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# Commutator Theory for Compatible Uniformities

## Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to generalize the commutator of congruences to a commutator of compatible uniformities. Commutator theory (on congruences) works best for congruences of algebras in congruence-modular varieties. The same is true of the commutator of uniformities described here. In fact, the commutator of congruences $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ becomes a special case of that of uniformities, when we view $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ as the uniformities $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \}`$ and $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \}`$ that they generate, because we have $`\mathrm{Ug}\{[\alpha ,\beta ]\}=[\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \}]`$.

We follow the development of Commutator Theory in  fairly closely. The main thesis of , where compatible uniformities were first studied systematically in the context of Universal Algebra, is that compatible uniformities can be considered a generalization of congruences. Often, there is a reasonably direct translation of congruence-theoretic arguments into uniformity-theoretic ones. Following this philosophy, we are able to generalize (in Sections 4 and 5) the concept of $`C(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta )`$ ($`\alpha `$ *centralizes* $`\beta `$ *modulo* $`\delta `$) to compatible uniformities, and in the congruence-modular case, to define $`[𝒰,𝒱]`$ to be the least uniformity $`𝒲`$ such that $`C(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$.

Another approach to the commutator $`[\alpha ,\beta ]`$, for congruences $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$, as discussed in , is to study congruences of the algebra $`A(\alpha )`$. The congruence $`\beta `$ is pushed out along the homomorphism $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha :AA(\alpha )`$ that sends $`aA`$ to $`a,a`$, yielding a congruence $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,\beta }`$ which gives rise to $`[\alpha ,\beta ]`$. In the case of uniformities, we can replace $`\beta `$ by a uniformity $`𝒰`$, and push it out along $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha `$, yielding a compatible uniformity $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}`$ on $`A(\alpha )`$ which we then show gives rise to $`[\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},𝒰]`$ in the important special case of algebras having term operations comprising a group structure. (This includes many familiar varieties of algebras, such as groups, rings, and varieties of nonassociative algebras.) This is done in Section 6. It is natural to ask whether the theory can be extended to give an interpretation of $`[𝒰,𝒱]`$ in terms of compatible uniformities on some algebra $`A(𝒰)`$. Unfortunately, the necessary definition of $`A(𝒰)`$ is not yet available.

In the congruence-modular case, the properties of the commutator on compatible uniformities described in Section 7 duplicate those of the commutator of congruences, with some regrettable gaps in what we have been able to prove. In particular, because of the difficulties we encounter in working with joins of uniformities, the additivity of the commutator is not settled in general, although we prove it is true for some important special cases.

We also describe a natural commutator operation for congruential uniformities, which are uniformities that, as a filter of relations, have a base of congruences, and are thus of the form $`\mathrm{Ug}F`$ for a filter $`F`$ in $`\mathrm{Con}A`$. The commutator $`[\mathrm{Ug}F,\mathrm{Ug}F^{}]`$ is defined in terms of the commutators of elements of $`F`$ and $`F^{}`$; see Section 8.

Section 9 is devoted to miscellaneous matters, including commutators of congruential uniformities on commutative rings. We prove that in that case, the two definitions of the commutator on congruential uniformities, the one given by the general definition of Section 5 and the other given by the formula of Section 8, coincide. This appears to be a special property of commutative rings; in general, we do not know even whether the commutator operation of Section 5, applied to congruential uniformities, always gives a congruential uniformity. We also discuss in this section the case of varieties which are congruence-distributive, where we show that as in the case of the commutator of congruences, the commutator of two compatible uniformities is simply their meet.

In the last section, we discuss the current state of some questions about compatible uniformities, uniformity lattices, and commutators of uniformities.

## Preliminaries

### Category theory

We follow  in terminology and notation. In particular, $`1_a`$ will stand for the identity arrow on an object $`a`$ in a category $`𝐂`$.

### Lattice theory

The reader should be familiar with lattices. We use $``$ and $``$ to denote the greatest and least elements of a lattice, assuming they exist, and $``$ and $``$ for the meet and join operations.

### Filters

If $`L`$ is a lattice, then a nonempty subset $`FL`$ is called a *filter* if $`yxF`$ implies $`yF`$ and $`x`$, $`yF`$ imply $`xyF`$.

If $`SL`$ is a nonempty set, then the *filter generated by $`S`$*, denoted by $`\mathrm{Fg}^LS`$ or simply $`\mathrm{Fg}S`$, is the subset of elements of $`L`$ that are greater than or equal to a finite meet of elements of $`S`$. An important special case, given $`xL`$, is $`\mathrm{Fg}\{x\}`$, the *principal filter generated by $`x`$*, which is just the set of elements of $`L`$ greater than or equal to $`x`$.

Filters are ordered by reverse inclusion and the filters in a nonempty lattice form a complete lattice. The meet of a tuple of filters $`F_i`$ is given by $`_iF_i=\mathrm{Fg}(_iF_i)`$. The join of the tuple is the intersection: $`_iF_i=_iF_i`$.

If $`F`$ is a filter, a *base* for $`F`$ is a subset $`BF`$ such that $`xF`$ implies $`bx`$ for some $`bB`$. If $`L`$ is a lattice, then a subset $`BL`$ is a base for a filter of $`L`$, or *filter base*, iff given any $`x`$, $`yB`$, there is a $`zB`$ such that $`zxy`$.

### Universal algebra

We assume familiarity with universal algebra, as explained for example in . We prefer to allow an algebra to have an empty underlying set, however. We denote the underlying set of an algebra $`A`$ by $`|A|`$.

If $`R`$ is a binary relation on (the underlying set of) an algebra $`A`$, then we denote by $`\mathrm{Cg}R`$ the smallest congruence $`\alpha \mathrm{Con}A`$ such that $`R\alpha `$.

### Comgruence-permutable, congruence-modular, and congruence-distributive varieties

A variety of algebras $`𝐕`$ is *congruence-permutable* (or, a *Mal’tsev variety*) if for every $`A𝐕`$, for every $`\alpha `$, $`\beta \mathrm{Con}A`$, $`\alpha \beta =\beta \alpha `$. A variety is congruence-permutable iff  there is a ternary term $`p`$, called a *Mal’tsev term*, satisfying the identities $`p(x,x,y)=y`$ and $`p(x,y,y)=x`$. For example, the variety of groups is congruence-permutable because it has the Mal’tsev term $`p(x,y,z)=xy^1z`$.

A variety of algebras $`𝐕`$ is *congruence-modular* if for every $`A𝐕`$, $`\mathrm{Con}A`$ is a modular lattice. A variety is congruence-modular iff  there is a finite sequence $`m_0`$, $`\mathrm{}`$, $`m_k`$ of quaternary terms, called *Day terms*, satisfying the following identities:

1. For all $`i`$, $`m_i(x,y,y,x)=x`$
2. $`m_0(x,y,z,w)=x`$
3. $`m_k(x,y,z,w)=w`$
4. for even $`i<k`$, $`m_i(x,x,y,y)=m_{i+1}(x,x,y,y)`$
5. for odd $`i<k`$, $`m_i(x,y,y,z)=m_{i+1}(x,y,y,z)`$.

A congruence-permutable variety, with Mal’tsev term $`p`$, is necessarily congruence-modular, with Day terms $`m_0(x,y,z,w)=x`$, $`m_1(x,y,z,w)=p(x,p(x,y,z),w)`$, and $`m_2(x,y,z,w)=w`$.

Similarly, a variety of algebras $`𝐕`$ is *congruence-distributive* if for every $`A𝐕`$, $`\mathrm{Con}A`$ is distributive. A variety is congruence-distributive iff  there is a finite sequence $`d_0`$, $`\mathrm{}`$, $`d_k`$ of ternary terms, satisfying the following identities:

1. $`d_0(x,y,z)=x`$
2. $`d_n(x,y,z)=z`$
3. for all $`i`$, $`d_i(x,y,x)=x`$
4. for even $`i<k`$, $`d_i(x,x,y)=d_{i+1}(x,x,y)`$
5. for odd $`i<k`$, $`d_i(x,y,y)=d_{i+1}(x,y,y)`$.

### Commutator theory

The *commutator* is a binary operation on congruences in the congruence lattice $`\mathrm{Con}A`$ of an algebra $`A`$ in a congruence-modular variety, and which is sometimes defined for more general varieties.

If $`A`$ is an algebra in a congruence-modular variety, and $`\alpha `$, $`\beta \mathrm{Con}A`$, we can define the commutator $`[\alpha ,\beta ]`$ as the least $`\delta \mathrm{Con}A`$ such that $`\alpha `$ *centralizes* $`\beta `$ *modulo* $`\delta `$, or in other words, such that $`\delta `$ satisfies the *$`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition*. See the first part of Section 4 for detailed definitions. Whereas Section 4 gives these definitions in the general case, and doesn’t really define $`[\alpha ,\beta ]`$ or its generalization to uniformities, Section 5 makes the assumption of congruence-modularity and proves the simplifications that make the definitions of $`[\alpha ,\beta ]`$ and $`[𝒰,𝒱]`$ (for $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱`$ compatible uniformities) so reasonable.

The commutator is so named because it generalizes the notion of the commutator of normal subgroups of a group. (Of course, the variety of groups is congruence-modular.) As a further example, the variety of commutative rings is congruence-modular, and for a commutative ring $`A`$, the commutator is simply the product of ideals. That is, if $`I_\alpha `$ denotes the ideal corresponding to $`\alpha \mathrm{Con}A`$, then we have $`I_{[\alpha ,\beta ]}=I_\alpha I_\beta `$.

### Uniform universal algebra

Universal algebra over the base category Unif of uniform spaces, as opposed to the category of sets, was first studied systematically in . This paper develops commutator theory as a part of that subject. It will be best if the reader has access to  while reading this paper, but we will also devote most of the next two sections to summarizing some of the basic definitions and results that we need.

## 1. Uniformities

We denote the set of binary relations on a set $`S`$ by $`\mathrm{Rel}S`$. $`\mathrm{Rel}S`$, ordered by inclusion, is a complete lattice.

If $`R\mathrm{Rel}S`$, then by $`R^1`$ we mean the relation $`\{x,yy,xR\}`$, and by $`R^n`$, for $`n>0`$, we mean the $`n`$-fold relational product of $`n`$ copies of $`R`$.

Consider the following five conditions on a set $`𝒰\mathrm{Rel}S`$:

1. if $`U𝒰`$, and $`UV`$, then $`V𝒰`$
2. if $`U`$, $`V𝒰`$, then $`UV𝒰`$
3. if $`U𝒰`$, then $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\{s,ssS\}U`$
4. if $`U𝒰`$, then $`U^1𝒰`$
5. if $`U𝒰`$, then $`V^2U`$ for some $`V𝒰`$.

Then we say that $`𝒰`$ is a *semiuniformity* if $`𝒰`$ satisfies conditions (U1) through (U4), and a *uniformity* if it satisfies (U1) through (U5). Note that conditions (U1) and (U2) simply state that $`𝒰`$ is a filter of binary relations

###### Proposition 1.1.

A filter $`𝒰`$ satisfies (U3) iff $`\mathrm{Fg}^{\mathrm{Rel}S}\{\mathrm{\Delta }_S\}𝒰`$.

###### Proposition 1.2.

A filter $`𝒰`$ satisfies (U4) iff $`𝒰=𝒰^1`$, where $`𝒰^1=\{U^1U𝒰\}`$.

###### Proposition 1.3.

If $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱`$ are filters in $`\mathrm{Rel}S`$, then $`\{UVU𝒰,V𝒱\}`$ is a base for a filter $`𝒰𝒱`$ in $`\mathrm{Rel}S`$.

Note that for filters $`𝒰`$ and $`𝒱`$ of reflexive relations, $`𝒰𝒱𝒰𝒱`$. Thus, $`𝒰𝒰𝒰`$ if $`𝒰`$ satisfies (U3).

###### Proposition 1.4.

A filter $`𝒰`$ satisfies (U5) iff $`𝒰𝒰𝒰`$.

###### Notation.

If $`U𝒰`$, where $`𝒰`$ satisfies (U5), then by induction we can show that there is a $`V𝒰`$ such that $`V^nU`$. We denote such a $`V`$ by $`{}_{}{}^{n}U`$. This notation must be used with care, particularly in relation to quantifiers; we do not mean that $`{}_{}{}^{n}U`$ is a function of $`U`$; it is simply a shorthand for the statement that there exists such a $`V`$ and that we will denote it by $`{}_{}{}^{n}U`$.

### The lattice operations

We denote the set of uniformities on a set $`S`$ by $`\mathrm{Unif}S`$, and the set of semiuniformities by $`\mathrm{SemiUnif}S`$. We order these sets by reverse inclusion, i.e., the ordering inherited from $`\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Rel}S`$.

The meet of an arbitrary tuple of uniformities on $`S`$, in the lattice $`\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Rel}S`$, is a uniformity. Thus, $`\mathrm{Unif}S`$ admits arbitrary meets, and is a complete lattice. The same is true for $`\mathrm{SemiUnif}S`$. The join of a tuple of semiuniformities is simply the intersection, and $`\mathrm{SemiUnif}S`$ is a distributive lattice. The theory of joins of uniformities is more difficult.

### Permutability

Permutability of congruences is an important condition in Universal Algebra, and the condition can be generalized to uniformities. Note that this subject was first discussed in , but the discussion there is not entirely correct; in particular, Theorem 6.1 is wrong.

If $`𝒰`$ and $`𝒱`$ are uniformities on a set $`S`$, then we say that $`𝒰`$ and $`𝒱`$ *permute* if $`𝒰𝒱=𝒱𝒰`$, and that $`𝒰`$ and $`𝒱`$ *semipermute* if either $`𝒰𝒱𝒱𝒰`$, or $`𝒱𝒰𝒰𝒱`$.

As we mentioned, the join operation in the lattice of uniformities can be difficult to deal with in the general case, but the case where $`𝒰`$ and $`𝒱`$ semipermute is an easy and important special case; the following theorem is a revised and corrected version of \[10, Theorem 6.1\]:

###### Theorem 1.5.

Let $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱\mathrm{Unif}S`$. Then $`𝒰𝒱=𝒰𝒱`$ iff $`𝒱𝒰𝒰𝒱`$.

###### Proof.

($``$): It is trivial that $`𝒰𝒱`$ satisfies (U1), (U2), and (U3). If $`U𝒰`$ and $`V𝒱`$, then since $`𝒱𝒰𝒰𝒱`$, there are $`\overline{U}𝒰`$ and $`\overline{V}𝒱`$ such that $`\overline{V}\overline{U}UV`$. But, $`\overline{V}\overline{U}=((\overline{U}^1)(\overline{V}^1))^1`$. Thus, $`𝒰𝒱`$ also satisfies (U4). Finally, $`(𝒰𝒱)(𝒰𝒱)(𝒰𝒰)(𝒱𝒱)𝒰𝒱`$, verifying (U5). Thus, $`𝒰𝒱`$ is a uniformity. Since $`𝒰𝒰𝒱`$ and $`𝒱𝒰𝒱`$, we have $`𝒰𝒱𝒰𝒱`$. However, $`𝒰𝒱𝒰𝒱=𝒰𝒱`$ by (U5).

($``$): If $`𝒰𝒱=𝒰𝒱`$, then $`𝒱𝒰𝒰𝒱`$ by (U5).

The results in  that use permutability as a hypothesis, except for Theorem 6.1, are correct, and remain true if the hypothesis is weakened to semipermutability.

## 2. Compatible Uniformities

### Compatibility

If $`R`$ is a relation on an algebra $`A`$, we say that $`R`$ is *compatible* (with the operations of $`A`$) if $`𝐚𝑅𝐚^{}`$ implies $`\omega ^A(𝐚)𝑅\omega ^A(𝐚^{})`$ for each operation symbol $`\omega `$, where $`𝐚𝑅𝐚^{}`$ means that $`a_ia_i^{}`$ for all $`i`$.

We say that a filter $`𝒰`$ of reflexive relations on an algebra $`A`$ is *compatible* if for each $`U𝒰`$, and each basic operation symbol $`\omega `$, there is a $`\overline{U}𝒰`$ such that $`\omega (\overline{U})=\{\omega (\mathrm{x}),\omega (𝐲)x_i\overline{U}y_i\text{ for all }i\}U`$. In this case, for any term $`t`$, given $`U𝒰`$, there is a $`\overline{U}𝒰`$ such that $`t(\overline{U})U`$.

We say that $`𝒰`$ is *singly compatible* if for each $`n`$-ary term $`t`$ for $`n1`$, given $`U𝒰`$, there is a $`\overline{U}𝒰`$ such that $`t(\overline{U},𝐚)U`$ for every $`𝐚A^{n1}`$.

###### Lemma 2.1.

If $`𝒰`$ is a uniformity on $`A`$, which is singly compatible, then $`𝒰`$ is compatible.

###### Proof.

This follows easily from (U5). ∎

As a result of the Lemma, single compatibility will be of interest to us only for semiuniformities.

If $`A`$ is an algebra, we denote by $`\mathrm{SemiUnif}A`$ the set of compatible semiuniformities on $`A`$, and by $`\mathrm{Unif}A`$ the set of compatible uniformities.

###### Remark.

Since a set $`S`$ can be seen as an algebra with no operations, the theory of $`\mathrm{Unif}S`$ is subsumed by the theory of $`\mathrm{Unif}A`$ for an algebra $`A`$. Parts of this section are therefore pertinent the study of $`\mathrm{Unif}S`$ where $`S`$ is just a set.

If filters $`𝒰_i`$ are compatible, so is $`_i𝒰_i`$. It follows that the meet of an arbitrary tuple of compatible uniformities or semiuniformities is also compatible, so the sets of compatible uniformities and compatible semiuniformities are complete lattices. Similarly, if $`𝒰_i`$ is a tuple of singly compatible semiuniformities, then $`_i𝒰_i`$ is a singly compatible semiuniformity.

### $`\mathrm{Ug}`$

If $``$ is a filter of relations on an algebra $`A`$, then $`\mathrm{Ug}`$ will denote the smallest compatible uniformity $`𝒰`$ such that $`𝒰`$. If we mean instead the smallest not-necessarily compatible uniformity, we will write $`\mathrm{Ug}^{|A|}`$.

### Joins

###### Proposition 2.2.

If $`𝒰_i`$, $`iI`$ are elements of $`\text{Unif}A`$, then $`_i𝒰_i=\mathrm{Ug}(_i𝒰_i)`$.

###### Theorem 2.3.

Let $`A`$ be an algebra. We have

1. The join (in the lattice $`\mathrm{Unif}|A|`$) of a tuple of compatible uniformities is compatible.
2. The join (in the lattice $`\mathrm{SemiUnif}|A|`$) of a tuple of singly compatible semiunifomities is singly compatible.

###### Proof.

(1): See \[10, Theorem 5.3\].

(2): If $`𝒰_i`$ are a tuple of singly compatible semiuniformities on $`A`$, then their join (in the lattice of semiuniformities on $`|A|`$) is $`𝒰=_i𝒰_i`$. Let $`t`$ be an $`n`$-ary term operation. If $`U𝒰`$, then for each $`i`$, there is $`U_i𝒰_i`$ with $`U_iU`$. Since each $`𝒰_i`$ is singly compatible, $`t(\overline{U}_i,\mathrm{\Delta }_A,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Delta }_A)U`$ for some $`\overline{U}_i𝒰_i`$. Then $`_iU_i𝒰`$, and $`t(_i\overline{U}_i,\mathrm{\Delta }_A,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Delta }_A)U`$. ∎

### Examples of compatible uniformities

An important special case of a compatible uniformity is given by choosing $`=\{\alpha \}`$ where $`\alpha \mathrm{Con}A`$. Then $`\mathrm{Ug}=\mathrm{Fg}^{\mathrm{Rel}A}\{\alpha \}`$.

More generally, we can consider $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\rho \}`$ where $`\rho \mathrm{Rel}A`$. However, we have

###### Theorem 2.4.

$`\mathrm{Ug}\{\rho \}=\mathrm{Ug}\{\mathrm{Cg}\rho \}`$, and is compatible if $`\rho `$ is.

###### Proof.

It suffices to show that $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\mathrm{Cg}\rho \}\mathrm{Ug}\rho `$, or in other words that if $`U\mathrm{Ug}\{\rho \}`$, then $`\mathrm{Cg}\{\rho \}U`$.

Let $`U\mathrm{Ug}\{\rho \}`$. We have $`\rho U`$, so $`\rho \mathrm{\Delta }U`$ by (U3). Thus, we can reduce to the case where $`\rho `$ is reflexive by replacing $`\rho `$ with $`\rho \mathrm{\Delta }`$.

If $`U\mathrm{Ug}\{\rho \}`$, then $`\rho U^1`$, so $`\rho ^1U`$. Thus, we can further reduce to the case where $`\rho `$ is symmetric, by replacing $`\rho `$ by $`\rho \rho ^1`$.

Finally, if $`U\mathrm{Ug}\{\rho \}`$, then $`\rho {}_{}{}^{n}U`$ for all $`n`$, which implies $`\rho U`$, showing that $`\mathrm{Cg}\rho =_n\rho ^nU`$.

As regards compatibility, it is easy to prove that if $`\rho `$ is compatible, then so is $`\mathrm{Cg}\rho `$. It is obvious that $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \}`$ is compatible if $`\alpha `$ is a congruence. ∎

Another important special case is $`=F`$, where $`F`$ is a filter in $`\mathrm{Con}A`$. In this case, $`\mathrm{Ug}=\mathrm{Fg}^{\mathrm{Rel}A}F`$. A uniformity of this form called a *congruential uniformity*.

### Uniformities and congruences

If $`𝒰\mathrm{Unif}A`$, then $`𝒰\mathrm{Con}A`$. We may consider this as a mapping from $`\mathrm{Unif}A`$ to $`\mathrm{Unif}A`$, where we map $`𝒰`$ to $`\mathrm{Ug}\{𝒰\}`$; more generally, we can map $`𝒰`$ to the filter of $`\kappa `$-fold intersections of relations in $`𝒰`$, for $`\kappa `$ some given infinite cardinal. The result will be a compatible uniformity $`𝒱`$ such that $`𝒱`$ admits $`\kappa `$-fold intersections of its elements. We say that $`𝒱`$ *satisfies the $`\kappa `$-fold intersection property*.

### Uniformities and homomorphisms

If $`𝒰`$ is a relation on an algebra $`A`$, and $`f:BA`$ is a homomorphism from another algebra $`B`$, then we denote by $`f^1(U)`$ the relation $`\{b,b^{}f(b)𝑈f(b^{})\}`$. If $`𝒰`$ is a filter of relations on $`A`$, then we denote by $`f^1(𝒰)`$ the filter $`\mathrm{Fg}\{f^1(U)U𝒰\}`$.

###### Proposition 2.5.

Let $`A`$, $`B`$ be algebras, and $`f:BA`$ a homomorphism. We have

1. If $`𝒰`$ is a compatible uniformity (compatible semiuniformity, singly compatible semiuniformity) on $`A`$, then $`f^1(𝒰)`$ is a compatible uniformity (respectively, compatible semiuniformity, singly compatible semiuniformity) on $`B`$.
2. The mapping $`𝒰f^1(𝒰)`$ preserves arbitrary meets.

Now, suppose that we have $`𝒰\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Rel}A`$, and a homomorphism $`f:AB`$. If $`𝒰\mathrm{Unif}A`$, we define $`f_c(𝒰)`$ to be the meet of all $`𝒱\mathrm{Unif}B`$ such that $`𝒰f^1(𝒱)`$.

###### Proposition 2.6.

Let $`A`$ and $`B`$ be algebras, and $`f:AB`$ a homomorphism. Then the mapping $`𝒰f_c(𝒰)`$ preserves arbitrary joins.

Let $`A`$, $`B`$ be algebras, and $`f:AB`$ a homomorphism, and $`U`$ a relation on $`A`$. If $`n`$, $`n^{}0`$ and $`t`$ is an $`(n+n^{})`$-ary term, we denote by $`L_{f,n,n^{},t}(U)`$ the set of pairs $`t(𝐛,f(𝐚)),t(𝐛,f(𝐚^{}))`$ where $`𝐛B^n`$ and $`𝐚`$, $`𝐚^{}A^n^{}`$ are such that $`𝐚𝑈𝐚^{}`$.

###### Theorem 2.7.

Given $`A`$, $`B`$, $`f:AB`$, and a uniformity $`𝒰`$ on $`A`$, we have

1. Given $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, the set of relations $`L_{f,n,n^{},t}(U)`$ on $`B`$, for $`U𝒰`$, is a base for a filter $`_{f,n,n^{},t}(𝒰)`$ of relations on $`B`$.
2. Given $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, if $`𝒰`$ is compatible, then $`_{f,n,n^{},t}(𝒰)f_c(𝒰)`$.
3. $`_f(𝒰)\stackrel{def}{=}_{n,n^{},t}_{f,n,n^{},t}(U)`$ is a singly compatible semiuniformity.
4. $`f_c(𝒰)=\mathrm{Ug}(_f(𝒰))`$.

###### Proof.

(1) is clear.

(2): Let $`Vf_c(𝒰)`$. There is a $`\overline{V}f_c(𝒰)`$ such that $`t(\overline{V})V`$. There is a $`U𝒰`$ such that $`Uf^1(\overline{V})`$, because $`𝒰f^1(f_c(𝒰))`$. Then $`f(U)\overline{V}`$ and $`L_{f,n,n^{},t}(U)V`$. Thus, $`_{f,n,n^{},t}(𝒰)f_c(𝒰)`$.

(3): (U1) and (U2) are clear. If $`t`$ is the unary term $`t(x)=x`$, then $`_{f,1,0,t}(𝒰)=\{\mathrm{\Delta }_B\}`$, proving (U3). $`L_{f,n,n^{},t}(U^1)=L_{f,n,n^{},t}(U)^1`$, so if $`𝒰`$ is a semiuniformity, then so is $`_{f,n,n^{},t}(𝒰)`$ for all $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, proving (U4). To show single compatibility, we must show that given $`V_f(𝒰)`$ and an $`(\overline{n}+1)`$-ary term $`\overline{t}`$ for $`\overline{n}0`$, there is a $`\overline{V}_f(𝒰)`$ such that $`\overline{t}(\overline{V},𝐜)V`$ for any $`𝐜B^{\overline{n}}`$. It suffices to show that, given $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, there is a $`U_{n,n^{},t}𝒰`$ such that $`\overline{t}(L_{f,n,n^{},t}(U_{n,n^{},t}),𝐜)V`$ for $`𝐜B^{\overline{n}}`$. For, then $`\widehat{U}=_{n,n^{},t}L_{f,n,n^{},t}(U_{n,n^{},t})_f(𝒰)`$ and $`\overline{t}(\widehat{U},𝐜)V`$ for all $`𝐜`$. Now, $`\overline{t}(L_{f,n,n^{},t}(U),𝐜)L_{f,n+\overline{n},n^{},\stackrel{~}{t}}(U)`$ where $`\stackrel{~}{t}(\mathrm{x},𝐲,𝐳)=\overline{t}(t(\mathrm{x},𝐳),𝐲)`$. Thus, if we pick $`U_{n,n^{},t}`$ such that $`L_{f,n+\overline{n},n^{},\stackrel{~}{t}}(U_{n,n^{},t})V`$, which we can do because $`_{f,n+\overline{n},n^{},\stackrel{~}{t}}(𝒰)f_c(𝒰)`$ by (2), then we have $`\overline{t}(L_{f,n,n^{},t}(U_{n,n^{},t}),𝐜)V`$.

(4): We have $`_f(𝒰)f_c(𝒰)`$ by (2). Thus, $`\mathrm{Ug}_f(𝒰)f_c(𝒰)`$. To show the opposite inequality, it suffices to note that $`𝒰f^1(_f(𝒰))`$. For, $`𝒰f^1(_{1,0,x}(𝒰))`$. ∎

###### Remark.

In \[10, Section 11\], there is another incorrect discussion about the procedure for finding the colimit of a diagram $`F:𝒟𝐕(\text{Unif})`$ in the category $`𝐕(\text{Unif})`$. The uniformity of the colimit is the smallest *compatible* uniformity greater than or equal to all of the $`\iota _d(𝒰(d))`$, where $`\iota _d`$ is the insertion of $`F(d)`$ into the colimit and $`𝒰(d)`$ is the uniformity on $`F(d)`$.

### Completion

The *completion* of an algebra $`A`$ with respect to a compatible uniformity $`𝒰`$ is defined as the set of equivalence classes of Cauchy nets in $`A`$ with respect to $`𝒰`$, and we denote it by $`A/𝒰`$. $`A/𝒰`$ has a natural structure of uniform universal algebra. The mapping from $`A`$ to $`A/𝒰`$ taking $`aA`$ to the equivalence class containing the constant nets at $`a`$ is a uniform homomorphism onto a dense subset of $`A/𝒰`$, and we denote this mapping by $`\mathrm{nat}𝒰`$. Note that in , we used the notation $`\eta _𝒰`$ for $`\mathrm{nat}𝒰`$.

We denote the natural uniformity on $`A/𝒰`$ by $`𝒰/𝒰`$; it has a base of relations $`R(𝒰,U)`$ for $`U𝒰`$, where $`R(𝒰,U)`$ relates two equivalence classes $`k`$, $`k^{}`$ of Cauchy nets iff there exist nets $`nk`$, $`n^{}k^{}`$ such that $`n(d)𝑈n^{}(d^{})`$ for large enough $`d`$ and $`d^{}`$.

More generally, if $`𝒱`$ is another compatible uniformity on $`A`$ such that $`𝒰𝒱`$, then there is a uniformity $`𝒱/𝒰`$ on $`A/𝒰`$ having a base of relations $`R(𝒰,V)`$ for $`V𝒱`$.

###### Remark.

It follows from \[10, Theorem 9.9(2)\] that $`𝒱/𝒰=(\mathrm{nat}𝒰)_c(𝒱)=(\mathrm{nat}𝒰)_{}(𝒱)`$.

Formation of the completion plays the same role in uniform universal algebra that formation of quotient algebras plays in standard universal algebra, and satisfies many of the same properties. See \[10, Section 9\]. As an example of the close relationship between these two constructions, if $`\alpha \mathrm{Con}A`$ then $`A/\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \}A/\alpha ,𝒰_d`$, where $`𝒰_d=\mathrm{Fg}\{\mathrm{\Delta }\}`$ is the discrete uniformity.

### Joins of compatible uniformities

Joins in the lattice of compatible uniformities are the same as in the lattice of uniformities on the underlying set \[10, Theorem 5.3\].

### Compatible uniformities on algebras in congruence-permutable algebras

We recall (\[10, Theorems 6.4 and 6.2\]) that if $`A`$ is an algebra in a congruence-permutable variety, and $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱\mathrm{Unif}A`$, then $`𝒰`$ and $`𝒱`$ permute, and that $`\mathrm{Unif}A`$ is modular.

## 3. Topological Groups and Uniform Groups

A *topological group* is a group object in the category of topological spaces and continuous functions. Such an object is determined by a group $`G`$ and a topology $`𝒯`$ on $`G`$ such that the group operations are continuous functions. Thus, it is different from a uniform group, or group with a compatible uniformity $`G,𝒰`$, where the operations are required to be not only continuous but uniformly continuous.

### Axioms for topological groups

If $`G,𝒯`$ is a topological group, then the set $`𝒩`$ of neighborhoods of the identity $`e`$ satisfies the following axioms:

1. If $`N𝒩`$ and $`NN^{}`$, then $`N^{}𝒩`$.
2. If $`N`$, $`N^{}𝒩`$, then $`NN^{}𝒩`$.
3. For any $`N𝒩`$, there exists a neighborhood $`\overline{N}𝒩`$ such that $`\overline{N}\overline{N}=\{xyx,y\overline{N}\}N`$.
4. If $`N𝒩`$, then $`N^1𝒩`$.
5. If $`N𝒩`$ and $`aG`$, then $`a^1Na𝒩`$.

A stronger version of (G5) which will be useful to us is

1. If $`N𝒩`$, then $`_aa^1Na𝒩`$.

### Uniform groups

A *uniform group*, or, *group with a compatible uniformity*, is a pair $`G,𝒰`$ where $`G`$ is a group and $`𝒰`$ is a compatible uniformity. If $`G,𝒰`$ is a uniform group, then the topology $`𝒯`$ underlying the uniformity $`𝒰`$ is compatible with the group operations. The neighborhood system $`𝒩`$ of this topology is given by $`N𝒩`$ iff $`N=\{xx𝑈e\}`$ for some $`U𝒰`$. The conditions (G1) through (G5) can easily be verified.

### Translation invariance

If $`A`$ is a group, we say that a relation $`UA^2`$ is *left translation invariant* (*right translation invariant*) if $`aA`$ and $`b𝑈b^{}`$ imply $`ab𝑈ab^{}`$ (respectively, $`ba𝑈b^{}a`$). If $`A`$ is abelian, then left translation invariance and right translation invariance coincide and we simply say that a relation is *translation invariant*.

###### Lemma 3.1.

Every compatible uniformity $`𝒰`$ on a group $`A`$ has a base of left translation invariant relations and a base of right translation invariant relations.

###### Proof.

Given $`U𝒰`$, let $`U^{}𝒰`$ be such that if $`bU^{}c`$, then $`ab𝑈ac`$ for any $`a`$. Define the relation $`V`$ by $`x𝑉y`$ iff there exist $`b`$, $`c`$ such that $`x^1y=b^1c`$ and $`bU^{}c`$. Then clearly $`U^{}V`$, so that $`V𝒰`$, and also $`VU`$ because $`bU^{}c`$ and $`x^1y=b^1c`$ imply $`x=(xb^1)b𝑈(xb^1)c=xx^1y=y`$. But $`V`$ is left translation invariant. This proves that $`𝒰`$ has a base of left translation invariant relations; the proof that $`𝒰`$ has a base of right translation invariant relations is similar. ∎

### The left uniformity and right uniformity of a compatible topology

Let $`𝒩`$ be a neighborhood system for a compatible topology on $`G`$. If $`N𝒩`$, we define $`N_l=\{x,yG^2yxN\}`$. The set of relations $`\{N_lN𝒩\}`$ is a base for a compatible uniformity $`𝒰_{𝒯,l}`$ on $`G`$, called the *left uniformity*. Similarly, if $`N𝒩`$, we define $`N_r=\{x,yyNx\}`$, and the $`N_r`$ form a base for the *right uniformity*, denoted by $`𝒰_{𝒯,r}`$. The inverse operation is a uniform isomorphism (of the uniform structure) when viewed as a function from $`G,𝒰_{𝒯,l}`$ to $`G,𝒰_{𝒯,r}`$. Note that $`𝒰_{𝒯,l}`$ has a base of left translation invariant relations, and $`𝒰_{𝒯,r}`$ has a base of right translation invariant relations.

###### Theorem 3.2.

Let $`G,𝒯`$ be a topological group. There is at most one compatible uniformity $`𝒰`$ on $`G`$ such that $`𝒯`$ is the topology underlying $`𝒰`$, and in this case, $`𝒰=𝒰_{𝒯,l}=𝒰_{𝒯,r}`$.

###### Proof.

If $`𝒰`$ exists, then by Lemma 3.1, $`𝒰`$ has a base of left-invariant relations. It follows that if $`𝒯`$ is the underlying topology of a compatible uniformity $`𝒰`$, then $`𝒯`$ determines $`𝒰`$ as $`𝒰_{𝒯,l}`$. Similar arguments apply to the right uniformity. ∎

The Theorem causes us to ask the question: If we have a topological group $`A,𝒯`$ such that $`𝒰_{𝒯,l}=𝒰_{𝒯,r}`$, must this uniformity be compatible?

###### Theorem 3.3.

Let $`A,𝒯`$ be a topological group. The following are equivalent:

1. $`𝒰_{𝒯,r}𝒰_{𝒯,l}`$
2. $`𝒰_{𝒯,l}𝒰_{𝒯,r}`$
3. $`𝒰_{𝒯,l}=𝒰_{𝒯,r}`$
4. $`𝒰_{𝒯,l}`$ is compatible
5. $`𝒰_{𝒯,r}`$ is compatible
6. The neighborhood system $`𝒩`$ corresponding to $`𝒯`$ satisfies (G6$`^{}`$).

###### Proof.

Clearly, (3)$``$(1) and (3)$``$(2). We have (4)$``$(3) and (5)$``$(3) by Theorem 3.2.

(1)$``$(6): If $`𝒰_{𝒯,r}𝒰_{𝒯,l}`$, then given $`N𝒩`$, there is an $`\overline{N}𝒩`$ such that $`\overline{N}_rN_l`$. That is, $`y\overline{N}xyxN`$, or $`yx^1\overline{N}x^1yN`$. This implies by a change of variables that $`x\overline{N}a^1xaN`$ for all $`x`$ and $`a`$, i.e., (6).

To prove (6)$``$(4), we must show that $`𝒰_{𝒯,l}`$ is compatible with respect to group multiplication and the inverse operation.

To show $`𝒰_{𝒯,l}`$ is compatible with respect to group multiplication, it suffices to show that given $`N𝒩`$, there is an $`\overline{N}𝒩`$ such that $`x,x^{}`$, $`y,y^{}\overline{N}_lxy,x^{}y^{}N_l`$, or in other words, $`x^1x^{}`$, $`y^1y^{}\overline{N}y^1x^1x^{}y^{}N`$. Given $`N`$, there is an $`\widehat{N}𝒩`$ such that $`a^1\widehat{N}aN`$ for all $`a`$. There is an $`\stackrel{~}{N}𝒩`$ such that $`\stackrel{~}{N}\stackrel{~}{N}\widehat{N}`$, by (G5’). Finally, there is an $`\overline{N}𝒩`$ such that $`a^1\overline{N}a\stackrel{~}{N}`$ for all $`a`$. Then

$`x^1x^{},y^1y^{}\overline{N}`$ $`x^1x^{},y^{}y^1\stackrel{~}{N}`$
$`x^1x^{}y^{}y^1\widehat{N}`$
$`y^1x^1x^{}y^{}N.`$
To show that $`𝒰_{𝒯,l}`$ is compatible with respect to the inverse operation, it suffices to show that for each $`N`$, there is an $`\overline{N}`$ such that $`x,y\overline{N}_lx^1,y^1N_l`$, or in other words, $`x^1y\overline{N}xy^1N`$. Given $`N`$, let $`\widehat{N}`$ be such that $`\widehat{N}^1N`$, and let $`\overline{N}`$ be such that $`xy\overline{N}yx\overline{N}`$ (true by (G$`5^{}`$)). Then $`x^1y\overline{N}yx^1\widehat{N}xy^1N`$. Thus, (6)$``$(4).

The proof that (6)$``$(5) is similar. ∎

## 4. Term Conditions, Centralization, and Related Commutator Operations

In this section, we will discuss various conditions we call *term conditions*, and define notions of centralization and commutator operations based on them. First, more or less following , we review the *$`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition*. Then, we generalize this to uniformities and give the *$`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition*. We also give two weaker conditions, which we call the *weak $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition* and the *weak $`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition*. As we state these four conditions, we give corresponding notions of centralization. Then we define notions of commutator (binary operations on $`\mathrm{Con}A`$ and $`\mathrm{Unif}A`$) derived from the four types of centralization, and finally, we prove some relationships between the various notions, showing that centralization for congruences can be considered a special case of centralization for uniformities.

### The $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition

We begin with the $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition. We consider it as coming in two equivalent forms:

If $`\alpha `$, $`\beta `$, $`\delta \mathrm{Con}A`$, for some algebra $`A`$, then we say that $`\delta `$ satisfies the *first form of the $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition* if for all $`a`$, $`a^{}A`$ such that $`a𝛼a^{}`$, for all $`𝐛`$, $`𝐜A^n`$, $`n>0`$, such that $`𝐛𝛽𝐜`$ (i.e., $`b_i𝛽c_i`$ for all $`i`$), and all $`(n+1)`$-ary terms $`t`$, $`t(a,𝐛)𝛿t(a,𝐜)`$ implies $`t(a^{},𝐛)𝛿t(a^{},𝐜)`$.

To give the second form of the $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition, we first define, given $`n0`$, $`n^{}0`$, and $`t`$, an $`(n+n^{})`$-ary term, and binary relations $`U`$, $`V`$ on $`A`$, the set of $`2\times 2`$ matrices

$$\mathrm{M}_{n,n,t}(U,V)=\left\{\left(\begin{array}{cc}t(𝐚,𝐛)& t(𝐚,𝐜)\\ t(𝐚^{},𝐛)& t(𝐚^{},𝐜)\end{array}\right)|𝐚,𝐚^{}A^n,𝐛,𝐜A^n^{},\text{ with }𝐚𝑈𝐚^{}\text{ and }𝐛𝑉𝐜\right\}.$$

Then we say that $`\delta `$ satisfies the *second form of the $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition* if for all $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(\alpha ,\beta )`$ and $`u_{11}𝛿u_{12}`$ imply $`u_{21}𝛿u_{22}`$.

###### Proposition 4.1.

The two forms of the $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition are equivalent.

###### Proof.

Clearly if $`\delta `$ satisfies the second form, it satisfies the first. Given $`\delta `$ satisfying the first form, $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, and $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}t(𝐚,𝐛)& t(𝐚,𝐜)\\ t(𝐚^{},𝐛)& t(𝐚^{},𝐜)\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(\alpha ,\beta )`$, such that $`t(𝐚,𝐛)𝛿t(𝐚,𝐜)`$, we apply the first form $`n`$ times, changing one component of $`𝐚`$ at a time, to obtain the conclusion that $`t(𝐚^{},𝐛)𝛿t(𝐚^{},𝐜)`$. ∎

In view of this equivalence, we simply say that $`\delta `$ *satisfies the $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition*. When this is so, we also say that $`\alpha `$ *centralizes* $`\beta `$ *modulo* $`\delta `$, or $`C(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta )`$.

###### Proposition 4.2.

We have

1. $`C(\alpha ,\beta ;\alpha )`$
2. $`C(\alpha ,\beta ;\beta )`$
3. $`C(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta )`$ and $`\alpha ^{}\alpha `$, $`\beta ^{}\beta `$ imply $`C(\alpha ^{},\beta ^{};\delta )`$
4. If $`C(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta _i)`$ for $`iI`$, then $`C(\alpha ,\beta ;_i\delta _i)`$.

### The $`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition

We now generalize the term condition to compatible uniformities. Let $`A`$ be an algebra, and let $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱`$, $`𝒲\mathrm{Unif}A`$.

We say that $`𝒲`$ satisfies the *first form of the $`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition* if for all $`n>0`$, all $`(n+1)`$-ary terms $`t`$, and all $`W𝒲`$, there are $`U𝒰`$, $`V𝒱`$, $`\overline{W}𝒲`$ such that for all $`a`$, $`a^{}A`$ such that $`a𝑈a^{}`$, and all $`𝐛`$, $`𝐜A^n`$ such that $`𝐛𝑉𝐜`$ for all $`i`$, $`t(a,𝐛)\overline{W}t(a,𝐜)`$ implies $`t(a^{},𝐛)𝑊t(a^{},𝐜)`$.

We say that $`𝒲`$ satisfies the *second form of the $`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition* if for all $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, all $`(n+n^{})`$-ary $`t`$, and all $`W𝒲`$, there are $`U𝒰`$, $`V𝒱`$, and $`\overline{W}𝒲`$ such that $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(U,V)`$ and $`u_{11}\overline{W}u_{12}`$ imply $`u_{21}𝑊u_{22}`$.

###### Theorem 4.3.

The two forms of the $`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition are equivalent.

###### Proof.

Clearly, the second form of the condition implies the first form. In the other direction, given $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, $`t(𝐚,𝐛)`$ and $`t(𝐚,𝐜)`$ can be changed to $`t(𝐚^{},𝐛)`$ and $`t(𝐚^{},𝐜)`$ one component of $`𝐚`$ at a time. For the $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition, the result is immediate, but in the uniformity-theoretic case, given $`W𝒲`$, we must choose in reverse order $`W_i`$, $`i=1`$, $`\mathrm{},n`$ such that the changes are valid, starting by choosing $`U_n𝒰`$, $`V_n𝒱`$, and $`W_n𝒲`$ such that $`a_nU_n`$, $`𝐛V_n𝐜`$, and $`t(a_1^{},\mathrm{},a_{n1}^{},a_n,𝐛)W_nt(a_1^{},\mathrm{},a_{n1}^{},a_n,𝐜)`$ imply $`t(𝐚,𝐛)𝑊t(𝐚^{},𝐜)`$, and ending by choosing $`U_1`$, $`V_1`$, and $`W_1`$ such that $`a_1U_1a_1^{}`$, $`𝐛V_1𝐜`$, and $`t(𝐚,𝐛)W_1t(𝐚,𝐜)`$ imply $`t(a_1^{},a_2,\mathrm{},a_n,𝐛)W_2t(a_1^{},a_2,\mathrm{},a_n,𝐜)`$. We then let $`U=_iU_i`$, $`V=_iV_i`$, and $`\overline{W}=W_1`$. ∎

If $`𝒲`$ satisfies the two equivalent forms of the $`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition, then we say that $`𝒰`$ *centralizes* $`𝒱`$ *modulo* $`𝒲`$, or $`C(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$.

###### Proposition 4.4.

We have

1. $`C(𝒰,𝒱;𝒰)`$
2. $`C(𝒰,𝒱;𝒱)`$
3. $`C(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$ and $`𝒰^{}𝒰`$, $`𝒱^{}𝒱`$ imply $`C(𝒰^{},𝒱^{};𝒲)`$
4. If $`C(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲_i)`$ for $`iI`$, then $`C(𝒰,𝒱;_i𝒲_i)`$
5. $`C(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \};\mathrm{Ug}\{\delta \})`$ iff $`C(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta )`$.

###### Proof.

To show (1), let $`U𝒰`$ and $`t`$ be given. There is a symmetric $`\overline{U}𝒰`$ such that $`a\overline{U}a^{}`$ implies $`t(a,𝐛){}_{}{}^{3}Ut(a^{},𝐛)`$ and $`t(a,𝐜){}_{}{}^{3}Ut(a^{},𝐜)`$. Then for any $`V𝒱`$, $`a\overline{U}a^{}`$ and $`t(a,𝐛){}_{}{}^{3}Ut(a,𝐜)`$ imply $`t(a^{},𝐛)𝑈t(a^{},𝐜)`$.

To show (2), let $`V𝒱`$ and $`t`$ be given. Then for some $`\overline{V}𝒱`$, $`𝐛𝑉𝐜`$ implies $`t(a^{},𝐛)𝑉t(a^{},𝐜)`$ for any $`a^{}`$, by uniform continuity of $`t`$, regardless of any consideration of $`t(a,𝐛)`$ and $`t(a,𝐜)`$.

(3) is obvious.

(4): Suppose the $`𝒲_i`$ satisfy the $`𝒰`$,$`𝒱`$-term condition, and that $`n>0`$, an $`(n+1)`$-ary term $`t`$, and $`W_i𝒲_i`$ are given. Then $`_{j=1}^kW_jW`$ for some uniform neighborhoods $`W_jW_{i_j}`$, $`i_j`$ being selected values of the index $`i`$. It suffices to show that $`_{j=1}^k𝒲_{i_j}`$ satisfies the $`𝒰`$,$`𝒱`$-term condition.

Let $`U_j𝒰`$, $`V_j𝒱`$, $`\overline{W}_j𝒲_{i_j}`$ be relations as promised by the $`𝒰`$,$`𝒱`$-term condition for $`𝒲_{i_j}`$, and let $`U=_jU_j`$, $`V=_jV_j`$, and $`\overline{W}=_jW_j`$. Then if $`a𝑈a^{}`$, $`𝐛𝑉𝐜`$, and $`t(a,𝐛)\overline{W}t(a,𝐜)`$, we have $`t(a^{},𝐛)W_jt(a^{},𝐜)`$ for each $`j`$, whence $`t(a^{},𝐛)𝑊t(a^{},𝐜)`$.

(5) follows easily from the definitions. ∎

### The weak term conditions

We say that $`\delta `$ satisfies the *weak $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition* if for all $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(\alpha ,\beta )`$ and $`u_{11}=u_{12}`$ imply $`u_{21}𝛿u_{22}`$. In case $`\delta `$ satisfies the weak $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition, we say that $`\alpha `$ *weakly centralizes* $`\beta `$ *modulo* $`\delta `$, or $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta )`$.

###### Proposition 4.5.

We have

1. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta ;\alpha )`$
2. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta ;\beta )`$
3. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta )`$ and $`\alpha ^{}\alpha `$, $`\beta ^{}\beta `$ imply $`C(\alpha ^{},\beta ^{};\delta )`$
4. If $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta _i)`$ for $`iI`$, then $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta ;_i\delta _i)`$
5. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta )`$ and $`\delta \delta ^{}`$ imply $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta ^{})`$
6. $`C(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta )\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta )`$.

We say that $`𝒲`$ satisfies the *weak $`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition* if for all $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, and all $`W𝒲`$, there exist $`U𝒰`$ and $`V𝒱`$ such that $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(U,V)`$ and $`u_{11}=u_{12}`$ imply $`u_{21}𝑊u_{22}`$. If $`𝒲`$ satisfies the weak $`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition, we say that $`𝒲`$ *weakly centralizes* $`𝒰`$ *modulo* $`𝒱`$, or $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$.

###### Proposition 4.6.

We have

1. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒰)`$
2. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒱)`$
3. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$ and $`𝒰^{}𝒰`$, $`𝒱^{}𝒱`$ imply $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰^{},𝒱^{};𝒲)`$
4. If $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲_i)`$ for $`iI`$, then $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;_i𝒲_i)`$
5. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$ and $`𝒲𝒲^{}`$ imply $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲^{})`$
6. $`C(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$
7. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \};\mathrm{Ug}\{\delta \})`$ iff $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta ;\delta )`$.

###### Proof.

(1): Given $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, and $`U𝒰`$, there exists a symmetric $`U^{}𝒰`$ such that $`𝐚U^{}𝐚^{}`$ implies $`t(𝐚,𝐛){}_{}{}^{2}Ut(𝐚^{},𝐛)`$ for all $`𝐛`$. It follows that for any $`V𝒱`$, $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(U^{},V)`$ and $`u_{11}=u_{12}`$ imply $`u_{21}{}_{}{}^{2}Uu_{11}=u_{12}{}_{}{}^{2}Uu_{22}`$.

(2) The proof of $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒱)`$ is the same as the proof of $`C(𝒰,𝒱;𝒱)`$.

(3) is obvious.

(4): Again we can reduce to the case $`I`$ finite. For $`W_i𝒲_i`$, $`W=_iW_i`$ for some $`W_i𝒲_i`$. Given $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, there exist $`U_i𝒰`$, $`V_i𝒱`$ such that $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(U_i,V_i)`$ and $`u_{11}=u_{12}`$ imply $`u_{21}W_iu_{22}`$. Then $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(_iU_i,_iV_i)`$ and $`u_{11}=u_{12}`$ imply $`u_{21}𝑊u_{22}`$.

(5), (6), and (7) are clear. ∎

### Related commutator operations

These notions of centralization lead to definitions for binary operations on the lattice of compatible uniformities. Recall  that if $`A`$ is an algebra, and $`\alpha `$, $`\beta \mathrm{Con}A`$, then $`C(\alpha ,\beta )`$ is defined as the least congruence on $`A`$ satisfying the $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition. Similarly, we denote by $`C(𝒰,𝒱)`$ the least uniformity satisfying the $`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition, by $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta )`$ the least congruence satisfying the weak $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition, and by $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱)`$ the least uniformity satisfying the weak $`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition. These uniformities exist by Proposition 4.4(4) and Proposition 4.6(4).

These commutator operations have some common properties:

###### Theorem 4.7.

Let $`\widehat{C}(x,y)`$ stand for $`C(\alpha ,\beta )`$, $`C(𝒰,𝒱)`$, $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta )`$, or $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱)`$. Then

1. $`\widehat{C}(x,y)xy`$
2. $`x^{}x`$, $`y^{}y`$ imply $`\widehat{C}(x^{},y^{})\widehat{C}(x,y)`$.

Here are some explicit formulas for $`C(\alpha ,\beta )`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta )`$:

###### Proposition 4.8.

Let $`A`$ be an algebra, and $`\alpha `$, $`\beta \mathrm{Con}A`$. We have

1. $`C(\alpha ,\beta )=_\nu R_\nu `$, where the relations $`R_\nu `$ are defined for all ordinal numbers $`\nu `$, as follows:

$$R_\nu =\{\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{\Delta }^A,\hfill & \nu =0\hfill \\ \mathrm{Cg}\{t(a^{},𝐛),t(a^{},𝐜)t\text{ is }(n+1)\text{-ary, }a𝛼a^{},𝐛𝛽𝐜,\hfill & \\ \text{ and }t(a,𝐛)R_\nu ^{}t(a,𝐜)\},\hfill & \nu =\nu ^{}+1\hfill \\ _{\nu ^{}<\nu }R_\nu ^{},\hfill & \text{for }\nu \text{ a limit ordinal}\hfill \end{array}$$
2. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta )=\mathrm{Cg}\stackrel{~}{R}`$ where

$$\stackrel{~}{R}=\{u_{21},u_{22}|\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(\alpha ,\beta )\text{ for some }n\text{}n^{}\text{, and }t\text{, and }u_{11}=u_{12}\}.$$

###### Theorem 4.9.

If $`\alpha `$, $`\beta \mathrm{Con}A`$, then we have

1. $`C(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \})=\mathrm{Ug}\{C(\alpha ,\beta )\}`$
2. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \})=\mathrm{Ug}\{\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta )\}`$.

###### Proof.

(1): By Proposition 4.4(5), since $`C(\alpha ,\beta )`$ satisfies the $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition, the uniformity $`\mathrm{Ug}\{C(\alpha ,\beta )\}`$ satisfies the $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \}`$-term condition. Thus, $`C(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \})\mathrm{Ug}\{C(\alpha ,\beta )\}`$. To show the opposite inequality, we must show that $`WC(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \})`$ implies $`C(\alpha ,\beta )W`$. By Proposition 4.8(1), $`C(\alpha ,\beta )=_\nu R_\nu `$. However, by transfinite induction, and the $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \}`$-term condition, we also have $`R_\nu W`$ for all $`\nu `$ and $`W`$. Thus, $`C(\alpha ,\beta )W`$ and $`\mathrm{Ug}\{C(\alpha ,\beta )\}C(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \})`$.

(2): The proof that $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \})\mathrm{Ug}\{\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta )\}`$ follows that same pattern as for the operation $`C(,)`$. To show that $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta )\}\stackrel{~}{C}(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \})`$, we must show that for every $`W\stackrel{~}{C}(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \})`$, $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta )W`$. However, it is clear that $`\stackrel{~}{R}W`$, where $`\stackrel{~}{R}`$ is the relation defined in the statement of Proposition 4.8(2). Thus, $`\stackrel{~}{R}\stackrel{~}{C}(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}\{\beta \})`$. But this intersection is a congruence. Thus, $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta )=\mathrm{Cg}\stackrel{~}{R}W`$ by Proposition 4.8(2). ∎

By this theorem, the commutator operations $`C(,)`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{C}(,)`$ on uniformities extend the corresponding commutator operations on congruences, and we can compute the commutators on congruences by computing the corresponding commutators of uniformities. The rule is to promote both arguments to uniformities, and then take the chosen commutator. The resulting uniformity then determines the desired congruence.

## 5. The Commutator on Uniformities in Congruence-Modular Varieties

As described in the previous section, the situation for a general variety is that we have defined two possibly different, possibly noncommutative commutator operations on uniformities, $`C(,)`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{C}(,)`$. We will show in this section that as it is with congruences , the situation is much simplified for congruence-modular varieties: these operations coincide and are commutative.

### $`(𝒰,𝒱)`$, $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦()`$, and $`𝒳_𝐦(𝒰,𝒱)`$

###### Proposition 5.1.

Let $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱\mathrm{Unif}A`$. The set of sets of $`2\times 2`$ matrices $`\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(U,V)`$, $`U𝒰`$, $`V𝒱`$ is a base for a filter $`_{n,n^{},t}(𝒰,𝒱)`$ of sets of $`2\times 2`$ matrices of elements of $`A`$.

If $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱\mathrm{Unif}A`$, then we define

$$(𝒰,𝒱)=\underset{n,n^{},t}{}_{n,n^{},t}(𝒰,𝒱)=\underset{n,n^{},t}{}_{n,n^{},t}(𝒰,𝒱).$$

Let $`m_0`$, $`m_1`$, $`\mathrm{}`$, $`m_k`$ be a sequence of quaternary terms for $`A`$. If $`M`$ is a set of $`2\times 2`$-matrices of elements of $`A`$, we denote by $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(M)`$ the set of pairs

$$m_i(a,b,d,c),m_i(a,a,c,c)$$

such that $`ik`$ and $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ c& d\end{array}\right)M`$.

###### Proposition 5.2.

Given a filter $``$ of sets of $`2\times 2`$-matrices of elements of $`A`$, the set of $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(M)`$, $`M`$ forms a base for a filter $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦()`$ of relations on $`A`$.

If $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$ are given, then we denote by $`𝒳_{𝐦,n,n^{},t}(𝒰,𝒱)`$ the filter $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(_{n,n^{},t}(𝒰,𝒱))`$, and by $`𝒳_𝐦(𝒰,𝒱)`$ the filter $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦((𝒰,𝒱))`$.

### The commutator in modular varieties

The following theorem can be compared to \[4, Proposition 4.2(1)\], which establishes the analogous result for commutators of congruences.

###### Theorem 5.3.

If $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱`$, $`𝒲`$ are compatible uniformities on $`A`$, an algebra in a congruence-modular variety with sequence of Day terms $`𝐦`$, then the following are equivalent:

1. $`𝒳_𝐦(𝒰,𝒱)𝒲`$
2. $`𝒳_𝐦(𝒱,𝒰)𝒲`$
3. $`C(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$
4. $`C(𝒱,𝒰;𝒲)`$
5. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$
6. $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒱,𝒰;𝒲)`$.

###### Proof.

Obviously $`(3)(5)`$ and $`(4)(6)`$. We will show that also $`(5)(1)(4)`$. Exchanging $`𝒰`$ and $`𝒱`$ will then give $`(6)(2)(3)`$, completing the proof of equivalence.

(5)$``$(1): Assume $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$. It suffices to show that if $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, $`t`$, and $`W𝒲`$ are given, then there are $`U_{n,n^{},t}𝒰`$ and $`V_{n,n^{},t}𝒱`$ such that for all $`𝐚`$, $`𝐚^{}A^n`$ with $`𝐚U_{n,n^{},t}𝐚^{}`$, and all $`𝐛`$, $`𝐜A^n^{}`$ such that $`𝐛V_{n,n^{},t}𝐜`$, and for all $`i`$, we have $`x𝑊y`$, where

$$x=x(𝐚,𝐚^{},𝐛,𝐜)=m_i(t(𝐚,𝐛),t(𝐚,𝐜),t(𝐚^{},𝐜),t(𝐚^{},𝐛)),$$

and

$$y=y(𝐚,𝐚^{},𝐛,𝐜)=m_i(t(𝐚,𝐛),t(𝐚,𝐛),t(𝐚^{},𝐛),t(𝐚^{},𝐛)).$$

For, this implies that $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(U_{n,n^{},t},V_{n,n^{},t})W`$, and we then have

$$\mathrm{x}_𝐦(\underset{n,n^{},t}{}\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(U_{n,n^{},t},V_{n,n^{},t}))W;$$

but $`_{n,n^{},t}\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(U_{n,n^{},t},V_{n,n^{},t})(𝒰,𝒱)`$. Thus, it follows that $`(𝒰,𝒱)𝒲`$.

If we replace $`𝐚`$ by $`𝐚^{}`$ at its second occurrence in the right-hand expressions for $`x`$ and $`y`$, and $`𝐚^{}`$ by $`𝐚`$ in its second occurrence, then we obtain expressions for the same element $`z=m_i(t(𝐚,𝐛),t(𝐚^{},𝐜),t(𝐚^{},𝐜),t(𝐚,𝐛))=m_i(t(𝐚,𝐛),t(𝐚^{},𝐛),t(𝐚^{},𝐛),t(𝐚,𝐛))=t(𝐚,𝐛)`$. Let $`s_i`$ be the $`(4n+4n^{})`$-ary term given by

$$s(𝐠^1,𝐠^2,𝐠^3,𝐠^4,𝐡^1,𝐡^2,𝐡^3,𝐡^4)=m_i(t(𝐠^1,𝐡^1),t(𝐠^2,𝐡^2),t(𝐠^3,𝐡^3),t(𝐠^4,𝐡^4)).$$

Since $`\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$, there are $`U_i𝒰`$ and $`V_i𝒱`$ such that for all $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{4n,4n^{},s}(U_i,V_i)`$, $`u_{11}=u_{12}`$ implies $`u_{21}𝑊u_{22}`$. But

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}z& z\\ x& y\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}s_i(𝐚,𝐚^{},𝐚^{},𝐚,𝐛,𝐜,𝐜,𝐛)& s_i(𝐚,𝐚^{},𝐚^{},𝐚,𝐛,𝐛,𝐛,𝐛)\\ s_i(𝐚,𝐚,𝐚^{},𝐚^{},𝐛,𝐜,𝐜,𝐛)& s_i(𝐚,𝐚,𝐚^{},𝐚^{},𝐛,𝐛,𝐛,𝐛)\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{4n,4n^{},s_i}(U_i,V_i).$$

Thus, $`x𝑊y`$. Letting $`U=_iU_i`$ and $`V=_iV_i`$, we have $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(M_{n,n^{},t}(U,V))W`$, proving that (5)$``$(1).

To prove (1)$``$(4), let $`W𝒲`$ and let $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$ be given. By \[10, Lemma 7.1\] (a uniformity-theoretic generalization of \[4, Lemma 2.3\]) there exists $`\overline{W}𝒲`$ such that $`a`$, $`b`$, $`c`$, $`dA`$ with $`b\overline{W}d`$ and $`m_i(a,a,c,c)\overline{W}m_i(a,b,d,c)`$ for all $`i`$ imply $`a𝑊c`$. By (1), there are $`U`$ and $`V`$ such that $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(M_{n^{},n,t}(U^1,V^1))\overline{W}^1`$. If $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(V,U)`$, then $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{21}& u_{11}\\ u_{22}& u_{12}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n^{},n,t}(U^1,V^1)`$ and

$$m_i(u_{21},u_{21},u_{22},u_{22})\overline{W}m_i(u_{21},u_{11},u_{12},u_{22})$$

for all $`i`$. It follows that if $`u_{11}\overline{W}u_{12}`$, then $`u_{21}𝑊u_{22}`$. A $`\overline{W}`$, $`U`$, and $`V`$ exists for each $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, implying (4). ∎

If $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱\mathrm{Unif}A`$, we define $`[𝒰,𝒱]`$ to be the least $`𝒲`$ such that the six equivalent statements in the theorem hold. Of course, we then have $`[𝒰,𝒱]=C(𝒰,𝒱)=C(𝒱,𝒰)=\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒰,𝒱)=\stackrel{~}{C}(𝒱,𝒰)=\mathrm{Ug}𝒳_𝐦(𝒰,𝒱)`$.

###### Corollary 5.4.

Let $`A`$ be an algebra in a congruence-modular variety with Day terms $`𝐦`$, and let $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱`$, $`𝒲`$, and $`𝒲^{}\mathrm{Unif}A`$. If $`C(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲)`$ and $`𝒲<𝒲^{}`$, then $`C(𝒰,𝒱;𝒲^{})`$.

## 6. $`\mathrm{Unif}A(\alpha )`$ and the Commutator $`[\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},𝒰]`$

Recall that if $`A`$ is an algebra, and $`\alpha \mathrm{Con}A`$, then $`A(\alpha )`$ is the subalgebra of $`A^2`$ of pairs $`a,b`$ such that $`a𝛼b`$. We will denote by $`\pi `$, $`\pi ^{}:A(\alpha )A`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha :AA(\alpha )`$ the homomorphisms defined respectively by $`a,ba`$, $`a,bb`$, and $`aa,a`$. (Note that in , the notation $`\mathrm{\Delta }_A`$ is used for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha `$, whereas we use $`\mathrm{\Delta }_A`$ to denote the diagonal set in $`A^2`$.)

If $`\alpha `$, $`\beta \mathrm{Con}A`$, where $`A`$ is an algebra, then we can construct a congruence $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,\beta }\mathrm{Con}A(\alpha )`$ by extending $`\beta `$ along $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha `$. That is, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,\beta }=\mathrm{Cg}\{a,a,b,ba𝛽b\}`$.

###### Theorem 6.1.

If $`A`$ is an algebra in a congruence-modular variety, then $`(\pi ^{})^1[\alpha ,\beta ]=(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,\beta }\mathrm{ker}\pi )\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}`$.

###### Proof.

See \[4, Theorem 4.9 and Exercise 4.4\]. ∎

The Theorem gives one way to compute the commutator $`[\alpha ,\beta ]`$. It may help to illuminate the relationship between $`[\alpha ,\beta ]`$ and $`\mathrm{Con}A(\alpha )`$ to note that the interval sublattice $`\mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{Con}A(\alpha )}[,\mathrm{ker}\pi ]`$ transposes up to the interval sublattice $`\mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{Con}A(\alpha )}[\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{},]`$, which is of course isomorphic to $`\mathrm{Con}A`$.

In this section, we will try to duplicate this result with $`\beta `$ replaced by a compatible uniformity $`𝒰`$, and $`\mathrm{Con}A(\alpha )`$ replaced by $`\mathrm{Unif}A(\alpha )`$, the lattice of compatible uniformities of $`A(\alpha )`$.

For this section, we will write $`[\alpha ,𝒰]`$, $`(\alpha ,𝒰)`$, etc. for $`[\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},𝒰]`$, $`(\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},𝒰)`$, etc.

### $`(\alpha ,𝒰)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}`$

We define $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}`$ as the analog of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,\beta }`$, that is, the compatible extension $`(\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha )_c(𝒰)`$ along $`\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha `$ of $`𝒰\mathrm{Unif}A`$ to $`A(\alpha )`$. We will construct $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}`$ using the filter $`(\alpha ,𝒰)`$ defined in Section 5.

Now, $`(\alpha ,𝒰)`$ is a filter of subsets of $`2\times 2`$ matrices. We view each matrix $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}a& b\\ c& d\end{array}\right)`$ as a pair $`\left(\begin{array}{c}a\\ c\end{array}\right),\left(\begin{array}{c}b\\ d\end{array}\right)`$ of elements of $`A(\alpha )`$ written as column vectors. Thus, $`(\alpha ,𝒰)`$ can be viewed as a filter of binary relations on $`A(\alpha )`$.

###### Theorem 6.2.

Viewed in this way, $`(\alpha ,𝒰)`$ is a singly compatible semiuniformity on $`A(\alpha )`$, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}=\mathrm{Ug}(\alpha ,𝒰)`$.

###### Proof.

We have $`(\alpha ,𝒰)=_{\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha }(𝒰)`$. Thus, by Theorem 2.7, $`(\alpha ,𝒰)`$ is a singly compatible semiuniformity and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}=(\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha )_c(𝒰)=\mathrm{Ug}(_{\mathrm{\Delta }_\alpha }(𝒰))=\mathrm{Ug}(\alpha ,𝒰)`$. ∎

### $`[\alpha ,𝒰]^{}`$ and $`[\alpha ,𝒰]`$

So far, it has not been proved that the lattice $`\mathrm{Unif}A(\alpha )`$ of compatible uniformities on $`A(\alpha )`$ is modular when $`A`$ belongs to a congruence-modular variety. However, it is true in the congruence-modular case that if $`𝒰\mathrm{Unif}A(\alpha )`$, $`𝒰\mathrm{ker}\pi `$, then

$$𝒰=(𝒰\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{})\mathrm{ker}\pi .$$

For, the fact that $`\mathrm{ker}\pi `$ is a congruence causes the modular law to be true in this special case, by \[10, Theorem 7.5\].

Thus, the interval $`\mathrm{I}_{\mathrm{Unif}A(\alpha )}[,\mathrm{ker}\pi ]`$ can be embedded into $`\mathrm{Unif}A`$ via a mapping $`\varphi `$ such that $`(\pi ^{})^1(\varphi (𝒰))=𝒰\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}`$. We shall see that if $`𝒰\mathrm{Unif}A`$, where $`A`$ is an algebra with an underlying group structure, then $`[\alpha ,𝒰]`$ does belong to the image of $`\varphi `$, and $`[\alpha ,𝒰]=\varphi (\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}\mathrm{ker}\pi )`$. (Note that in this case, the modular law also holds in $`\mathrm{Unif}A`$, by \[10, Theorem 6.4\].)

Let us define $`[\alpha ,𝒰]^{}=\varphi (\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}\mathrm{ker}\pi )`$ or, in other words, let $`[\alpha ,𝒰]^{}`$ be the unique compatible uniformity on $`A`$ such that $`(\pi ^{})^1([\alpha ,𝒰]^{})=(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}\mathrm{ker}\pi )\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}`$.

###### Theorem 6.3.

Let $`A`$ be an algebra, and let $`\alpha \mathrm{Con}A`$ and $`𝒰\mathrm{Unif}A`$. Then $`[\alpha ,𝒰][\alpha ,𝒰]^{}`$, with equality if $`A`$ has an underlying group structure.

###### Proof.

To show that $`[\alpha ,𝒰][\alpha ,𝒰]^{}`$, it suffices to prove that $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,𝒰;[\alpha ,𝒰]^{})`$. We have

$`(\pi ^{})^1[\alpha ,𝒰]^{}`$ $`=(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}\mathrm{ker}\pi )\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}`$
$`\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}\mathrm{ker}\pi )\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}`$
$`\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}((\alpha ,𝒰)\mathrm{ker}\pi )\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{},`$
which implies that for all $`W[\alpha ,𝒰]^{}`$, there is a $`Q(\alpha ,𝒰)`$ such that $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)Q`$ and $`u_{11}=u_{12}`$ imply $`u_{21}𝑊u_{22}`$. Given in addition $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, there is a $`U_{n,n^{},t}𝒰`$ such that $`\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(\alpha ,U_{n,n^{},t})Q`$, by the definition of $`(\alpha ,𝒰)`$. It follows that $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}u_{11}& u_{12}\\ u_{21}& u_{22}\end{array}\right)\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(\alpha ,U_{n,n^{},t})`$ and $`u_{11}=u_{12}`$ imply $`u_{21}𝑊u_{22}`$, proving that $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,𝒰;[\alpha ,𝒰]^{})`$.

Now assume $`A`$ has an underlying group structure. (In particular, this implies that $`A`$ belongs to a congruence-permutable variety and $`\mathrm{Unif}A(\alpha )`$ is modular, by \[10, Theorem 6.2\].) To show $`[\alpha ,𝒰]^{}[\alpha ,𝒰]`$, it suffices to show that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}\mathrm{ker}\pi (\pi ^{})^1([\alpha ,𝒰])`$. For, this implies

$`(\pi ^{})^1([\alpha ,𝒰]^{})`$ $`=(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}\mathrm{ker}\pi )\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}`$
$`((\pi ^{})^1([\alpha ,𝒰])\mathrm{ker}\pi )\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}`$
$`=(\pi ^{})^1([\alpha ,𝒰]).`$
To show $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}\mathrm{ker}\pi (\pi ^{})^1([\alpha ,𝒰])`$, it suffices to show that $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰})[\alpha ,𝒰]`$. For, in that case, by \[10, Lemma 7.1\], if $`W[\alpha ,𝒰]`$, and $`\widehat{W}[\alpha ,𝒰]`$ is such that $`\widehat{W}^1W`$, then $`\overline{W}[\alpha ,𝒰]`$ can be chosen, and $`V\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}`$, such that $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(V)\overline{W}`$, so that $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}y& z\\ x& z\end{array}\right)Vy\widehat{W}xx𝑊y`$. We have $`\mathrm{ker}\pi \mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}=\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}`$, and if $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}b& b\\ x& y\end{array}\right)\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}`$, we also have $`\left(\begin{array}{c}y\\ x\end{array}\right)\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}\left(\begin{array}{c}b\\ x\end{array}\right)\mathrm{ker}\pi \left(\begin{array}{c}b\\ y\end{array}\right)\mathrm{ker}\pi ^{}\left(\begin{array}{c}y\\ y\end{array}\right)\mathrm{ker}\pi \left(\begin{array}{c}y\\ x\end{array}\right)`$. It follows by the Shifting Lemma (\[10, Lemma 7.4\]) that there is a $`\overline{V}\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}`$ such that if $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}b& b\\ x& y\end{array}\right)\overline{V}`$, then $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}y& y\\ y& y\end{array}\right)V`$, implying $`x𝑊y`$. It follows that $`\overline{V}\mathrm{ker}\pi (\pi ^{})^1(W)\mathrm{ker}\pi `$, proving that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}\mathrm{ker}\pi (\pi ^{})^1([\alpha ,𝒰])`$.

Now, $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦((\alpha ,𝒰))=𝒳_𝐦(\alpha ,𝒰)[\alpha ,𝒰]`$ by Theorem 5.3. For ordinal numbers $`\nu `$, we define inductively

$$_\nu =\{\begin{array}{cc}(\alpha ,𝒰),\hfill & \nu =0\hfill \\ _\nu ^{}_\nu ^{},\hfill & \nu =\nu ^{}+1\hfill \\ _{\nu ^{}<\nu }_\nu ^{},\hfill & \nu \text{ a limit ordinal.}\hfill \end{array}$$

We claim that $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(_\nu )[\alpha ,𝒰]`$ for every ordinal $`\nu `$. It is easy to see that $`_\nu `$ is a singly compatible semiuniformity for every $`\nu `$, and that the sequence becomes stationary at $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰}=\mathrm{Ug}(\alpha ,𝒰)`$. If there is a first ordinal $`\nu `$ such that $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(_\nu )[\alpha ,𝒰]`$, then clearly, $`\nu 0`$ and $`\nu `$ is not a limit ordinal. Thus, to prove the claim, and that $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰})[\alpha ,𝒰]`$, it suffices to show that if $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(_\nu )[\alpha ,𝒰]`$, then $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(_{\nu +1})[\alpha ,𝒰]`$. We must show that, given $`W[\alpha ,𝒰]`$, there is an $`R_{\nu +1}`$ such that $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(R)W`$.

We use the fact that the terms $`m_0(x,y,z,w)=w`$, $`m_1(x,y,z,w)=xz^1yx^1w`$, and $`m_2(x,y,z,w)=w`$ are a sequence of Day terms for any variety of algebras with group structures. Without loss of generality, by the discussion of Section 3, we can also assume that $`W`$ is left translation invariant. Let $`\overline{W}[\alpha ,𝒰]`$ be left translation invariant and such that $`a\overline{W}a^{}`$ and $`b\overline{W}b^{}ab𝑊a^{}b^{}`$. Since $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(_\nu )[\alpha ,𝒰]`$ by the induction hypothesis, there is an $`\overline{R}_\nu `$ such that $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(\overline{R})\overline{W}`$. We have

$$\mathrm{x}_𝐦(\overline{R}\overline{R})=\left\{xw^1zx^1u,x|\left(\begin{array}{cc}x& y\\ u& v\end{array}\right),\left(\begin{array}{cc}y& z\\ v& w\end{array}\right)\overline{R}\right\}\left\{x,x|xA\right\},$$

where the second term in the union takes care of the contributions to $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(_{\nu +1})`$ coming from the terms $`m_0`$ and $`m_2`$. Since $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(\overline{R})\overline{W}`$, we have $`xv^1yx^1u,x`$, $`yw^1zy^1v,y\overline{W}`$. This implies that $`v^1yx^1u,e`$, $`w^1zy^1v,e\overline{W}`$, which implies that

$$(w^1zy^1v)(v^1yx^1u),e=w^1zx^1u,eW.$$

But $`W`$ was assumed left translation invariant, so this implies that $`xw^1zx^1v,xW`$, proving that $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(\overline{R}\overline{R})W`$, and by induction that $`x_𝐦(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰})[\alpha ,𝒰]`$. ∎

## 7. Properties of the Commutator

In this section, we discuss general properties of the commutator on uniformities, for a congruence-modular variety.

### Elementary properties

###### Theorem 7.1.

Let $`A`$ be an algebra in a congruence-modular variety $`𝐕`$. We have

1. If $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱\mathrm{Unif}A`$, then $`[𝒰,𝒱]=[𝒱,𝒰]`$.
2. The commutator is monotone, i.e., if $`𝒰𝒰^{}`$, then $`[𝒰,𝒱][𝒰^{},𝒱]`$.
3. $`[𝒰,𝒱]𝒰𝒱`$.
4. If $`B𝒱`$, $`f:BA`$ is a homomorphism, and $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱\mathrm{Unif}A`$, then $`[f^1(𝒰),f^1(𝒱)]f^1([𝒰,𝒱])`$.

###### Proof.

(1): This is just a restatement of part of Theorem 5.3.

(2): If $`𝒲`$ satisfies the $`𝒰^{},𝒱`$-term condition, then it also satisfies the $`𝒰,𝒱`$-term condition. Or, use the obvious fact that $`𝒳_𝐦(𝒰,𝒱)𝒳_𝐦(𝒰^{},𝒱)`$.

(3): Follows from Theorem 4.7.

(4): We have

$$𝒳_𝐦(f^1(𝒰),f^1(𝒱))f^1(𝒳_𝐦(𝒰,𝒱))$$

because $`f`$ is a homomorphism. ∎

### Additivity

###### Theorem 7.2.

Let $`A`$ be an algebra in a congruence-modular variety with sequence of Day terms $`𝐦`$, and let $`𝒰_i`$, for $`iI`$, and $`𝒱`$ belong to $`\mathrm{Unif}A`$. Then $`_{iI}[𝒰_i,𝒱][_{iI}𝒰_i,𝒱]`$, with equality if $`𝒱`$ is of the form $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \}`$ and $`A`$ has an underlying group structure, or if $`I`$ is finite and the $`𝒰_i`$ permute pairwise.

###### Proof.

$`_i[𝒰_i,𝒱][_i𝒰_i,𝒱]`$ by Theorem 7.1(2).

Let us denote $`_i[𝒰_i,𝒱]`$ by $`𝒲`$ for the remainder of the proof.

Suppose $`𝒱=\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \}`$ for some congruence $`\alpha `$ and $`A`$ has an underlying group structure. The commutator is commutative so we can switch the arguments on each side. Since $`\alpha `$ centralizes $`𝒰_i`$ modulo $`[\alpha ,_i𝒰_i]`$, we have $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰_i}\mathrm{ker}\pi 𝒵`$, where $`𝒵=(\pi ^{})^1([\alpha ,_i𝒰_i])`$. Because compatible extension preserves joins, we have $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,_i𝒰_i}=_i(\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰})=\mathrm{Ug}(_i\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰_i})`$, where the singly compatible semiuniformity $`=_i\mathrm{\Delta }_{\alpha ,𝒰_i}`$ satisfies $`\mathrm{ker}\pi 𝒵`$. Then by the same argument used in the proof of Theorem 6.3, $`\mathrm{Ug}()\mathrm{ker}\pi 𝒵`$. It follows that $`[\alpha ,_i𝒰_i]𝒲`$.

Now suppose that $`I=\{\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},\mathrm{},k\}`$ and that the $`𝒰_i`$ permute pairwise. We will show that $`𝒲`$ satisfies the $`(_i𝒰_i),𝒱`$-term condition. Given $`W𝒲`$ and $`t`$, we define $`W_0=W`$ and for each $`iI`$, inductively, define $`U_i𝒰_i`$, $`V_i𝒱`$, and $`W_i𝒲`$ to be such that $`aU_ia^{}`$, $`𝐛V_i𝐜`$, and $`t(a,𝐛)W_it(a,𝐜)`$ imply $`t(a^{},𝐛)W_{i1}t(a^{},𝐜)`$, using the fact that $`C(𝒰_i,𝒱;𝒲)`$. Then $`aU_k\mathrm{}U_1a^{}`$, $`𝐛(_iV_i)𝐜`$, and $`t(a,𝐛)W_kt(a,𝐜)`$ imply $`t(a^{},𝐛)𝑊t(a^{},𝐜)`$. However, $`U_k\mathrm{}U_1_i𝒰_i`$, because the $`𝒰_i`$ permute pairwise; it follows that $`𝒲`$ satisfies the $`(_i𝒰_i),𝒱`$-term condition, proving that $`𝒲=_i[𝒰_i,𝒱]=[_i𝒰_i,𝒱]`$. ∎

###### Corollary 7.3.

The commutator of compatible uniformities on an algebra in a congruence-permutable variety is finitely additive.

###### Proof.

By \[10, Theorem 6.4\], compatible uniformities on an algebra in a congruence-permutable variety permute pairwise. ∎

### The homomorphism property

Recall the definition of $`R(𝒲,U)`$ from Section 2.

###### Lemma 7.4.

Let $`𝐕`$ be a congruence-modular variety with sequence of Day terms $`𝐦`$. If $`A𝐕`$, $`𝒲\mathrm{Unif}A`$, $`U`$ and $`V`$ are relations on $`A`$, and $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$ are given, then

$$\mathrm{x}_𝐦(\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(R(𝒲,U),R(𝒲,V)))R(𝒲,\mathrm{x}_𝐦(\mathrm{M}_{n,n^{},t}(U,V))).$$

###### Proof.

An element of $`R(𝒲,U)`$ is a pair of equivalence classes of Cauchy nets with respect to $`𝒲`$, having representatives such that for large enough indices, the values taken by the representatives are related by $`U`$. $`R(𝒲,V)`$ is defined similarly. Then an element of $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(M_{n,n^{},t}(R(𝒲,U),R(𝒲,V)))`$ is a pair of equivalence classes having representatives such that for large enough indices, the values define pairs in $`\mathrm{x}_𝐦(M_{n,n^{},t}(U,V))`$. That is, such a pair belongs to $`R(𝒲,\mathrm{x}_𝐦((M_{n,n^{},t}(U,V)))`$. ∎

###### Theorem 7.5.

Let $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱`$, $`𝒲\mathrm{Unif}A`$, where $`A𝐕`$, a congruence-modular variety with Day terms $`𝐦`$. Then

1. If $`𝒰𝒲`$ and $`𝒱𝒲`$, $`[𝒰,𝒱]𝒲=(\mathrm{nat}𝒲)^1[𝒰/𝒲,𝒱/𝒲]`$.
2. If $`𝒰`$ and $`𝒱`$ permute with $`𝒲`$, then $`[𝒰,𝒱]𝒲=(\mathrm{nat}𝒲)^1[(𝒰𝒲)/𝒲,(𝒱𝒲)/𝒲]`$.

###### Proof.

(2) follows from (1) because if $`𝒰`$ and $`𝒱`$ permute with $`𝒲`$, then $`[𝒰,𝒱]𝒲=[𝒰𝒲,𝒱𝒲]𝒲`$, and we can apply (1) since $`𝒰𝒲𝒲`$ and $`𝒱𝒲𝒲`$.

As for (1), first we have by Theorem 7.1(4),

$`[𝒰,𝒱]`$ $`=[(\mathrm{nat}𝒲)^1(𝒰/𝒲),(\mathrm{nat}𝒲)^1(𝒱/𝒲)]`$
$`(\mathrm{nat}𝒲)^1[𝒰/𝒲,𝒱/𝒲]`$
and also $`𝒲=(\mathrm{nat}𝒲)^1(𝒲/𝒲)(\mathrm{nat}𝒲)^1[𝒰/𝒲,𝒱/𝒲]`$, because $`𝒲/𝒲`$ is the least element of the lattice $`\mathrm{Unif}A/𝒲`$, whence

$$[𝒰,𝒱]𝒲(\mathrm{nat}𝒲)^1([𝒰/𝒲,𝒱/𝒲]).$$

To prove the opposite inequality, it suffices to show that $`𝒳_𝐦(𝒰/𝒲,𝒱/𝒲)([𝒰,𝒱]𝒲)/𝒲`$. If $`Q[𝒰,𝒱]𝒲`$, then in particular, $`Q[𝒰,𝒱]`$. Then by the definition of $`[𝒰,𝒱]`$ and $`𝒳_𝐦(𝒰,𝒱)`$, given $`n`$, $`n^{}`$, and $`t`$, there exist $`U𝒰`$, $`V𝒱`$ such that $`𝒳_{𝐦,n,n^{},t}(U,V)Q`$. Then by Lemma 7.4, $`𝒳_{𝐦,n,n^{},t}(R(𝒲,U),R(𝒲,V))R(𝒲,Q)`$. This proves that $`𝒳_𝐦(𝒰/𝒲,𝒱/𝒲)([𝒰,𝒱]𝒲)/𝒲`$, because $`R(𝒲,U)𝒰/𝒲`$ and $`R(𝒲,V)𝒱/𝒲`$, and relations of the form $`R(𝒲,Q)`$ for $`Q[𝒰,𝒱]𝒲`$ form a base for $`([𝒰,𝒱]𝒲)/𝒲`$. ∎

## 8. Commutator Operations and Congruential Uniformities

Recall that a uniformity $`𝒰\mathrm{Unif}A`$ is *congruential* if it has a base of congruences. Given a filter of congruences $`F`$, it determines a congruential uniformity $`\mathrm{Ug}F`$, of which $`F`$ is a base and which determines $`F`$.

For example, consider filters in $`\mathrm{Con}`$, where $``$ is the ring of integers. In addition to the principal filters $`\mathrm{Fg}\{(n)\}`$ for $`n`$, where $``$ is the set of natural numbers, there are many other filters such as $`(m^{\mathrm{}})\stackrel{\text{Def}}{=}\mathrm{Fg}\{(p^n)n\}`$ for $`m`$ a nonzero natural number. (Of course, the mapping $`m(m^{\mathrm{}})`$ is not one-one.)

The mapping $`F\mathrm{Ug}F`$, from the lattice of congruential uniformities of $`A`$ into the lattice of uniformities, preserves arbitrary meets, and by \[10, Theorem 6.3\], if the algebra $`A`$ has permuting uniformities, it preserves finite joins.

For the time being, we will assume that the algebras we are discussing belong to a congruence-modular variety.

###### Proposition 8.1.

Let $`\alpha \mathrm{Con}A`$, and $`F`$, $`F^{}\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Con}A`$. Then the sets $`\{[\alpha ,\varphi ]\varphi F\}`$, $`\{[\varphi ,\alpha ]\varphi F\}`$, and $`\{[\varphi ,\varphi ^{}]\varphi F,\varphi ^{}F^{}\}`$ are bases for filters $`[\alpha ,F]`$, $`[F,\alpha ]`$, and $`[F,F^{}]`$ in $`\mathrm{Con}A`$.

###### Proposition 8.2.

Let $`\alpha `$, $`\beta \mathrm{Con}A`$, and $`F\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Con}A`$. Then

1. $`[\mathrm{Fg}^{\mathrm{Con}A}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Fg}^{\mathrm{Con}A}\{\beta \}]=\mathrm{Fg}^{\mathrm{Con}A}\{[\alpha ,\beta ]\}`$
2. $`[\alpha ,F]=[\mathrm{Fg}^{\mathrm{Con}A}\{\alpha \},F]`$
3. $`[F,\alpha ]=[F,\mathrm{Fg}^{\mathrm{Con}A}\{\alpha \}]`$.

Thus, we have defined a binary operation on $`\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Con}A`$ which extends the commutator on $`\mathrm{Con}A`$. Clearly this operation satisfies the elementery properties of the commutator as given in Theorem 7.1; we leave the statement of the theorem to the reader. Let us also prove that this commutator on $`\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Con}A`$ is finitely additive:

###### Theorem 8.3.

If $`F_i`$, $`i=1`$, $`2`$, $`\mathrm{}`$, $`n`$ and $`F^{}\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Con}A`$, then $`[_iF_i,F^{}]=_i[F_i,F^{}]`$.

###### Proof.

Clearly we have $`_i[F_i,F^{}][_iF_i,F^{}]`$ by monotonicity. To prove the opposite inequality, let $`\chi _i[F_i,F^{}]`$ be of the form $`\chi =_i[\alpha _i,\beta _i]`$ for $`\alpha _iF_i`$ and $`\beta _iF^{}`$. Then by the monotonicity and additivity of the commutator on congruences, we have $`\chi [_i\alpha _i,_i\beta _i][_iF_i,F^{}]`$. This proves that $`[_iF_i,F^{}]_i[F_i,F^{}]`$. ∎

Now, let us relate this commutator operation on $`\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Con}A`$ to that on $`\mathrm{Unif}A`$:

###### Theorem 8.4.

Let $`A`$ be an algebra. We have

1. If $`\alpha \mathrm{Con}A`$, and $`F\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Con}A`$, then $`[\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}F]\mathrm{Ug}[\alpha ,F]`$
2. If $`\alpha \mathrm{Con}A`$, and $`F\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Con}A`$, then $`[\mathrm{Ug}F,\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \}]\mathrm{Ug}[F,\alpha ]`$.
3. If $`F`$, $`F^{}\mathrm{Fil}\mathrm{Con}A`$, then $`[\mathrm{Ug}F,\mathrm{Ug}F^{}]\mathrm{Ug}[F,F^{}]`$.

###### Proof.

(3): If $`W\mathrm{Ug}[F,F^{}]`$, then $`[\alpha ,\beta ]W`$ for some $`\alpha F`$ and $`\beta F^{}`$, because such congruences form a base of $`\mathrm{Ug}[F,F^{}]`$. $`[\alpha ,\beta ]`$ satisfies the $`\alpha ,\beta `$-term condition, so for all $`t`$, $`a`$ and $`a^{}`$ such that $`a𝛼a^{}`$, and $`𝐛`$ and $`𝐜`$ with $`𝐛𝛽𝐜`$, $`t(a,𝐛)[\alpha ,\beta ]t(a,𝐜)`$ implies $`t(a^{},𝐛)[\alpha ,\beta ]t(a^{},𝐜)`$. But $`\alpha \mathrm{Ug}F`$ and $`\beta \mathrm{Ug}F^{}`$. Thus, $`\mathrm{Ug}[F,F^{}]`$ satisfies the $`\mathrm{Ug}F,\mathrm{Ug}F^{}`$-term condition. If follows that $`[\mathrm{Ug}F,\mathrm{Ug}F^{}]\mathrm{Ug}[F,F^{}]`$.

(1): By (3), $`[\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}F]=[\mathrm{Ug}\mathrm{Fg}^{\mathrm{Con}A}\{\alpha \},\mathrm{Ug}F]\mathrm{Ug}[\mathrm{Fg}^{\mathrm{Con}A}\{\alpha \},F]=\mathrm{Ug}[\alpha ,F]`$.

(2): similar to proof of (1). ∎

###### Remark.

Propositions 8.1 and 8.2, and Theorem 8.4 hold in non-congruence-modular varieties, if we replace $`[\alpha ,\beta ]`$ by $`C(\alpha ,\beta )`$ and define $`C(\alpha ,F)`$, $`C(F,\alpha )`$, and $`C(F,F^{})`$ or similarly if we replace $`[\alpha ,\beta ]`$ by $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,\beta )`$ and define $`\stackrel{~}{C}(\alpha ,F)`$, $`\stackrel{~}{C}(F,\alpha )`$, and $`\stackrel{~}{C}(F,F^{})`$. We omit the details.

## 9. Miscellany

### Congruential uniformities on commutative rings

For $`A`$ a commutative ring, Theorem 8.4 can be improved. For a translation invariant relation $`U`$ on $`A`$, we denote by $`\delta (U)`$ the set of differences $`ab`$ for $`a`$, $`bA`$ such that $`a𝑈b`$.

###### Theorem 9.1.

If $`A`$ is a commutative ring, then the inequalities in the conclusion of Theorem 8.4 are equalities.

###### Proof.

It suffices to show that $`\mathrm{Ug}[F,F^{}][\mathrm{Ug}F,\mathrm{Ug}F^{}]`$. We use the fact that $`[\mathrm{Ug}F,\mathrm{Ug}F^{}]`$ satisfies the $`\mathrm{Ug}F,\mathrm{Ug}F^{}`$-term condition for the term $`t(x,y)=xy`$. Let $`U[\mathrm{Ug}F,\mathrm{Ug}F^{}]`$. By Lemma 3.1, we may assume $`U`$ is translation-invariant without loss of generality. There are $`\overline{U}[\mathrm{Ug}F,\mathrm{Ug}F^{}]`$, $`\alpha F`$, and $`\beta F^{}`$ such that $`a𝛼a^{}`$, $`b𝛽c`$, and $`ab\overline{U}ac`$ imply $`a^{}b𝑈a^{}c`$. Then if $`b𝛽c`$ and $`aI_\alpha `$ (the ideal corresponding to $`\alpha `$), $`0b=0c`$, implying $`ab𝑈ac`$. It follows that $`I_{[\alpha ,\beta ]}=I_\alpha I_\beta \delta (U)`$, and this implies that $`[\alpha ,\beta ]U`$. ∎

It follows from this theorem that, for commutative rings, the commutators $`[\alpha ,F]`$, $`[F,\alpha ]`$ and $`[F,F^{}]`$ can be considered as commutators of uniformities.

###### Example.

In $`\mathrm{Unif}`$, we have $`[\mathrm{Ug}(p^{\mathrm{}}),\mathrm{Ug}(q^{\mathrm{}})]=\mathrm{Ug}((pq)^{\mathrm{}})`$, for prime numbers $`pq`$, showing that the commutator of two compatible uniformities is not always equal to $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \}`$ for some congruence $`\alpha `$.

### Algebras in congruence-distributive varieties

###### Theorem 9.2.

Let $`A`$ be an algebra in a congruence-distributive variety, with Jónsson terms $`d_0`$, $`\mathrm{}`$, $`d_k`$, and let $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱\mathrm{Unif}A`$. Then $`[𝒰,𝒱]=𝒰𝒱`$.

###### Proof.

We already know that $`[𝒰,𝒱]𝒰𝒱`$. To prove the opposite inequality, we must show that if $`W[𝒰,𝒱]`$, then there are $`U𝒰`$, $`V𝒱`$ such that $`UVW`$. We will use the Jónsson terms to prove this.

Let $`W[𝒰,𝒱]`$. We define $`W_k`$, $`W_{k1}`$, $`\mathrm{}`$, $`W_0[𝒰,𝒱]`$ successively, as follows: Set $`W_k=W`$. If $`n`$ is odd, then there exist $`W_{n1}[𝒰,𝒱]`$, $`U_{n1}𝒰`$, $`V_{n1}𝒱`$ such that $`d_n(a,b,a)W_{n1}d_n(a,b,b)`$ and $`aU_{n1}V_{n1}b`$ imply $`d_n(a,b,a)W_nd_n(a,b,b)`$. If $`n>0`$ is even, then there exist $`W_{n1}`$, $`U_{n1}`$, $`V_{n1}`$ such that $`d_n(a,a,a)W_{n1}d_n(a,a,b)`$ and $`aU_{n1}V_{n1}b`$ imply $`d_n(a,a,a)W_nd_n(a,a,b)`$. Now let $`U=_nU_n`$, $`V=_nV_n`$, and $`aUVb`$. We have $`d_0(a,a,a)=a=d_0(a,a,b)`$ so $`d_0(a,a,a)W_0d_0(a,a,b)`$. We further have

$`d_2(a,b,a)=a=d_1(a,b,a)`$ $`W_1d_1(a,b,b)=d_2(a,b,b),`$
$`d_3(a,a,a)=a=d_2(a,a,a)`$ $`W_2d_2(a,a,b)=d_3(a,a,b),`$
and so on, ending with $`a=d_k(a,b,a)W_kd_k(a,b,b)=b`$ if $`k`$ is even and with $`a=d_k(a,a,a)W_kd_k(a,a,b)=b`$ if $`k`$ is odd. In either case, we have shown that $`UVW_k=W`$. ∎

### Abelian algebras

Recall that an algebra $`A`$ in a congruence-modular variety is *abelian* if $`[_A,_A]=_A`$. In this case, from Theorem 7.1 and Theorem 4.9, we have $`[𝒰,𝒱]=\mathrm{Ug}\{_A\}`$ for any $`𝒰`$, $`𝒱\mathrm{Unif}A`$.

For example, abelian groups are abelian algebras, so we might consider the group of real numbers and the commutator $`[𝒰,𝒰]`$, where $`𝒰`$ is the unique compatible uniformity (compatible, that is, with respect to the abelian group operations) that gives rise to the usual topology on the group of real numbers. $`𝒰`$ is noncongruential and abelian. This example shows that noncongruential uniformities can have a commutator that is congruential, indeed of the form $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \}`$ for $`\alpha `$ a congruence.

## 10. Conclusions

In this final section, we will review some of the questions still open regarding the commutator of uniformities, and uniform universal algebra generally.

The most important question is the possible additivity and even complete additivity of the commutator, as holds for congruences and as we have proved for some special cases in Theorem 7.2 and Theorem 8.3. Many applications of commutator theory rely on this. An obstacle here is the difficulty of dealing with joins of compatible uniformities. A more specific question, which might be easier to settle, is complete additivity for compatible uniformities of an algebra in a congruence-permutable variety. We proved finite additivity in this case, using the fact that compatible uniformities permute pairwise.

The proof that, in the case of an algebra $`A`$ with underlying group, formation of commutators with a uniformity of the form $`\mathrm{Ug}\{\alpha \}`$ is completely additive, utilizing the theory of $`\mathrm{Unif}A(\alpha )`$, suggests that an appropriate definition for $`A(𝒰)`$ may help settle the additivity question.

A uniformity $`𝒰`$ on an algebra $`A`$ in a congruence-modular variety $`𝐕`$ can be defined as *abelian* if $`[𝒰,𝒰]=\mathrm{Ug}\{_A\}=\mathrm{Fg}\{\mathrm{\Delta }_A\}`$. In the case of a congruence $`\alpha `$, abelianness leads to a structure of abelian group object on the algebra $`A(\alpha )`$, viewed as an algebra over $`A`$ (that is, as an object in the comma category of algebras of $`𝐕`$ over $`A`$). The abelian group operations on this abelian group object can be obtained from any difference term. The problem of generalizing this theory to uniformities again depends upon the proper definition of $`A(𝒰)`$.

In the theory of uniform universal algebra, an important open question is the possible modularity of the uniformity lattice of an algebra in a congruence-modular variety. This has only been proved for algebras in congruence-permutable varieties and not more generally, although there is a partial result \[10, Theorem 7.5\].

A similar question is the possible distributivity of the uniformity lattice of an algebra in a congruence-distributive variety. This has been proved only for arithmetic algebras \[10, Theorem 6.5\]. Note that because $`[𝒰,𝒱]=𝒰𝒱`$ for congruence distributive agebras (Theorem 9.2) additivity of the commutator of compatible uniformities in this case is equivalent to distributivity of $`\mathrm{Unif}A`$, and complete additivity is equivalent to the distributivity of meet over an arbitrary join.

### Acknowledgement

We would like to thank Keith Kearnes for his ideas on this topic, and some lively discussions.


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# Non-Lévy Distribution of Commodity Price Fluctuations

## Abstract

Price fluctuations of commodities like cotton and wheat are thought to display probability distributions of returns that follow a Lévy stable distribution. Recent analysis of stocks and foreign exchange markets show that the probability distributions are not Lévy stable, a plausible result since commodity markets have quite different features than stock markets. We analyze daily returns of 29 commodities over typically 20 years and find that the distributions of returns decay as power laws with exponents $`\alpha `$ which have values $`\alpha >2`$, outside the Lévy-stable domain. We also find that the amplitudes of the returns display long-range time correlations, like stocks, while the returns themselves are uncorrelated for time lags $``$ 2 days, much larger than for stocks ( $``$ 4 min).

PACS numbers: 89.90.+n, 05.45.Tp, 05.40.Fb

The study of economic markets has recently become an area of active research for physicists, for various reasons. First, markets constitute complex systems for which the variables characterizing the state of the system—i.e., the price of the goods, the number of trades, the number of agents are easily quantified. Second, because of the importance of markets there is a large amount of data that can be accessed.

Much of the research interest of physicists has concentrated on stocks , stock averages , foreign exchange rates  and other markets . A number of key empirical findings have been established: (i) The distribution of logarithmic price changes is approximately symmetric and decays with power law tails with an exponent $`\alpha +14`$ for the probability density function . (ii) The price changes are uncorrelated beyond rather short time scales ; and (iii) the amplitude of the price changes have long-range correlations, specifically, the correlations decay as a power law with an exponent $`\gamma 1/3`$ .

Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of these empirical findings is that they appear to be universal, that is individual US stocks appear to conform to these “laws” , as do German stocks , and Australian stocks . Moreover, market indices such as the S&P 500, the Dow Jones, the NIKKEI, the Hang Seng or the Milan index  also obey these same laws. Furthermore, similar results are found for the most traded currency exchange rates such as the US dollar vs. the Deutsch mark, or the US dollar vs. the Japanese yen . The “universal” nature of the statistics of daily returns is remarkable since the markets described above are quite different in their details. The observed universality thus suggests a rather striking similarity in the underlying mechanisms.

Unlike stock and foreign exchange markets, commodity markets have received less attention . Contrary to heavily traded stocks or currencies—which have a somewhat abstract character because they (i) have an almost “elastic” response to changes in demand, (ii) do not require storage, and (iii) are not “consumed”— commodities are physical products that are traded because they (i) cannot be produced at will, (ii) require physical storage, and (iii) are needed for some purpose. For example, one needs gasoline to run a car, heating oil to heat a home, or electricity to light an office.

Since stock markets and commodity markets differ in so many respects, one might imagine that commodity prices show larger fluctuations than stock prices. In fact, probability distributions of the returns of commodities such as cotton and wheat have been reported  to be Lévy stable that have power law decaying tails with exponents in the range $`0<\alpha <2`$, which implies the probability of a large gain or loss is larger than if the distribution were a power law with $`\alpha >2`$ . Here we address the question whether the scaling of commodities is statistically distinguishable from that of stocks. We study the statistical properties of the price fluctuations for 29 commodities  and compare the results with the statistical properties of daily returns in stock markets.

We define the normalized price fluctuation (“return”)

$$g_i(t)\frac{\mathrm{ln}S_i(t+\mathrm{\Delta }t)\mathrm{ln}S_i(t)}{\sigma _i},$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }t=1`$ day, $`i=1,2,..,29`$ indexes the commodities, $`S_i(t)`$ is the price and $`\sigma _i`$ is the standard deviation. Figure 1 displays the price and corresponding returns of a typical commodity, high-sulphur fuel oil \[Table I\]. Figure 2 shows that the probability distributions $`P(g_i>x)`$ for both positive and negative tails decay as power laws with exponents that we cannot distinguish statistically,

$$P(g_i>x)\frac{1}{x^{\alpha _i}}$$
(2)
where $`\alpha _i`$ is outside the Lévy stable domain $`0<\alpha _i<2`$.

Figure 3 displays Hill estimates  of $`\alpha _i`$ for all 29 commodities, calculated for $`x`$ above a cutoff value $`x_{\mathrm{cutoff}}`$, which is estimated by evaluating $`\alpha _i`$ starting from different trial values of $`x_{\mathrm{cutoff}}`$, and choosing $`x_{\mathrm{cutoff}}`$ as the minimum $`x`$ value above which $`\alpha _i`$ does not change significantly. Based on our analysis we choose for all 29 commodities the same value $`x_{\mathrm{cutoff}}=2`$. Note that for daily returns the number of data points beyond $`x_{\mathrm{cutoff}}=2`$ is typically 50-200. The average exponent is $`\alpha =(_{i=1}^{29}\alpha _i)/29=2.9\pm 0.08`$ for the positive tail and $`\alpha =2.7\pm 0.07`$ for the negative tail .

Next we compare our calculations of $`\alpha _i`$ with exponents $`\alpha _i`$ of daily returns evaluated for 7128 stocks from the CRSP database . We choose stocks in the same time period as the 29 commodities analyzed, and compute tail exponents of $`P(x)`$ by the same procedure. Figures 4(a) and 4(b) compare the probability density functions of tail exponents for both commodities and stocks. The pdf for stocks is same as is reported in , and the exponents are outside the Lévy stable region for both stocks and commodities.

We next discuss time correlations of returns. Figure 5(a) displays the autocorrelation function $`<g_i(t)g_i(t+\tau )>`$ averaged over the 29 commodities. We observe that this averaged autocorrelation function $`C(\tau )`$ ceases to be statistically different from zero for time lags $`\tau `$ of 3 days or more. To further quantify time correlations, we use the detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) method . The DFA method calculates fluctuations $`F(n)`$ in a time window of size $`n`$, and then plots $`F(n)`$ versus $`n`$. The slope $`\widehat{\alpha }`$ in a log-log plot gives information about the correlations present. If $`C(\tau )\tau ^\gamma `$ then $`\widehat{\alpha }=(2\gamma )/2`$, while if $`C(\tau )e^{\tau /\tau _c}`$ then $`\widehat{\alpha }=1/2`$ . We find in Fig. 5(b) that $`\widehat{\alpha }=0.55\pm 0.05`$, consistent with the exponential decay of Fig. 5(a). We also observe that $`|g_i|`$, the absolute value of returns (one measure of volatility), are power law correlated with $`\widehat{\alpha }=0.73\pm 0.05`$, which implies a power law decay of the autocorrelation of the absolute value of returns with $`\gamma =0.54\pm 0.1`$.

We thank S. V. Buldyrev, X. Gabaix, P. Gopikrishnan, V. Plerou, A. Schweiger and especially P. King for helpful discussions and suggestions and BP/Amoco for financial support.