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# Correlated few-particle states in artificial bipolar molecule

(22 January 2002)

## Abstract

We investigate the ground and excited states of a bipolar artificial molecule composed of two vertically coupled quantum dots containing different type of carriers – electrons and holes – in equilibrium. The approach based on exact diagonalization is used and reveals an intricate pattern of ground-state angular momentum switching and a rearrangement of approximate single-particle levels as a function of the inter-dot coupling strength.

In recent decades, artificially created zero-dimensional systems — the so-called quantum dots or artificial atoms — have been a major focus of active research in condensed matter physics jacak98 . Most of the interest arises from our ability to control the addition or extraction of even a single particle tarucha96 ; hawr00  as well as from the fact that these artificial structures often offer a rich set of novel features unrivaled by those of their natural counterparts. For example, while the nature of atomic spectra is mostly governed by the quantization of motion of a single particle in the field of the nucleus, in quantum dots the crucial role of the quantizing magnetic field and strong Coulomb interaction between the electrons leads to the formation of intriguing ‘magic’ states jacak98 ; magic  related to the compact states of non-interacting composite fermions jacak98 ; composite .

The ability to create and study double-layer systems has added a new dimension to the physics of quantum dots. Two vertically stacked quantum dots make an example of an artificial molecule. The observation of a novel incompressible state induced by the inter-layer coupling murphy94  motivated a study of correlated few-particle states in vertical double-dot systems palacios95 . In this work, the inter-dot interactions were analysed in terms of an isospin-$`1/2`$, and a new class of incompressible ground states was found.

In the present paper, we examine the correlated few-particle states of an artificial bipolar molecule consisting of two vertically stacked quantum dots populated by carriers of different kinds – electrons and holes, respectively. Such a system could be structured, for example, in bilayer-bipolar heterostructures containing electron and hole layers in equilibrium. These structures have been realized in the crossed gap InAs/GaSb system inas  as well as in biased GaAs/AlGaAs heterostructure gaas ; sivan92  where electron and hole layers form on the opposite sides of an AlGaAs barrier. Most of the interest in such systems stems from the possibility (at least, in principle) of the formation of Bose-Einstein condensate of indirect excitons lozovik99 .

While the superfluid state has not been demonstrated so far, a number of other interesting effects of electron-hole coupling and hybridization have been predicted and observed. For example, the Coulomb-drag experiments sivan92 ; tso93  revealed the inter-layer momentum transfer rates up to an order of magnitude larger than in similar electron-electron systems, and magnetotransport calculations naveh01  established the presence of coupling-dependent current that remains large even when the Fermi energy lies in the hybridization gap.

In the present paper, we consider two vertically coupled infinitesimally thin circularly-symmetric quantum dots placed into a strong perpendicular magnetic field. The confining potentials of the dots are assumed to be of a simple parabolic shape, and we choose the base frequencies of the two dots to be inversely proportional to the effective masses of the respective carriers, i.e. $`\omega _em_e=\omega _hm_h`$. This choice implies the equality of the quantum dot oscillator lengths $`l_0=\sqrt{\mathrm{}/m_a\omega _a}`$ for $`a=e,h`$ (a plausible assumption) as well as the equality of renormalized oscillator lengths in magnetic fields of arbitrary strength since $`l^4=l_0^4+(1/4)l_c^4`$ and the cyclotron radius $`l_c=\sqrt{\mathrm{}c/eB}`$ does not depend on the material parameters. The above constraint also considerably simplifies the calculation of Coulomb matrix elements between the electron and hole states (see below).

In the limit of strong magnetic fields, when the cyclotron frequencies of the two types of carriers $`\omega _{c(e)}`$ and $`\omega _{c(h)}`$ exceed the respective base dot frequencies (in practice, $`B`$ $`>`$ 2–3 T) we can restrict the single-particle bases in the dots to the essentially one-dimensional sets of the lowest-Landau-level states. The energies of these states are spaced equidistantly by $`\epsilon _a=\mathrm{}\omega _a^2/\omega _{c(a)}`$ with $`a=e,h`$. We note that due to the inverse proportionality of the cyclotron frequency to the effective mass we have $`\epsilon _e/\epsilon _h=m_h/m_e`$.

These states are labelled by a single index $`n=0,1,2\mathrm{}`$

$$\psi _n(r,\theta )=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\pi n!}}\mathrm{e}^{in\theta }\frac{r^n}{l^{n+1}}\mathrm{e}^{r^2/2l^2},$$
(1)
where the upper sign is to be used for electrons and the lower one for holes. That is, the electrons can only have negative or zero angular momenta and vice versa. Moreover, since the particles in strong magnetic fields are spin-polarized we can neglect the presence of the spin degree of freedom and also drop the constant Zeeman energy.

For a many particle system, a convenient basis is given by the set of all possible Slater determinants (equivalently, ordered strings of the associated creation operators) composed of the functions (1). Thus we will denote possible configurations of the molecule by enumerating the single-particle quantum numbers $`n_i`$ in ascending order, first for electrons and then, separated by a semicolon, for holes. E.g. the ground state of three non-interacting electrons and holes is given by {012;012}. Due to the cylindrical symmetry of the molecule the many-body states of different total angular momenta $`M_t`$ will not be mixed, thus we will be able to perform diagonalizations separately in subspaces of a given $`M_t`$. As a matter of fact, in our basis the single-body part of the Hamiltonian is diagonal and the remaining task is the calculation and diagonalization of the Coulomb interactions.

Before proceeding any further, it is convenient to introduce handy dimensionless units thus also clarifying the relevant energy and length scales of the problem. From now on we will measure all the energies in $`\epsilon _e`$ and the lengths in $`l`$. Then the spacing of the electronic single-particle is set equal to $`1`$, and the spacing of the hole levels is $`m_e/m_h`$. The interaction part of the Hamiltonian becomes

$`V`$ $`=`$ $`\lambda \{{\displaystyle \underset{i>j}{\overset{N_e}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{|𝐫_i𝐫_j|}}+{\displaystyle \underset{i>j}{\overset{N_h}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{|𝐫_i𝐫_j|}}`$ (2)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{i}{\overset{N_e}{}}}{\displaystyle \underset{j}{\overset{N_h}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{|𝐫_i𝐫_j+\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Delta }}|}}\}.`$
Here, $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ represents the vertical separation between the two dots, and

$$\lambda =\frac{l_0^4}{a_B^{}l_c^2l}\frac{l_0^4}{\sqrt{2}a_B^{}l_c^3}B^{3/2}$$
(3)
expresses the relative strength of inter-particle interactions in terms of a ratio of the characteristic lengths, $`a_B^{}`$ being the effective electronic Bohr radius.

We calculate the matrix elements of the Coulomb interaction between various many-body states by decomposing them into a sum of two-particle Coulomb integrals

$$J=d^2r_1d^2r_2\psi _{n_1}^{}(𝐫_1)\psi _{n_2}^{}(𝐫_2)v\psi _{n_3}(𝐫_1)\psi _{n_4}(𝐫_2)$$
(4)
with $`v=|𝐫_1𝐫_2|^1`$ if both particles belong to the same layer, and $`v=|𝐫_1𝐫_2+\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Delta }}|^1`$ otherwise. In the former case the integral is easily evaluated analytically using the complex-variable technique due to Girvin and Jach girvin83  to separate the CM and relative coordinates (see formula (7) in their paper). When the particles $`𝐫_1`$ and $`𝐫_2`$ belong to different layers the only modification is the replacement $`\rho ^1(\rho ^2+\mathrm{\Delta }^2)^{1/2}`$ in the integral over the radial part of the relative coordinate $`\rho `$ which has to be computed numerically.

We numerically calculated energy levels and many-particle states of neutral systems consisting of equal numbers ($`1`$, $`2`$ and $`3`$) of electrons and holes in the dots. However, in order to keep the presentation concise, we will concentrate on the most illustrative results obtained for a six-particle artificial molecule. Systems involving smaller number of particles show qualitatively similar behaviour.

Weakly correlated dots. When the distance between the two dots is relatively large — such as $`\mathrm{\Delta }=3.3`$ (in the units $`l`$) to be used in the present example — the inter-dot interactions between the particles are rather weak compared to the strong Coulomb repulsion within the individual dots which is decisive in the determination of the overall behaviour of the molecule. In Fig. 1 we plot the angular-momentum resolved spectrum of the system showing $`15`$ lowest states for each value of $`M_t`$ at $`\lambda =4.0`$. One sees that for the values of $`M_t`$ equal to multiples of $`3`$ the lowest-energy states (marked by the open circles) are typically considerably lower than those corresponding to the neighbouring values of the angular momentum. This is a consequence of the fact that the individual dots ‘prefer’ to be in the well-known ‘magic’ states. For three particles (electrons or holes) the predominant single-particle configurations in these stable many-body states are {012}, {123}, {234}, etc. It will be instructive to compare these configurations with their counterparts observed in strongly coupled dots below.

Since the effective mass of the holes is considerably larger than that of electrons (we use $`m_h=6.7m_e`$) the Coulomb repulsion promotes them to states of higher angular momentum more easily. In Fig. 1 we see that the ground state has $`M_t=6`$, and the dashed lowest-energy curve rises much more sharply in the direction of negative angular momenta.

While the angular momentum of the ground state is generally expected to grow with increasing Coulomb repulsion, this growth is not monotonous. The inset of Fig. 2 shows the evolution of the ground-state $`M_t`$ versus $`\lambda `$. Notice that the angular momentum reaches the value $`M_t=9`$ in three monotonous steps $`\mathrm{\Delta }M_t=3`$, and then switches back and forth to the value $`M_t=6`$. To understand this kind of behaviour we also investigated the evolution of the relative ground-states (i.e. lowest-energy states of a given $`M_t`$) of the involved angular momenta in Fig. 2. We see that the $`\lambda `$-dependences of these energies typically consist of segments of nearly straight lines connected by abrupt breaks associated with the change of the nature of the states. For example, we observe two breaks in the $`M_t=0`$ curve at $`\lambda 4`$ and $`\lambda 9`$. At $`\lambda 4`$ the molecule minimizes its energy by switching from the dominant configuration {012;012} into {123;123} followed by the changeover into {234;234} at $`\lambda 9`$. The curves corresponding to higher values of $`M_t`$ also show similar behaviour which in this particular case results in a close competition between the $`M_t=6`$ and $`M_t=9`$ lowest-energy states and switching of the absolute ground-state in a rather extended range of $`\lambda `$ values.

Strongly correlated dots. Bringing the two dots closer (we will consider the case of $`\mathrm{\Delta }=0.2`$) results in an entirely different character of their energy spectra. The Coulomb attraction between particles of different kind wins over the intra-dot repulsion and leads to the formation of rather strongly bound and weakly interacting excitons. The energies of the relative ground-states of given angular momenta decrease rapidly and monotonously with increasing $`\lambda `$ and no longer contain abrupt breaks. The absolute ground state always has the total angular momentum $`M_t=0`$. For the clarity of presentation, in Fig. 3 we plot the differences of the lowest-energy states of $`M_t=3\mathrm{}7`$ and the absolute ground state ($`M_t=0`$). In this figure we see a clear rearrangement of the structure of the energy levels from the weakly interacting limit to the strongly-interacting limit (high $`\lambda `$). At $`\lambda 0`$ the levels corresponding to the positive momenta are spaced more closely that the negative-momentum levels due to the higher hole mass. For sufficiently high $`\lambda `$ values the energy levels regroup so that the levels corresponding to the angular momenta $`M_t`$ and $`M_t`$ form closely spaced pairs.

A very interesting feature of the correlated electron and hole states in this regime can be observed by looking more closely at the dominant single particle configurations of the many-body states. In the table 1 we compare the configurations corresponding to the relative ground states for $`M_t=0\mathrm{}7`$ in the weakly and strongly coupled dots. Since we are looking at the positive momentum states the electronic subsystem is in the energetically most favourable state {012} of the total momentum $`M_e=3`$ while the holes contribute the angular momentum $`M_h=M_t+3`$. However, we see that the pattern of filling of the hole states is very distinct in the two regimes. In the weak coupling limit, the holes favour the ‘traditional magic’ filling scheme in which they occupy a compact set of adjacent angular momentum orbitals, such as {123} in the case of $`M_h=6`$. In contrast, when the holes are in the $`M_h=6`$ states in the strong coupling limit, the configuration {123} becomes the least favoured one. Instead, the dominant configuration is {015} in which two of the holes occupy the orbitals of the lowest possible angular momentum while the third one is placed into a remote orbital $`n=5`$.

This new type of systematics of the single-particle configurations can be understood by realising that singling out one particle into a remote high-$`n`$ orbital becomes energetically favourable in the case when the spacing between energy levels is decreasing with increasing $`n`$, while in the opposite case the preferred configuration is the compact one. We illustrate this point in Fig. 4. Panel (a) shows the dependence of the single-particle energy on its angular momentum for non-interacting particles in a quantum dot. Since the energy levels are equidistant, all three ways of accommodating three particles of the total momentum $`M_h=6`$ — {015}, {024} and {123} — have equal total energies. However, if the energy levels are condensing downwards \[panel (b)\], the preferred configuration is the compact {123} one as we observe in the weak-coupling limit. On the other hand, if the energy levels are condensing upwards, as shown in panel (c), the favoured configuration is {015} thus reproducing our result in the strong-coupling limit.

In conclusion, we have investigated the many-body states of a bipolar artificial molecule consisting of two vertically aligned quantum dots in two distinct regimes. In the weak-coupling limit we found an intricate pattern of switching of the ground state angular momentum as a function of a perpendicular magnetic field, while in the opposite strong-coupling limit we observe the formation of a new class of energetically favourable states.

This work is supported by the Flemish Science Foundation (FWO-Vl) and the University of Antwerp through a VIS-project. EA is supported by a Marie Curie Fellowship of the EU.


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# Magnetic contributions to the low-temperature specific heat of the ferromagnetic insulator Pr0.8Ca0.2MnO3

## I Figure Captions

Temperature dependence of (a) the specific heat divided by temperature $`C/T`$ under zero field ; (b) the real part of $`ac`$ susceptibility $`\chi ^{}`$ ($`hac=1`$ Oe$`;1000`$ Hz$`)`$ ; (c) the normalized resistivity under zero field.

Field dependence of the magnetization at 5K

$`C`$ -vs.- $`T`$ curves under various fields, recorded in the FCW mode \[0 T ($``$); 3 T ($`\mathrm{}`$); 5 T ($`\mathrm{\Delta }`$); 7 T ($``$); 9 T ($`\mathrm{}`$)\]. Inset displays specific heat values at 10 K as a function of the magnetic field

$`\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }C_{data}}{T^{3/2}}`$ $`vs.`$ $`\frac{H}{T}`$ for different temperatures and fields. The solid line is the theoretical scaling function $`G\left(\frac{H}{T}\right)`$given in the text. Several symbols stand for the quantities under different magnetic fields.

$`\mathrm{\Delta }C_{data}=C_{data}(0,T)C_{data}(H,T)`$ at 13 K as a function of magnetic field. The solid line is the calculated FMSW contribution.

The solid line indicates the expected field dependence of the exponent within the FMSW picture. The black square are from data. Insert : Magnetization vs temperature for H=3T. The line is the best fit to the power law (see text).

$`\mathrm{\Delta }C_{excess}vs.T`$ for fields 3, 5 and 9 Tesla. Solid curves : fits to a two-level Schottky function. The inset shows the resulting energy splitting as a function of the applied magnetic field.


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# Structure, Kinematics, and Dynamics of Bulges

## 1. Introduction

Both figuratively and literally, bulges are central to our understanding of most disk galaxies. The so-called “super-thins” apart, bulgeless disks with extreme axial ratios (Karachentsev, Karachentseva, & Parnovskij 1993), most disks possess a central spheroidal-like component called the bulge (better defined as the central excess over the inward extrapolation of the outer exponential disk; Carollo, Ferguson, & Wyse 1999). In fact, the bulge-to-disk ratio is a defining property of the Hubble classification for spirals. In many cases, the bulge dominates the central potential, it determines the position of major resonances, and bulges are now known to be intimately linked to massive central black holes (BHs; Magorrian et al. 1998). Bulges thus play an active role in the structure, dynamics, and evolution of the galaxies in which they are embedded.

Writing an exhaustive review in the space allocated is impossible, so only selected topics related to the structure, kinematics, and dynamics of bulges will be discussed. Issues regarding stellar populations will mostly be left out, and clues to bulge evolution shall be noted only when directly relevant to the issue at hand. The common thread will be to emphasize similarities and differences between ellipticals and bulges on the one hand, and bulges and disks on the other. Topics to be discussed include a brief historical review (§ 2.), the fundamental plane (FP) of bulges (§ 3.), their light distribution (§ 4.), 3D structure (§ 5.), nuclear properties (§ 6.), and large-scale mass distribution (§ 7.). The conclusions (§ 8.) will illustrate the perspectives offered by panoramic integral-field spectrographs and new or recent instruments.

## 2. Bulges and Ellipticals: A Historical Point-of-View

It is fair to say that our basic understanding of the structure and dynamics of bulges and ellipticals stems from work done in the 1970s and early 1980s. A few references will be used to illustrate key developments in the field.

Until the late 1970s, ellipticals and bulges were thought to be very similar because of similar light profiles, stellar content, and kinematics. Hints of scaling relations were also beginning to appear. de Vaucouleurs (1958) showed that Andromeda’s bulge followed the $`R^{1/4}`$ surface brightness profile of ellipticals. Faber (1977) showed that ellipticals and bulges (S0s and Ss) had similar stellar populations, sharing the same colors, Mg2$`M_B`$, and NaD–Mg2 relations. Faber & Jackson (FJ; 1976) discovered a projection of the FP ($`L\sigma ^4`$), shared by both ellipticals and bulges (taken here as S0s and M31), and showing no discontinuity in mass-to-light ratio $`M/L`$. Of course, other properties were known to differ. From their axial ratio distributions, Sandage, Freeman, & Stokes (1970) noted that ellipticals are consistent with a large range of intrinsic flattening, $`qb/a1.00.3`$, while lenticulars and spirals must all have intrinsically flat disks, with a nearly constant axial ratio ($`q0.25`$). Furthermore, some of the above similarities were later proven too simplistic.

Because of the flattened light distribution of ellipticals, oblate spheroidal models with isotropic velocity dispersions were first constructed (e.g. Lynden-Bell 1962, Prendergast & Tomer 1970). Wilson (1975) showed that, based on the Ostriker & Peebles (1973) criterion, models flatter than E4 would be unstable to axisymmetric perturbations. The crucial developments, however, came with the first rotation curves based absorption lines, able to probe the stellar kinematics. Illingworth (1977) demonstrated in a distance-independent way that ellipticals have only $`1/3`$ (on average) the rotation required by oblate isotropic models. Rotation thus contributes little to their total kinetic energy. Schechter & Gunn (1979) extended these results and showed that some ellipticals possess significant minor-axis rotation and isophotal twists. It was thus clear that ellipticals were triaxial ellipsoids (or oblate spheroids) flattened by anisotropic velocity dispersions, not rotation. Binney (1976, 1978) had already shown that anisotropies could be preserved in the collapse of a (non-spherical) protogalactic cloud.

These results prompted a new look at bulges. It was quickly realized that many bulges are not well represented by $`R^{1/4}`$ light profiles, some even showing an exponential decline (e.g. NGC4565; Jensen & Thuan 1982). Bulges also appeared to be rotating more rapidly than the bright ellipticals studied so far (Kormendy & Illingworth 1982), suggesting formation through dissipational collapse rather than merging (the spin parameter $`\lambda `$ is much larger than expected from tidal torques, 0.3 rather than 0.05). Nevertheless, Davies et al. (1983) showed that low luminosity ellipticals rotate as fast, both being consistent with rotationally flattened isotropic oblate models (see Fig. 1). This clearly suggested a continuum in the structure and dynamics of spheroids as the luminosity is decreases.

Lynden-Bell (1967) provided a physical basis for the aforementioned models, showing that violent relaxation (i.e. rapid collapse) leads to a distribution function $`f(E,L_z)\mathrm{exp}(`$cst.$`E+`$cst.$`L_z)`$, where $`E`$ and $`L_z`$ are the specific energy and angular momentum around the symmetry axis, and the $`L_z`$ term is non-zero for rotating systems only. In fact, for a certain concentration index, King’s (1966) models reproduce well the $`R^{1/4}`$ law over a large range of radii.

## 3. Fundamental-Plane of Bulges

Both “early” bulges and ellipticals follow a common relation, more general than the FJ relation, known as the FP: $`\mathrm{log}R_e=\alpha \mathrm{log}\sigma +\beta \mathrm{log}I_e+\gamma `$, where $`R_e`$ is the effective radius, $`\sigma `$ the central velocity dispersion, $`I_e`$ the effective surface brightness, and $`\alpha `$, $`\beta `$, and $`\gamma `$ constants (Djorgovski & Davis 1987, Dressler et al. 1987). If the systems are in virial equilibrium (as expected), have a constant $`M/L`$, and form a homologous family (i.e. their properties scale simply with luminosity or mass), we expect $`\alpha =2`$ and $`\beta =1`$ ($`\gamma `$ varies with distance). In practice, the coefficients differ from the virial expectation and depend somewhat on their definitions and measurements. Jørgensen, Franx, & Kjærgaard (1996; Fig. 2) obtain $`\alpha =1.24`$ and $`\beta =0.82`$ in Gunn $`r`$, with a scatter of 0.07 in $`\mathrm{log}R_e`$ (17% error on individual distances). Crucial for determining distances, the slope is constant among clusters (independent of richness, $`T_{gas}`$, $`\sigma _{cluster}`$, etc). The scatter is real, higher for S0s (bulges), and is unlikely due to disks or projection effects (residuals uncorrelated with the shape of the light distribution).

Departures from the virial FP can be assigned to a varying mass-to-light ratio, $`M/LR_e^{11/\beta }\sigma ^{2+\alpha /\beta }`$ ($`M/LR_e^{0.22}\sigma ^{0.49}`$; Jørgensen et al. 1996). Despite a large scatter, this is an important statement, relating the stellar populations of spheroids to their structural parameters. It is probably unaffected by dark matter, since spheroids appear baryon dominated within one $`R_e`$ (to be contrasted with the Tully-Fisher relation for spirals; Freeman, these proceedings).

A relation between $`\sigma `$ and the line-strength index Mg2 (or broadband colors) also exists, varying slightly among clusters, possibly due to age or most likely metallicity variations (Jørgensen et al. 1996). $`M/L`$ thus varies between clusters (bad for distances if not accounted for), and bulges and ellipticals do not all have the same probability distribution of characteristic parameters. The scatter in the Mg2 “FP” is also real, implying some scatter in the stellar populations.

Although “early” bulges populate the FP slightly differently from ellipticals (as do compact ellipticals, dwarf ellipticals, and dwarf spheroidals), they follow the same Mg2$`\sigma `$ relation, and their properties again suggests a continuation of the elliptical sequence, indicative to some of a merging sequence with varying degrees of dissipation (see Bender, Burstein, & Faber 1993).

## 4. Light Distribution of Bulges

So far, we have assumed structural homology. Sersic’s (1968) law allows to characterize structural differences between galaxies using the the shape parameter $`n`$: $`I(r)\mathrm{exp}[(r/r__0)^{1/n}]`$, where $`I(r)`$ is the surface brightness profile and $`r__0`$ some characteristic radius. For $`n=4`$ and $`n=1`$, we retrieve the usual $`R^{1/4}`$ and exponential profiles. Imposing the $`R^{1/4}`$ law leads to biased measurements of $`R_e`$ and $`I_e`$ (and $`\sigma `$) and affects the tilt of the FP; the departure from virial expectation is reduced when using Sersic profiles and deprojected quantities.

Galaxies and bulges are better fitted by Sersic law and show a great variety of shapes: $`n`$ extends from over 10 to 0.5 as one goes from brightest cluster galaxies to normal ellipticals and S0s, bulges, and dwarfs (Graham et al. 1996). For bulges alone, $`n`$ varies systematically from 6 to 1 from early to late-type systems (high to low bulge-to-disk ratio), with weaker trends as a function of luminosity and size (see Fig. 3; Andredakis, Peletier, & Balcells 1995). This again suggests a similar formation mechanism for all spheroids, as different mechanisms for early and late-type systems (or normal and pseudo bulges, see below) would likely lead to a bimodal distribution of $`n`$.

In violent relaxation, galaxies with deep central potentials lead to high $`n`$ (Hjorth & Madsen 1995); conversely, the central potential increases with $`n`$ (Ciotti 1991; both for spherical isotropic models). For bulges, the formation or interaction with the disk may affect the density distribution. The continua of properties mentioned above thus somewhat support the suggestion that all spheroids harbor a disk (e.g. Burstein et al. 2001), although their influence is probably small in large ellipticals and there are few indications of disks in dwarfs.

Kormendy (1993) also argues that a number of bulges, referred to as pseudo-bulges, show structural and kinematic evidence for disk-like dynamics. These include: i) $`\sigma `$ smaller than expected from the FJ relation; ii) fast rotation, with $`V/\sigma `$ above the isotropic oblate rotator line in the $`V/\sigma ϵ`$ diagram; iii) bulges as flat as the disk; iv) spiral structure within $`R^{1/4}`$ profiles; and v) substantial population I material in later types. This suggests that pseudo-bulges may really be high surface brightness central disks, and that disks may have a steeper inner light profile than the inward extrapolation of an exponential. A transition from bulge to disk-dominated properties is suggested at types Sb–Sbc.

This picture is consistent with simulations of gas flow in barred galaxies, which lead to high (and flat) central gas concentrations, possibly feeding a central BH and forming stars (e.g. Friedli & Benz 1993, Heller & Shlosman 1994). The bulge and disk scalelengths also correlate, independently of type, further suggesting that at least some bulges grow secularly out of disk material (de Jong 1996). Evolution is then more than the simple aging of the stellar populations.

## 5. Three-Dimensional Structure of Bulges

We have argued that bulges are oblate spheroids, but it has long been known that many bulges show a boxy or peanut-shaped (B/PS) morphology (e.g. Shaw 1987). The vast majority of these are probably bars seen edge-on. N-body models show that shortly after a bar forms, it buckles, thickens, and appears almost round, peanut, or boxy when seen end-on, side-on, or at an intermediate angle. The evolution strongly depends on the (dark) halo-to-disk mass ratio, but simulations always result in a B/PS bulge with an exponential vertical light profile (e.g. Combes et al. 1990). The thickening is probably due to vertical heating of the disk through resonant scattering of orbits by the bar (vertical inner Lindblad resonance (ILR)): $`\mathrm{\Omega }_p=\mathrm{\Omega }\nu _z/2`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_p`$ is the bar pattern speed and $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\nu _z`$ the stellar rotation and vertical oscillation frequencies. The vertical and horizontal ILRs also converge, so that $`\kappa \nu _z`$ where the maximum thickening occurs ($`\kappa `$ is the epicyclic frequency), and the peanut shape is sustained by orbits trapped around the 3D generalization of the (2D) $`x_1`$ family.

B/PS bulges are not found preferentially in groups or clusters, but they do show an increase of nearby companions. Although accretion (soft merging) can lead, in principle, to B/PS bulges (Binney & Petrou 1985), it probably accounts only for a minor fraction, perhaps related to the “thick boxy bulges” of Lütticke & Dettmar (1999). Hybrid scenarios, where the formation of a bar is triggered by an interaction, are also possible (Mihos et al. 1995). $`N`$-body models show cylindrical rotation in the inner parts of B/PS bulges, as suggested by the few observations available (e.g. NGC4565; Kormendy & Illingworth 1982), the fraction of B/PS bulges and barred disks are consistent (Lütticke, Dettmar, & Pohlen 2000), and B/PS bulges show plateaus in their light profiles. However, to prove that B/PS bulges are related to bars, and are thus triaxial, one really wants to probe the potential, requiring kinematics in the bulge region.

Periodic orbits provide a zeroth order view of stellar kinematics. Because of the non-homogeneous distribution of the orbits (see, e.g., Contopoulos & Grøsbol 1989), clear signatures of non-axisymmetry are seen in the position-velocity diagrams (PVDs) of edge-on barred disks (Bureau & Athanassoula 1999). But stars can move on trapped or chaotic orbits, washing out PVD substructures, and more realistic $`N`$-body models indeed reveal subtler signatures (Bureau & Athanassoula, in preparation). Gas, however, responds very strongly to a non-axisymmetric potential. Shocks along the bar cause inflow, deplete the gas in the outer bar regions, and lead to characteristic gaps in the PVDs (if a nuclear spiral is formed, requiring an ILR; Kuijken & Merrifield 1995, Athanassoula & Bureau 1999). Line-ratios can also help identify bars (shock versus photoionization). Merrifield & Kuijken (1999) and Bureau & Freeman (1999) applied these diagnostics and showed an almost one-to-one correspondence between B/PS bulges and large-scale bars (Fig. 4), although a few cases may be due to accretion. The strength of the bar also correlates with the boxiness of the isophotes. Thus, contrary to ellipticals, where it is caused by anisotropic velocity dispersions, triaxiality in bulges is due to high rotation (bar instability).

As face-on galaxies often show photometrically distinct bars and (rounder) bulges, it is still unclear whether the above thick bars are truly one with the bulge, or whether a more axisymmetric bulge is simply buried within them. A complete 3D picture of barred galaxies (and bulges) is thus still missing.

## 6. Nuclear Properties of Bulges

While the large-scale structure and kinematics of nearby bulges can be studied from the ground, HST is required to reach scales of a few tens of parsecs. An HST/WFPC2 study of a large sample of bulges (mostly unbarred, Sa–Sbc) by Carollo et al. (1997, 1998) reveals a large variety of nuclear properties, even among early types. Some “classical” bulges exist, but in half the cases a bulge is not even clearly detected. i) Many early-type galaxies show no evidence for a smooth bulge (also dust lanes, spiral structure, etc); ii) 30% of bulges have an irregular central bright component with scattered star forming regions. Other nuclear star formation occurs, sometimes in ring-like structures, but it is unclear whether it is associated with the bulge or inner disk; iii) for types later than S0/a, half the objects have a resolved, compact central source (often associated with an elongated structure), the luminosity of which correlates with that of the host galaxy but not the type (typically brighter in star forming objects); iv) the brightest compact sources appear similar to young star clusters in the $`M_VR_e`$ plane, while fainter sources are intermediate between ellipticals and $`R^{1/4}`$ bulges and globular clusters, possibly indicating an age sequence. Those sources are photometrically distinct from their surroundings and are not a simple steepening of the light profile. These facts suggest a late formation epoch for some bulges, possibly in disk-driven dissipative accretion events.

The nuclear light profiles of spheroids (bulges and ellipticals) is well described by the cusp slope $`\gamma `$ ($`I(r)r^\gamma `$ as $`r0`$; Byun et al. 1996). In the above sample, $`R^{1/4}`$-like bulges have cusps and nuclear densities similar to ellipticals (at a given spheroid luminosity $`L_s`$), and also steeper cusp slopes as $`L_s`$ is lowered (Faber et al. 1997, Carollo & Stiavelli 1998). Exponential-like bulges show the same (weaker) dependence on $`L_s`$, but they have smaller cusps and nuclear densities at a given luminosity (Fig. 5). As a group, they thus break the general trend among spheroids of increasing density with decreasing luminosity, a rare indication for a different formation mechanism. This does not indicate a simple evolution along the Hubble sequence, however, as it holds true for a given type.

Magorrian et al. (1998) proposed the first central BH mass $`M_{}`$ to spheroid mass $`M_s`$ (or spheroid luminosity $`L_s`$) relation, showing that power-law galaxies (steep cusps) have smaller $`M_{}`$ and $`M/L`$ than core galaxies (shallow cusps). But the masses, based on ground-based kinematics and two-integral axisymmetric dynamical models, were overestimated. Using HST/STIS kinematics (resolving the sphere of influence of the BH) and three-integral models (allowing velocity anisotropy near the center) reduces the masses by a few. Essentially all galaxies require $`M_{}0.001M_s`$, suggesting a universal baryon fraction going in the BH. $`M_{}`$ correlates significantly better with $`L_s`$ than the total galactic luminosity, indicating that BHs are not related to disks. The correlation is also independent of bulge type ($`R^{1/4}`$, exponential, pseudo), suggesting a close link between BH and bulge (spheroid) formation, independently of how the latter proceeds.

The relation between $`M_{}`$ and (some measure of) the central velocity dispersion $`\sigma `$ is much tighter, although its exact dependence is debated: $`M_{}\sigma ^{3.84.8}`$, with a steep slope favored (Gebhardt et al. 2000a, Ferrarese & Merritt 2000, Merritt & Ferrarese 2001). The scatter of $`0.3`$ dex (at fixed $`\sigma `$) is consistent with observational errors, indicating negligible intrinsic scatter. The previous relation with $`M_s`$ can now be “understood”, since $`M_sL_s^{5/4}`$ (Faber et al. 1987) and $`L_s\sigma ^4`$ (FJ), hence $`M_s\sigma ^5`$ also. Bulges (spheroids) can now be seen as populating a 2D plane in a 4D space ($`\mathrm{log}M_{}`$, $`\mathrm{log}R_e`$, $`\mathrm{log}\sigma `$, $`\mathrm{log}L`$), the $`M_{}\sigma `$ relation being an edge-on projection of this plane (while the $`M_{}L_s`$ relation is not, thus the larger scatter). BH masses predicted from the $`M_{}\sigma `$ relation are consistent with reverberation mapping measurements in active galactic nuclei (AGN; Gebhardt et al. 2000b, Ferrarese et al. 2001), indicating a close relationship between quiescent and active BHs, and strengthening the link between BHs, AGN, and bulge (spheroid) formation (e.g. Silk & Rees 1998).

There have been many suggestions that bars can be destroyed by central masses, secularly building bulges over many generations, and moving galaxies along the Hubble sequence (e.g. Norman, Sellwood, & Hasan 1996). BH masses reported are however an order of magnitude lower than required ($`0.1`$% of $`M_s`$ rather than a few). The central stellar clusters discussed above do have the right masses, but they would prevent bars from (re-)forming in late-type exponential bulges, inhibiting their growth and evolution into early-type $`R^{1/4}`$ bulges unless there is a substantial accretion of cold material (the same applies to BHs). The omnipresence of bars ($`>70`$% of galaxies; e.g. Seiger & James 1998) implies a very fast duty cycle, however, which seems unlikely. At the moment, the evidence is thus against bar (destruction)-driven secular evolution in bulges.

## 7. Large-Scale Mass Distribution of Bulges

There is little to say about the (very) large-scale mass distribution of bulges, i.e. their dark matter content, as little is known. When there is neutral hydrogen and/or ionized gas, the usual kinematic tracers in disk galaxies, it often has a complicated geometry or is disturbed. As shown by Capaccioli et al. (1993), it is extremely hard to push traditional long-slit spectroscopy with integrated light to significant radii ($`>2R_e`$). They report for NGC3115 an increase in $`M/L`$ from 6 to more than 10 as $`r`$ goes from 1 to 2$`R_e`$. Contrary to elliptical galaxies (e.g. Hui et al. 1995 for Cen A), there has been little use of globular clusters (GCs) and planetary nebulae (PN) as (stellar) tracers in bulges. Using GCs in NGC3115, Kavelaars (1998) shows that $`M/L19`$ at $`5R_e`$, suggesting the presence of dark matter in the halo. This is assumed to be generic but should be verified. The GC system also shows a red rapidly rotating metal rich thick disk system and a blue slowly rotating metal poor halo system, which is not unusual. Results from polar-rings and other objects probing the potential perpendicular to the equatorial plane are discussed in detail by Sparke (these proceedings).

## 8. Conclusions and New Perspectives

Since this is a review, conclusions will be short. Already in the early 1980s, a continuum between bright ellipticals, low-luminosity ellipticals, and bright bulges had been demonstrated (Davies et al. 1983). Now, a continuity in the structural and kinematic properties of bright bulges (generally early and $`R^{1/4}`$-like) and faint bulges (generally late and exponential-like) also emerges (e.g. Andredakis et al. 1995). A link between faint bulges and disks is even suggested and is the subject of much work (Kormendy 1993, these proceedings). All the observations discussed in this paper concern nearby galaxies, where the internal structure, kinematics, and dynamics can be studied in detail. This shows that so-called near-field cosmology has an essential (and perhaps dominant) role to play in our quest to understand galaxy formation and evolution.

Although it is impossible to be exhaustive, it is essential to discuss current instrumental developments, since they will lead without doubt to the next discoveries. The usual bells and whistles associated with “weather” prediction are however necessary. On nuclear scales, we are unlikely to make great advances from space until the advent of NGST (e.g. Stockman & Mather 2000). HST/ACS does not increase HST’s spatial resolution, and HST/STIS will not be upgraded or replaced, offering few new possibilities for high spatial resolution kinematics. Adaptive optics on large ground-based telescope, particularly in the near-infrared and/or with integral-field spectrographs (IFSs), is very promising (e.g. VLT/SINFONI; Mengel et al. 2000). On intermediate scales, WHT/SAURON has already demonstrated the possibilities of wide-field IFSs, especially when supplemented with data on nuclear scales and proper modeling tools (Fig. 6; de Zeeuw et al. 2002). VLT/VIMOS and other similar instruments will increase this power. On large scales, WHT/PNS will provide much needed data on stellar kinematics in the outskirts of galaxies (using PN as tracers; see Douglas & Taylor 1999), constraining the amount of dark matter present. Astrometric missions such as ESA/GAIA (e.g. Perryman et al. 2001), acting on all scales, will provide the position, colors, type, and radial velocity for a billion stars in the Galaxy (a large fraction with accurate proper motions and parallax). This will revolutionize our view of spirals, providing us with a stereoscopic and kinematic census of the stellar populations. Near-field cosmology at its best!

### Acknowledgments.

Support for this work was provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grant HST-HF-01136.01 awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS 5-26555. All figures reproduced by permission of the American Astronomical Society and Blackwell Publishing.

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