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# Effective Mass of Atom and Excitation Spectrum in Liquid Helium-4 at 𝑇=0 K

## 1 Introduction

The idea of the effective mass of helium atom was suggested by Feynman in 1953 . He stated that one should insert the effective mass (being slightly larger than the mass of a ‘pure’ atom $`m`$) in the expressions for the density matrix.

Isihara and Samulski  used the effective mass $`m^{}=1.71m`$ in order to obtain a good agreement of the excitation spectrum sound branch with the experimental data on the sound velocity.

While in both these cases the effective mass was introduced phenomenologically, it appeared to be possible to receive the value of this quantity basing on the experimental data for the structure factor of liquid helium-4 , the result of $`1.70m`$ was calculated there by Vakarchuk.

In the paper presented we will give the way of the receiving 4He atom effective mass by means of a self-consistent equation. The expressions are written within the collective variables formalism as described by Bogoliubov and Zubarev . Two-time temperature Green functions  are utilized for the calculation of the thermodynamic averages.

The main idea of the paper is to show the possibility of an essentially simple approach to the problem of the many-boson system with strong interaction, such as liquid helium-4. The method applied does not require much computational efforts. This advantage allows for the development of the further approximations.

In addition, if one accepts the assumption that the phenomena in liquid 4He are at least partly due to the Bose-condensation being ‘spoiled’ by the interatomic interaction, it turns to be possible to estimate the lambda transition temperature as the critical temperature of the ideal Bose-gas. We show that such an approach leads to a very good agreement with the experiment: if the effective mass is about 50% larger than the pure one the Bose-condensation temperature decreases to the value of $`2`$ K.

The Green functions technique provides also a possibility to receive the excitation spectrum of the system. As a result of the mass renormalization, the excitation spectrum is found to be in the better agreement with the experiment in comparison with the Bogoliubov’s or Feynman’s one while the expressions are the same (for the latter two spectra the problem of the so called ‘roton’ minimum overestimation is well-known if one considers the pure mass).

A self-consistent approach was recently applied for the calculation of the 4He excitation spectrum by Pashitskii et al . The results of this paper are in an excellent agreement with the experiment. The authors used the ‘semitransparent spheres’ potential for the calculation with some adjusting parameters. In our work, we utilize the potential  as an input information for the computations. This potential was received on the basis of the quantum-mechanical equations with the static structure factor as the only experimental data. Since this quantity is quite easily measured directly in the scattering experiments, we consider it as a good approach. Unfortunately, a direct calculation of the potential for the many-body problem cannot be made for the time being.

The paper is organized as follows. The calculating procedure is given in Section 2. The Hamiltonian is written and the equations of motion for the Green functions are solved in random phase approximation (RPA) providing a self-consistent equation for the effective mass extraction. The numerical results are adduced in Section 3 together with the discussion.

## 2 Calculation procedure

The Hamiltonian of the Bose-system in the collective variables representation reads :

$`\widehat{H}={\displaystyle \underset{𝐤0}{}}\left\{\epsilon _k\left[\rho _𝐤_𝐤_𝐤_𝐤\right]+{\displaystyle \frac{N}{2V}}\nu _k\left[\rho _𝐤\rho _𝐤1\right]\right\}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}}\underset{𝐤+𝐪0}{{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤0}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪0}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}}\mathrm{𝐤𝐪}\rho _{𝐤+𝐪}_𝐤_𝐪,`$ (1)
where the operator $`_𝐤=/\rho _𝐤`$. Here, $`\epsilon _k`$ is the energy spectrum of a free particle, $`\epsilon _k=\mathrm{}^2k^2/2m`$, $`N`$ is the total number of particles in the system, and $`V`$ is the system volume. In the thermodynamic limit, $`N/V=\varrho =\mathrm{const}`$. $`\nu _k`$ is the Fourier transform of the interatomic potential. The item with one summation over the wave vector $`𝐤`$ in Eq. (1) corresponds to the random phase approximation, and the second one is the correction. Let us assume that our system is described by exactly RPA Hamiltonian $`\widehat{H}^{()}`$, i. e.,

$`\widehat{H}^{()}={\displaystyle \underset{𝐤0}{}}\left\{\epsilon _k^{}\left[\rho _𝐤_𝐤_𝐤_𝐤\right]+{\displaystyle \frac{N}{2V}}\nu _k\left[\rho _𝐤\rho _𝐤1\right]\right\}`$ (2)
where $`\epsilon _k^{}=\mathrm{}^2k^2/2m^{}`$ and $`m^{}`$ is the effective mass of 4He atom. It is the only quantity suitable for the ‘effective’ role since we wish to preserve the interatomic potential as the initial information.

One can define $`m^{}`$ demanding that the effective Hamiltonian (2) leads to the same ground-state energy as the initial Hamiltonian (1), $`\widehat{H}^{()}=\widehat{H}`$:

$`{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤0}{}}\left\{\epsilon _k^{}\left[\rho _𝐤_𝐤^{()}_𝐤_𝐤^{()}\right]+{\displaystyle \frac{N}{2V}}\nu _k\left[\rho _𝐤\rho _𝐤^{()}1\right]\right\}=`$ (3)
$`={\displaystyle \underset{𝐤0}{}}\left\{\epsilon _k\left[\rho _𝐤_𝐤_𝐤_𝐤\right]+{\displaystyle \frac{N}{2V}}\nu _k\left[\rho _𝐤\rho _𝐤1\right]\right\}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}}\underset{𝐤+𝐪0}{{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤0}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪0}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}}\mathrm{𝐤𝐪}\rho _{𝐤+𝐪}_𝐤_𝐪,`$
where the superscript $`()`$ near the angle brackets is introduced for the convenience.

One can find the operators product average utilizing two-time temperature Green functions defined as follows :

$`A(t)|B(t^{})=i\theta (tt^{})[A(t),B(t^{})]`$ (4)
with operators given in the Heisenberg representation, $`\theta `$ is the Heaviside step function.

$`AB\widehat{𝒜}G_{BA}(\mathrm{}\omega )={\displaystyle \frac{i}{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}}d\mathrm{}\omega {\displaystyle \frac{G_{BA}(\mathrm{}\omega +i\epsilon )G_{BA}(\mathrm{}\omega i\epsilon )}{e^{\beta \mathrm{}\omega }1}}|_{\epsilon +0}`$ (5)
where $`G_{BA}`$ stands for $`B|A`$ and the operator $`\widehat{𝒜}`$ is introduced for the convenience. We put the time arguments in the operators $`A(t),B(t^{})`$ to coincide: $`tt^{}=0`$. This will provide static properties of the system under consideration. In the above expression, $`\beta `$ is the inverse temperature, $`\beta =1/T`$.

Now, we will proceed to the equations of motion for the Green functions $`G_{\rho \rho }(𝐤)\rho _𝐤|\rho _𝐤,G_\rho (𝐤)\rho _𝐤|_𝐤`$, etc. It is easy to receive the following set of equations in RPA:

$`(\mathrm{}\omega +\epsilon _k)G_{\rho \rho }(𝐤)=2\epsilon _kG_\rho (𝐤),`$
$`(\mathrm{}\omega \epsilon _k)G_\rho (𝐤)=\varrho \nu _kG_{\rho \rho }(𝐤)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi }},`$
$`(\mathrm{}\omega +\epsilon _k)G_\rho (𝐤)=2\epsilon _kG_{}(𝐤){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi }},`$
$`(\mathrm{}\omega \epsilon _k)G_{}(𝐤)=\varrho \nu _kG_\rho (𝐤).`$ (6)
Next, let us consider the triple product average $`ABC`$. One can obtain it utilizing either the Green function $`G_{C;AB}C|AB`$ or $`G_{BC;A}BC|A`$. We suggest the first possibility to fulfill:

$`ABC=\widehat{𝒜}G_{C;AB}C|AB.`$ (7)
In other words, we neglect the functions of the type $`G_{BC;A}BC|A`$ for the sake of simplicity (when applying this to Eq. (2) it means that only the RPA term of the Hamiltonian (1) is taken into consideration when constructing the equations of motion).

Having performed the similar procedure with the function $`G_{;\rho }(𝐤_1,𝐤_2,𝐤_3)_{𝐤_1}|\rho _{𝐤_2}_{𝐤_3}`$ we obtain in RPA the following set of equations:

$`(\mathrm{}\omega \epsilon _{k_2})G_{;\rho }(𝐤_2,𝐤_1+𝐤_2,𝐤_1)=\varrho \nu _{k_2}G_{\rho ;\rho }(𝐤_2,𝐤_1+𝐤_2,𝐤_1)g_\rho (\omega )`$
$`(\mathrm{}\omega +\epsilon _{k_2})G_{\rho ;\rho }(𝐤_2,𝐤_1+𝐤_2,𝐤_1)=2\epsilon _{k_2}G_{;\rho }(𝐤_2,𝐤_1+𝐤_2,𝐤_1)g_{\rho \rho }(\omega ),`$ (8)
where the quadruple Green functions were decoupled in such a way providing for the inhomogeneous set of equations:

$`AB|CD=BDA|C+CAB|D+ADB|C+CBA|D.`$ (9)
The inhomogeneous terms in Eq. (2) read:

$`g_{\rho \rho }(\omega )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}}[𝐤_1𝐤_2\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}D_{k_1}G_{\rho \rho }(𝐤_1+𝐤_2)+𝐤_1𝐤_2S_{|𝐤_1+𝐤_2|}G_{}(𝐤_1)`$
$`+𝐤_2(𝐤_1+𝐤_2)D_{k_1}^{\prime \prime }G_\rho (𝐤_1+𝐤_2)+𝐤_2(𝐤_1+𝐤_2)D_{|𝐤_1+𝐤_2|}^{\prime \prime }G_\rho (𝐤_1)]`$
$`g_\rho (\omega )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}}\left[𝐤_1(𝐤_1+𝐤_2)D_{k_1}G_\rho (𝐤_1+𝐤_2)+𝐤_1(𝐤_1+𝐤_2)D_{|𝐤_1+𝐤_2|}^{\prime \prime }G_{}(𝐤_1)\right]\times 2.`$ (10)
The notations for the averages of pair products are listed below:

$`\rho _𝐤\rho _𝐤`$ $``$ $`S_k={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\alpha _k}}\mathrm{coth}{\displaystyle \frac{\epsilon _k\alpha _k}{2T}},`$
$`\rho _𝐤_𝐤`$ $``$ $`D_k^{\prime \prime }={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\alpha _k}}\mathrm{coth}{\displaystyle \frac{\epsilon _k\alpha _k}{2T}}1\right)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(S_k1\right),`$
$`_𝐤_𝐤`$ $``$ $`D_k={\displaystyle \frac{1\alpha _k^2}{4\alpha _k}}\mathrm{coth}{\displaystyle \frac{\epsilon _k\alpha _k}{2T}}={\displaystyle \frac{\varrho \nu _k}{2\epsilon _k}}S_k.`$ (11)
The quantity $`\alpha _k`$ is defined as follows:

$`\alpha _k=\left(1+2\varrho \nu _k/\epsilon _k\right)^{1/2}.`$ (12)
Now, if we turn back to correlation (3), the meaning of the asterisk as a superscript becomes clear: one should substitute $`m`$ with $`m^{}`$ in the l.h.s. of this equation.

In the ground state ($`T=0`$ K), hyperbolic cotangents in Eq. (2) equal to unity. Therefore, a self-consistent equation for the extraction of $`m^{}`$ becomes as follows:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤0}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\epsilon _k^{}}{4}}\left(\alpha _k^{}1\right)^2={\displaystyle \frac{1}{N}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤0}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{\epsilon _k}{4}}\left(\alpha _k1\right)^2`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{N^2}}\underset{𝐤+𝐪0}{{\displaystyle \underset{𝐤0}{}}{\displaystyle \underset{𝐪0}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}}\right)^2{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{𝐤𝐪}}{\alpha _𝐤\alpha _q\alpha _p}}[({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\epsilon _k\alpha _k+\epsilon _q\alpha _q}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\epsilon _q\alpha _q+\epsilon _p\alpha _p}})(\mathrm{𝐤𝐪}{\displaystyle \frac{\varrho \nu _k\varrho \nu _q}{\epsilon _k\epsilon _q}}+\mathrm{𝐤𝐩}{\displaystyle \frac{\varrho \nu _k}{2\epsilon _k}}+\mathrm{𝐪𝐩}{\displaystyle \frac{\varrho \nu _q}{2\epsilon _q}})`$
$`+\mathrm{𝐤𝐩}{\displaystyle \frac{\varrho \nu _k}{2\epsilon _k}}({\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _p}{\epsilon _k\alpha _k+\epsilon _q\alpha _q}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _q\alpha _p}{\epsilon _q\alpha _q+\epsilon _p\alpha _p}})\mathrm{𝐪𝐩}{\displaystyle \frac{\varrho \nu _q}{2\epsilon _q}}({\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _p}{\epsilon _k\alpha _k+\epsilon _q\alpha _q}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _k}{\epsilon _q\alpha _q+\epsilon _p\alpha _p}})]`$ (13)
where $`𝐩=𝐤+𝐪`$. We also consider the specific energy instead of the total one by introducing the factor of $`1/N`$.

## 3 Numerical results and discussion

We use the previously obtained results  for the interatomic potential Fourier transform $`\nu _k`$. The value of the equilibrium density is $`\varrho =0.02185`$ Å-3. The mass of helium-4 atom equals $`m=4.0026`$ a.m.u. We transit from the summation over the wave vector to the integration in the usual way: $`_𝐤V𝑑𝐤/(2\pi )^3`$. The value of the upper cut-off for the integration over the wave vector is 16.0 Å-1.

The solution of Eq. (2) at the abovelisted conditions is

$`m^{}=1.58m.`$ (14)
One can also receive the excitations spectrum using Green functions. The solutions of set (2) are proportional to $`1/(\mathrm{}{}_{}{}^{2}\omega {}_{}{}^{2}\epsilon _k^2\alpha _k^2)`$ providing the spectrum $`E_k=\pm \epsilon _k\alpha _k`$ — a very well known result . If one inserts the effective mass into the definitions of $`\epsilon _k`$ and $`\alpha _k`$ the obtained curve fits the experimental one quite satisfactory, see Fig. 1.

The phonon branch is reflected quite good providing the sound velocity of approximately 230 m/s vs the experimental 238 m/s at $`T=0.8`$ K  or 240 m/s at $`T=0.1`$ K . The so called ‘roton’ minimum also has the value close to the experimental one.

In addition, the obtained value of the effective mass shifts the temperature of the Bose-condensation from $`T_c=3.14`$ K for the pure mass to $`T_c=1.99`$ K vs the experimental temperature of the lambda transition $`T_\lambda =2.17`$ K. We consider the results discussed above as quite good as for such a rough approximation as random phases.

## Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to Prof. I. Vakarchuk for the valuable discussions on the problem considered in this work.


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# Rejuvenation and overaging in a colloidal glass under shear

## Abstract

We report the modifications of the microscopic dynamics of a colloidal glass submitted to shear. We use multispeckle diffusing wave spectroscopy to monitor the evolution of the spontaneous slow relaxation processes after the sample have been submitted to various straining. We show that high shear rejuvenates the system and accelerates its dynamics whereas moderate shear overage the system. We analyze this phenomena within the frame of the Bouchaud’s trap model.

The physical properties of glassy systems such as supercooled liquids, spin glasses, amorphous polymers and colloidal glasses are well known to evolve slowly with time. This phenomena is called aging. The out-of-equilibrium nature of theses systems compels their physical properties to depend on two times as shown both by theoretical and experimental studies. The first time is the age of the system i.e. the time spent in the glassy phase. The second time is the time elapsed since the measurement started. Consequently, a well controlled history is a key requirement to obtain reproducible results. The most common way to control the history as the age of the system is to quench it from an equilibrium state at high temperature into an aging state at low temperature. Since the system is at equilibrium at high temperature, all the history preceding the quench is erased and a complete rejuvenation of the physical properties is achieved. For colloidal glasses however, temperature may not be a practical parameter. Liu and Nagel recently suggested LiuNagel  that shear may act equivalently to temperature for such materials. Indeed, a high shear proves to be able to erased the memory for theses systems and thus completely rejuvenate them cloitre1 CaroFranc . In that sense the cessation of a shear is similar to a temperature quench. Moreover, different approaches were recently introduced to describe the coupling between mechanical deformations and aging phenomenon solirevue  Berthier  . However quantitative experiments are still lacking to determine unambiguously how shear acts on a microscopic level and how it should be introduced in a mean field model.

In this Letter we report non trivial shear effects on a dense solution of polybeads. We show that theses effects can be mimicked by temperature changes in the Bouchaud’s trap model monthus . Our underlying physical picture is the following: slow relaxations, of characteristic time $`\tau `$, are determined by the structural rearrangements of the particles. The dynamics slows down with the age $`t_w`$ of the system as the beads find more and more stable configurations. $`\tau `$ is thus an increasing function of $`t_w`$. Since a shear flow seems to be able to rejuvenate completely the system, one could imagine that it shuffles the beads arrangements. The resulting configurations could be less stable. The dynamics of rearrangements would be then accelerated and the relaxation time $`\tau `$ would decrease. Oppositely, one could imagine that a moderate oscillatory strain is able to help the system to find more stable, though always non-crystalline, configurations. The dynamics would be then slowed down and $`\tau `$ would be increased. In order to elucidate theses two contradictory pictures, we experimentally tested the effect of an oscillating shear strain on the evolution of the microscopic dynamics of our dense suspension. The sample is a commercial suspension of polystyrene spherical beads of diameter 162 nm copoplymerized with acrilic acid (1%) that creates a charged corona stabilizing the microspheres. It is concentrated by dialyzisis to a volume fraction $`\phi =49\%`$. We use Multispeckle Diffusing Wave Spectroscopy (MSDWS) to probe the slow relaxation dynamics of the system after various strain histories. MSDWS is an extension of regular DWS, a technique that measures the average displacement of the particles through the intensity fluctuations of multiply scattered light. Whereas DWS performs a time average of the fluctuations, MSDWS makes a spatial average of them. It is thus a well suited technique to study slow transient phenomena such as aging processes. A precise description of the technique can be found in Experimental . It allows to measure in real time the two times intensity autocorrelation function $`g_2(t_w+t,t_w)=`$ $`\frac{I(t_w+t)I(t_w)}{I(t_w)^2}`$ where $`t_w`$ is the reference time and t the elapsed time since $`t_w.`$ The average $`\mathrm{}`$ is spatially performed over the speckle pattern. This correlation function is a decreasing function of the number of rearrangements that occurred between $`t_w`$ and $`t_w+t`$ as demonstrated in DurianPine CohenAddad . Thus, the principle of the whole experiment is the following: the suspension is submitted to different shear history detailed below; the modification of its dynamical properties is recorded after shear cessation. The sample is placed in a custom-made shear cell consisting in two parallel glass plates with a variable gap. For all presented experiments, the gap was set to 1.3 mm. Oscillatory straining was realized by moving the bottom plate thanks to a piezoelectric device. Shear strain from 30% to 0.04% could be possibly applied at a fixed frequency of 1Hz. The shear cell was synchronized with the light scattering detection via a PC. For optical considerations, backscattering geometry was used. We confirmed that the suspension did not slip on the wall by checking that we obtained identical results for various gap size. Moreover, no macroscopic crystallization was observed. All the experiments were performed at room temperature. In order to increase the signal to noise ratio, each test presented in this paper was performed 10 times and each correlation function was averaged over the 10 experiments. The reproducibility was check to be better than 5%.

We first submit the sample to a series of 40 oscillations for different strain amplitudes $`\gamma .`$ For $`\gamma >20\%`$ the measurement after the shear cessation becomes insensitive to the shear strain amplitude showing that the rejuvenation is then total. The age $`t_w`$ of the system is defined from the shear cessation as usually done for temperature quench. Fig 1a shows the correlation function versus t for different values of $`t_w`$.This set of curves displays two important features: on the one hand, in the region where t$`5.10^2s`$, all the curves overlap. The correlation functions show an initial decrease that is the end of a short time relaxation. It corresponds to restricted thermal fluctuations of the particles and is called $`\beta `$ mode. This fast mode is not affected by shear as predicted by models Berthier . On the other hand, in the long time limit, we observe a slow decay, known as $`\alpha `$ relaxation, typical of glasses. This decay from the pseudo plateau region is all the slower as the system is elder. It thus means that the average rate of the structural rearrangements decreases with $`t_w.`$ We arbitrarily define the structural relaxation time $`\tau _{1/2}`$for this regime so that $`g_2(t_w+\tau _{1/2},t_w)1=0.06`$. Fig 1b shows that $`\tau _{1/2}t_w^{1.06\pm 0.08}`$ for $`t_w>1s.`$ The aging part of the correlation function can be rescaled with the reduced variable $`\frac{1}{1\mu }\left((t+t_w)^{1\mu }t_w^{1\mu }\right)`$ with $`\mu =1.06.`$ In addition, the shape of the correlation function is invariant by such a scaling. This result is a typical feature of aging process and is qualitatively similar to that found for rheology of such systems cloitre1 CaroFranc Cipelonion .

In order to better understand the influence of shear on the dynamics of the particles we apply to the system the strain history described in fig 2a. The sample is first submitted to an oscillatory strain of amplitude 30% at 1Hz during 40 s in order to rejuvenate it totally. Secondly, we let it age at rest for 10s. Then, a second burst of 1Hz oscillations is applied during td. After its cessation, we examine how the amplitude $`\gamma `$ and the duration td of the burst have modified the dynamical properties of the sample. tw is now referenced from the end of the second burst.

Fig 2b -resp fig 2c- displays the relaxation time $`\tau _{1/2\text{ }}`$ as a function of $`t_w`$ for different strain amplitudes, with td=1s -resp td=100s. Two limit cases can be considered: that of a complete rejuvenation during the second burst -corresponding to the reference curve of fig1- and that of $`\gamma =0\%`$ where the system is unperturbed during the second burst. That last curve is the same than the completely rejuvenated one but shifted in time by t$`{}_{s}{}^{}=`$10s+td. These two limit curves merge at long time because of the log scale. For a duration of the second burst td=1s -fig 2b- we observe that the effect of the second burst is to rejuvenate partially the system: for any $`t_w`$ the relaxation time is a monotonically decreasing function of $`\gamma `$. All the curves lie between the two limit case curves. This is coherent with the idea that the shear has to be strong enough to rejuvenate totally the system. However, one might expect that the amplitude is not the only relevant parameter, but the duration of the shear application has to play a role. Indeed, if the system is left longer under shear, the modification of its dynamic is then dual. When t$`{}_{d}{}^{}=100s`$ -fig 2c-, in the limit of short $`t_w`$, the relaxation time behaves similarly as previously described. However, for longer $`t_w`$ the relaxation time after a moderate strain (see e.g. $`\gamma =7\%`$) is surprisingly longer than the one for the sample without solicitation during the second burst. In other words moderate shear strain results in a system with a slower relaxation time. We call this overshoot in the relaxation time overaging. For large strain amplitudes a total rejuvenation is recovered as exemplified by the curve for $`\gamma =11.7\%`$ in fig 2c. This experiment demonstrates that a moderate shear can perturb the dynamical properties of the system in a non-trivial way.

This is contradictory with the simple idea that strain or stress simply rejuvenates the system and accelerates the dynamics. It shows that a transient strain changes not only the average value of the relaxation time but also the distribution of relaxation times within the sample. The change of the distribution is clearly demonstrated by the crossing of the curves in fig 2c: two similar systems with the same relaxation time and different histories can evolve differently. The shape of the correlation function is also altered by the change in the distribution of relaxation time as demonstrated in fig 4a. Similar modifications of the shape of the response function have already been noticed on spin glasses after a temperature step \- see fig 5 of ref Revueverrespin  . We remark that microscopic aging models including shear in their equations tackles the problem of the modification of the dynamics under shear. To our knowledge, no calculation of the modification of the microscopic dynamic after a transient shear has been performed for theses models. This problem will be addressed in future work discussiondetaillee .

However, we point out here, the similarity of overaging after a transient shear stress and that predicted by the trap model monthus  after a temperature step. We thus introduce in this model the oscillatory straining as a change of temperature. This model describes the motion of non interacting particles hopping in an energy landscape with wells of depth E. The distribution of the wells depth $`\rho (E)`$ is fixed a priori. P(E,t) is the probability for a particle to be in a trap of depth E at time t. The evolution of P(E,t) is simply governed by thermally activated hopping and writes:

$$\frac{P(E,t)}{t}=P(E,t)e^{E/T}+\mathrm{\Gamma }(t)\rho (E)$$
(1)
Where T is the thermal energy and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(t)=_0^{\mathrm{}}P(E^{},t)e^{E^{}/T}𝑑E^{}`$ is the average hopping rate. The time unit is set to 1. Following monthus , we take $`\rho (E)=\mathrm{exp}(E/T_g)`$. For $`T>T_g`$, P(E,t) has a stationary limit $`P(E,t)\mathrm{exp}[(1/T1/T_g)E]`$. For $`T<T_g,`$ P(E,t) has no stationary limit and keeps evolving with time with a dynamics scaling as $`\frac{t}{t_w}`$. We solved numerically equation 1 for a quench from $`T=\mathrm{}`$ to $`T=\frac{1}{2}T_g`$. The energy distribution is presented in dotted line on fig 3b. As expected it shifts progressively with time towards deeper and deeper energy wells. The relaxation time of the system become thus longer and longer. In order to mimic the strain sequence of fig 2, we now solve the model for the following temperature history: The system is quenched from infinite temperature to $`T=\frac{1}{2}T_g`$. After a delay of 100 time units (tu) the temperature T is raised to $`T=\frac{1}{2}T_g+\mathrm{\Delta }T`$ with $`\mathrm{\Delta }T=\frac{1}{3}T_g`$, during 300 tu then quenched back to $`\frac{1}{2}T_g`$. tw is referenced after the second quench.The solution is plotted in continuous line.

Fig 3b shows that shortly after the system is heated back (1) the small energies -arrow (a) on fig 3- are overpopulated; intermediate energies (b) are depleted and high energies (c) remain unperturbed compared to the reference case where no temperature step is applied. The system ages then in a higher temperature state. When the second quench happens (2) both low and high energies are overpopulated whereas intermediate ones are depleted. After a while (3) low energies recovered their reference population whereas high energies stay overpopulated compare to the case without temperature step. The system has consequently a longer average relaxation time. Actually, we do not measure P(E,t) directly but we probe it experimentally via $`g_1(t+t_w,t).`$ The correlation function $`g_1`$ is a monotonically increasing function of the probability that a particle has not changed trap between $`t_w`$ and $`t+t_w`$. Within the frame of this model this probability can be written:

$$C(t_w+t,t_w)=_0^{\mathrm{}}P(E,t_w)\mathrm{exp}[t.e^{E/T}]dE$$

Fig4(a) shows the change in the shape of the experimental correlation function 1s after the shear cessation. It compares the case $`\gamma =0`$ (ref case) with $`\gamma =5.9\%`$. Notice when a shear has been applied the decay is faster at short times and becomes more slowly at long times. The reference curve and the perturbed one can then cross each other. The insert shows $`C(t_w+t,t_w)`$ calculated at 0.1 tu after the temperature step. It compares the case $`\mathrm{\Delta }T=0`$ (ref case) with $`\mathrm{\Delta }T=\frac{1}{3}T_g`$. The modification in P(E,$`t_w)`$ due to the step temperature is reflected in the change of the correlation shape: the decrease is quicker at short times (overpopulated low energies) and slower at long times (overpopulated high energies). We observe an excellent qualitative agreement between the two set of curves. This agreement is reinforced by fig 4(b) that shows the calculated $`\tau _{1/2}`$ for different $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$T. The calculated $`\tau _{1/2}`$ are defined so that $`C(t_w+\tau _{1/2},t_w)=0.5.`$ Fig 4b is qualitatively similar to fig 2c. We point out that this phenomenon of overaging in the trap model is robust to parameters changes. The values presented here were chosen to obtain good looking curves but are not critical at all. Notice that recent simulations BerthierBouchaud  on Edward Anderson’s model for spin glasses, show qualitatively the same results for the correlation function with a positive temperature step. Finally, we emphasize the fact that the change in the correlation function shape reflects the change in the relaxation time distribution. We measure how this distribution is transiently modified by shear. We expect that it will provide an accurate selectivity on the models coupling mechanics and thermal aging, but a more precise analysis with the existent models is beyond the scope of this letter. We also point out that the qualitative agreement with temperature step in the trap model reinforce the idea that shear and temperature may play a similar role in certain glassy systems.We thank J.P.Bouchaud, E.Bertin, C.Caroli, J.Kurchan, L.Berthier for fruitful discussions. The authors thank M.Dorget for providing us with the latex beads.


text:
# A short proof of chaos in an atmospheric system

## 1 Introduction.

The first model equations for the atmosphere are the so called primitive equations (PE). This model allows wave-like motions on different time scales. The slow motions which have a period of order of days are called Rossby waves and the fast motions which have a period of hours are called gravity waves. The question of how to balance these two time scales lead Lorenz  to introduce a simplified version of the (PE) model, the so called five-component model. This is a system of five differential equations which couples the Rossby waves and gravity waves. This system turns out to have a Poisson formulation on $`^5`$ first discovered by Bokhove . We shall find a Poisson diffeomorphism between the Poisson structure of Bokhove and the product structure on $`𝔰𝔢^{}(2)\times ^2`$, where the first factor is endowed with the Lie-Poisson structure and the second with the standard symplectic structure. Using this diffeomorphism, the five-component Lorenz model takes on a form appropriate for the application of the Melnikov function method on Lie groups developed by Holmes and Marsden .

## 2 The geometry of Lorenz simplified model of Rossby-gravity wave interaction.

The model introduced by Lorenz in  is described by the following set of differential equations:

$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{x}_1=& x_2x_3+\epsilon x_2x_5\end{array}`$ (2.2)
$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{x}_2=& x_1x_3\epsilon x_1x_5\end{array}`$ (2.4)
$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{x}_3=& x_1x_2\end{array}`$ (2.6)
$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{x}_4=& x_5\end{array}`$ (2.8)
$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{x}_5=& x_4+\epsilon x_1x_2,\end{array}`$ (2.10)
where the variables $`x_4,`$ $`x_5`$ represent the fast gravity wave oscillations and$`x_1`$, $`x_2`$, $`x_3`$ are the slow Rossby wave oscillations, with the parameter$`\epsilon `$ (related to the Rossby number) coupling the two sets of variables.

In , Bokhove wrote the system (2.6) in the following Hamiltonian form:

$$\stackrel{}{x}=\{x,H\}_1,$$

where the Hamiltonian function is given by

$$H(x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4,x_5)=\frac{1}{2}(x_1^2+2x_2^2+x_3^2+x_4^2+x_5^2).$$

and the Poisson bracket $`\{,\}_1`$ is defined by

$`\{f,g\}_1`$ $`=`$ $`x_1\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{f}{x_2}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x_3}}{\displaystyle \frac{f}{x_3}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x_2}}\right)+\epsilon \left({\displaystyle \frac{f}{x_5}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x_2}}{\displaystyle \frac{f}{x_2}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x_5}}\right)\right]`$
$`+x_2\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{f}{x_3}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x_1}}{\displaystyle \frac{f}{x_1}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x_3}}\right)+\epsilon \left({\displaystyle \frac{f}{x_1}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x_5}}{\displaystyle \frac{f}{x_5}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x_1}}\right)\right]`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{f}{x_5}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x_4}}{\displaystyle \frac{f}{x_4}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{x_5}}.`$
On the space $`𝔰𝔢^{}(2)\times ^2`$ consider the Poisson bracket given by the product bracket of the Lie-Poisson bracket on $`𝔰𝔢^{}(2)`$ and the Poisson bracket on $`^2`$ induced by the standard symplectic form on $`^2`$. Denoting by $`(\mu _1,\mu _2,\mu _3)`$ the variables on $`𝔰𝔢^{}(2)`$ and by $`(u_1,u_2)`$ the variables on $`^2`$, the product Poisson bracket is given by

$`\{f,g\}_2=`$ $`\mu _1\left({\displaystyle \frac{f}{\mu _2}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{\mu _3}}{\displaystyle \frac{f}{\mu _3}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{\mu _2}}\right)+\mu _2\left({\displaystyle \frac{f}{\mu _3}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{\mu _1}}{\displaystyle \frac{f}{\mu _1}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{\mu _3}}\right)`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{f}{u_2}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{u_1}}{\displaystyle \frac{f}{u_1}}{\displaystyle \frac{g}{u_2}}.`$
The Casimir function for this Poisson bracket is given by

$$C(\mu _1,\mu _2,\mu _3)=\mu _1^2+\mu _2^2.$$

It is easy to verify that the linear transformation $`\mathrm{\Phi }:^5𝔰𝔢^{}(2)\times ^2`$ given by

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4,x_5=(x_1,x_2,x_3,x_4,\epsilon x_3+x_5).$$

is a Poisson diffeomorphism between $`(^5,\{,\}_1)`$ and $`(𝔰𝔢^{}(2)\times ^2,\{,\}_2)`$.

In the new variables the system (2.6) becomes

$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{\mu }_1=& \mu _2\mu _3+\epsilon \mu _2u_2\epsilon ^2\mu _2\mu _3\end{array}`$ (2.12)
$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{\mu }_2=& \mu _1\mu _3\epsilon \mu _1u_2+\epsilon ^2\mu _1\mu _3\end{array}`$ (2.14)
$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{\mu }_3=& \mu _1\mu _2\end{array}`$ (2.16)
$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{u}_1=& u_2+\epsilon \mu _3\end{array}`$ (2.18)
$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{u}_2=& u_1,\end{array}`$ (2.20)
which is an Hamiltonian system with respect to the Poisson bracket $`\{,\}_2`$ and the Hamiltonian function is given by

$$H^\epsilon (\mu _1,\mu _2,\mu _3,u_1,u_2)=\frac{1}{2}(\mu _1^2+2\mu _2^2+\mu _3^2+u_1^2+u_2^22\epsilon \mu _3u_2+\epsilon ^2\mu _3^2).$$
(2.21)
## 3 Chaos by the Melnikov method.

We will prove the occurrence of chaotic motion in the system (2.16) by showing the existence of transverse heteroclinic orbits. Melnikov  gave an effective method to prove the existence of transverse heteroclinic(homoclinic) orbits in the Poincaré map for a perturbed one-degree of freedom Hamiltonian system by measuring the “distance” between the stable and unstable manifolds associated with the saddle points. This method was generalized by Holmes and Marsden to the case of perturbed two-degree of freedom Hamiltonian systems when the phase space is a product of the dual of a Lie algebra and a set of action-angle variables. We briefly recall below this result; see Holmes and Marsden  for proofs.

The setting is the following. The phase space is the product of the dual of a Lie algebra $`𝔤`$ and $`^2`$. The Hamiltonian has the form

$`H^\epsilon (\mu ,\theta ,I)`$ $`=F(\mu )+G(I)+\epsilon H^1(\mu ,\theta ,I)+O(\epsilon ^2)`$
$`=H^0(\mu ,I)+\epsilon H^1(\mu ,\theta ,I)+O(\epsilon ^2)`$ (3.1)
where $`\mu =(\mu _1,\mathrm{},\mu _m)𝔤^{}`$ and ($`\theta ,I`$) are coordinates on $`^2`$, with $`\theta `$ a $`2\pi `$-periodic variable. It is also assumed that the Lie-Poisson system whose Hamiltonian is $`F`$ has a heteroclinic (or homoclinic) orbit $`\stackrel{}{\mu }(t)𝔤^{}.`$ The oscillator frequency

$$\mathrm{\Omega }(I):=\frac{G}{I}$$

is assumed to be positive. The result is the following:

###### Theorem 3.1 (Holmes-Marsden)

Suppose $`\stackrel{}{\mu }(t)`$ is a heteroclinic (or homoclinic) orbit for the Lie-Poisson system whose Hamiltonian is $`F,`$ which lies in a two dimensional coadjoint orbit in $`𝔤^{}`$. Let $`\stackrel{}{h}=F(\stackrel{}{\mu })`$ be the energy of the heteroclinic orbit and let $`h>\stackrel{}{h}`$ and $`l^0=G^1(h\stackrel{}{h})`$ be constants. Let $`\{F,H^1\}(t,\theta ^0)`$ denote the Lie-Poisson bracket of $`F(\mu )`$ and $`H^1(\mu ,\mathrm{\Omega }(l^0)t+\theta ^0,l^0)`$ evaluated at $`\stackrel{}{\mu }(t)`$. Let

$$M(\theta ^0)=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }(l^0)}\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{}{}}\{F,H^1\}(t,\theta ^0)dt$$

and assume $`M(\theta ^0)`$ has simple zeros. Then for $`\epsilon >0`$ sufficiently small, the Hamiltonian system (3.1) contains transverse heteroclinic orbits and hence Smale horseshoes on the energy surface $`H^\epsilon =h.`$

Now we will prove that the system (2.16) verifies the conditions of the above theorem. The unperturbed system of (2.16) on $`𝔰𝔢^{}(2)`$ has unstable critical points $`(0,\pm M,0)`$ lying on the $`2`$-dimensional coadjoint orbit given by the cylinder

$$\{(\mu _1,\mu _2,\mu _3)𝔰𝔢^{}(2):\mu _1^2+\mu _2^2=M^2\}.$$

On this coadjoint orbit we have the heteroclinic orbits given by

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\mu _1(t)=\pm M\mathrm{sech}(Mt)\\ \mu _2(t)=\pm M\mathrm{tanh}(Mt)\\ \mu _3(t)=\pm M\mathrm{sech}(Mt)\end{array}$$

that link the unstable critical points $`(0,M,0)`$ and $`(0,M,0)`$.

On $`^2`$ the unperturbed system of (2.16) is completely integrable and in action-angle coordinates $`(I,\theta )`$, $`u_1=\sqrt{2I}\mathrm{cos}\theta `$, $`u_2=\sqrt{2I}\mathrm{sin}\theta `$, takes the form

$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{I}=& 0\end{array}`$
$`\begin{array}{cc}\stackrel{}{\theta }=& 1.\end{array}`$
Now writing the Hamiltonian (2.21) in the form

$$H^\epsilon (\mu _1,\mu _2,\mu _3,I,\theta )=\frac{1}{2}\left(\mu _1^2+2\mu _2^2+\mu _3^2\right)+I\epsilon \mu _3\sqrt{2I}\mathrm{sin}\theta +O(\epsilon ^2).$$

we are in the setting of the Holmes-Marsden theorem and we can write the heteroclinic orbits for an energy level

$$H^0=h=M^2+k,$$

where $`M^2=\mu _1^2+\mu _2^2`$ and $`k`$ is a constant, as

$$\{\begin{array}{c}\mu _1(t)=\pm M\mathrm{sech}(Mt)\hfill \\ \mu _2(t)=\pm M\mathrm{tanh}(Mt)\hfill \\ \mu _3(t)=\pm M\mathrm{sech}(Mt)\hfill \\ I=k\hfill \\ \theta =t+\theta ^0.\hfill \end{array}$$

The Melnikov function is:

$`M(\theta ^0)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}\sqrt{2k}M^2\mathrm{sech}(Mt)\mathrm{tanh}(Mt)\mathrm{sin}(t+\theta ^0)𝑑t`$
$`=`$ $`\sqrt{2k}M^2\left({\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{sinh}(Mt)\mathrm{cosh}^2(Mt)\mathrm{sin}(t)𝑑t\right)\mathrm{cos}\theta ^0`$
$`=`$ $`\pi \sqrt{2k}\mathrm{sech}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{2M}}\right)\mathrm{cos}\theta ^0,`$
which has simple zeros as a function of $`\theta ^0`$ and therefore the Hamiltonian system (2.16) for $`\epsilon >0`$ sufficiently small, has transverse heteroclinic orbits and hence Smale horseshoes in a suitably chosen cross section of the constant energy surface with $`k>0.`$

Acknowledgments. This research was partially supported by the European Commission and the Swiss Federal Government through funding for the Research Training Network *Mechanics and Symmetry in Europe* (MASIE) as well as the Swiss National Science Foundation.