields immediately:

###### Corollary 4.2

Let $`A`$ be a Banach algebra, and let $`I`$ be a closed ideal of $`A`$. Then

$$\{L\mathrm{\Lambda }_A:IL\}\mathrm{\Lambda }_I,LIL$$

is a bijection.

We apply Corollary 4.2 to establish first hereditary properties of the existence of Gelfand theories:

###### Proposition 4.3

Let $`A`$ be a non-unital Banach algebra which has a Gelfand theory. Then $`A^\mathrm{\#}`$ has also a Gelfand theory.

* Let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. Let $`𝔄^\mathrm{\#}`$ denote the unconditional unitization of $`𝔄`$, i.e. if $`𝔄`$ already has an identity, we adjoin another one. Define a homomorphism

$$𝒢^\mathrm{\#}:𝔄^\mathrm{\#}𝔄^\mathrm{\#},a+\lambda e_{A^\mathrm{\#}}𝒢a+\lambda e_{𝔄^\mathrm{\#}}.$$

By Corollary 4.2, $`(𝒢^\mathrm{\#},𝔄^\mathrm{\#})`$ satisfies (G 2).

If $`𝔄`$ is non-unital, one obtains a $`C^{}`$-norm on $`𝔄^\mathrm{\#}`$ through a faithful representation of $`𝔄`$ on some Hilbert space. If $`𝔄`$ is unital, we have a -isomorphism

$$𝔄^\mathrm{\#}𝔄,a+\lambda e_{𝔄^\mathrm{\#}}a+\lambda e_𝔄\lambda ,$$

which again endows $`𝔄^\mathrm{\#}`$ with a $`C^{}`$-norm. Hence, $`(𝒢^\mathrm{\#},𝔄^\mathrm{\#})`$ satisfies (G 1) as well.

It is routinely verified that (G 3) also holds, so that $`(𝒢^\mathrm{\#},𝔄^\mathrm{\#})`$ is indeed a Gelfand theory for $`A^\mathrm{\#}`$. $``$

###### Proposition 4.4

Let $`A`$ be a Banach algebra which has a Gelfand theory, and let $`I`$ be a closed ideal of $`A`$. Then $`I`$ has a Gelfand theory.

* Let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. Let

$$:=\{L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄:𝒢IL\}.$$

Obviously, $``$ is a closed left ideal of $`𝔄`$. We claim that $``$ is in fact a two-sided ideal of $`𝔄`$ and thus a $`C^{}`$-algebra. Let $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$ be such that $`𝒢IL`$, and let

$$P:=\{a𝔄:a𝔄L\}.$$

It is clear that

(7)
$$𝒢^1(P)\{aA:aA𝒢^1(L)\}=:Q.$$

Conversely, let $`aQ`$, and let $`\pi _L`$ denote the irreducible representation of $`𝔄`$ on $`𝔄/L`$. Let $`E_L`$ be the image of $`𝒢_L`$ in $`𝔄/L`$. Then $`\pi _L(𝒢a)`$ vanishes on $`E_L`$ by the definition of $`Q`$. Since $`E_L`$ is dense in $`𝔄/L`$ by (G 3), it follows that $`\pi _L(𝒢a)=0`$, i.e. $`a𝒢^1(P)`$. Hence, the inclusion (7) is an equality. Since $`I𝒢^1(L)`$, it follows that $`I𝒢^1(P)`$ and thus $`𝒢IP`$. Hence,

$$=\{P\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄:𝒢IP\}$$

is a two-sided ideal of $`𝔄`$.

From Corollary 4.2, it is now straightforward that $`(𝒢|_I,)`$ satisfies (G 2). Furthermore, for any $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$, we have canonical isomorphisms

$$/L𝔄/L\text{and}I/I𝒢^1(L)A/𝒢^1(L).$$

This establishes (G 3) for $`(𝒢|_I,)`$. $``$

Combining Propositions 4.3 and 4.4, we obtain:

###### Corollary 4.5

Let $`A`$ be a non-unital Banach algebra. Then $`A`$ has a Gelfand theory if and only if $`A^\mathrm{\#}`$ has one.

We next turn to quotients:

###### Proposition 4.6

Let $`A`$ be a Banach algebra with a Gelfand theory, and let $`I`$ be a closed ideal of $`A`$. Then $`A/I`$ has a Gelfand theory.

* Let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$, and let again

$$:=\{L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄:𝒢IL\}.$$

Let $`\pi :𝔄𝔄/`$ be the quotient map. By the definition of $``$, $`\pi 𝒢`$ vanishes on $`I`$ and thus induces an algebra homomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{G}:A/I𝔄/`$. With Corollary 4.2, it is easy to see that $`(\stackrel{~}{𝒢},𝔄/)`$ is a Gelfand theory for $`A/I`$. $``$

## 5 Gelfand theory for $`C^{}`$-algebras

If $`A`$ is a $`C^{}`$-algebra, then $`(\mathrm{id}_A,A)`$ is trivially a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. But what can we say about arbitrary Gelfand theories $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ for $`A`$? Is a Gelfand theory necessarily equivalent to $`(\mathrm{id}_A,A)`$? What if we impose additional conditions on $`𝒢`$ and $`𝔄`$?

Let $`A`$ be a $`C^{}`$-algebra, and let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. Then, for each $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$, the spaces $`A/𝒢^1(L)`$ and $`𝔄/L`$ are Hilbert spaces (\[Dix, 2.8.5 Corollary\]). For any Hilbert space $``$ and $`\xi ,\eta `$, define a rank one operator

$$\xi \eta :,xx,\eta \xi .$$

###### Lemma 5.1

Let $`A`$ be a $`C^{}`$-algebra, let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$, and let $`aA`$ be such that $`\pi _{𝒢^1(L)}(a)=\xi 𝒢_L^{}\eta `$ with $`\xi A/𝒢^1(L)`$ and $`\eta 𝔄/L`$. Then $`\pi _L(𝒢a)=𝒢_L\xi \eta `$ holds.

* Since

(8)
$$𝒢_L\pi _{𝒢^1(L)}(a)=\pi _L(𝒢a)𝒢_L,$$

and since $`𝒢_L`$ has dense range, it follows that $`\pi _L(𝒢a)`$ is also a rank one operator, whose range is spanned by $`𝒢_L\xi `$. Hence, there is a unique $`\stackrel{~}{\eta }𝔄/L`$ such that $`\pi _L(𝒢a)=𝒢_L\xi \stackrel{~}{\eta }`$. By (8), we have

$$x,𝒢_L^{}\eta =𝒢_Lx,\eta (aA/𝒢^1(L))$$

and thus $`\stackrel{~}{\eta }=\eta `$. $``$

Recall that a $`C^{}`$-algebra $`A`$ is called liminal if $`\pi (A)=𝒦()`$ for each irreducible -representation of $`A`$ on Hilbert space $``$. If we only have $`\pi (A)𝒦()`$, then we say that $`A`$ is postliminal (see \[Dix\]).

###### Corollary 5.2

Let $`A`$ be a $`C^{}`$-algebra, and let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. Then, if $`A`$ is postliminal, so is $`𝔄`$, and if $`A`$ is liminal, so is $`𝔄`$.

* Suppose that $`A`$ is postliminal, and let $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$. By Lemma 5.1, we thus have $`\pi _L(𝔄)𝒦(𝔄/L)\{0\}`$. Since $`\pi _L`$ is irreducible, this already implies that $`𝒦(𝔄/L)\pi _L(𝔄)`$.

Suppose that $`A`$ is liminal. By the first part of the proof, $`𝔄`$ is postliminal. Let $``$ be the largest, closed, liminal ideal of $`𝔄`$, and assume that $`𝔄`$. Then there is $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$ such that $`L`$. Since $`𝒢_L`$ is injective, so is $`𝒢_L^{}`$. It follows that the closed linear span of $`\{\xi 𝒢_L^{}\eta :\xi A/𝒢^1(L),\eta 𝔄/L\}`$ is all of $`𝒦(A/𝒢^1(L))`$. From Lemma 5.1 again, we conclude that $`𝒢A`$ and thus $`𝒢^1(L)=A\mathrm{\Lambda }_A`$. This contradicts (G 2). $``$

This enables us to prove a first, modest uniqueness result for Gelfand theories:

###### Proposition 5.3

Let $`A`$ be a unital, postliminal $`C^{}`$-algebra, and let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$ such that $`𝒢1`$. Then $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ and $`(\mathrm{id}_A,A)`$ are equivalent.

* Since $`A`$ is unital, so is $`𝔄`$, and $`𝒢`$ is a unital homomorphism. Hence, $`𝒢`$ is an injective -homomorphism, and $`𝒢A`$ is a $`C^{}`$-subalgebra of $`𝔄`$. By Corollary 5.2, $`𝔄`$ is also postliminal. From (G 2), it follows that the hypotheses of the non-commutative Stone–Weierstraß theorem \[Dix, 11.1.8 Théorème\] are satisfied. Hence, we have $`𝔄=𝒢A`$. $``$

To obtain better uniqueness results, we require both stronger tools and further restrictions on the $`C^{}`$-algebra $`A`$.

Our next lemma is a subscript to a deep theorem by U. Haagerup (\[Pis, Theorem 7.5\]):

###### Lemma 5.4

Let $`A`$ be a $`C^{}`$-algebra, and let $`\pi `$ be a bounded representation of $`A`$ on a $``$ such that there is a cyclic vector $`\xi `$ for $`\pi `$, i.e. $`\pi (A)\xi `$ is dense in $``$. Then there is an invertible operator $`S()`$ with $`SS^1(1+2\pi )^4`$ such that

$$A(),aS\pi (a)S^1$$

is a -representation.

* If $`A`$ is unital, the presence of a cyclic vector forces $`\pi `$ to be unital. Hence, in this case, the claim follows immediately from \[Pis, Theorem 7.5\] (with a much better norm estimate).

Suppose that $`A`$ is not unital. Adjoin an identity, and let $`\pi ^\mathrm{\#}:A^{}()`$ be the unital extension of $`\pi `$. Let $`\varphi \mathrm{\Phi }_{A^\mathrm{\#}}`$ be the character corresponding to the maximal ideal $`A`$. Then we have

$$\pi ^\mathrm{\#}(a)=a,\varphi \mathrm{id}_{}+\pi (aa,\varphi )(1+2\pi )a(aA^\mathrm{\#}).$$

The claim then follows again from \[Pis, Theorem 7.5\]. $``$

###### Lemma 5.5

Let $`A`$ be a liminal $`C^{}`$-algebra, and let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. Then, for each $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$, the Gelfand transform $`𝒢`$ induces an isomorphism of $`𝒦(A/𝒢^1(L))`$ and $`𝒦(𝔄/L)`$ whose inverse has norm at most $`(1+2𝒢)^4`$.

* As we have already remarked in the proof of Corollary 5.2, the closed linear span of $`\{\xi 𝒢_L^{}\eta :\xi A/𝒢^1(L),\eta 𝔄/L\}`$ is dense in $`𝒦(A/𝒢^1(L))`$, it follows that the homomomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{𝒢}:𝒦(A/𝒢^1(L))𝒦(𝔄/L)`$ induced by $`𝒢`$ has dense range. By (G 3) every non-zero vector in the range of $`𝒢_L`$ is cyclic for $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$. By Lemma 5.4, this means that there is an invertible operator $`S(𝔄/L)`$ with $`SS^1(1+2\stackrel{~}{𝒢})^4(1+2𝒢)^4`$ such that

(9)
$$𝒦(A/𝒢^1(L))𝒦(𝔄/L),aS(\stackrel{~}{𝒢}a)S^1$$

is a -homomorphism and thus has closed range. Hence, (9) and $`\stackrel{~}{G}`$ are in fact isomorphisms. The claim about $`\stackrel{~}{𝒢}^1`$ follows from the estimate for $`SS^1`$ and the fact the -isomorphisms are always isometric. $``$

For the next lemma, recall that, for any Banach algebra $`A`$, the set $`\mathrm{\Pi }_A`$ of primitive ideals of $`A`$ is canonically equipped with its Jacoboson topology (\[B–D, Definition 26.3\]).

###### Lemma 5.6

Let $`A`$ be a liminal $`C^{}`$-algebra, and let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. Then

(10)
$$\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄\mathrm{\Pi }_A,P𝒢^1(P)$$

is a continuous bijection.

* It was shown implicitly in the proof of Proposition 4.4 that (10) is well-defined and surjective (this is true for any Banach algebra $`A`$).

Let $`P_1,P_2\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄`$ be such that $`𝒢^1(P_1)=𝒢^1(P_2)=:P`$, and assume that $`P_1P_2`$. By Lemma 5.5, $`𝒢`$ induces isomorphism $`𝒢_j:A/P𝔄/P_j`$ for $`j=1,2`$. Let $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_{A/P}\mathrm{\Lambda }_A`$ (with the appropriate identification). Let $`\pi :𝔄𝔄/P_1P_2𝔄/P_1𝔄/P_2`$. Let $`L_1:=\pi ^1(𝔄/P_1𝒢_2(L))`$ and $`L_2:=\pi ^1(𝒢(L_1)𝔄/P_2)`$. It follows that $`L=𝒢^1(L_j)`$ for $`j=1,2`$, which violates the injectivity hypothesis in (G 2). Hence, (10) is injective.

Let $`F\mathrm{\Pi }_A`$ be closed. Then there is a closed ideal $`I`$ of $`A`$ such that $`F=\{P\mathrm{\Pi }_A:IP\}`$. Let

$$:=\{L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄:𝒢IL\}.$$

In the proof of Proposition 4.4, we have seen that $``$ is an ideal of $`𝔄`$. Let $`P\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$. By Lemma 5.5, we have

$`𝒢^1(P)={\displaystyle \{L\mathrm{\Lambda }_A:𝒢^1L\}}={\displaystyle \{𝒢^1(L):L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄,PL\}}.`$
This implies for $`P\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄`$ that

$$𝒢^1(P)FP.$$

Hence, the inverse image of $`F`$ under (10) is $`\{P\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄:P\}`$ and thus closed in $`\mathrm{\Pi }_A`$. $``$

###### Theorem 5.7

Let $`A`$ be a liminal $`C^{}`$-algebra such that $`\mathrm{\Pi }_A`$ is discrete. Then $`A`$ has a unique Gelfand theory.

* Let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. By Corollary 5.2, $`𝔄`$ is liminal as well. Let $`P\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄`$. Since $`\mathrm{\Pi }_A`$ is discrete, $`\{𝒢^1(P)\}`$ is open in $`\mathrm{\Pi }_A`$. The continuity assertion of Lemma 5.6, then implies that $`\{P\}`$ is open in $`\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄`$. Hence, $`\mathrm{\Pi }_𝔄`$ is discrete as well.

The general theory of liminal $`C^{}`$-algebras with Hausdorff spectrum (\[Dix, Chapter 10\]) implies that there are families $`(_\alpha )_\alpha `$ and $`(𝔎_\alpha )_\alpha `$ of Hilbert spaces such that

$$Ac_0\text{-}\underset{\alpha }{}𝒦(_\alpha )\text{and}Ac_0\text{-}\underset{\alpha }{}𝒦(𝔎_\alpha ).$$

By Lemma 5.5, $`𝒢`$ induces, for each index $`\alpha `$ an isomorphism $`𝒢_\alpha :𝒦(_\alpha )𝒦(𝔎_\alpha )`$ such that $`𝒢_\alpha ^1(1+2𝒢)^4`$. It follows that $`𝒢`$ is bounded below and thus an isomorphism. $``$

Without any restrictions placed on the $`C^{}`$-algebra under consideration, the following is the strongest assertion we can make about Gelfand theories of $`C^{}`$-algebras:

###### Proposition 5.8

Let $`A`$ be a $`C^{}`$-algebra and let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for $`A`$. Then $`𝒢A`$ is closed in $`𝔄`$.

* For each $`L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄`$, let $`\pi _L`$ denote the corresponding irreducible -representation of $`𝔄`$ on $`𝔄/L`$, and let $`E_L`$ be the image of $`𝒢_L`$ in $`𝔄/L`$. Define $`\rho _L:=\pi _L𝒢`$. Then $`\rho _L`$ is a bounded representation of $`A`$ on $`𝔄/L`$ with $`\rho _L𝒢`$. As in the proof of Lemma 5.5, we obtain an invertible operator $`S_L(𝔄/L)`$ with $`S_LS_L^1(1+2𝒢)^4`$ such that

$$A(𝔄/L),aS_L\rho _L(a)S_L^1$$

is a -homomorphism. Define

$$\theta :𝔄\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}\text{-}\underset{L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄}{}(𝔄/L),a(S_L\pi _L(a)S_L^1)_{L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄}.$$

Then $`\theta 𝒢:A\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}\text{-}_{L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄}(𝔄/L)`$ is a -homomorphism, whose range is a $`C^{}`$-subalgebra of $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}\text{-}_{L\mathrm{\Lambda }_𝔄}(𝔄/L)`$, which we may identify with $`A`$.

Let $`(a_n)_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ be a sequence in $`A`$ such that $`𝒢a_nb𝔄`$. Since $`a_n=\theta (𝒢a_n)`$ for $`n`$, the sequence $`(a_n)_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is Cauchy in $`A`$ and thus convergent to some $`aA`$. It is clear that $`b=𝒢a`$. $``$

## 6 Outlook

The results we have obtained in this paper certainly leave room for improvement. Here are a few questions which are natural, but which we have been unable to settle:

1. Let $`(𝒢,𝔄)`$ be a Gelfand theory for a Banach algebra $`A`$. Does $`𝒢A`$ generate $`𝔄`$ as a $`C^{}`$-algebra (at least if $`𝔄`$ is postliminal)?
2. Let $`A`$ be a Banach algebra, and let $`I`$ be a closed ideal of $`A`$ such that $`I`$ and $`A/I`$ both have Gelfand theories. Does $`A`$ have a Gelfand theory?
3. Does a homogeneous Banach algebra have a unique Gelfand theory?
4. Does a $`C^{}`$-algebra $`A`$ have a unique Gelfand theory (at least if $`A`$ is postliminal/liminal/liminal with Hausdorff spectrum)?

Also, the axioms (G 1), (G 2), and (G 3) were chosen mainly to allow for a simultaneous treatment of commutative Gelfand theory and the enveloping $`C^{}`$-algebra of a Banach -algebra. Possibly, in order to develop a farther reaching non-commutative Gelfand theory, one has to consider a different set of axioms.

\[\]

| First author’s address: | Département de Mathématiques |
| --- | --- |
|  | Ecole Normale Supérieure Takaddoum |
|  | B.P. 5118 |
|  | 10105 Rabat |
| E-mail: | rchoukri@hotmail.com |
| Second author’s address: | Département de Mathématiques |
|  | Ecole Normale Supérieure Takaddoum |
|  | B.P. 5118 |
|  | 10105 Rabat |
| E-mail: | illous@hotmail.com |
| Third author’s address: | Department of Mathematical Sciences |
|  | University of Alberta |
|  | Edmonton, Alberta |
|  | Canada T6G 2G1 |
| E-mail: | runde@math.ualberta.ca |
|  | vrunde@ualberta.ca |
| URL: | http://www.math.ualberta.ca/runde/runde.html |