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# Contents

## Introduction

Importance of discrete transformations is well–known, many textbooks on quantum theory began with description of the discrete symmetries, and famous Lüders–Pauli $`CPT`$–Theorem is a keystone of quantum field theory. Besides, a fundamental notion of antimatter immediately relates with the charge conjugation $`C`$. The requirement of invariance concerning the each of the discrete transformations gives rise to certain consequences which can be verified in experience. So, from the invariance concerning the $`CPT`$-transformation it follows an identity of the masses and full life times of particles and antiparticles, from the invariance concerning the time reversal $`T`$ we have certain relations between the forward and reverse reaction cross-sections. In turn, from the invariance concerning the charge conjugation $`C`$ it follows an absence of the reactions forbidden by the conservation law of charge parity, and from the invariance concerning the space inversion $`P`$ and time reversal $`T`$ it follows an absence of the electric dipol moment of particles. As follows from experience, for the processes defined by strong and electromagnetic interactions there exists an invariance with respect to the all discrete transformations. In contrast to strong and electromagnetic interactions, for the weak interaction, as shown by experiment, there is no invariance concerning space inversion $`P`$, but there is invariance with respect to $`CP`$–transformation. Moreover, there are experimental evidences confirming $`CP`$–violation (a decay of the neutral $`K`$–mesons). It is clear that the analysis of the discrete symmetries allows to reveal the most profound structural characteristics of the matter.

However, usual practice of definition of the discrete symmetries from the analysis of relativistic wave equations does not give a full and consistent theory of the discrete transformations. In the standard approach, except a well studied case of the spin $`j=1/2`$ (Dirac equation), a situation with the discrete symmetries remains vague for the fields of higher spin $`j>1/2`$. It is obvious that a main reason of this is an absence of a fully adequate formalism for description of higher–spin fields (all widely accepted higher–spin formalisms such as Rarita–Schwinger approach , Bargmann–Wigner  and Gel’fand–Yaglom  multispinor theories, and also Joos–Weinberg $`2(2j+1)`$–component formalism  have many intrinsic contradictions and difficulties). The first attempt of going out from this situation was initiated by Gel’fand, Minlos and Shapiro in 1958 . In the Gel’fand–Minlos–Shapiro approach the discrete symmetries are represented by outer involutory automorphisms of the Lorentz group (there are also other realizations of the discrete symmetries via the outer automorphisms, see ). At present the Gel’fand–Minlos–Shapiro ideas have been found further development in the works of Buchbinder, Gitman and Shelepin , where the discrete symmetries are represented by both outer and inner automorphisms of the Poincaré group.

Discrete symmetries $`P`$ and $`T`$ transform (reflect) space and time (two the most fundamental notions in physics), but in the Minkowski 4–dimensional space–time continuum  space and time are not separate and independent. By this reason a transformation of one (space or time) induces a transformation of another. Therefore, discrete symmetries should be expressed by such trnsformations of the continuum, that transformed all its structure totally with a full preservation of discrete nature. The only possible candidates on the role of such transformations are automorphisms. In such a way the idea of representation of the discrete symmetries via the automorphisms of the Lorentz group (‘rotation’ group of the 4–dimensional continuum) is appearred in the Gel’fand–Minlos–Shapiro approach, or via the automorphisms of the Poincaré group (motion group of the 4–dimensional continuum) in the Buchbinder–Gitman–Shelepin approach.

In 1909, Minkowski showed  that a causal structure of the world is described by a 4–dimensional pseudo–Euclidean geometry. In accordance with  the quadratic form $`x^2+y^2+z^2c^2t^2`$ remains invariant under the action of linear transformations of the four variables $`x,y,z`$ and $`t`$, which form a general Lorentz group $`G`$. As known, the general Lorentz group $`G`$ consists of an own Lorentz group $`G_0`$ and three reflections (discrete transformations) $`P,T,PT`$, where $`P`$ and $`T`$ are space and time reversal, and $`PT`$ is a so–called full reflection. The discrete transformations $`P,T`$ and $`PT`$ added to an identical transformation form a finite group. Thus, the general Lorentz group may be represented by a semidirect product $`G_0\{1,P,T,PT\}`$. Analogously, an orthogonal group $`O(p,q)`$ of the real space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ is represented by the semidirect product of a connected component $`O_0(p,q)`$ and a discrete subgroup.

In 1957, Shirokov pointed out  that an universal covering of the inhomogeneous Lorentz group has eight inequivalent realizations. Later on, in the eighties this idea was applied to a general orthogonal group $`O(p,q)`$ by Da̧browski . As known, the orthogonal group $`O(p,q)`$ of the real space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ is represented by the semidirect product of a connected component $`O_0(p,q)`$ and a discrete subgroup $`\{1,P,T,PT\}`$. Further, a double covering of the orthogonal group $`O(p,q)`$ is a Clifford–Lipschitz group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ which is completely constructed within a Clifford algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. In accordance with squares of elements of the discrete subgroup ($`a=P^2,b=T^2,c=(PT)^2`$) there exist eight double coverings (Da̧browski groups ) of the orthogonal group defining by the signatures $`(a,b,c)`$, where $`a,b,c\{,+\}`$. Such in brief is a standard description scheme of the discrete transformations. However, in this scheme there is one essential flaw. Namely, the Clifford–Lipschitz group is an intrinsic notion of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ (a set of the all invertible elements of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$), whereas the discrete subgroup is introduced into the standard scheme in an external way, and the choice of the signature $`(a,b,c)`$ of the discrete subgroup is not determined by the signature of the space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Moreover, it is suggest by default that for any signature $`(p,q)`$ of the vector space there exist the all eight kinds of the discrete subgroups. It is obvious that a consistent description of the double coverings of $`O(p,q)`$ in terms of the Clifford–Lipschitz groups $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ can be obtained only in the case when the discrete subgroup $`\{1,P,T,PT\}`$ is also defined within the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. Such a description has been given in the works , where the discrete symmetries are represented by fundamental automorphisms of the Clifford algebras. So, the space inversion $`P`$, time reversal $`T`$ and their combination $`PT`$ correspond to an automorphism $``$ (involution), an antiautomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ (reversion) and an antiautomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ (conjugation), respectively. Group theoretical structure of the discrete transformations is a central point in this work. The fundamental automorphisms of the Clifford algebras are compared to elements of the finite group formed by the discrete transformations. In its turn, a set of the fundamental automorphisms, added by an identical automorphism, forms a finite group $`\mathrm{Aut}(C\mathrm{})`$, for which in virtue of the Wedderburn–Artin Theorem there exists a matrix representation. In such a way, an isomorphism $`\{1,P,T,PT\}\mathrm{Aut}(C\mathrm{})`$ plays a central role. It is shown that the division ring structure of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ imposes hard restrictions on existence and choice of the discrete subgroup, and the signature $`(a,b,c)`$ depends upon the signature of the underlying space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Moreover, this description allows to incorporate the Gel’fand–Minlos–Shapiro automorphism theory into Shirokov–Da̧browski scheme and further to unite them on the basis of the Clifford algebra theory.

In the present work such an unification is given. First of all, Clifford algebras are understood as ‘algebraic coverings’ of finite–dimensional representations of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$. Clifford algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ are associated with complex finite–dimensional representations $``$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$. It allows to define a new class of the finite–dimensional representations of $`𝔊_+`$ (quotient representations) corresponded to the type $`n1(mod2)`$ of the algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. In its turn, representation spaces of $``$ are the spinspaces $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$ or the minimal left ideals of the algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. In virtue of this the discrete symmetries representing by spinor representations of the fundamental automorphisms of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ are defined for both complex and real finite–dimensional representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$.

The aim of present research is a construction of the full and consistent theory of the discrete transformations for both space–time and spaces of any dimension and signature. At this point the main subject is a group theoretical consideration of the problem. Namely, space–time is considered as a space of the fundamental representation of the Lorentz group, and multidimensional spaces are understood as spaces of the finite–dimensional representations of the same group. In such a way, the main goal of the research is the construction of a theory of the discrete symmetries on spaces of the finite–dimensional representations of the Lorentz group (correspondingly, Poincaré group). According to Wigner, a quantum system, described by an irreducible representation of the Poincaré group, is called an elementary particle. Therefore, discrete transformations, defined for some irreducible representation of the Lorentz (Poincaré) group, form discrete symmetries of some elementary particle. Usually, the spin of the elementary particle is associated with the weight of the irreducible representation, but, as noted previously, at present time there exists no fully adequate higher–spin formalism. The construction of such a formalism is a main problem of quantum field theory. It stands to reason that in the future higher–spin formalism the discrete symmetries should be represented by the automorphisms of the Lorentz group (Poincaré group, Clifford algebra), therefore, the present work should be considered as a certain step in this direction.

Other goal, a full realization of which comes beyond the framework of the present research, is an unification of space–time and internal symmetries of elementary particles. As known, the standard approach in this direction is a search of some inification group which includes the Poincaré group and the group (or, groups) of internal symmetries ($`SU(2)`$, $`SU(3)`$ and so on) as a subgroup. However, in this approach a physical sense of the unification group is vague. As an alternative to the standard approach we will consider in the present work a complex algebraic structure associated with the system of finite–dimensional irreducible representations of the Lorentz group. A bundle ‘finite–dimensional representation of the Lorentz group $`+`$ complex Clifford algebra’ serves as a basis for the unification of space–time and internal symmetries. It is well known that an octonion algebra, triality and spinor group $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(8)`$, defined a basis of the algebraic description of quark symmetries (Günaydin and Gürsey works), admit a full description within eight–dimensional Clifford algebras. The octonion algebra $`\mathrm{𝕆}`$, or the algebra of Cayley numbers , is also the hypercomplex system, but in contrast to Clifford algebras this system is non–associative. Nevertheless, there exists an octonion representation of the Clifford algebras . Further, in view of the fact that an automorphism group of the algebra $`\mathrm{𝕆}`$ coincides with an exceptional group $`G_2`$ containing the group $`SU(3)`$ as a subgroup, Günaydin and Gürsey  established a relationship between $`SU(3)`$–color quark symmetry and the algebraic structure of the fields constructed on the octonions. As known, there exist only four division algebras (Frobenius Theorem) $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕆}`$. The first three algebras ($`\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$ are the fields of real and complex numbers, $`\mathrm{}`$ is a quaternion algebra) are the simplest Clifford algebras. As noted previously, the octonion algebra $`\mathrm{𝕆}`$ admits a representation within eight–dimensional Clifford algebras. Moreover, Dixon  introduced the algebra $`\mathrm{𝔸}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕆}`$ and showed that the group $`SU(3)\times SU(2)\times U(1)`$ of so–called Standard Model appears as a subgroup of the automorphism group of $`\mathrm{𝔸}`$. In such a way, we can consider the Clifford algebra theory as an unification base, in terms of which different algebraic structures related with the internal summetries of elementary particles are united.

Clifford algebras form a theoretical basis of the research. It is well known that Clifford algebras present one of the most basic mathematical constructions in quantum field theory. In connection with this it is in order to give a brief review of the Clifford algebra theory and its relations with theoretical physics. From historical point of view these algebras have essentially geometric origin , because they are the synthesis of Hamilton quaternion calculus  and Grassmann Ausdehnungslehre , and by this reason they called by Clifford as geometric algebras . Further, Lipschitz  showed that Clifford algebras closely related with the study of the rotation groups of multidimensional spaces. After fundamental works of Cartan , Witt  and Chevalley  the Clifford algebra theory takes its modern form. . In spite of the fact that Clifford algebras (or systems of hypercompex numbers) are known in mathematics from the middle of XIX century a broad application of the hypercomplex numbers in physics began at the end of twenties of XX century after the famous Dirac work on the electron theory . On the other hand, long before the appearance of quantum mechanics Clifford algebras are presented in physics. Namely, a mathematical apparatus of classical electrodynamics (vector analysis), created by Gibbs and Heavyside, takes its beginning from the Hamilton quaternion calculus, and, as noted previously, the quaternion algebra is one of the simplest Clifford algebras. In virtue of this there exists a quaternionic description of classical electrodynamics ). By analogy with this there is a quaternionic description of quantum mechanics (so–called quaternionic quantum mechanics ).

An isomorphism $`\{1,P,T,PT\}\mathrm{Aut}(C\mathrm{})`$ allows to use methods of the Clifford algebra theory at the study of a group theoretical structure of the discrete transformations. First of all, it allows to classify the discrete groups into Abelian $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and non–Abelian $`D_4`$, $`Q_4`$ finite groups, and also to establish a dependence between the finite groups and signature of the spaces in case of real numbers.

A full system $`𝔐=𝔐^+𝔐^{}`$ of the finite–dimensional representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$ allows to define in the Chapter 4 the Atiyah–Bott–Shapiro periodicity  on the Lorentz group. In case of the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ we have modulo 2 periodicity on the representations $``$, $``$, that allows to take a new look at the de Broglie–Jordan neutrino theory of light . In its turn, over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ we have on the system $`𝔐`$ the modulo 8 periodicity which relates with octonionic representations of the Lorentz group and the Günaydin–Gürsey construction of the quark structure in terms of an octonion algebra $`\mathrm{𝕆}`$ . In essence, the modulo 8 periodicity on the system $`𝔐`$ gives an another realization of the well–known Gell-Mann–Ne’emann eightfold way . It should be noted here that a first attempt in this direction was initiated by Coquereaux in 1982 .

Other important discrete symmetry is the charge conjugation $`C`$. In contrast with the transformations $`P`$, $`T`$, $`PT`$ the operation $`C`$ is not space–time discrete symmetry. This transformation is firstly appearred on the representation spaces of the Lorentz group and its nature is strongly different from other discrete symmetries. By this reason in the Chapter 4 the charge conjugation $`C`$ is represented by a pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ which is not fundamental automorphism of the Clifford algebra. All spinor representations of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ are given in Theorem 4.3.

Quotient representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$ compose the second half $`𝔐^{}`$ of the full system $`𝔐`$ and correspond to the types $`n1(mod2)`$ ($`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$) and $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ ($`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$). An explicit form of the quotient representations is given in Theorem 4.4. In the Chapter 4 the first simplest physical field (neutrino field), corresponded to a fundamental representation $`^{1,0}`$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$, is studied within a quotient representation $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{c}^{1,0}{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{c}^{0,1}`$. Such a description of the neutrino was firstly given in the work , but in  this description looks like an exotic case, whereas in the present work it is a direct consequence of all mathematical background developed in the previous chapters. It is shown also that the neutrino field $`(1/2,0)(0,1/2)`$ can be defined in terms of a Dirac–Hestenes spinor field , and the wave function of this field satisfies the Weyl–Hestenes equations (massless Dirac–Hestenes equations).

## Chapter 1 Clifford algebras

### 1.1. Definition of the Clifford algebra

In this section we will consider some basic facts about Clifford algebras and Clifford–Lipschitz groups which we will widely use below. Let $`\mathrm{𝔽}`$ be a field of characteristic 0 $`(\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, where $`\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{}`$ are the fields of real and complex numbers, respectively. A Clifford algebra $`C\mathrm{}`$ over a field $`\mathrm{𝔽}`$ is an algebra with $`2^n`$ basis elements: $`\text{e}_0`$ (unit of the algebra) $`\text{e}_1,\text{e}_2,\mathrm{},\text{e}_n`$ and products of the one–index elements $`\text{e}_{i_1i_2\mathrm{}i_k}=\text{e}_{i_1}\text{e}_{i_2}\mathrm{}\text{e}_{i_k}`$. Over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ the Clifford algebra denoted as $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, where the indices $`p`$ and $`q`$ correspond to the indices of the quadratic form

$$Q=x_1^2+\mathrm{}+x_p^2\mathrm{}x_{p+q}^2$$

of a vector space $`V`$ associated with $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. The multiplication law of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is defined by a following rule:

$$\text{e}_i^2=\sigma (pi)\text{e}_0,\text{e}_i\text{e}_j=\text{e}_j\text{e}_i,$$
(1.1)
where

$$\sigma (n)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 1& \text{if }n0,\hfill \\ \hfill +1& \text{if }n>0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(1.2)
The square of a volume element $`\omega =\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}n}`$ ($`n=p+q`$) plays an important role in the theory of Clifford algebras,

$$\omega ^2=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 1& \text{if }pq2,3,6,7(mod8),\hfill \\ \hfill +1& \text{if }pq0,1,4,5(mod8).\hfill \end{array}$$
(1.3)
A center $`𝐙_{p,q}`$ of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ consists of the unit $`\text{e}_0`$ and the volume element $`\omega `$. The element $`\omega =\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}n}`$ belongs to a center when $`n`$ is odd. Indeed,

$`\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}n}\text{e}_i`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{ni}\sigma (qi)\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}i1i+1\mathrm{}n},`$
$`\text{e}_i\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}n}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{i1}\sigma (qi)\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}i1i+1\mathrm{}n},`$
therefore, $`\omega 𝐙_{p,q}`$ if and only if $`nii1(mod2)`$, that is, $`n`$ is odd. Further, using (1.3) we obtain

$$𝐙_{p,q}=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 1& \text{if }pq0,2,4,6(mod8),\hfill \\ \hfill 1,\omega & \text{if }pq1,3,5,7(mod8).\hfill \end{array}$$
(1.4)
An arbitrary element $`𝒜`$ of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is represented by a following formal polynomial

$$𝒜=a^0\text{e}_0+\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}a^i\text{e}_i+\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}a^{ij}\text{e}_{ij}+\mathrm{}+\underset{i_1=1}{\overset{n}{}}\mathrm{}\underset{i_k=1}{\overset{n}{}}a^{i_1\mathrm{}i_k}\text{e}_{i_1\mathrm{}i_k}+$$

$$+\mathrm{}+a^{12\mathrm{}n}\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}n}=\underset{k=0}{\overset{n}{}}a^{i_1i_2\mathrm{}i_k}\text{e}_{i_1i_2\mathrm{}i_k}.$$

In Clifford algebra $`C\mathrm{}`$ there exist four fundamental automorphisms.
1) Identity: An automorphism $`𝒜𝒜`$ and $`\text{e}_i\text{e}_i`$.
This automorphism is an identical automorphism of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}`$. $`𝒜`$ is an arbitrary element of $`C\mathrm{}`$.
2) Involution: An automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ and $`\text{e}_i\text{e}_i`$.
In more details, for an arbitrary element $`𝒜C\mathrm{}`$ there exists a decomposition $`𝒜=𝒜^{}+𝒜^{\prime \prime },`$ where $`𝒜^{}`$ is an element consisting of homogeneous odd elements, and $`𝒜^{\prime \prime }`$ is an element consisting of homogeneous even elements, respectively. Then the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ is such that the element $`𝒜^{\prime \prime }`$ is not changed, and the element $`𝒜^{}`$ changes sign: $`𝒜^{}=𝒜^{}+𝒜^{\prime \prime }.`$ If $`𝒜`$ is a homogeneous element, then

$$𝒜^{}=(1)^k𝒜,$$
(1.5)
where $`k`$ is a degree of the element. It is easy to see that the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ may be expressed via the volume element $`\omega =\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}`$:

$$𝒜^{}=\omega 𝒜\omega ^1,$$
(1.6)
where $`\omega ^1=(1)^{\frac{(p+q)(p+q1)}{2}}\omega `$. When $`k`$ is odd, for the basis elements $`\text{e}_{i_1i_2\mathrm{}i_k}`$ the sign changes, and when $`k`$ is even, the sign is not changed.
3) Reversion: An antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`\text{e}_i\text{e}_i`$.
The antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is a reversion of the element $`𝒜`$, that is the substitution of the each basis element $`\text{e}_{i_1i_2\mathrm{}i_k}𝒜`$ by the element $`\text{e}_{i_ki_{k1}\mathrm{}i_1}`$:

$$\text{e}_{i_ki_{k1}\mathrm{}i_1}=(1)^{\frac{k(k1)}{2}}\text{e}_{i_1i_2\mathrm{}i_k}.$$

Therefore, for any $`𝒜C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, we have

$$\stackrel{~}{𝒜}=(1)^{\frac{k(k1)}{2}}𝒜.$$
(1.7)
4) Conjugation: An antiautomorpism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ and $`\text{e}_i\text{e}_i`$.
This antiautomorphism is a composition of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ with the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$. In the case of a homogeneous element from the formulae (1.5) and (1.7), it follows

$$\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}=(1)^{\frac{k(k+1)}{2}}𝒜.$$
(1.8)
###### Theorem 1.1.

If $`n=p+q`$ is odd, then

$`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\text{if }pq3,7(mod8)\mathrm{}`$
$`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ (1.9)
$``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}\text{if }pq1,5(mod8).`$
###### Proof.

The structure of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ allows to identify the Clifford algebras over the different fields. Indeed, transitions $`C\mathrm{}_{p1,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q},C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ may be represented as transitions from the real coordinates in $`C\mathrm{}_{p1,q},C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ to complex coordinates of the form $`a+\omega b`$, where $`\omega `$ is an additional basis element $`\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}n}`$ (volume element). Since $`n=p+q`$ is odd, then the volume element $`\omega `$ in accordance with (1.4) belongs to $`𝐙_{p,q}`$. Therefore, we can to identify it with imaginary unit $`i`$ if $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ and with a double unit $`e`$ if $`pq1,5(mod8)`$. The general element of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ has a form $`𝒜=𝒜^{}+\omega 𝒜^{}`$, where $`𝒜^{}`$ is a general element of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1},C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$. ∎

Over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ there is the analogous result:

###### Theorem 1.2 (Rashevskii ).

When $`p+q1,3,5,7(mod8)`$ the Clifford algebra over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ decomposes into a direct sum of two subalgebras:

$$\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}$$

### 1.2. The structure of the Clifford algebras

One of the most fundamental theorems in the theory of associative algebras is as follows

###### Theorem 1.3 (Wedderburn–Artin).

Any finite–dimensional associative simple algebra $`𝔄`$ over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}`$ is isomorphic to a full matrix algebra $`𝖬_n(\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, where $`n`$ is natural number defined unambiguously, and $`\mathrm{𝕂}`$ a division ring defined with an accuracy of isomorphism.

In accordance with this theorem, all properties of the initial algebra $`𝔄`$ are isomorphically transferred to the matrix algebra $`𝖬_n(\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. Later on we will widely use this theorem. In its turn, for the Clifford algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ we have an isomorphism $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\mathrm{End}_\mathrm{𝕂}(I_{p,q})𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, where $`m=\frac{p+q}{2}`$, $`I_{p,q}=C\mathrm{}_{p,q}f`$ is a minimal left ideal of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, and $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}`$ is a division ring of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. The primitive idempotent of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ has a form

$$f=\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{\alpha _1})\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{\alpha _2})\mathrm{}\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{\alpha _k}),$$

where $`\text{e}_{\alpha _1},\text{e}_{\alpha _2},\mathrm{},\text{e}_{\alpha _k}`$ are commuting elements with square 1 of the canonical basis of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ generating a group of order $`2^k`$. The values of $`k`$ are defined by a formula $`k=qr_{qp}`$, where $`r_i`$ are the Radon–Hurwitz numbers , values of which form a cycle of the period 8: $`r_{i+8}=r_i+4`$. The values of all $`r_i`$ are

| $`i`$ | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`r_i`$ | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |

.

Examples. 1) Space–time algebra. Let us consider a minimal left ideal of the space–time algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$. In this case the Radon–Hurwitz number is equal to $`r_{qp}=r_2=2`$ and, therefore, for a quantity of the commuting elements of the canonical basis we have $`k=1`$. Thus, a primitive idempotent of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ has a form

$$e_{13}=\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_0),$$

and the minimal left ideal is defined by an expression

$$I_{1,3}=C\mathrm{}_{1,3}\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_0).$$
(1.10)
2) Dirac algebra. Using the recurrence relation $`r_{i+8}=r_i+4`$ we we obtain for the Dirac algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}`$: $`k=1r_3=1(r_54)=2`$. Therefore, the idempotent $`e_{41}=\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_{0123})\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_{034})C\mathrm{}_{4,1}`$ is primitive, and a minimal left ideal of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}`$ is equal to

$$I_{4,1}=C\mathrm{}_{4,1}\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_{0123})\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_{034}).$$
(1.11)
3) The algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{0,8}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{8,0}`$. For the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{0,8}`$ we have $`k=8r_8=8(r_0+4)=4`$ and, therefore,

$$e_{08}=\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_{1248})\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_{2358})\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_{3468})\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_{4578}).$$
(1.12)
Analogously, for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{8,0}`$: $`k=0r_8=0(r_04)=4`$ and, therefore, the primitive idempotents of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{8,0}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{0,8}`$ are coincide, since for any element $`\text{e}_{i_1i_2i_3i_4}C\mathrm{}_{8,0}`$ we have $`(\text{e}_{i_1i_2i_3i_4})^2=1`$. All the Clifford algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ are divided into eight different types with the following division ring structure:
I. Central simple algebras.

Two types $`pq0,2(mod8)`$ with a division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.

Two types $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ with a division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.

Two types $`pq4,6(mod8)`$ with a division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.

II. Semisimple algebras.

The type $`pq1(mod8)`$ with a double division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$.

The type $`pq5(mod8)`$ with a double quaternionic division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$.

The following table (Budinich–Trautman Periodic Table ) explicitly shows a distribution of the real Clifford algebras in dependence on the division ring structure, here $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$.

|  | p | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| q |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| 0 |  | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 1 |  | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 2 |  | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 3 |  | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 4 |  | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 5 |  | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 6 |  | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 7 |  | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`{}_{}{}^{2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| $`\mathrm{}`$ |  | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |  |

(1.13)
Over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ there is an isomorphism $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and there are two different types of complex Clifford algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$: $`n0(mod2)`$ and $`n1(mod2)`$.

In virtue of the Wedderburn–Artin theorem, all fundamental automorphisms of $`C\mathrm{}`$ are transferred to the matrix algebra. Matrix representations of the fundamental automorphisms of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ was first obtained by Rashevskii in 1955 : 1) Involution: $`𝖠^{}=\mathrm{𝖶𝖠𝖶}^1`$, where $`𝖶`$ is a matrix of the automorphism $``$ (matrix representation of the volume element $`\omega `$); 2) Reversion: $`\stackrel{~}{𝖠}=\mathrm{𝖤𝖠}^𝖳𝖤^1`$, where $`𝖤`$ is a matrix of the antiautomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ satisfying the conditions $`_i𝖤𝖤_i^𝖳=0`$ and $`𝖤^𝖳=(1)^{\frac{m(m1)}{2}}𝖤`$, here $`_i=\gamma (\text{e}_i)`$ are matrix representations of the units of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}`$; 3) Conjugation: $`\stackrel{~}{𝖠^{}}=\mathrm{𝖢𝖠}^𝖳𝖢^1`$, where $`𝖢=\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}^𝖳`$ is a matrix of the antiautomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ satisfying the conditions $`𝖢_i^𝖳+_i𝖢=0`$ and $`𝖢^𝖳=(1)^{\frac{m(m+1)}{2}}𝖢`$.

Example. Let consider matrix representations of the fundamental automorphisms of the Dirac algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}`$. In virtue of Theorem 1.1 there is an isomorphism $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, and therefore $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. In the capacity of the matrix representations of the units $`\text{e}_i\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ $`(i=1,2,3,4)`$ we take the well-known Dirac $`\gamma `$-matrices (so-called canonical representation):

$$\gamma _1=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& i\\ 0& 0& i& 0\\ 0& i& 0& 0\\ i& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),\gamma _2=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 1\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),$$

$$\gamma _3=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& i& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& i\\ i& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& i& 0& 0\end{array}\right),\gamma _4=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right).$$
(1.14)
$`\gamma `$-matrices form the only one basis from the set of isomorphic matrix basises of $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. In the basis (1.14) the element $`\omega =\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3\text{e}_4`$ is represented by a matrix $`𝖶=\gamma _5=\gamma _1\gamma _2\gamma _3\gamma _4`$. Since $`\gamma _5^2=1`$, then $`\epsilon =1(𝖶^{}=𝖶)`$ and the matrix

$$𝖶^T=𝖶=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\end{array}\right)$$
(1.15)
in accordance with (1.6) is a matrix of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$. Further, in the matrix representation the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is defined by the transformation $`\stackrel{~}{𝖠}=\mathrm{𝖤𝖠}^T𝖤^1`$. For the $`\gamma `$-matrices we have $`\gamma _1^T=\gamma _1,\gamma _2^T=\gamma _2,\gamma _3^T=\gamma _3,\gamma _4^T=\gamma _4`$. Further,

$`\gamma _1=𝖤\gamma _1𝖤^1,\gamma _2=𝖤\gamma _2𝖤^1,`$
$`\gamma _3=𝖤\gamma _3𝖤^1,\gamma _4=𝖤\gamma _4𝖤^1.`$
It is easy to verify that a matrix $`𝖤=\gamma _1\gamma _3`$ satisfies the latter relations and, therefore, the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ in the basis (1.14) is defined by the matrix

$$𝖤=\gamma _1\gamma _3=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 1& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\end{array}\right).$$
(1.16)
Finally, for the matrix $`𝖢=\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}^T`$ of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ from (1.15) and (1.16) in accordance with (1.7) we obtain

$$𝖢=\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}^T=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 1\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right).$$
(1.17)
### 1.3. Salingaros groups

The structure of the Clifford algebras admits a very elegant description in terms of finite groups . In accordance with the multiplication law (1.1) the basis elements of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ form a finite group of order $`2^{n+1}`$

$$G(p,q)=\{\pm 1,\pm \text{e}_i,\pm \text{e}_i\text{e}_j,\pm \text{e}_i\text{e}_j\text{e}_k,\mathrm{},\pm \text{e}_1\text{e}_2\mathrm{}\text{e}_n\}(i<j<k<\mathrm{}).$$
(1.18)
Salingaros showed  that there exist five distinct types of finite groups (1.18) that arise from Clifford algebras. In  they were called ‘vee groups’ and were labelled as

$$N_{\text{odd}},N_{\text{even}},\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{odd}},\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{even}},S_k.$$
(1.19)
The odd $`N`$–groups correspond to real spinors, for example, $`N_1`$ is related to real 2–spinors, and $`N_3`$ is the group of the real Majorana matrices. The even $`N`$–groups define the quaternionic groups. The $`S`$–groups are the ‘spinor groups’ ($`S_k=N_{2k}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}`$): $`S_1`$ is the group of the complex Pauli matrices, and $`S_2`$ is the group of the Dirac matrices. Furthermore, the $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$–groups are double copies of the $`N`$–groups and can be written as a direct product of the $`N`$–groups with the group of two elements $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$:

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_k=N_k\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}$$
(1.20)
Let us consider now several simplest examples of the groups (1.19). First of all, a finite group corresponding to the Clifford algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{0,0}`$ with an arbitrary element $`𝒜=a^0`$ and division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq0(mod8)`$) is a cyclic group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\}`$ with the following multiplication table

|  | $`1`$ | $`1`$ |
| --- | --- | --- |
| $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ |
| $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ |

It is easy to see that in accordance with (1.19) the finite group corresponding to $`C\mathrm{}_{0,0}`$ is $`N_0`$–group ($`N_0=\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$).

A further Clifford algebra is $`C\mathrm{}_{1,0}`$: $`𝒜=a^0+a^1\text{e}_1,\text{e}_1^2=1`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq1(mod8)`$. In this case the basis elements of $`C\mathrm{}_{1,0}`$ form the Gauss–Klein four–group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\text{e}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\text{e}_{\mathrm{}}\}`$. The multiplication table of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ has a form

|  | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ |
| $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ |
| $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ |
| $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ |

In accordance with (1.20) we have here a first $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$–group: $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=N_0\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

The algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{0,1}`$ with $`𝒜=a^0+a^1\text{e}_1`$, $`\text{e}_1^2=1`$ ($`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$) corresponds to the complex group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\text{e}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\text{e}_{\mathrm{}}\}`$ with the multiplication table

|  | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ |
| $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ |
| $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ |
| $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ |

It is easy to see that in accordance with Salingaros classification this group is a first $`S`$–group: $`S_0=\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

The three finite groups considered previously are Abelian groups. All other Salingaros groups (1.19) are non–Abelian. The first non–Abelian Salingaros group correspond to the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{2,0}`$ with an arbitrary element $`𝒜=a^0+a^1\text{e}_1+a^2\text{e}_2+a^{12}\text{e}_{12}`$ and $`\text{e}_1^2=\text{e}_2^2=1,\text{e}_{12}^2=1`$ ($`pq2(mod8),\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$). The basis elements of $`C\mathrm{}_{2,0}`$ form a dihedral group $`D_4=\{1,1,\text{e}_1,\text{e}_1,\text{e}_2,\text{e}_2,\text{e}_{12},\text{e}_{12}\}`$ with the table

|  | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ |
| $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ |
| $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ |
| $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ |
| $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ |
| $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ |
| $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ |
| $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ |

It is a first $`N_{\text{odd}}`$–group: $`N_1=D_4`$. It is easy to verify that we come to the same group $`N_1=D_4`$ for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,1}`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq0(mod8)`$.

The following non–Abelian finite group we obtain for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{0,2}`$ with a quaternionic ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq6(mod8)`$. In this case the basis elements of $`C\mathrm{}_{0,2}`$ form a quaternionic group $`Q_4=\{\pm 1,\pm \text{e}_1,\pm \text{e}_2,\pm \text{e}_{12}\}`$ with the multiplication table

|  | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ |
| $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ |
| $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ |
| $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ |
| $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ |
| $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ |
| $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ |
| $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_{12}`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_2`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`\text{e}_1`$ | $`1`$ | $`1`$ |

It is a first $`N_{\text{even}}`$–group: $`N_2=Q_4`$.

Now we can to establish a relationship between the finite group and division ring structures of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. It is easy to see that the five distinct types of Salingaros groups correspond to the five division rings of the real Clifford algebras as follows

$`N_{\text{odd}}`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q},pq0,2(mod8),\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$
$`N_{\text{even}}`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q},pq4,6(mod8),\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$
$`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{odd}}`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q},pq1(mod8),\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$
$`\mathrm{\Omega }_{\text{even}}`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q},pq5(mod8),\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$
$`S_k`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q},pq3,7(mod8),\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$
Therefore, the Periodic Table (1.13) can be rewritten in terms of finite group structure

|  | p | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |  |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| q |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| 0 |  | $`N_1`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ | $`N_1`$ | $`S_1`$ | $`N_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_4`$ | $`N_6`$ | $`S_3`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 1 |  | $`S_0`$ | $`N_1`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1`$ | $`N_3`$ | $`S_2`$ | $`N_6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_6`$ | $`N_8`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 2 |  | $`N_2`$ | $`S_1`$ | $`N_3`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_3`$ | $`N_5`$ | $`S_3`$ | $`N_8`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_8`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 3 |  | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$ | $`N_4`$ | $`S_2`$ | $`N_5`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_5`$ | $`N_7`$ | $`S_4`$ | $`N_{10}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 4 |  | $`N_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_4`$ | $`N_6`$ | $`S_3`$ | $`N_7`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_7`$ | $`N_9`$ | $`S_5`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 5 |  | $`S_2`$ | $`N_6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_6`$ | $`N_8`$ | $`S_4`$ | $`N_9`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_9`$ | $`N_{11}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 6 |  | $`N_5`$ | $`S_3`$ | $`N_8`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_8`$ | $`N_{10}`$ | $`S_5`$ | $`N_{11}`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{11}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| 7 |  | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_5`$ | $`N_7`$ | $`S_4`$ | $`N_{10}`$ | $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{10}`$ | $`N_{12}`$ | $`S_6`$ | $`N_{13}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |
| $`\mathrm{}`$ |  | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ | $`\mathrm{}`$ |  |

Further, in accordance with (1.4) a center $`𝐙_{p,q}`$ of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ consists of the unit if $`pq0,2,4,6(mod8)`$ and the elements $`1,\omega =\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}n}`$ if $`pq1,3,5,7(mod8)`$. Let $`𝐙(p,q)C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ be a center of the finite group (1.18). In such a way, we have three distinct realizations of the center $`𝐙(p,q)`$:

$`𝐙(p,q)`$ $`=`$ $`\{1,1\}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\text{if}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$
$`𝐙(p,q)`$ $`=`$ $`\{1,1,\omega ,\omega \}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\text{if}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$
$`𝐙(p,q)`$ $`=`$ $`\{1,1,\omega ,\omega \}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\text{if}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$
The Abelian groups $`𝐙(p,q)`$ are the subgroups of the Salingaros groups (1.19). Namely, $`N`$–groups have the center $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$–groups have the center $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, and $`S`$-group has the center $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

In the following sections we will consider finite groups that arise from the fundamental automorphisms of the Clifford algebras. It will be shown that these groups (both Abelian and non–Abelian) are the subgroups of the Salingaros groups. Moreover, it will be shown also that the finite groups of automorphisms, $`\mathrm{Aut}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})`$, form a natural basis for description of the discrete symmetries in quantum field theory.

### 1.4. Clifford–Lipschitz groups

The Lipschitz group $`𝚪_{p,q}`$, also called the Clifford group, introduced by Lipschitz in 1886 , may be defined as the subgroup of invertible elements $`s`$ of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$:

$$𝚪_{p,q}=\left\{sC\mathrm{}_{p,q}^+C\mathrm{}_{p,q}^{}\right|x\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\}.$$

The set $`𝚪_{p,q}^+=𝚪_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}^+`$ is called special Lipschitz group .

Let $`N:C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q},N(𝐱)=𝐱\stackrel{~}{𝐱}`$. If $`𝐱\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, then $`N(𝐱)=𝐱(𝐱)=𝐱^2=Q(𝐱)`$. Further, the group $`𝚪_{p,q}`$ has a subgroup

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)=\left\{s𝚪_{p,q}\right|N(s)=\pm 1\}.$$
(1.21)
Analogously, a spinor group $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ is defined by the set

$$\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)=\left\{s𝚪_{p,q}^+\right|N(s)=\pm 1\}.$$
(1.22)
It is obvious that $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)=\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)C\mathrm{}_{p,q}^+`$. The group $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ contains a subgroup

$$\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_+(p,q)=\left\{s\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\right|N(s)=1\}.$$
(1.23)
It is easy to see that the groups $`O(p,q),SO(p,q)`$ and $`SO_+(p,q)`$ are isomorphic, respectively, to the following quotient groups

$$O(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{𝕆}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{𝕆}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}$$

where the kernel $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\}`$. Thus, the groups $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$, $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_+(p,q)`$ are the double coverings of the groups $`O(p,q),SO(p,q)`$ and $`SO_+(p,q)`$, respectively.

Further, since $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}^+C\mathrm{}_{q,p}^+`$, then

$$\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(q,p).$$

In contrast with this, the groups $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p)`$ are non–isomorphic. Denote $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(n)=\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(n,0)\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(0,n)`$.

###### Theorem 1.4 ().

The spinor groups

$$\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(2),\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(3),\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(4),\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(5),\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(6)$$

are isomorphic to the unitary groups

$$U(1),Sp(1)SU(2),SU(2)\times SU(2),Sp(2),SU(4).$$

In accordance with Theorem 1.1 and decompositions (1.9) over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is isomorphic to a direct sum of two mutually annihilating simple ideals $`\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \omega )C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$: $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\frac{1}{2}(1+\omega )C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\frac{1}{2}(1\omega )C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, where $`\omega =\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q},pq1,5(mod8)`$. At this point,the each ideal is isomorpic to $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ or $`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$. Therefore, for the Clifford–Lipschitz groups we have the following isomorphisms

$`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q1){\displaystyle \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q1)}`$ (1.24)
$``$ $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p1){\displaystyle \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p1)}.`$
Or, since $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}^+C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, then according to (4.163)

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)$$

if $`pq1,5(mod8)`$.

Further, when $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ from Theorem 1.1 it follows that $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is isomorphic to a complex algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Therefore, for the $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}`$ groups we obtain

$`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q1){\displaystyle \text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q1)}`$ (1.25)
$``$ $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p1){\displaystyle \text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p1)}`$
if $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ and correspondingly

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q).$$
(1.26)
In case of $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ we have isomorphisms which are analoguos to (1.25)-(1.26), since $`\omega C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. Generalizing we obtain the following

###### Theorem 1.5.

Let $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ be the Clifford-Lipschitz groups of the invertible elements of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with odd dimensionality, $`pq1,3,5,7(mod8)`$. Then

$`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q1){\displaystyle \omega \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q1)}`$
$``$ $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p1){\displaystyle \omega \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p1)}`$
and

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\omega \mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q),$$

where $`\omega =\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}`$ is a volume element of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$.

In case of low dimensionalities from Theorem 1.4 and Theorem 1.5 it immediately follows

###### Theorem 1.6.

For $`p+q5`$ and $`pq3,5(mod8)`$,

$`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(3,0)`$ $``$ $`SU(2)iSU(2),`$
$`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(0,3)`$ $``$ $`SU(2)eSU(2),`$
$`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(5,0)`$ $``$ $`Sp(2)eSp(2),`$
$`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(0,5)`$ $``$ $`Sp(2)iSp(2).`$
###### Proof.

Indeed, in accordance with Theorem 1.5 $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(3,0)\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(3)\text{e}_{123}\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(3)`$. Further, from Theorem 1.4 we have $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(3)SU(2)`$, and a square of the element $`\omega =\text{e}_{123}`$ is equal to $`1`$, therefore $`\omega i`$. Thus, $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(3,0)SU(2)iSU(2)`$. For the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(0,3)`$ a square of $`\omega `$ is equal to $`+1`$, therefore $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(0,3)SU(2)eSU(2)`$, $`e`$ is a double unit. As expected, $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(3,0)\simeq ̸\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(0,3)`$. The isomorphisms for the groups $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(5,0)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(0,5)`$ are analogously proved.

On the other hand, there exists a more detailed version of the $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}`$–group (1.21) proposed by Da̧browski in 1988 . In general, there are eight double coverings of the orthogonal group $`O(p,q)`$ :

$$\rho ^{a,b,c}:\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)O(p,q),$$

where $`a,b,c\{+,\}`$. As known, the group $`O(p,q)`$ consists of four connected components: identity connected component $`O_0(p,q)`$, and three components corresponding to parity reversal $`P`$, time reversal $`T`$, and the combination of these two $`PT`$, i.e., $`O(p,q)=(O_0(p,q))P(Q_0(p,q))T(O_0(p,q))PT(O_0(p,q))`$. Further, since the four–element group (reflection group) $`\{1,P,T,PT\}`$ is isomorphic to the finite group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ (Gauss–Klein veergruppe ), then $`O(p,q)`$ may be represented by a semidirect product $`O(p,q)O_0(p,q)(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}`$. The signs of $`a,b,c`$ correspond to the signs of the squares of the elements in $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)`$ which cover space reflection $`P`$, time reversal $`T`$ and a combination of these two $`PT`$ ($`a=P^2,b=T^2,c=(PT)^2`$ in Da̧browski’s notation  and $`a=P^2,b=T^2,c=(PT)^2`$ in Chamblin’s notation  which we will use below). An explicit form of the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)`$ is given by the following semidirect product

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\frac{(\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_0(p,q)C^{a,b,c})}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}},$$
(1.27)
where $`C^{a,b,c}`$ are the four double coverings of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. All the eight double coverings of the orthogonal group $`O(p,q)`$ are given in the following table:

| $`a`$ $`b`$ $`c`$ | $`C^{a,b,c}`$ | Remark |
| --- | --- | --- |
| $`+`$ $`+`$ $`+`$ | $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ | $`PT=TP`$ |
| $`+`$ $``$ $``$ | $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ | $`PT=TP`$ |
| $``$ $`+`$ $``$ | $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ | $`PT=TP`$ |
| $``$ $``$ $`+`$ | $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ | $`PT=TP`$ |
| $``$ $``$ $``$ | $`Q_4`$ | $`PT=TP`$ |
| $``$ $`+`$ $`+`$ | $`D_4`$ | $`PT=TP`$ |
| $`+`$ $``$ $`+`$ | $`D_4`$ | $`PT=TP`$ |
| $`+`$ $`+`$ $``$ | $`D_4`$ | $`PT=TP`$ |

Here $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`Q_4`$, and $`D_4`$ are complex, quaternion, and dihedral groups, respectively. According to  the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)`$ satisfying the condition $`PT=TP`$ is called Cliffordian, and respectively non–Cliffordian when $`PT=TP`$.

### 1.5. Dirac-Hestenes spinor fields and minimal left ideals of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}`$

An introduction of Dirac–Hestenes fields  were caused by the following problem. As known, a 5–dimensional real space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, associated with the Dirac algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}`$, is a non–physical space, whereas in virtue of an isomorphism $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ the Dirac spinor $`\mathrm{\Phi }\mathrm{End}_{\mathrm{}}(I_{4,1})`$ describes the wave function of the electron . Thus, with a view to remove this disparity it needs to define the Dirac field in a physical space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ (Minkowski space–time) associated with the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$. The transition from the complex space $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ to space–time $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ was given by Hestenes and his collaborators ).

So, the minimal left ideals of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}`$ have correspondingly the following form

$`I_{1,3}`$ $`=`$ $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}e_{13}=C\mathrm{}_{1,3}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(1+\gamma _0),`$
$`I_{4,1}`$ $`=`$ $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}e_{41}=C\mathrm{}_{4,1}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(1+\gamma _0){\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(1+i\gamma _{12}),`$
where $`\gamma _i(i=0,1,2,3)`$ are matrix representations of the units of $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$:

$$\gamma _0=\left(\begin{array}{cc}E& 0\\ 0& E\end{array}\right),\gamma _1=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& \sigma _1\\ \sigma _1& 0\end{array}\right),\gamma _2=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& \sigma _2\\ \sigma _2& 0\end{array}\right),\gamma _3=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& \sigma _3\\ \sigma _3& 0\end{array}\right),$$
(1.28)
whre $`\sigma _i`$ are Pauli matrices

$$\sigma _1=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right),\sigma _2=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& i\\ i& 0\end{array}\right),\sigma _3=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right),$$

$`E`$ is an unit matrix. Further, for the Dirac algebra take place the following isomorphisms $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}`$ , $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}^+C\mathrm{}_{1,3}𝖬_2^{\mathrm{}}(C\mathrm{}_{1,1})`$. In virtue of an identity $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}e_{13}=C\mathrm{}_{1,3}^+e_{13}`$  for the minimal left ideal of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}`$ we obtain

$$\begin{array}{c}I_{4,1}=C\mathrm{}_{4,1}e_{41}=(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}{}^{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}{}^{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}{}^{}\mathrm{}\hfill \\ \hfill C\mathrm{}_{1,3}e_{13}\frac{1}{2}(1+i\gamma _{12})=C\mathrm{}_{1,3}^+e_{13}\frac{1}{2}(1+i\gamma _{12}).\end{array}$$
(1.29)
Let $`\mathrm{\Phi }C\mathrm{}_{4,1}𝖬_4(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ be a Dirac spinor and let $`\varphi C\mathrm{}_{1,3}^+C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$ be a Dirac–Hestenes spinor. Then from (1.29) it immediately follows a relation between the spinors $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ and $`\varphi `$:

$$\mathrm{\Phi }=\varphi \frac{1}{2}(1+\gamma _0)\frac{1}{2}(1+i\gamma _{12}).$$
(1.30)
Since $`\varphi C\mathrm{}_{1,3}^+C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$, then the Dirac–Hestenes spinor can be represented by a biquaternion number

$$\varphi =a^0+a^{01}\gamma _{01}+a^{02}\gamma _{02}+a^{03}\gamma _{03}+a^{12}\gamma _{12}+a^{13}\gamma _{13}+a^{23}\gamma _{23}+a^{0123}\gamma _{0123}.$$
(1.31)
Or in the matrix form

$$\varphi =\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\varphi _1& \varphi _2^{}& \varphi _3& \varphi _4^{}\\ \varphi _2& \varphi _1^{}& \varphi _4& \varphi _3^{}\\ \varphi _3& \varphi _4^{}& \varphi _1& \varphi _2^{}\\ \varphi _4& \varphi _3^{}& \varphi _2& \varphi _1^{}\end{array}\right),$$
(1.32)
where

$`\varphi _1`$ $`=`$ $`a^0ia^{12},`$
$`\varphi _2`$ $`=`$ $`a^{13}ia^{23},`$
$`\varphi _3`$ $`=`$ $`a^{03}ia^{0123},`$
$`\varphi _4`$ $`=`$ $`a^{01}+ia^{02}.`$
According to (1.29) and (1.30), (1.32) the minimal left ideal of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{4,1}`$ in the matrix representation has a form

$$\mathrm{\Phi }=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\varphi _1& 0& 0& 0\\ \varphi _2& 0& 0& 0\\ \varphi _3& 0& 0& 0\\ \varphi _4& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right)$$

In such a way, the elements of this ideal contain four complex, or eight real, parameters, which are just sufficient to define a Dirac spinor.

In conclusion of this section it should be noted that the Hestenes program of reinterpretation of quantum mechanics within the field of real numbers involves a wide variety of interesting applications of the Dirac–Hestenes fields in geometry and general theory of relativity .

## Chapter 2 Da̧browski groups

### 2.1. Generalization of the Da̧browski groups and fundamental automorphisms of the Clifford algebras

As noted above, there exists a close relationship between Da̧browski groups $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)`$ and discrete tansformations of the orthogonal group $`O(p,q)`$ (in particular, Lorentz group $`O(1,3)`$) . On the other hand, discrete transformations of the group $`O(p,q)`$ which acting in the space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ associated with the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, may be realized via the fundamental automorphisms of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. In essence, the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ is an intrinsic notion of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, since in accordance with (4.162) $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. Let us show that the Da̧browski group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)`$ is also completely defined in the framework of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, that is, there is an equivalence between $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)`$ and the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ complemented by the transformations $`𝒜𝒜^{},𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜},𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ (in connection with this it should be noted that the Gauss–Klein group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a finite group corresponded to the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,0}=𝛀`$ ).

###### Proposition 2.1.

Let $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ ($`p+q=2m`$) be a Clifford algebra over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and let $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ be a double covering of the orthogonal group $`O(p,q)=O_0(p,q)\{1,P,T,PT\}O_0(p,q)(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}`$ of transformations of the space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, where $`\{1,P,T,PT\}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a group of discrete transformations of $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is the Gauss–Klein group. Then there is an isomorphism between the group $`\{1,P,T,PT\}`$ and an automorphism group $`\{\mathrm{Id},,\stackrel{~}{},\stackrel{~}{}\}`$ of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. In this case, space inversion $`P`$, time reversal $`T`$ and combination $`PT`$ are correspond respectively to the fundamental automorphisms $`𝒜𝒜^{},𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$.

###### Proof.

As known, the transformations $`1,P,T,PT`$ at the conditions $`P^2=T^2=(PT)^2=1,PT=TP`$ form an Abelian group with the following multiplication table

|  | $`1`$ | $`P`$ | $`T`$ | $`PT`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`1`$ | $`1`$ | $`P`$ | $`T`$ | $`PT`$ |
| $`P`$ | $`P`$ | $`1`$ | $`PT`$ | $`T`$ |
| $`T`$ | $`T`$ | $`PT`$ | $`1`$ | $`P`$ |
| $`PT`$ | $`PT`$ | $`T`$ | $`P`$ | $`1`$ |

Analogously, for the automorphism group $`\{\mathrm{Id},,\stackrel{~}{},\stackrel{~}{}\}`$ in virtue of the commutativity $`\stackrel{~}{(𝒜^{})}=(\stackrel{~}{𝒜})^{}`$ and the involution conditions $`()^2=(\stackrel{~}{})^2=\mathrm{Id}`$ a following multiplication table takes place

|  | $`\mathrm{Id}`$ | $``$ | $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ | $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`\mathrm{Id}`$ | $`\mathrm{Id}`$ | $``$ | $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ | $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ |
| $``$ | $``$ | $`\mathrm{Id}`$ | $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ | $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ |
| $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ | $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ | $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ | $`\mathrm{Id}`$ | $``$ |
| $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ | $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ | $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ | $``$ | $`\mathrm{Id}`$ |

The identity of the multiplication tables proves the isomorphism of the groups $`\{1,P,T,PT\}`$ and $`\{\mathrm{Id},,\stackrel{~}{},\stackrel{~}{}\}`$. ∎

Further, in the case of anticommutativity $`PT=TP`$ and $`P^2=T^2=(PT)^2=\pm 1`$ an isomorphism between the group $`\{1,P,T,PT\}`$ and an automorphism group $`\{𝖨,𝖶,𝖤,𝖢\}`$, where $`𝖶,𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ in accordance with (1.6), (1.8) and (1.7) are the matrix representations of the automorphisms $`𝒜𝒜^{},𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, is analogously proved.
Example. According to (1.14), (1.15), (1.16) and (1.17) the matrix representation of the fundamental automorphisms of the Dirac algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is defined by the following expressions: $`𝖶=\gamma _1\gamma _2\gamma _3\gamma _4,𝖤=\gamma _1\gamma _3,𝖢=\gamma _2\gamma _4`$. The multiplication table of the group $`\{𝖨,𝖶,𝖤,𝖢\}\{𝖨,\gamma _1\gamma _2\gamma _3\gamma _4,\gamma _1\gamma _3,\gamma _2\gamma _4\}`$ has a form

I
γ1234
γ13
γ24𝖨Iγ1234γ13γ24γ1234γ1234𝖨γ24γ13γ13γ13γ24𝖨γ1234γ24γ24γ13γ1234𝖨

I
W
E
C𝖨𝖨𝖶𝖤𝖢𝖶𝖶𝖨𝖢𝖤𝖤𝖤𝖢𝖨𝖶𝖢𝖢𝖤𝖶𝖨.similar-tofragments

I
γ1234
γ13
γ24𝖨𝐼fragmentsγ1234fragmentsγ13fragmentsγ24fragmentsγ1234fragmentsγ1234𝖨fragmentsγ24fragmentsγ13fragmentsγ13fragmentsγ13fragmentsγ24fragmentsIfragmentsγ1234fragmentsγ24fragmentsγ24fragmentsγ13fragmentsγ1234fragmentsIfragments

I
W
E
C𝖨𝖨𝖶𝖤𝖢𝖶𝖶𝖨𝖢𝖤𝖤𝖤𝖢fragmentsIfragmentsW𝖢𝖢𝖤fragmentsWfragmentsI{\begin{tabular}[]{|c||c|c|c|c|}\hline\cr&${\sf I}$&$\gamma_{1234}$&$\gamma_{13}$&$\gamma_{24}$\\
\hline\cr\hline\cr${\sf I}$&$I$&$\gamma_{1234}$&$\gamma_{13}$&$\gamma_{24}$\\
\hline\cr$\gamma_{1234}$&$\gamma_{1234}$&${\sf I}$&$\gamma_{24}$&$\gamma_{13}$\\
\hline\cr$\gamma_{13}$&$\gamma_{13}$&$\gamma_{24}$&$-{\sf I}$&$-\gamma_{1234}$\\
\hline\cr$\gamma_{24}$&$\gamma_{24}$&$\gamma_{13}$&$-\gamma_{1234}$&$-{\sf I}$\\
\hline\cr\end{tabular}}\;\;\sim\;\;{\begin{tabular}[]{|c||c|c|c|c|}\hline\cr&${\sf I}$&${\sf W}$&${\sf E}$&${\sf C}$\\
\hline\cr\hline\cr${\sf I}$&${\sf I}$&${\sf W}$&${\sf E}$&${\sf C}$\\
\hline\cr${\sf W}$&${\sf W}$&${\sf I}$&${\sf C}$&${\sf E}$\\
\hline\cr${\sf E}$&${\sf E}$&${\sf C}$&$-{\sf I}$&$-{\sf W}$\\
\hline\cr${\sf C}$&${\sf C}$&${\sf E}$&$-{\sf W}$&$-{\sf I}$\\
\hline\cr\end{tabular}.} (2.1)
However, in this representation we cannot directly to identify $`𝖶=\gamma _1\gamma _2\gamma _3\gamma _4`$ with the space inversion $`P`$, since in this case the Dirac equation $`(i\gamma _4\frac{}{x_4}i𝜸\frac{}{𝐱}m)\psi (x_4,𝐱)=0`$ to be not invariant with respect to $`P`$. On the other hand, for the canonical basis (1.14) there exists a standard representation $`P=\gamma _4,T=\gamma _1\gamma _3`$ . The multiplication table of a group $`\{1,P,T,PT\}\{I,\gamma _4,\gamma _2\gamma _3,\gamma _4\gamma _1\gamma _3\}`$ has a form

I
γ4
γ13
γ413𝖨𝖨γ4γ13γ413γ4γ4𝖨γ413γ13γ13γ13γ413𝖨γ4γ413γ413γ13γ4𝖨

1
P
T
PT11PTPTPP1PTTTTPT1PPTPTTP1.similar-tofragments

I
γ4
γ13
γ413fragmentsI𝖨fragmentsγ4fragmentsγ13fragmentsγ413fragmentsγ4fragmentsγ4𝖨fragmentsγ413fragmentsγ13fragmentsγ13fragmentsγ13fragmentsγ413fragmentsIfragmentsγ4fragmentsγ413fragmentsγ413fragmentsγ13fragmentsγ4fragmentsIfragments

1
P
T
PT11𝑃𝑇fragmentsPT𝑃𝑃1fragmentsPT𝑇𝑇𝑇fragmentsPTfragments1fragmentsPfragmentsPTfragmentsPT𝑇fragmentsPfragments1{\begin{tabular}[]{|c||c|c|c|c|}\hline\cr&${\sf I}$&$\gamma_{4}$&$\gamma_{13}$&$\gamma_{413}$\\
\hline\cr\hline\cr${\sf I}$&${\sf I}$&$\gamma_{4}$&$\gamma_{13}$&$\gamma_{413}$\\
\hline\cr$\gamma_{4}$&$\gamma_{4}$&${\sf I}$&$\gamma_{413}$&$\gamma_{13}$\\
\hline\cr$\gamma_{13}$&$\gamma_{13}$&$\gamma_{413}$&$-{\sf I}$&$-\gamma_{4}$\\
\hline\cr$\gamma_{413}$&$\gamma_{413}$&$\gamma_{13}$&$-\gamma_{4}$&$-{\sf I}$\\
\hline\cr\end{tabular}}\;\;\sim\;\;{\begin{tabular}[]{|c||c|c|c|c|}\hline\cr&$1$&$P$&$T$&$PT$\\
\hline\cr\hline\cr$1$&$1$&$P$&$T$&$PT$\\
\hline\cr$P$&$P$&$1$&$PT$&$T$\\
\hline\cr$T$&$T$&$PT$&$-1$&$-P$\\
\hline\cr$PT$&$PT$&$T$&$-P$&$-1$\\
\hline\cr\end{tabular}.} (2.2)
It is easy to see that the tables (2.1) and (2.2) are equivalent, therefore, we have an isomorphism $`\{𝖨,𝖶,𝖤,𝖢\}\{1,P,T,PT\}`$. Besides, each of these groups is isomorphic to the group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

###### Theorem 2.1 ().

Let $`𝖠=\{𝖨,𝖶,𝖤,𝖢\}`$ be the automorphism group of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ $`(p+q=2m)`$, where $`𝖶=_1_2\mathrm{}_m_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$, and $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, $`𝖢=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ if $`m1(mod2)`$, and $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$, $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$ if $`m0(mod2)`$. Let $`𝖠_{}`$ and $`𝖠_+`$ be the automorphism groups, in which the all elements correspondingly commute $`(m0(mod2))`$ and anticommute $`(m1(mod2))`$. Then over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ there are only two non–isomorphic groups: $`𝐀_{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ for the signature $`(+,+,+)`$ if $`n0,1(mod4)`$ and $`𝐀_+Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ for the signature $`(,,)`$ if $`n2,3(mod4)`$.

###### Proof.

1) The first complex type $`n0(mod2)`$.
Over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ we can always to suppose $`𝖶^2=1`$. Further, let us find now the matrix $`𝖤`$ of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ at any $`n=2m`$, and elucidate the conditions at which the matrix $`𝖤`$ commutes with $`𝖶`$, and also define a square of the matrix $`𝖤`$. Follows to  let us introduce along with the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ an auxiliary algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with basis elements

$$1,\epsilon _\alpha ,\epsilon _{\alpha _1\alpha _2}(\alpha _1<\alpha _2),\epsilon _{\alpha _1\alpha _2\alpha _3}(\alpha _1<\alpha _2<\alpha _3),\mathrm{}\epsilon _{12\mathrm{}m}.$$

In so doing, linear operators $`\widehat{}_i`$ acting in the space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}`$ associated with the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, are defined by a following rule

$`\widehat{}_j:\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }\epsilon _j,`$
$`\widehat{}_{m+j}:\mathrm{\Lambda }^1i\epsilon _j\mathrm{\Lambda }^1,\mathrm{\Lambda }^0i\epsilon _j\mathrm{\Lambda }^0,`$ (2.3)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is a general element of the auxiliary algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^0`$ are correspondingly odd and even parts of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, $`\epsilon _j`$ are units of the auxiliary algebra, $`j=1,2,\mathrm{}m`$. Analogously, in the case of matrix representations of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ we have

$`\widehat{}_j:\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{\Lambda }\beta _j\epsilon _j,`$
$`\widehat{}_{m+j}:\mathrm{\Lambda }^1\epsilon _j\beta _{m+j}\mathrm{\Lambda }^1,\mathrm{\Lambda }^0\epsilon _j\beta _{m+j}\mathrm{\Lambda }^0,`$ (2.4)
where $`\beta _i`$ are arbitrary complex numbers. It is easy to verify that transposition of the matrices of so defined operators gives

$$_j^T=_j,_{m+j}^T=_{m+j}.$$
(2.5)
Further, for the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}:\stackrel{~}{𝖠}=\mathrm{𝖤𝖠}^T𝖤^1`$, since in this case $`\text{e}_i\text{e}_i`$, it is sufficient to select the matrix $`𝖤`$ so that

$$𝖤_i^T𝖤^1=_i,$$

or taking into account (2.5)

$$𝖤_j^T𝖤^1=_j,𝖤_{m+j}^T𝖤^1=_{m+j}.$$
(2.6)
Therefore, if $`m`$ is odd, then the matrix $`𝖤`$ has a form

$$𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m,$$
(2.7)
since in this case a product $`_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$ commutes with all elements $`_j(j=1,\mathrm{}m)`$ and anticommutes with all elements $`_{m+j}`$. Analogously, if $`m`$ is even, then

$$𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}.$$
(2.8)
As required according to (2.6) in this case a product (2.8) commutes with $`_j`$ and anticommutes with $`_{m+j}`$.

Let us consider now the conditions at which the matrix $`𝖤`$ commutes or anticommutes with $`𝖶`$. Let $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, where $`m`$ is odd, since $`𝖶=_1\mathrm{}_m_{m+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$, then

$`_1\mathrm{}_m_1\mathrm{}_m_{m+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{\frac{m(m1)}{2}}\sigma _1\sigma _2\mathrm{}\sigma _m_{m+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q},`$
$`_1\mathrm{}_m_{m+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q}_1\mathrm{}_m`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{\frac{m(3m1)}{2}}\sigma _1\sigma _2\mathrm{}\sigma _m_{m+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q},`$
where $`\sigma _i`$ are the functions of the form (1.2). It is easy to see that in this case the elements $`𝖶`$ and $`𝖤`$ are always anticommute. Indeed, a comparison $`\frac{m(3m1)}{2}\frac{m(m1)}{2}(mod2)`$ is equivalent to $`m^20,1(mod2)`$, and since $`m`$ is odd, then we have always $`m^21(mod2)`$. At $`m`$ is even and $`𝖤=_{m+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ it is easy to see that the matrices $`𝖶`$ and $`𝖤`$ are always commute $`(m0(mod2))`$. It is obvious that over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ we can suppose $`_{1\mathrm{}m}^2=_{m+1\mathrm{}p+q}^2=𝖨`$.

Let us find now the matrix $`𝖢`$ of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$: $`\stackrel{~}{𝖠^{}}=\mathrm{𝖢𝖠}^T𝖢^1`$. Since in this case $`\text{e}_i\text{e}_i`$, then it is sufficient to select the matrix $`𝖢`$ so that

$$𝖢_i^T𝖢^1=_i,$$

or taking into account (2.5)

$$𝖢_j^T𝖢^1=_j,𝖢_{m+j}^T𝖢^1=_{m+j},$$
(2.9)
where $`j=1,\mathrm{}m`$. In comparison with (2.6) it is easy to see that in (2.9) the matrices $`_j`$ and $`_{m+j}`$ are changed by the roles. Therefore, if $`m`$ is odd, then

$$𝖢=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q},$$
(2.10)
and if $`m`$ is even, then

$$𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_m.$$
(2.11)
Permutation conditions of the matrices $`𝖢`$ and $`𝖶`$ are analogous to the permutation conditions of $`𝖤`$ with $`𝖶`$, that is, the matrix $`𝖢`$ of the form (2.10) always anticommutes with $`𝖶`$ ($`m1(mod2)`$), and the matrix $`𝖢`$ of the form (2.11) always commutes with $`𝖶`$ ($`m0(mod2)`$). Obviously, over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ we can suppose $`𝖢^2=𝖨`$.

Finally, let us find permutation conditions of the matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$. First of all, at $`m`$ is odd $`𝖤=_1\mathrm{}_m`$, $`𝖢=_{m+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$, alternatively, at $`m`$ is even $`𝖤=_{m+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$, $`𝖢=_1\mathrm{}_m`$. Therefore,

$$_1\mathrm{}_m_{m+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q}=(1)^{m^2}_{m+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q}_1\mathrm{}_m,$$

that is, the matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ commute at $`m0(mod2)`$ and anticommute at $`m1(mod2)`$.

Now we have all the necessary conditions for the definition and classification of isomorphisms between finite groups and automorphism groups of Clifford algebras. Over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ we can suppose $`𝖶^2=𝖤^2=𝖢^2=𝖨`$. At $`m0(mod2)`$ we have only one signature $`(+,+,+)`$ and an isomorphism $`𝖠_{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ if $`p+q0,4(mod8)`$, since over the field $`\mathrm{}`$ the signatures $`(+,,),(,+,)`$ and $`(,)`$ are isomorphic to $`(+,+,+)`$. Correspondingly, at $`m1(mod2)`$ we have an isomorphism $`𝖠_+Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ for the signature $`(,,)`$ if $`p+q2,6(mod8)`$. It should be noted that the signatures $`(+,+,+)`$ and $`(,,)`$ are non–isomorphic, since there exists no a group $`𝖠`$ with the signature $`(+,+,+)`$ in which all the elements anticommute, and also there exists no a group $`𝖠`$ with $`(,,)`$ in which all the elements commute. Thus, over the field $`\mathrm{}`$ we have only two non–isomorphic automorphism groups: $`𝖠_{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝔸}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.
2) The second complex type $`n1(mod2)`$.
For the odd–dimensional complex Clifford algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ ($`n1(mod2)`$) there exists a decomposition into a direct sum of the two even–dimensional subalgebras : $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. If $`n=2m+1`$, then in the decompositions we have even–dimensional algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ which, as known, admit the Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ at $`m0,2(mod4)`$ and non–Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ at $`m1,3(mod4)`$. Therefore, the odd–dimensional subalgebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ admit the signature $`(+,+,+)`$ at $`n1(mod4)`$ and the signature $`(,,)`$ at $`n3(mod4)`$. ∎

The following Theorem is a direct consequence of the previous Theorem. Here we establish a relation between signatures $`(a,b,c)`$ of the Da̧browski groups and dimensionality $`n`$ of the complex space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}`$ associated with the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

###### Theorem 2.2 ().

Let $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)`$ be a double covering of the complex orthogonal group $`O(n,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ of the space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}`$ associated with the complex algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Squares of the symbols $`a,b,c\{,+\}`$ are correspond to the squares of the elements of the finite group $`𝖠=\{𝖨,𝖶,𝖤,𝖢\}:a=𝖶^2,b=𝖤^2,c=𝖢^2`$, where $`𝖶,𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ are correspondingly the matrices of the fundamental automorphisms $`𝒜𝒜^{},𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Then over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ for the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ there exist two non–isomorphic double coverings of the group $`O(n,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$:
1) Non–Cliffordian groups

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{+,+,+}(n,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\frac{\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}$$

if $`n0(mod4)`$ and

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{+,+,+}(n,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\text{e}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}$$

if $`n1(mod4)`$.
2) Cliffordian groups

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,,}(n,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\frac{\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}$$

if $`n2(mod4)`$ and

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,,}(n,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\text{e}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}$$

if $`n3(mod4)`$.

### 2.2. Discrete symmetries over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$

A consideration of the discrete symmetries over the field of real numbers is a much more complicated problem. First of all, in contrast to the field of complex numbers over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ there exist eight different types of the Clifford algebras and five division rings, which, in virtue of the Wedderburn–Artin Theorem, impose hard restrictions on existence and choice of the matrix representations for the fundamental automorphisms.

###### Theorem 2.3.

Let $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ be a Clifford algebra over a field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and let $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})=\{𝖨,𝖶,𝖤,𝖢\}`$ be a group of fundamental automorphisms of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. Then for eight types of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ there exist, depending upon a division ring structure of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, following isomorphisms between finite groups and groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})`$ with different signatures $`(a,b,c)`$, where $`a,b,c\{,+\}`$:
1) $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, types $`pq0,2(mod8)`$.
If $`𝖤=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ and $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$, then Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,+,+)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,,)`$ exist at $`p,q0(mod4)`$ and $`p,q2(mod4)`$, respectively, for the type $`pq0(mod8)`$, and also Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,,+)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,+,)`$ exist at $`p0(mod4),q2(mod4)`$ and $`p2(mod4),q0(mod4)`$ for the type $`pq2(mod8)`$, respectively.
If $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ and $`𝖢=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$, then non–Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,,+)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,+,)`$ exist at $`p,q3(mod4)`$ and $`p,q1(mod4)`$, respectively, for the type $`pq0(mod8)`$, and also non–Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,,)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,+,+)`$ exist at $`p3(mod4),q1(mod4)`$ and $`p1(mod4),q3(mod4)`$ for the type $`pq2(mod8)`$, respectively.
2) $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, types $`pq4,6(mod8)`$.
If $`𝖤=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$ is a product of $`k`$ skewsymmetric matrices (among which $`l`$ matrices have a square $`+𝖨`$ and $`t`$ matrices have a square $`𝖨`$) and $`𝖢=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$ is a product of $`p+qk`$ symmetric matrices (among which $`h`$ matrices have a square $`+𝖨`$ and $`g`$ have a square $`𝖨`$), then at $`k0(mod2)`$ for the type $`pq4(mod8)`$ there exist Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,+,+)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,,)`$ if $`lt,hg0,1,4,5(mod8)`$ and $`lt,hg2,3,6,7(mod8)`$, respectively. And also at $`k0(mod2)`$ for the type $`pq6(mod8)`$ there exist $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,+,)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,,+)`$ if $`lt0,1,4,5(mod8),hg2,3,6,7(mod8)`$ and $`lt2,3,6,7(mod8),hg0,1,4,5(mod8)`$,respectively.
Inversely, if $`𝖤=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$ is a product of $`p+qk`$ symmetric matrices and $`𝖢=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$ is a product of $`k`$ skewsymmetric matrices, then at $`k1(mod2)`$ for the type $`pq4(mod8)`$ there exist non–Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,,+)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,+,)`$ if $`hg2,3,6,7(mod8),lt0,1,4,5(mod8)`$ and $`hg0,1,4,5(mod8),lt2,3,6,7(mod8)`$, respectively. And also at $`k1(mod2)`$ for the type $`pq6(mod8)`$ there exist $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,,)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,+,+)`$ if $`hg,lt2,3,6,7(mod8)`$ and $`hg,lt0,1,4,5(mod8)`$, respectively.
3) $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, types $`pq1,5(mod8)`$.
For the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{0,q}`$ of the types $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ there exist Abelian automorphism groups with the signatures $`(,,+)`$, $`(,+,)`$ and non–Abelian automorphism groups with the signatures $`(,,)`$, $`(,+,+)`$. Correspondingly, for the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,0}`$ of the types $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ there exist Abelian groups with $`(+,+,+)`$, $`(+,,)`$ and non–Abelian groups with $`(+,,+)`$, $`(+,+,)`$. In general case for $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, the types $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ admit all eight automorphism groups.
4) $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, types $`pq3,7(mod8)`$.
The types $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ admit the Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,+,+)`$ if $`p0(mod2)`$ and $`q1(mod2)`$, and also non–Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,,)`$ if $`p1(mod2)`$ and $`q0(mod2)`$.

###### Proof.

Before we proceed to prove this Theorem, let us consider in more details a matrix (spinor) representations of the antiautomorphisms $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$. According to Wedderburn–Artin Theorem the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ corresponds to an antiautomorphism of the full matrix algebra $`𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$: $`𝖠𝖠^𝖳`$, in virtue of the well–known relation $`(\mathrm{𝖠𝖡})^𝖳=𝖡^𝖳𝖠^𝖳`$, where $`𝖳`$ is a symbol of transposition. On the other hand, in the matrix representation of the elements $`𝒜C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, for the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ we have $`𝖠\stackrel{~}{𝖠}`$. A composition of the two antiautomorphisms, $`𝖠^𝖳𝖠\stackrel{~}{𝖠}`$, gives an automorphism $`𝖠^𝖳\stackrel{~}{𝖠}`$, which is an internal automorphism of the algebra $`𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$:

$$\stackrel{~}{𝖠}=\mathrm{𝖤𝖠}^𝖳𝖤^1,$$
(2.12)
where $`𝖤`$ is a matrix, by means of which the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is expressed in the matrix representation of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. Under action of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ the units of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ remain unaltered, $`\text{e}_i\text{e}_i`$; therefore in the matrix representation, we must demand $`_i_i`$, where $`_i=\gamma (\text{e}_i)`$ also. Therefore, for the definition of the matrix $`𝖤`$ in accordance with (2.12) we have

$$_i_i=𝖤^𝖳𝖤^1.$$
(2.13)
Or, let $`\{_{\alpha _i}\}`$ be a set consisting of symmetric matrices ($`_{\alpha _i}^𝖳=_{\alpha _i}`$) and let $`\{_{\beta _j}\}`$ be a set consisting of skewsymmetric matrices ($`_{\beta _j}^𝖳=_{\beta _j}`$). Then the transformation (2.13) may be rewritten in the following form:

$$_{\alpha _i}_{\alpha _i}=𝖤_{\alpha _i}𝖤^1,_{\beta _j}_{\beta _j}=𝖤_{\beta _j}𝖤^1.$$

Whence

$$_{\alpha _i}𝖤=𝖤_{\alpha _i},_{\beta _j}𝖤=𝖤_{\beta _j}.$$
(2.14)
Thus, the matrix $`𝖤`$ of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ commutes with a symmetric part of the spinbasis of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ and anticommutes with a skewsymmetric part. An explicit form of the matrix $`𝖤`$ in dependence on the type of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ will be found later, but first let us define a general form of $`𝖤`$, that is, let us show that for the form of $`𝖤`$ there are only two possibilities: 1) $`𝖤`$ is a product of symmetric matrices or 2) $`𝖤`$ is a product of skewsymmetric matrices. Let us prove this assertion another way: Let $`𝖤=_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _s}_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _k}`$ be a product of $`s`$ symmetric and $`k`$ skewsymmetric matrices. At this point $`1<s+kp+q`$. The permutation condition of the matrix $`𝖤`$ with the symmetric basis matrices $`_{\alpha _i}`$ have a form

$`_{\alpha _i}𝖤`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{i1}\sigma (\alpha _i)_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _{i1}}_{\alpha _{i+1}}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _s}_{\beta _1}\mathrm{}_{\beta _k},`$
$`𝖤_{\alpha _i}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{k+si}\sigma (\alpha _i)_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _{i1}}_{\alpha _{i+1}}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _s}_{\beta _1}\mathrm{}_{\beta _k}.`$ (2.15)
From here we obtain a comparison $`k+sii1(mod2)`$, that is, at $`k+s0(mod2)`$ $`𝖤`$ and $`_{\alpha _i}`$ anticommute and at $`k+s1(mod2)`$ commute. Analogously, for the skewsymmetric part we have

$`_{\beta _j}𝖤`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{s+j1}\sigma (\beta _j)_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _s}_{\beta _1}\mathrm{}_{\beta _{j1}}_{\beta _{j+1}}\mathrm{}_{\beta _k},`$
$`𝖤_{\beta _j}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{kj}\sigma (\beta _i)_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _s}_{\beta _1}\mathrm{}_{\beta _{j1}}_{\beta _{j+1}}\mathrm{}_{\beta _k}.`$ (2.16)
From the comparison $`ks2j1(mod2)`$, it follows that at $`ks0(mod2)`$, $`𝖤`$ and $`_{\beta _j}`$ anticommute and at $`ks1(mod2)`$ commute. Let $`k+s=p+q`$, then from (2.15) we see that at $`p+q0(mod2)`$ $`𝖤`$ and $`_{\alpha _i}`$ anticommute, which is inconsistent with (2.14). The case $`p+q1(mod2)`$ is excluded, since a dimensionality of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is even (in the case of odd dimensionality the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p+1,q}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q+1})`$ is isomorphic to $`\mathrm{End}_{\mathrm{𝕂}\widehat{\mathrm{𝕂}}}(I_{p,q}\widehat{I}_{p,q})𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, where $`m=\frac{p+q}{2}`$). Let suppose now that $`k+s<p+q`$, that is, let us eliminate from the product $`𝖤`$ one symmetric matrix, then $`k+s1(mod2)`$ and in virtue of (2.15) the matrices $`_{\alpha _i}`$ that belong to $`𝖤`$ commute with $`𝖤`$, but the matrix that does not belong to $`𝖤`$ anticommutes with $`𝖤`$. Thus, we came to a contradiction with (2.14). It is obvious that elimination of two, three, or more symmetric matrices from $`𝖤`$ gives an analogous situation. Now, Let us eliminate from $`𝖤`$ one skewsymmetric matrix, then $`k+s1(mod2)`$ and in virtue of (2.15) $`𝖤`$ and all $`_{\alpha _i}`$ commute with each other. Further, in virtue of (2.16) the matrices $`_{\beta _j}`$ that belong to the product $`𝖤`$ commute with $`𝖤`$, whereas the the skewsymmetric matrix that does not belong to $`𝖤`$ anticommute with $`𝖤`$. Therefore we came again to a contradiction with (2.14). We come to an analogous situation if we eliminate two, three, or more skewsymmetric matrices. Thus, the product $`𝖤`$ does not contain simultaneously symmetric and skewsymmetric matrices. Hence it follows that the matrix of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is a product of only symmetric or only skewsymmetric matrices.

Further, the matrix representations of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$: $`\stackrel{~}{𝖠^{}}=\mathrm{𝖢𝖠}^𝖳𝖢^1`$ is defined in a similar manner. First of all, since under action of the antiautomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ we have $`\text{e}_i\text{e}_i`$, in the matrix representation we must demand $`_i_i`$ also, or

$$_i_i=𝖢^𝖳𝖢^1.$$
(2.17)
Taking into account the symmetric $`\{_{\alpha _i}\}`$ and the skewsymmetric $`\{_{\beta _j}\}`$ parts of the spinbasis we can write the transformation (2.17) in the form

$$_{\alpha _i}_{\alpha _i}=𝖢_{\alpha _i}𝖢^1,_{\beta _j}_{\beta _j}=𝖢_{\beta _j}𝖢^1.$$

Hence it follows

$$𝖢_{\alpha _i}=_{\alpha _i}𝖢,_{\beta _j}𝖢=𝖢_{\beta _j}.$$
(2.18)
Thus, in contrast with (2.14) the matrix $`𝖢`$ of the antiautomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ anticommutes with the symmetric part of the spinbasis of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ and commutes with the skewsymmetric part of the same spinbasis. Further, in virtue of (1.6) a matrix representation of the automorphism $``$ is defined as follows

$$𝖠^{}=\mathrm{𝖶𝖠𝖶}^1,$$
(2.19)
where $`𝖶`$ is a matrix representation of the volume element $`\omega `$. The antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, in turn, is the composition of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ with the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$; therefore, from (2.12) and (2.19) it follows (recall that the order of the composition of the transformations (2.12) and (2.19) is not important, since $`\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}=(\stackrel{~}{𝒜})^{}=\stackrel{~}{(𝒜^{})}`$): $`\stackrel{~}{𝖠^{}}=\mathrm{𝖶𝖤𝖠}^𝖳𝖤^1𝖶^1=𝖤(\mathrm{𝖶𝖠𝖶}^1)^𝖳𝖤^1`$, or

$$\stackrel{~}{𝖠^{}}=(\mathrm{𝖶𝖤})𝖠^𝖳(\mathrm{𝖶𝖤})^1=(\mathrm{𝖤𝖶})𝖠^𝖳(\mathrm{𝖤𝖶})^1,$$
(2.20)
since $`𝖶^1=𝖶^𝖳`$. Therefore, $`𝖢=\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}`$ or $`𝖢=\mathrm{𝖶𝖤}`$. By this reason a general form of the matrix $`𝖢`$ is similar to the form of the matrix $`𝖤`$, that is, $`𝖢`$ is a product of symmetric or skewsymmetric matrices only.

Let us consider in sequence definitions and permutation conditions of matrices of the fundamental automorphisms (which are the elements of the groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})`$) for all eight types of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, depending upon the division ring structure.
1) The type $`pq0(mod8)`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.
In this case according to Wedderburn–Artin Theorem there is an isomorphism $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, where $`m=\frac{p+q}{2}`$. First, let consider a case $`p=q=m`$. In the full matrix algebra $`𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, in accordance with the signature of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ a choice of the symmetric and skewsymmetric matrices $`_i=\gamma (\text{e}_i)`$ is hardly fixed.

$$_i^𝖳=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill _i,& \text{if }1im;\hfill \\ \hfill _i,& \text{if }m+1i2m,\hfill \end{array}$$
(2.21)
That is, at this point the matrices of the first and second half of the basis have a square $`+𝖨`$ and $`𝖨`$, respectively. Such a form of the basis (2.21) is explained by the following reason: Over the field $`\mathrm{}`$ there exist only symmetric matrices with a square $`+𝖨`$, and there exist no symmetric matrices with a square $`𝖨`$. Inversely, skewsymmetric matrices over the field $`\mathrm{}`$ only have the square $`𝖨`$. Therefore, in this case the matrix of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is a product of $`m`$ symmetric matrices, $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, or is a product of $`m`$ skewsymmetric matrices, $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$. In accordance with (2.14) let us find permutation conditions of the matrix $`𝖤`$ with the basis matrices $`_i`$. If $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, and $`_i`$ belong to the first half of the basis (2.21), $`1im`$, then

$`𝖤_i`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{mi}_1_2\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_m,`$
$`_i𝖤`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{i1}_1_2\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_m.`$ (2.22)
Therefore, we have a comparison $`mii1(mod2)`$, whence $`m2i1(mod2)`$. Thus, the matrix $`𝖤`$ anticommutes at $`m0(mod2)`$ and commutes at $`m1(mod2)`$ with the basis matrices $`_i`$. Further, let $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, and $`_i`$ belong to the second half of the basis $`m+1i2m`$, then

$$𝖤_i=(1)^m_i𝖤.$$
(2.23)
Therefore at $`m0(mod2)`$, $`𝖤`$ commutes and at $`m1(mod2)`$ anticommutes with the matrices of the second half of the basis.

Let now $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$ be a product of $`m`$ skewsymmetric matrices, then

$$𝖤_i=(1)^m_i𝖤(1im)$$
(2.24)
and

$$\begin{array}{ccc}𝖤_i& =& (1)^{mi}_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{2m},\\ _i𝖤& =& (1)^{i1}_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{2m},\end{array}(m+1i2m)$$
(2.25)
that is, at $`m0(mod2)`$ $`𝖤`$ commutes with the matrices of the first half of the basis (2.21) and anticommutes with the matrices of the second half of (2.21). At $`m1(mod2)`$ $`𝖤`$ anticommutes and commutes with the first and the second half of the basis (2.21), respectively.

Let us find permutation conditions of the matrix $`𝖤`$ with a matrix $`𝖶`$ of the volume element (a matrix of the automorphism $``$). Let $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, then

$`\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}`$ $`=`$ $`_1_2\mathrm{}_m_1_2\mathrm{}_{2m}=(1)^{\frac{m(m1)}{2}}_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m},`$
$`\mathrm{𝖶𝖤}`$ $`=`$ $`_1_2\mathrm{}_{2m}_1_2\mathrm{}_m=(1)^{\frac{m(3m1)}{2}}_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}.`$ (2.26)
Whence $`\frac{m(3m1)}{2}\frac{m(m1)}{2}(mod2)`$ and, therefore at $`m0(mod2)`$, $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖶`$ commute, and at $`m1(mod2)`$ anticommute. It is easy to verify that analogous conditions take place if $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$ is the product of skewsymmetric matrices.

Since $`𝖢=\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}`$, then a matrix of the antiautomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ has a form $`𝖢=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$ if $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$ and correspondingly, $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$ if $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$. Therefore, permutation conditions of the matrices $`𝖢`$ and $`𝖶`$ would be the same as that of $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖶`$, that is, $`𝖢`$ and $`𝖶`$ commute if $`m0(mod2)`$ and anticommute if $`m1(mod2)`$. It is easy to see that permutation conditions of the matrix $`𝖢`$ with the basis matrices $`_i`$ are coincide with (2.22)–(2.25).

Out of dependence on the choice of the matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$, the permutation conditions between them in any of the two cases considered previously are defined by the following relation

$$\mathrm{𝖤𝖢}=(1)^{m^2}\mathrm{𝖢𝖤},$$
(2.27)
that is, the matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ commute if $`m0(mod2)`$ and anticommute if $`m1(mod2)`$.

Now, let us consider squares of the elements of the automorphism groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})`$, $`pq0(mod8)`$, and $`p=q=m`$. For the matrices of the automorphisms $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ we have the following two possibilities:
a) $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, $`𝖢=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$.

$$𝖤^2=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill +𝖨,& \text{if }m0,1(mod4),\hfill \\ \hfill 𝖨,& \text{if }m2,3(mod4);\hfill \end{array}𝖢^2=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill +𝖨,& \text{if }m0,3(mod4),\hfill \\ \hfill 𝖨,& \text{if }m1,2(mod4).\hfill \end{array}$$
(2.28)
b) $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$, $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$.

$$𝖤^2=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill +𝖨,& \text{if }m0,3(mod4),\hfill \\ \hfill 𝖨,& \text{if }m1,2(mod4);\hfill \end{array}𝖢^2=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill +𝖨,& \text{if }m0,1(mod4),\hfill \\ \hfill 𝖨,& \text{if }m2,3(mod4).\hfill \end{array}$$
(2.29)
In virtue of (1.3), for the matrix of the automorphism $``$ we have always $`𝖶^2=+𝖨`$.

Now, we are in a position to define automorphism groups for the type $`pq0(mod8)`$. First of all, let us consider Abelian groups. In accordance with (2.26) and (2.27), the automorphism group is Abelian if $`m0(mod2)`$ ($`𝖶,𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ commute with each other). In virtue of (2.14) and (2.21) the matrix $`𝖤`$ should be commuted with the first (symmetric) half and anticommuted with the second (skewsymmetric) half of the basis (2.21). From (2.22)–(2.25) it is easy to see that this condition is satisfied only if $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$ and $`m0(mod2)`$. Correspondingly, in accordance with (2.18) the matrix $`𝖢`$ should be anticommuted with the symmetric half of the basis (2.21) and commuted with the skewsymmetric half of the same basis. It is obvious that this condition is satisfied only if $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$. Therefore, when $`m=p=q`$ in accordance with (2.29), there exists an Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,+,+)`$ if $`p,q0(mod4)`$, and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,,)`$ if $`p,q2(mod4)`$. Further, in accordance with (2.26) and (2.27), the automorphism group is non–Abelian if $`m1(mod2)`$. In this case, from (2.22)–(2.25) it follows that the matrix $`𝖤`$ commutes with the symmetric half and anticommutes with the skewsymmetric half of the basis (2.21) if and only if $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$ is a product of $`m`$ symmetric matrices, $`m1(mod8)`$. In its turn, the matrix $`𝖢`$ anticommutes with the symmetric half and commutes with the skewsymmetric half of the basis (2.21) if and only if $`𝖢=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$. Therefore, in accordance with (2.28), there exist non–Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,,+)`$ if $`p,q3(mod4)`$, and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,+,)`$ if $`p,q1(mod4)`$.

In addition to the previously considered case $`p=q`$, the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ also admits two particular cases in relation with the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,0}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{0,q}`$. In these cases, a spinbasis is defined as follows

$$\begin{array}{ccc}_i^𝖳& =& _i\text{for the algebras }C\mathrm{}_{8t,0},\\ _i^𝖳& =& _i\text{for the algebras }C\mathrm{}_{0,8t}.\end{array}t=1,2,\mathrm{}$$

that is, a spinbasis of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{8t,0}`$ consists of only symmetric matrices, and that of $`C\mathrm{}_{0,8t}`$ consists of only skewsymmetric matrices. According to (2.14), for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,0}`$ the matrix $`𝖤`$ should commute with all $`_i`$. It is obvious that we cannot take the matrix $`𝖤`$ of the form $`_1_2\mathrm{}_s`$, where $`1<s<p`$, since at $`s0(mod2)`$ $`𝖤`$ and $`_i`$ anticommute, which contradicts with (2.14), and at $`s1(mod2)`$ $`𝖤`$ and $`_i`$ that belong to $`𝖤`$ commute with each other, whereas $`_i`$ that do not belong to $`𝖤`$ anticommute with $`𝖤`$, which again conradicts with (2.14). The case $`s=p`$ is also excluded, since $`p`$ is even. Therefore, only one possibility remains, that is, the matrix $`𝖤`$ is proportional to the unit matrix, $`𝖤𝖨`$. At this point, from (2.20) it follows that $`𝖢_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ and we see that the conditions (2.18) are satisfied. Thus, the matrices $`𝖤𝖨`$, $`𝖢=\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}`$ and $`𝖶`$ of the fundamental automorphisms $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜},𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ and $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,0}`$ ($`p0(mod8)`$) from an Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,0})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Further, for the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{0,8t}`$, in accordance with (2.14) the matrix $`𝖤`$ should anticommute with all $`_i`$. It is easy to see that we cannot take the matrix $`𝖤`$ of the form $`_1_2\mathrm{}_k`$, where $`1<k<q`$, since at $`k0(mod2)`$ the matrix $`𝖤`$ and the matrices $`_i`$ that belong to $`𝖤`$ anticommute with each other, whereas $`_i`$ that do not belong to $`𝖤`$ commute with $`𝖤`$, which contradicts with (2.14). Inversely, if $`k1(mod2)`$, $`𝖤`$ and $`_i`$ that belong to $`𝖤`$ commute, but $`𝖤`$ and $`_i`$ that do not belong to $`𝖤`$ anticommute, which also contradicts with (2.14). It is obvious that in this case $`𝖤𝖨`$ is excluded; therefore, $`𝖤_1_2\mathrm{}_q`$. In this case, according to (2.18) the matrix $`𝖢`$ is proportional to the unit matrix. Thus, the matrices $`𝖤_1_2\mathrm{}_q`$, $`𝖢=\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}𝖨`$ and $`𝖶`$ of the automorphisms $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜},𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ and $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{0,q}`$ ($`q0(mod8)`$) from the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{0,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.
2) The type $`pq2(mod8)`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.
In virtue of the isomorphism $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}𝖬_{2^{\frac{p+q}{2}}}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ for the type $`pq2(mod8)`$ in accordance with the signature of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, we have the following basis

$$_i^𝖳=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill _i,& \text{if }1ip,\hfill \\ \hfill _i,& \text{if }p+1ip+q.\hfill \end{array}$$
(2.30)
Therefore, in this case the matrix of the antiautomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ is a product of $`p`$ symmetric matrices, $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ or is a product of $`q`$ skewsymmetric matrices, $`𝖤=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$. Let us find permutation conditions of the matrix $`𝖤`$ with the basis matrices $`_i`$. Let $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$, then

$$\begin{array}{ccc}𝖤_i& =& (1)^{pi}_1_2\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_p,\\ _i𝖤& =& (1)^{i1}_1_2\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_p\end{array}(1ip)$$
(2.31)
and

$$𝖤_i=(1)^p_i𝖤,(p+1ip+q)$$
(2.32)
that is, at $`p0(mod2)`$ the matrix $`𝖤`$ anticommutes with the symmetric and commutes with the skewsymmetric part of the basis (2.30). Correspondingly, at $`p1(mod2)`$ $`𝖤`$ commutes with the symmetric and anticommutes with the skewsymmetric part of the basis (2.30).

Analogously, let $`𝖤=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$, then

$$𝖤_i=(1)^q_i𝖤(1ip)$$
(2.33)
and

$$\begin{array}{ccc}𝖤_i& =& (1)^{qi}_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q};\\ _i𝖤& =& (1)^{i1}_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q},\end{array}(p+1ip+q)$$
(2.34)
that is, at $`q0(mod2)`$ the matrix $`𝖤`$ commutes with the symmetric and anticommutes with the skewsymmetric part of the basis (2.30). Correspondingly, at $`q1(mod2)`$ $`𝖤`$ anticommutes with the symmetric and commutes with the skewsymmetric part of (2.30).

Further, permutation conditions of the matrices $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ and $`𝖶`$ are defined by the following relations:

$`\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}`$ $`=`$ $`_1_2\mathrm{}_p_1_2\mathrm{}_{p+q}=(1)^{\frac{p(p1)}{2}}_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q},`$
$`\mathrm{𝖶𝖤}`$ $`=`$ $`_1_2\mathrm{}_{p+q}_1_2\mathrm{}_p=(1)^{\frac{p(p1)}{2}+pq}_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}.`$ (2.35)
From a comparison $`\frac{p(p1)}{2}+pq\frac{p(p1)}{2}(mod2)`$ it follows that the matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖶`$ commute with each other if $`pq0(mod2)`$ and anticommute if $`pq1(mod2)`$. If we take $`𝖤=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$, then the relations

$`\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}`$ $`=`$ $`_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}_1_2\mathrm{}_{p+q}=(1)^{\frac{q(q+1)}{2}+pq}_1_2\mathrm{}_p,`$
$`\mathrm{𝖶𝖤}`$ $`=`$ $`_1_2\mathrm{}_{p+q}_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}=(1)^{\frac{q(q+1)}{2}}_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ (2.36)
give analogous permutation conditions for $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖶`$ ($`pq0,1(mod2)`$). It is obvious that permutation conditions of $`𝖢`$ (the matrix of the antiautomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{}`$) with the basis matrices $`_i`$ and with $`𝖶`$ are analogous to the conditions (2.31)–(2.34) and (2.35)–(2.36), respectively.

Out of dependence on the choice of the matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$, permutation conditions between them are defined by a relation

$$\mathrm{𝖤𝖢}=(1)^{pq}\mathrm{𝖢𝖤},$$
(2.37)
that is, $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ commute if $`pq0(mod2)`$ and anticommute if $`pq1(mod2)`$.

For the squares of the automorphisms $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ we have following two possibilities:
a) $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$, $`𝖢=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$.

$$𝖤^2=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill +𝖨,& \text{if }p0,1(mod4);\hfill \\ \hfill 𝖨,& \text{if }p2,3(mod4),\hfill \end{array}𝖢^2=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill +𝖨,& \text{if }q0,3(mod4);\hfill \\ \hfill 𝖨,& \text{if }q1,2(mod4).\hfill \end{array}$$
(2.38)
b) $`𝖤=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$, $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$.

$$𝖤^2=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill +𝖨,& \text{if }q0,3(mod4);\hfill \\ \hfill 𝖨,& \text{if }q1,2(mod4),\hfill \end{array}𝖢^2=\{\begin{array}{cc}\hfill +𝖨,& \text{if }p0,1(mod4);\hfill \\ \hfill 𝖨,& \text{if }p2,3(mod4).\hfill \end{array}$$
(2.39)
For the type $`pq2(mod8)`$ in virtue of (1.3) a square of the matrix $`𝖶`$ is always equal to $`𝖨`$.

Now, let us consider automorphism groups for the type $`pq2(mod8)`$. In accordance with (2.35)–(2.37), the automorphism group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})`$ is Abelian if $`pq0(mod2)`$. Further, in virtue of (2.14) and (2.30) the matrix of the antiautomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ should commute with the symmetric part of the basis (2.30) and anticommute with the skewsymmetric part of the same basis. From (2.31)–(2.34), it is easy to see that this condition is satisfied at $`pq0(mod2)`$ if and only if $`𝖤=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ is a product of $`q`$ skewsymmetric matrices (recall that for the type $`pq2(mod8)`$, the numbers $`p`$ and $`q`$ are both even or both odd). Correspondingly, in accordance with (2.18), the matrix $`𝖢`$ should anticommute with the symmetric part of the basis (2.30) and commute with skewsymmetric part of the same basis. It is obvious that this requirement is satisfied if and only if $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ is a product of $`p`$ symmetric matrices. Thus, in accordance with (2.39), there exist Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,,+)`$ if $`p0(mod4)`$ and $`q2(mod4)`$, and with the signature $`(,+,)`$ if $`p2(mod4)`$ and $`q0(mod4)`$. Further, according to (2.35)–(2.37), the automorphism group is non–Abelian if $`pq1(mod2)`$. In this case, from (2.31)–(2.34) it follows that the matrix of the antiautomorphism $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ commutes with the symmetric part of the basis (2.30) and anticommutes with the skewsymmetric part if and only if $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ is a product of $`p`$ symmetric matrices. In its turn, the matrix $`𝖢`$ anticommutes with the symmetric part of the basis (2.30) and commutes with the skewsymmetric part of the same basis if and only if $`𝖢=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$. Therefore in accordance with (2.38), there exists a non–Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,,)`$ if $`p3(mod4)`$ and $`q1(mod4)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,+,+)`$ if $`p1(mod4)`$ and $`q3(mod4)`$.
3) The type $`pq6(mod8)`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.
First of all, over the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ there exists no fixed basis of the form (2.21) or (2.30) for the matrices $`_i`$. In general, a number of the skewsymmetric matrices does not coincide with a number of matrices with the negative square ($`_j^2=𝖨`$) as it takes place for the types $`pq0,2(mod8)`$. Thus, the matrix $`𝖤`$ is a product of skewsymmetric matrices $`_j`$, among which there are matrices with positive and negative squares, or $`𝖤`$ is a product of symmetric matrices $`_i`$, among which also there are matrices with ’$`+`$’ and ’$``$’ squares. Let $`k`$ be a number of the skewsymmetric matrices $`_j`$ of a spinbasis of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, $`0kp+q`$. Among the matrices $`_j`$, $`l`$ have ’$`+`$’-square and $`t`$ matrices have ’$``$’-square. Let $`0<k<p+q`$ and let $`𝖤=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$ be a matrix of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$, then permutation conditions of the matrix $`𝖤`$ with the matrices $`_{i_r}`$ of the symmetric part ($`0<rp+qk`$) and with the matrices $`_{j_u}`$ of the skewsymmetric part ($`0<uk`$) have the respective form

$$𝖤_{i_r}=(1)^k_{i_r}𝖤(0<rp+qk),$$
(2.40)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}𝖤_{j_u}& =& (1)^{ku}\sigma (j_u)_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_{u1}}_{j_{u+1}}\mathrm{}_{j_k},\\ _{j_u}𝖤& =& (1)^{u1}\sigma (j_u)_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_{u1}}_{j_{u+1}}\mathrm{}_{j_k},\end{array}(0<uk)$$
(2.41)
that is, at $`k0(mod2)`$ the matrix $`𝖤`$ commutes with the symmetric part and anticommutes with the skewsymmetric part of the spinbasis. Correspondingly, at $`k1(mod2)`$, $`𝖤`$ anticommutes with the symmetric and commutes with the skewsymmetric part. Further, let $`𝖤=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$ be a product of the symmetric matrices, then

$$\begin{array}{ccc}𝖤_{i_r}& =& (1)^{p+qk}\sigma (i_r)_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{r1}}_{i_{r+1}}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}},\\ _{i_r}𝖤& =& (1)^{r1}\sigma (i_r)_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{r1}}_{i_{r+1}}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}},\end{array}(0<rp+qk)$$
(2.42)
$$𝖤_{j_u}=(1)^{p+qk}_{j_u}𝖤,(0<uk)$$
(2.43)
that is, at $`p+qk0(mod2)`$ the matrix $`𝖤`$ anticommutes with the symmetric part and commutes with the skewsymmetric part of the spinbasis. Correspondingly, at $`p+qk1(mod2)`$ $`𝖤`$ commutes with the symmetric part and anticommutes with the skewsymmetric part. It is easy to see that permutations conditions of the matrix $`𝖢`$ with the basis matrices $`_i`$ are coincide with (2.40)–(2.43).

For the permutation conditions of the matrices $`𝖶=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$, $`𝖤=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$, and $`𝖢=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$ we have

$`\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{\frac{k(k1)}{2}+t+k(p+qk)}_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}},`$
$`\mathrm{𝖶𝖤}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{\frac{k(k1)}{2}+t}_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}.`$ (2.44)
$$\mathrm{𝖤𝖢}=(1)^{k(p+qk}\mathrm{𝖢𝖤}.$$
(2.45)
Hence it follows that the matrices $`𝖶,𝖤`$, and $`𝖢`$ commute at $`k(p+qk)0(mod2)`$ and anticommute at $`k(p+qk)1(mod2)`$. It is easy to verify that permutation conditions for the matrices $`𝖤=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$, $`𝖢=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$ would be the same.

In accordance with (2.14), (2.18), (2.40)–(2.43), and also with (2.44)–(2.45), the Abelian automorphism groups for the type $`pq6(mod8)`$ exist only if $`𝖤=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$ and $`𝖢=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$, $`k0(mod2)`$. Let $`l`$ and $`t`$ be the quantities of the matrices in the product $`_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$, which have ’$`+`$’ and ’$``$’-squares, respectively, and also let $`h`$ and $`g`$ be the quantities of the matrices with the same meaning in the product $`_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$. Then, the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,+,)`$ exists if $`lt0,1,4,5(mod8)`$ and $`hg2,3,6,7(mod8)`$ (recall that for the type $`pq6(mod8)`$ we have $`𝖶^2=𝖨`$), and also, the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,,+)`$ exists if $`lt2,3,6,7(mod8)`$ and $`hg0,1,4,5(mod8)`$. Further, from (2.14), (2.18), and (2.40)–(2.45), it follows that the non–Abelian automorphism groups exist only if $`𝖤=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$ and $`𝖢=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$, $`k1(mod2)`$. At this point the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,,)`$ exists if $`hg2,3,6,7(mod8)`$ and $`lt2,3,6,7(mod8)`$. Correspondingly, the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,+,+)`$ exists if $`hg0,1,4,5(mod8)`$ and $`lt0,1,4,5(mod8)`$. In absence of the skewsymmetric matrices, $`k=0`$, the spinbasis of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ contains only symmetric matrices. In this case, from (2.14), it follows that the matrix of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ should commute with all the basis matrices. It is obvious that this condition is satisfied if and only if $`𝖤`$ is proportional to the unit matrix. At this point, from (2.20), it follows that $`𝖢_1_2\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ and we see that condition (2.18) is satisfied. Thus, we have the Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,+,)`$. In other degenerate case $`k=p+q`$, the spinbasis of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ contains only skewsymmetric matrices; therefore, the matrix $`𝖤`$ should anticommute with all the basis matrices. This condition is satisfied if and only if $`𝖤_1_2\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$. In its turn, the matrix $`𝖢`$ commutes with all the basis matrices if and only if $`𝖢𝖨`$. It is easy to see that in this case we have the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,,+)`$.
4) The type $`pq4(mod8)`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.
It is obvious that a proof for this type is analogous to the case $`pq6(mod8)`$, where also $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. For the type $`pq4(mod8)`$ we have $`𝖶^2=+𝖨`$. As well as for the type $`pq6(mod8)`$, the Abelian groups exist only if $`𝖤=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$ and $`𝖢=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$, $`k0(mod2)`$. At this point the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,+,+)`$ exists if $`lt,hg0,1,4,5(mod8)`$, and also the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,,)`$ exists if $`lt,hg2,3,6,7(mod8)`$. Correspondingly, the non–Abelian group exist only if $`𝖤`$ is a product of $`k`$ skewsymmetric matrices and $`𝖢`$ is a product of $`p+qk`$ symmetric matrices, $`k1(mod2)`$. The group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,,+)`$ exists if $`hg2,3,6,7(mod8)`$, $`lt0,1,4,5(mod8)`$, and the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,+,)`$ exists if $`hg0,1,4,5(mod8)`$, $`lt2,3,6,7(mod8)`$. For the type $`pq4(mod8)`$ both the degenerate cases $`k=0`$ and $`k=p+q`$ give rise to the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.
5) The type $`pq1(mod8)`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$.
In this case a dimensionality $`p+q`$ is odd and the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is semi–simple. Over the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ the algebras of this type decompose into a direct sum of two subalgebras with even dimensionality. At this point there exist two types of decomposition :

$`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1},`$ (2.46)
$`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1},`$ (2.47)
where each algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$) is obtained by means of either of the two central idempotents $`\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_1\text{e}_2\mathrm{}\text{e}_{p+q})`$ and isomorphisms

$`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}^+`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1},`$ (2.48)
$`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}^+`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}.`$ (2.49)
In general, the structure of the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ in virtue of the decompositions (2.46)–(2.47) and isomorphisms (2.48)–(2.49) admits all eight kinds of the automorphism groups, since the subalgebras in the direct sums (2.46)–(2.47) have the type $`pq2(mod8)`$ or the type $`pq0(mod8)`$. More precisely, for the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{0,q}`$ of the type $`pq1(mod8)`$, the subalgebras in the direct sum (2.46) have the type $`pq2(mod8)`$ and only this type; therefore, in accordance with previously obtained conditions for the type $`pq2(mod8)`$, we have four and only four kinds of the automorphism groups with the signatures $`(,,+),(,+,)`$ and $`(,,),(,+,+)`$. Further, for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,0}`$ ($`pq1(mod8)`$) the subalgebras in the direct sum (2.47) have the type $`pq0(mod8)`$; therefore, in this case there exist four and only four kinds of the automorphism groups with the signatures $`(+,+,+),(+,,)`$ and $`(+,,+),(+,+,)`$. In general case, $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, the type $`pq1(mod8)`$ admits all eight kinds of the automorphism groups.
6) The type $`pq5(mod8)`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$.
In this case the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is also semi–simple and, therefore, we have decompositions of the form (2.46)–(2.47). By analogy with the type $`pq1(mod8)`$, a structure of the double quaternionic ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ in virtue of the decompositions (2.46)–(2.47) and isomorphisms (2.48)–(2.49) is also admits, in a general case, all eight kinds of the automorphism groups, since the subalgebras in the direct sums (2.46)–(2.47) have the type $`pq6(mod8)`$ or the type $`pq4(mod8)`$. More precisely, for the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{0,q}`$ of the type $`pq5(mod8)`$, the subalgebras in the direct sum (2.46) have the type $`pq6(mod8)`$ and only this type; therefore, in accordance with previously obtained results for the quaternionic rings we have four and only four kinds of the automorphism groups with the signatures $`(,+,),(,,+)`$ and $`(,,),(,+,+)`$. Analogously, for the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,0}`$ ($`pq5(mod8)`$), the subalgebras in the direct sum (2.47) have the type $`pq4(mod8)`$; therefore, in this case there exist four and only four kinds of the automorphism groups with the signatures $`(+,+,+),(+,,)`$ and $`(+,,+),(+,+,)`$. In general case, $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, the type $`pq5(mod8)`$ admits all eight kinds of the automorphism groups.
7) The type $`pq3(mod8)`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.
For this type a center $`𝐙`$ of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ consists of the unit and the volume element $`\omega =\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\mathrm{}\text{e}_{p+q}`$, since $`p+q`$ is odd and the element $`\omega `$ commutes with all the basis elements of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. Moreover, $`\omega ^2=1`$, hence it follows that $`𝐙\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. Thus, for the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ of the type $`pq3(mod8)`$, there exists an isomorphism

$$C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}$$
(2.50)
where $`n=p+q`$. It is easy to see that the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ in (2.50) is a complex algebra with even dimensionality, where $`m`$ is either even or odd. More precisely, the number $`m`$ is even if $`p0(mod2)`$ and $`q1(mod2)`$, and odd if $`p1(mod2)`$ and $`q0(mod2)`$. In accordance with Theorem 2.1 at $`m0(mod2)`$ the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ admits the Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,+,+)`$, and at $`m1(mod2)`$ the non–Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,,)`$. Hence it follows the statement of Theorem for this type.
8) The type $`pq7(mod8)`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.
It is obvious that for this type the isomorphism (2.50) also takes place. Therefore, the type $`pq7(mod8)`$ admits the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ if $`p0(mod2)`$ and $`q1(mod2)`$, and also the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ if $`p1(mod2)`$ and $`q0(mod2)`$. ∎

###### Corollary 2.1.

The matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ of the antiautomorphisms $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ satisfy the following conditions

$$𝖤^𝖳=(1)^{\frac{m(m1)}{2}}𝖤,𝖢^𝖳=(1)^{\frac{m(m+1)}{2}}𝖢,$$
(2.51)
that is, $`𝖤`$ is symmetric if $`m0,1(mod4)`$ and skewsymmetric if $`m2,3(mod4)`$. Correspondingly, $`𝖢`$ is symmetric if $`m0,3(mod4)`$ and skewsymmetric if $`m1,2(mod4)`$.

###### Proof.

Let us consider first the types with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. As follows from Theorem 2.3, the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ admits the Abelian automorphism groups $`(\mathrm{𝖤𝖢}=\mathrm{𝖢𝖤})`$ if $`𝖤`$ is the product of $`q`$ skewsymmetric matrices ($`q0,2(mod4)`$) and $`𝖢`$ is the product of $`p`$ symmetric matrices ($`p0,2(mod4)`$). Therefore,

$$\begin{array}{c}𝖤^𝖳=(_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m})^𝖳=_{2m}^𝖳\mathrm{}_{m+2}^𝖳_{m+1}^𝖳=\hfill \\ \hfill (_{2m})\mathrm{}(_{m+2})(_{m+1})=_{2m}\mathrm{}_{m+2}_{m+1}=(1)^{\frac{q(q1)}{2}}𝖤,\end{array}$$
(2.52)
$$𝖢^𝖳=(_1_2\mathrm{}_m)^𝖳=_m^𝖳\mathrm{}_2^𝖳_1^𝖳=_m\mathrm{}_2_1=(1)^{\frac{p(p1)}{2}}𝖢.$$
(2.53)
Further, the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ admits the non–Abelian automorphism groups ($`\mathrm{𝖤𝖢}=\mathrm{𝖢𝖤}`$) if $`𝖤`$ is the product of $`p`$ symmetric matrices ($`p1,3(mod4)`$) and $`𝖢`$ is the product of $`q`$ skewsymmetric matrices ($`q1,3(mod4)`$). In this case, we have

$$𝖤^𝖳=(_1_2\mathrm{}_m)^𝖳=_m^𝖳\mathrm{}_2^𝖳_1^𝖳=_m\mathrm{}_2_1=(1)^{\frac{p(p1)}{2}}𝖤,$$
(2.54)
$$\begin{array}{c}𝖢^𝖳=(_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_2)^𝖳=_{2m}^𝖳\mathrm{}_{m+2}^𝖳_{m+1}^𝖳=\hfill \\ \hfill (_{2m})\mathrm{}(_{m+2})(_{m+1})=_{2m}\mathrm{}_{m+2}_{m+1}=(1)^{\frac{q(q1)}{2}}𝖢.\end{array}$$
(2.55)
In the degenerate case $`C\mathrm{}_{p,0}`$, $`p0(mod8)`$, we have $`𝖤𝖨`$ and $`𝖢_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$. Therefore, $`𝖤`$ is always symmetric and $`𝖢^𝖳=(1)^{\frac{p(p1)}{2}}𝖢`$. In other degenerate case $`C\mathrm{}_{0,q}`$, $`q0(mod8)`$, we have $`𝖤_1_2\mathrm{}_q`$ and $`𝖢𝖨`$; therefore, $`𝖤^𝖳=(1)^{\frac{q(q1)}{2}}𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ is always symmetric.

Since for the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ we have $`p=q=m`$, or $`m=p`$ and $`m=q`$ for the degenerate cases (both degenerate cases correspond to the Abelian group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$), it is easy to see that the formulas (2.52) and (2.54) coincide with the first formula of (2.51). For the matrix $`𝖢`$, we can unite the formulas (2.53) and (2.55) into the formula which coincides with the second formula of (2.51). Indeed, the factor $`(1)^{\frac{m(m+1)}{2}}`$ does not change sign in $`𝖢^𝖳=(1)^{\frac{m(m+1)}{2}}𝖢`$ when $`m`$ is even and changes sign when $`m`$ is odd, which is equivalent to both formulas (2.53) and (2.55).

Further, the following real type $`pq2(mod8)`$ admits the Abelian automorphism groups if $`𝖤=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ and $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$, where $`p`$ and $`q0,2(mod4)`$. Therefore,

$$\begin{array}{c}𝖤^𝖳=(_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q})^𝖳=_{p+q}^𝖳\mathrm{}_{p+2}^𝖳_{p+1}^𝖳=\hfill \\ \hfill (_{p+q})\mathrm{}(_{p+2})(_{p+1})=_{p+q}\mathrm{}_{p+2}_{p+1}=(1)^{\frac{q(q1)}{2}}𝖤,\end{array}$$
(2.56)
$$𝖢^𝖳=(_1_2\mathrm{}_p)^𝖳=_p^𝖳\mathrm{}_2^𝖳_1^𝖳=_p\mathrm{}_2_1=(1)^{\frac{p(p1)}{2}}𝖢.$$
(2.57)
Correspondingly, the type $`pq2(mod8)`$ admits the non–Abelian automorphism groups if $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ and $`𝖢=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$, where $`p`$ and $`q1,3(mod4)`$. In this case, we have

$$𝖤^𝖳=(_1_2\mathrm{}_p)^𝖳=_p^𝖳\mathrm{}_2^𝖳_1^𝖳=_p\mathrm{}_2_1=(1)^{\frac{p(p1)}{2}}𝖤,$$
(2.58)
$$\begin{array}{c}𝖢^𝖳=(_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q})^𝖳=_{p+q}^𝖳\mathrm{}_{p+2}^𝖳_{p+1}^𝖳=\hfill \\ \hfill (_{p+q})\mathrm{}(_{p+2})(_{p+1})=_{p+q}\mathrm{}_{p+2}_{p+1}=(1)^{\frac{q(q1)}{2}}𝖢.\end{array}$$
(2.59)
It is easy to see that formulas (2.56)–(2.59) are similar to the formulas (2.52)–(2.55) and, therefore, the conditions (2.51) hold for the type $`pq2(mod8)`$.

Analogously, the quaternionic types $`pq4,6(mod8)`$ admit the Abelian automorphism groups if $`𝖤=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$ and $`𝖢=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$, where $`k`$ and $`p+qk`$ are even (Theorem 2.3). Transposition of these matrices gives

$$\begin{array}{c}𝖤^𝖳=(_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k})^𝖳=_{j_k}^𝖳\mathrm{}_{j_2}^𝖳_{j_1}^𝖳=\hfill \\ \hfill (_{j_k})\mathrm{}(_{j_2})(_{j_1})=_{j_k}\mathrm{}_{j_2}_{j_1}=(1)^{\frac{k(k1)}{2}}𝖤,\end{array}$$
(2.60)
$$\begin{array}{c}𝖢^𝖳=(_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}})^𝖳=\hfill \\ \hfill _{i_{p+qk}}^𝖳\mathrm{}_{i_2}^𝖳_{i_1}^𝖳=_{i_{p+qk}}\mathrm{}_{i_2}_{i_1}=(1)^{\frac{(p+qk)(p+qk1)}{2}}𝖢.\end{array}$$
(2.61)
The non–Abelian automorphism groups take place for the types $`pq4,6(mod8)`$ if $`𝖤=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$ and $`𝖢=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$, where $`k`$ and $`p+qk`$ are odd. In this case we have

$$\begin{array}{c}𝖤^𝖳=(_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}})^𝖳=\hfill \\ \hfill _{i_{p+qk}}^𝖳\mathrm{}_{i_2}^𝖳_{i_1}^𝖳=_{p+qk}\mathrm{}_{i_2}_{i_1}=(1)^{\frac{(p+qk)(p+qk1)}{2}}𝖤,\end{array}$$
(2.62)
$$\begin{array}{c}𝖢^𝖳=(_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k})^𝖳=_{j_k}^𝖳\mathrm{}_{j_2}^𝖳_{j_1}^𝖳=\hfill \\ \hfill (_{j_k})\mathrm{}(_{j_2})(_{j_1})=_{j_k}\mathrm{}_{j_1}_{j_1}=(1)^{\frac{k(k1)}{2}}𝖢.\end{array}$$
(2.63)
As it takes place for these two types considered here, we again come to the same situation. Therefore, the conditions (2.51) hold for the quaternionic types $`pq4,6(mod8)`$.

In virtue of the isomorphism (2.50) and the Theorem 2.3, the matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ for the types $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ have the following form: $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, $`𝖢=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$ if $`m1(mod2)`$ ($`\mathrm{𝖤𝖢}=\mathrm{𝖢𝖤}`$) and $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$, $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$ if $`m0(mod2)`$ ($`\mathrm{𝖤𝖢}=\mathrm{𝖢𝖤}`$). It is obvious that for these types the conditions (2.51) hold.

Finally, for the semi–simple types $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ in virtue of the decompositions (2.46)–(2.47) we have the formulas (2.52)–(2.55) or (2.56)–(2.59) in case of the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq1(mod8)`$) and the formulas (2.60)–(2.63) in case of the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq5(mod8)`$). ∎

An algebraic structure of the discrete transformations is defined by the isomorphism $`\{\mathrm{Id},,\stackrel{~}{},\stackrel{~}{}\}\{1,P,T,PT\}`$ . Using (1.21) or (1.27), we can apply this structure to the double coverings of the orthogonal group $`O(p,q)`$. Obviously, in case of the types $`pq0,2,4,6(mod8)`$, it is established directly. Further, in virtue of the isomorphism (2.50) for the types $`pq3,7(mod8)`$, we have

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(n1,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}$$

where $`n=p+q`$. Analogously, for the semi–simple types $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ in virtue of the decompositions (2.46)–(2.47) the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is isomorphic to a direct sum of two mutually annihilating simple ideals $`\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \omega )C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$: $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\frac{1}{2}(1+\omega )C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\frac{1}{2}(1\omega )C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, where $`\omega =\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}`$. At this point, each ideal is isomorphic to $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ or $`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$. Therefore, for the Clifford–Lipschitz groups of these types we have the following isomorphisms

$`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q1){\displaystyle \text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q1)},`$
$`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ $``$ $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p1){\displaystyle \text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p1)}.`$
###### Theorem 2.4.

Let $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)`$ be a double covering of the orthogonal group $`O(p,q)`$ of the real space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ associated with the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. The squares of symbols $`a,b,c\{,+\}`$ correspond to the squares of the elements of a finite group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})=\{𝖨,𝖶,𝖤,𝖢\}:a=𝖶^2,b=𝖤^2,c=𝖢^2`$, where $`𝖶,𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ are the matrices of the fundamental automorphisms $`𝒜𝒜^{},𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, respectively. Then over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ in dependence on a division ring structure of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, there exist eight double coverings of the orthogonal group $`O(p,q)`$:
1) A non–Cliffordian group

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{+,+,+}(p,q)\frac{(\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_0(p,q)\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}},$$

exists if $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ and the numbers $`p`$ and $`q`$ form the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ and $`p,q0(mod4)`$, and also if $`pq4(mod8)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. The algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the rings $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq1,5(mod8)`$) admit the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{+,+,+}(p,q)`$ if in the direct sums there are addendums of the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ or $`pq4(mod8)`$. The types $`pq3,7(mod8)`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ admit a non–Cliffordian group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{+,+,+}(p+q1,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ if $`p0(mod2)`$ and $`q1(mod2)`$. Further, non–Cliffordian groups

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\frac{(\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_0(p,q)(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}},$$

with $`(a,b,c)=(+,,)`$ exist if $`pq0(mod8)`$, $`p,q2(mod4)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, and also if $`pq4(mod8)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. Non–Cliffordian groups with the signatures $`(a,b,c)=(,+,)`$ and $`(a,b,c)=(,,+)`$ exist over the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq2(mod8)`$) if $`p2(mod4),q0(mod4)`$ and $`p0(mod4),q2(mod4)`$, respectively, and also these groups exist over the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ if $`pq6(mod8)`$. The algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the rings $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq1,5(mod8)`$) admit the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{+,,}(p,q)`$ if in the direct sums there are addendums of the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ or $`pq4(mod8)`$, and also admit the groups $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,+,}(p,q)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,,+}(p,q)`$ if in the direct sums there are addendums of the type $`pq2(mod8)`$ or $`pq6(mod8)`$.
2) A Cliffordian group

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,,}(p,q)\frac{(\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_0(p,q)Q_4)}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}},$$

exists if $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq2(mod8)`$) and $`p3(mod4),q1(mod4)`$, and also if $`pq6(mod8)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. The algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the rings $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq1,5(mod8)`$) admit the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,,}(p,q)`$ if in the direct sums there are addendums of the type $`pq2(mod8)`$ or $`pq6(mod8)`$. The types $`pq3,7(mod8)`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ admit a Cliffordian group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,,}(p+q1,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, if $`p1(mod2)`$ and $`q0(mod2)`$. Further, Cliffordian groups

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\frac{(\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_0(p,q)D_4)}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}},$$

with $`(a,b,c)=(,+,+)`$ exist if $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq2(mod8)`$) and $`p1(mod4),q3(mod4)`$, and also if $`pq6(mod8)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. Cliffordian groups with the signatures $`(a,b,c)=(+,,+)`$ and $`(a,b,c)=(+,+,)`$ exist over the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq0(mod8)`$) if $`p,q3(mod4)`$ and $`p,q1(mod4)`$, respectively, and also these groups exist over the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ if $`pq4(mod8)`$. The algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the rings $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq1,5(mod8)`$) admit the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,+,+}(p,q)`$ if in the direct sums there are addendums of the type $`pq2(mod8)`$ or $`pq6(mod8)`$, and also admit the groups $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{+,,+}(p,q)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{+,+,}(p,q)`$ if in the direct sums there are addendums of the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ or $`pq4(mod8)`$.

### 2.3. The structure of $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\simeq ̸\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p)`$

It is easy to see that the definitions (1.21) and (1.27) are equivalent. Moreover, Salingaros showed  that there are isomorphisms $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Further, since $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}^+C\mathrm{}_{q,p}^+`$, in accordance with the definition (1.22), it follows that $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}(q,p)`$. On the other hand, since in a general case $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\simeq ̸C\mathrm{}_{q,p}`$, from the definition (1.21) it follows that $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\simeq ̸\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p)`$ (or $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\simeq ̸\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p)`$). In connection with this, some authors  used notations $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^+\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{}\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p)`$. In Theorems 2.3 and 2.4, we have establish a relation between the signatures $`(p,q)=(\underset{p\text{times}}{\underset{}{+,+,\mathrm{},+}},\underset{q\text{times}}{\underset{}{,,\mathrm{},}})`$ of the spaces $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ and the signatures $`(a,b,c)`$ of the automorphism groups of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ and corresponding Da̧browski groups. This relation allows to completely define the structure of the inequality $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\simeq ̸\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p)`$ ($`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^+\simeq ̸\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{}`$). Indeed, from (1.27) and (1.23), it follows that $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_0(p,q)\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_0(q,p)`$, therefore, a nature of the inequality $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\simeq ̸\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p)`$ wholly lies in the double covering $`C^{a,b,c}`$ of the discrete subgroup. For example, in accordance with Theorem 2.4 for the type $`pq2(mod8)`$ with the division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ there exist the groups $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^+`$, where double coverings of the discrete subgroup have the form: 1) $`C^{,,}Q_4`$ if $`p3(mod4)`$ and $`q1(mod4)`$; 2) $`C^{,+,+}D_4`$ if $`p1(mod4)`$ and $`q3(mod4)`$; 3) $`C^{,,+}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ if $`p0(mod4)`$ and $`q2(mod4)`$; 4) $`C^{,+,}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ if $`p2(mod4)`$ and $`q0(mod4)`$. Whereas the groups with opposite signature, $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{}\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p)`$, have the type $`qp6(mod8)`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. In virtue of the more wide ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, there exists a far greater choice of the discrete subgroups for each concrete kind of $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p)`$. Thus,

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)& \simeq ̸& \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p)\hfill \\ \hfill pq2(mod8)& & qp6(mod8).\hfill \end{array}$$

Further, the type $`pq1(mod8)`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ in virtue of Theorems 2.3 and 2.4 admits the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^+`$, where the double covering $`C^{a,b,c}`$ adopts all the eight possible values. Whereas the opposite type $`qp7(mod8)`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ admits the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{}`$, where for the double covering $`C^{a,b,c}`$ of the discrete subgroup there are only two possibilities: 1) $`C^{+,+,+}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ if $`p0(mod2)`$ and $`q1(mod2)`$; 2) $`C^{,,}Q_4`$ if $`p1(mod2)`$ and $`q0(mod2)`$. The analogous situation takes place for the two mutually opposite types $`pq3(mod8)`$ with $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ and $`qp5(mod8)`$ with $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. Therefore,

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)& \simeq ̸& \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p)\hfill \\ \hfill pq1(mod8)& & qp7(mod8);\hfill \\ \hfill \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)& \simeq ̸& \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p)\hfill \\ \hfill pq3(mod8)& & qp5(mod8).\hfill \end{array}$$

It is easy to see that an opposite type to the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ is the same type $`qp0(mod8)`$. Therefore, in virtue of Theorems 2.3 and 2.4 double coverings $`C^{a,b,c}`$ for the groups $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^+`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{}`$ coincide. The same is the situation for the type $`pq4(mod8)`$ with $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, which has the opposite type $`qp4(mod8)`$. Thus,

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)& & \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p)\hfill \\ \hfill pq0(mod8)& & qp0(mod8);\hfill \\ \hfill \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)& & \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p)\hfill \\ \hfill pq4(mod8)& & qp4(mod8).\hfill \end{array}$$

We will call the types $`pq0(mod8)`$ and $`pq4(mod8)`$, which coincide with their opposite types, neutral types.
Example. Let us consider a structure of the inequality $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(3,1)\simeq ̸\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(1,3)`$. The groups $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(3,1)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(1,3)`$ are two different double coverings of the general Lorentz group. These groups play an important role in physics . As follows from (1.21) the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(3,1)`$ is completely defined in the framework of the Majorana algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$, which has the type $`pq2(mod8)`$ and the division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. As noted previously, the structure of the inequality $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\simeq ̸\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p)`$ is defined by the double covering $`C^{a,b,c}`$. From Theorems 2.3 and 2.4, it follows that the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}𝖬_4(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ admits one and only one group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,,}(3,1)`$, where a double covering of the discrete subgroup has a form $`C^{,,}Q_4`$. Indeed, let us consider a matrix representation of the units of $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$, using the Maple V and the CLIFFORD package developed by RafałAbłamowicz . Let $`f=\frac{1}{4}(1+\text{e}_1)(1+\text{e}_{34})`$ be a primitive idempotent of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$ (prestored idempotent for $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$ in CLIFFORD), then a following CLIFFORD command sequence gives:
\> restart:with(Cliff4):with(double):
\> dim := 4:
\> eval(makealiases(dim)):
\> B := linalg(diag(1,1,1,-1)):
\> clibasis := cbasis(dim):
\> data := clidata(B):
\> f := data:
\> left\_sbasis := minimalideal(clibasis,f,’left’):
\> Kbasis := Kfield(left\_sbasis,f):
\> SBgens := left\_sbasis:FBgens := Kbasis:
\> K\_basis := spinorKbasis(SBgens,f,FBgens,’left’):
\> for i from 1 to 4 do

$$𝙴[𝚒]:=\mathrm{𝚜𝚙𝚒𝚗𝚘𝚛𝙺𝚛𝚎𝚙𝚛}(𝚎.𝚒.,𝙺\mathrm{\_}\mathrm{𝚋𝚊𝚜𝚒𝚜}[\mathrm{𝟷}],\mathrm{𝙵𝙱𝚐𝚎𝚗𝚜},^{}\mathrm{𝚕𝚎𝚏𝚝}^{})\mathrm{𝚘𝚍};$$

$$E_1:=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}Id& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& Id& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& Id& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& Id\end{array}\right],E_2:=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}0& Id& 0& 0\\ Id& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& Id\\ 0& 0& Id& 0\end{array}\right],$$

$$E_3:=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& Id& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& Id\\ Id& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& Id& 0& 0\end{array}\right],E_4:=\left[\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& Id& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& Id\\ Id& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& Id& 0& 0\end{array}\right].$$
(2.64)
It is easy to see that the matrices (2.64) build up a basis of the form (2.30). Since the condition $`pq1(mod2)`$ is satisfied for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$, the automorphism group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}(C\mathrm{}_{3,1})`$ is non–Abelian. In accordance with (2.14), the matrix $`𝖤`$ should commute with a symmetric part of the basis (2.64) and anticommute with a skewsymmetric part of (2.64). In this case, as follows from (2.31)–(2.34) and (2.64), the matrix $`𝖤`$ is a product of $`p=3`$ symmetric matrices, that is,

$$𝖤=_1_2_3=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 1\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right).$$

Further, matrices of the automorphisms $``$ and $`\stackrel{~}{}`$ for the basis (2.64) have a form

$$𝖶=_1_2_3_4=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 1& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\end{array}\right),𝖢=\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\end{array}\right).$$

Thus, a group of the fundamental automorphisms of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$ in the matrix representation is defined by a finite group $`\{𝖨,𝖶,𝖤,𝖢\}\{I,_{1234},_{123},_4\}`$. The multiplication table of this group has a form

I
E1234
E123
E4II1234123412341234I41231231234I1234441231234I
IWECIIWECWW-IC-EEE-C-IWCCE-W-I.similar-tofragments

I
E1234
E123
E4𝐼𝐼fragmentsE1234fragmentsE123fragmentsE4fragmentsE1234fragmentsE1234fragmentsIfragmentsE4fragmentsE123fragmentsE123fragmentsE123fragmentsE4fragmentsIfragmentsE1234fragmentsE4fragmentsE4fragmentsE123fragmentsE1234fragmentsI
IWECIIWECWW-IC-EEE-C-IWCCE-W-I{\begin{tabular}[]{|c||c|c|c|c|}\hline\cr&$I$&$\mathcal{E}_{1234}$&$\mathcal{E}_{123}$&$\mathcal{E}_{4}$\\
\hline\cr\hline\cr$I$&$I$&$\mathcal{E}_{1234}$&$\mathcal{E}_{123}$&$\mathcal{E}_{4}$\\
\hline\cr$\mathcal{E}_{1234}$&$\mathcal{E}_{1234}$&$-I$&$\mathcal{E}_{4}$&$-\mathcal{E}_{123}$\\
\hline\cr$\mathcal{E}_{123}$&$\mathcal{E}_{123}$&$-\mathcal{E}_{4}$&$-I$&$\mathcal{E}_{1234}$\\
\hline\cr$\mathcal{E}_{4}$&$\mathcal{E}_{4}$&$\mathcal{E}_{123}$&$-\mathcal{E}_{1234}$&$-I$\\
\hline\cr\end{tabular}\;\sim\;\begin{tabular}[]{|c||c|c|c|c|}\hline\cr&${\sf I}$&${\sf W}$&${\sf E}$&${\sf C}$\\
\hline\cr\hline\cr${\sf I}$&${\sf I}$&${\sf W}$&${\sf E}$&${\sf C}$\\
\hline\cr${\sf W}$&${\sf W}$&$-{\sf I}$&${\sf C}$&$-{\sf E}$\\
\hline\cr${\sf E}$&${\sf E}$&$-{\sf C}$&$-{\sf I}$&${\sf W}$\\
\hline\cr${\sf C}$&${\sf C}$&${\sf E}$&$-{\sf W}$&$-{\sf I}$\\
\hline\cr\end{tabular}}. (2.65)
From the table, it follows that $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{3,1})\{𝖨,𝖶,𝖤,𝖢\}Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and, therefore, the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$ admits a Cliffordian group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,,}(3,1)`$ (Theorem 2.4). It is easy to verify that the double covering $`C^{,,}Q_4`$ is an invariant fact for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$, that is, $`C^{,,}`$ does not depend on the choice of the matrix representation. Indeed, for each two commuting elements of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$ there exist four different primitive idempotents that generate four different matrix representations of $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$. The invariability of the previously mentioned fact is easily verified with the help of a procedure commutingelements of the CLIFFORD package, which allows to consider in sequence all the possible primitive idempotents of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$ and their corresponding matrix representations.

Now, let us consider discrete subgroups of the double covering $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(1,3)`$. The group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(1,3)`$, in turn, is completely constructed within the spacetime algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ that has the opposite (in relation to the Majorana algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$) type $`pq6(mod8)`$ with the division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. According to Wedderburn–Artin Theorem, in this case there is an isomorphism $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}𝖬_2(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. The following CLIFFORD command sequence allows to find matrix representations of the units of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ for a prestored primitive idempotent $`f=\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_{14})`$:

\> restart:with(Cliff4):with(double): (2.66)
\> dim := 4: eval(makealiases(dim)): (2.67)
\> B := linalg(diag(1,-1,-1,-1)): (2.68)
\> clibasis := cbasis(dim): (2.69)
\> data := clidata(B): f := data: (2.70)
\> left\_sbasis := minimalideal(clibasis,f,’left’): (2.71)
\> Kbasis := Kfield(left\_sbasis,f): (2.72)
\> SBgens := left\_sbasis: FBgens := Kbasis: (2.73)
\> K\_basis := spinorKbasis(SBgens,f,FBgens,’left’): (2.74)
\> for i from 1 to 4 do (2.75)
E\[i\] := spinorKrepr(e.i.,K\_basis,FBgens,’left’) od; (2.76)
$$E_1:=\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& Id\\ Id& 0\end{array}\right],E_2:=\left[\begin{array}{cc}e2& 0\\ 0& e2\end{array}\right],E_3:=\left[\begin{array}{cc}e3& 0\\ 0& e3\end{array}\right],E_4:=\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& Id\\ Id& 0\end{array}\right].$$
(2.77)
At this point, the division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ is generated by a set $`\{1,\text{e}_2,\text{e}_3,\text{e}_{23}\}\{1,𝐢,𝐣,𝐤\}`$, where $`𝐢,𝐣,𝐤`$ are well-known quaternion units. The basis (2.77) contains three symmetric matrices and one skewsymmetric matrix. Therefore, in accordance with (2.14) and (2.40)–(2.45) the matrix of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is a product of symmetric matrices of the basis (2.77). Thus,

$$𝖶=_1_2_3_4=\left(\begin{array}{cc}𝐤& 0\\ 0& 𝐤\end{array}\right),𝖤=_1_2_3=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 𝐤\\ 𝐤& 0\end{array}\right),𝖢=\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right).$$
(2.78)
It is easy to verify that a set of the matrices (2.78) added by the unit matrix forms the non–Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{1,3})Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with a multiplication table of the form (2.65). Therefore, the spacetime algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ admits the Cliffordian group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,,}(1,3)`$, where a double covering of the discrete subgroup has the form $`C^{,,}Q_4`$. However, as follows from Theorem 2.3, in virtue of the more wide ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,,}(1,3)`$ does not the only possible for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}𝖬_2(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. Indeed, looking over all the possible commuting elements of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ we find with the help of the procedure commutingelements that
\> L1 := commutingelements(clibasis);

$$L1:=[e1]$$
(2.79)
\> L2 := commutingelements(remove(member,clibasis,L1));

$$L2:=[e12]$$
(2.80)
\> L3 := commutingelements(remove(member,clibasis,\[op(L1),op(L2)\]));

$$L3:=[e13]$$
(2.81)
\> L4 := commutingelements(remove(member,clibasis,\[op(L1),op(L2),
\> op(L3)\]));

$$L4:=[e14]$$
(2.82)
\> L5 := commutingelements(remove(member,clibasis,\[op(L1),op(L2),
\> op(L3),op(L4)\]));

$$L5:=[e234]$$
(2.83)
\> f := cmulQ((1/2)$``$(Id + e2we3we4);

$$f:=\frac{1}{2}Id+\frac{1}{2}e234$$
(2.84)
\> type(f,primitiveidemp);

$$true$$
(2.85)
It is easy to verify that primitive idempotents $`\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_1),\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{12}),\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{13})`$ and $`\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{14})`$ constructed by means of the commuting elements $`\text{e}_1,\text{e}_{12},\text{e}_{13}`$ and $`\text{e}_{14}`$ generate matrix representations that give rise to the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{1,3})Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. However, the situation changes for the element $`\text{e}_{234}`$ and corresponding primitive idempotent $`\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_{234})`$ ($`\frac{1}{2}(1\text{e}_{234})`$). Indeed, executing the commands (2.84) and (2.85) and subsequently the commands (2.71)–(2.76), we find that
\> for i from 1 to 4 do

E\[i\] := spinorKrepr(e.i.,Kbasis,FBgens,’left’) od;
$$E_1:=\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& Id\\ Id& 0\end{array}\right],E_2:=\left[\begin{array}{cc}e2& 0\\ 0& e2\end{array}\right],E_3:=\left[\begin{array}{cc}e34& 0\\ 0& e34\end{array}\right],E_4:=\left[\begin{array}{cc}e4& 0\\ 0& e4\end{array}\right],$$
(2.86)
where the division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ is generated by a set $`\{1,\text{e}_2,\text{e}_4,\text{e}_{24}\}\{1,𝐢,𝐣,𝐤\}`$. The basis (2.86) consists of symmetric matrices only. Therefore, in accordance with (2.14), the matrix $`𝖤`$ should commute with all the matrices of the basis (2.86). It is obvious that this condition is satisfied only if $`𝖤`$ is proportional to the unit matrix (recall that any element of the automorphism group may be multiplied by an arbitrary factor $`\eta \mathrm{𝔽}`$, in this case $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$). Further, a set of the matrices $`𝖶=_1_2_3_4`$, $`𝖤𝖨`$, $`𝖢=\mathrm{𝖤𝖶}`$ added by the unit matrix forms a finite group with a following multiplication table

I
W
E
C𝖨𝖨𝖶𝖤𝖢𝖶𝖶𝖨𝖢𝖤𝖤𝖤𝖢𝖨𝖶𝖢𝖢𝖤𝖶𝖨.fragments

I
W
E
C𝖨𝖨𝖶𝖤𝖢𝖶𝖶fragmentsI𝖢fragmentsE𝖤𝖤𝖢𝖨𝖶𝖢𝖢fragmentsE𝖶fragmentsI{\begin{tabular}[]{|c||c|c|c|c|}\hline\cr&${\sf I}$&${\sf W}$&${\sf E}$&${\sf C}$\\
\hline\cr\hline\cr${\sf I}$&${\sf I}$&${\sf W}$&${\sf E}$&${\sf C}$\\
\hline\cr${\sf W}$&${\sf W}$&$-{\sf I}$&${\sf C}$&$-{\sf E}$\\
\hline\cr${\sf E}$&${\sf E}$&${\sf C}$&${\sf I}$&${\sf W}$\\
\hline\cr${\sf C}$&${\sf C}$&$-{\sf E}$&${\sf W}$&$-{\sf I}$\\
\hline\cr\end{tabular}}.
As follows from the table, we have in this case the Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{1,3})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,+,)`$. Thus, the spacetime algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ admits the group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,+,}(1,3)`$, where a double covering of the discrete subgroup has the form $`C^{,+,}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

The fulfilled analysis explicitly shows a difference between the two double coverings $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(3,1)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(1,3)`$ of the Lorentz group. Since double coverings of the connected components of both groups $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(3,1)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(1,3)`$ are isomorphic, $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_0(3,1)\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_0(1,3)`$, the nature of the difference between them consists in a concrete form and a number of the double covering $`C^{a,b,c}`$ of the discrete subgroups. So, for the Majorana algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$, all the existing primitive idempotents $`\frac{1}{4}(1\pm \text{e}_1)(1\pm \text{e}_{34}),\frac{1}{4}(1\pm \text{e}_1)(1\pm \text{e}_{24}),\frac{1}{4}(1\pm \text{e}_2)(1\pm \text{e}_{14}),\frac{1}{4}(1\pm \text{e}_3)(1\pm \text{e}_{134}),\frac{1}{4}(1\pm \text{e}_{34})(1\pm \text{e}_{234})`$ generate 20 matrix representations, each of which gives rise to the double covering $`C^{,,}Q_4`$. On the other hand, for the spacetime algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ primitive idempotents $`\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{14}),\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_1),\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{12}),\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{13})`$ generate 8 matrix representations with $`C^{,,}Q_4`$, whereas remaining two primitive idempotents $`\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{234})`$ generate matrix representations with $`C^{,+,}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.
Remark. Physicists commonly use a transition from some given signature to its opposite (signature change) by means of a replacement $`_ii_i`$ (so–called Wick rotation). However, such a transition is unsatisfactory from a mathematical viewpoint. For example, we can use the replacement $`_ii_i`$ for a transition from the spacetime algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}𝖬_2(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ to the Majorana algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}𝖬_4(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ since $`i𝖬_2(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, whereas an inverse transition $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ can not be performed by the replacement $`_ii_i`$, since $`i𝖬_4(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. The mathematically correct alternative to the Wick rotation is a tilt–transformation introduced by Lounesto . The tilt–transformation is expressed by a map $`aba_+b_++b_+a_{}+b_{}a_+b_{}a_{}`$, where $`a_\pm ,b_\pm C\mathrm{}_{p,q}^\pm `$. The further developing of the tilt–transformation and its application for a formulation of physical theories in the spaces with different signatures has been considered in the recent paper .

### 2.4. Discrete transformations and Brauer–Wall groups

The algebra $`C\mathrm{}`$ is naturally $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$–graded. Let $`C\mathrm{}^+`$ (correspondingly $`C\mathrm{}^{}`$) be a set consisting of all even (correspondingly odd) elements of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}`$. The set $`C\mathrm{}^+`$ is a subalgebra of $`C\mathrm{}`$. It is obvious that $`C\mathrm{}=C\mathrm{}^+C\mathrm{}^{}`$, and also $`C\mathrm{}^+C\mathrm{}^+C\mathrm{}^+,C\mathrm{}^+C\mathrm{}^{}C\mathrm{}^{},C\mathrm{}^{}C\mathrm{}^+C\mathrm{}^{},C\mathrm{}^{}C\mathrm{}^{}C\mathrm{}^+`$. A degree $`\mathrm{deg}a`$ of the even (correspondingly odd) element $`aC\mathrm{}`$ is equal to 0 (correspondingly 1). Let $`𝔄`$ and $`𝔅`$ be the two associative $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$–graded algebras over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}`$; then a multiplication of homogeneous elements $`𝔞^{}𝔄`$ and $`𝔟𝔅`$ in a graded tensor product $`𝔄\widehat{}𝔅`$ is defined as follows: $`(𝔞𝔟)(𝔞^{}𝔟^{})=(1)^{\mathrm{deg}𝔟\mathrm{deg}𝔞^{}}𝔞𝔞^{}𝔟𝔟^{}`$. The graded tensor product of the two graded central simple algebras is also graded central simple \[169, Theorem 2\]. The Clifford algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is central simple if $`pq1,5(mod8)`$. It is known that for the Clifford algebra with odd dimensionality, the isomorphisms are as follows: $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q+1}^+C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{p+1,q}^+C\mathrm{}_{q,p}`$ . Thus, $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q+1}^+`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{p+1,q}^+`$ are central simple algebras. Further, in accordance with Chevalley Theorem  for the graded tensor product there is an isomorphism $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\widehat{}C\mathrm{}_{p^{},q^{}}C\mathrm{}_{p+p^{},q+q^{}}`$. Two algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{p^{},q^{}}`$ are said to be of the same class if $`p+q^{}p^{}+q(mod8)`$. The graded central simple Clifford algebras over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ form eight similarity classes, which, as it is easy to see, coincide with the eight types of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. The set of these 8 types (classes) forms a Brauer–Wall group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}`$  that is isomorphic to a cyclic group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Thus, the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is an element of the Brauer–Wall group, and a group operation is the graded tensor product $`\widehat{}`$. A cyclic structure of the group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ may be represented on the Trautman diagram (spinorial clock)  (Fig. 1) by means of a transition $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}^+\stackrel{h}{}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ (the round on the diagram is realized by an hour–hand). At this point, the type of the algebra is defined on the diagram by an equality $`qp=h+8r`$, where $`h\{0,\mathrm{},7\}`$, $`r\mathrm{}`$.

Fig.1 The Trautman diagram for the Brauer–Wall group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$

It is obvious that a group structure over $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, defined by $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, immediately relates with the Atiyah–Bott–Shapiro periodicity . In accordance with , the Clifford algebra over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ is modulo 8 periodic: $`C\mathrm{}_{p+8,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{8,0}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q+8}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{0,8})`$.

Coming back to Theorem 2.3 we see that for each type of algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ there exists some set of the automorphism groups. If we take into account this relation, then the cyclic structure of a generalized group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}^{a,b,c}`$ would look as follows (Fig. 2). First of all, the semi–simple algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the rings $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq1,5(mod8)`$) form an axis of the eighth order, which defines the cyclic group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Further, the neutral types $`pq0(mod8)`$ ($`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$) and $`pq4(mod8)`$ ($`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$), which in common admit the automorphism groups with the signatures $`(+,b,c)`$, form an axis of the fourth order corresponding to the cyclic group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Analogously, the two mutually opposite types $`pq2(mod8)`$ ($`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$) and $`pq6(mod8)`$ ($`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$), which in common admit the automorphism groups with the signatures $`(,b,c)`$, also form an axis of the fourth order. Finally, the types $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ ($`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$) with the $`(+,+,+)`$ and $`(,,)`$ automorphism groups form an axis of the second order. Therefore, $`BW_{\mathrm{}}^{a,b,c}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, where $`(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

Fig.2 The cyclic structure of the generalized group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}^{a,b,c}`$.

Further, over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, there exist two types of the complex Clifford algebras: $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Therefore, a Brauer–Wall group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}`$ acting on the set of these two types is isomorphic to the cyclic group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. The cyclic structure of the group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ may be represented on the following Trautman diagram (Fig. 3) by means of a transition $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{\mathrm{}}{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ (the round on the diagram is realized by an hour–hand). At this point, the type of the algebra on the diagram is defined by an equality $`n=h+2r`$, where $`h\{0,1\}`$, $`r\mathrm{}`$.

Fig.3 The Trautman diagram for the Brauer–Wall group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

It is obvious that a group structure over $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, defined by the group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, immediately relates with a modulo 2 periodicity of the complex Clifford algebras : $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

From Theorem 2.1, it follows that the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ admits the automorphism group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,+,+)`$ if $`m`$ is even, and respectively the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,,)`$ if $`m`$ is odd. In connection with this, the second complex type $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ also admits both the previously mentioned automorphism groups. Therefore, if we take into account this relation, the cyclic structure of a generalized group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}^{a,b,c}`$ would look as follows (Fig. 4). Both complex types $`n0(mod2)`$ and $`n1(mod2)`$ form an axis of the second order, therefore, $`BW_{\mathrm{}}^{a,b,c}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

Fig.4 The cyclic structure of the generalized group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}^{a,b,c}`$.

## Chapter 3 Homomorphism $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and quotient Clifford algebras

### 3.1. Fundamental automorphisms of odd–dimensional Clifford algebras

Let us consider now fundamental automorhisms of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ and $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, where $`pq1,3,5,7(mod8)`$, $`p+q=2m+1`$. As known , the odd–dimensional algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ and $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ are isomorphic to direct sums of the two algebras with even dimensionality if correspondingly $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ and $`p+q1,3,5,7(mod8)`$. Therefore, matrix representations of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ $`(p+q=2m+1)`$ are isomorphic to direct sums of the full matrix algebras $`𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, where $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. On the other hand, there exists an homomorphic mapping of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ and $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ onto one matrix algebra $`𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ with preservation of addition, multiplication and multiplication by the number operations. Besides, in case of the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is isomorphic to to a full matrix algebra $`𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, therefore, representations of the fundamental automorphisms of this algebra can be realized by means of $`𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$.

###### Theorem 3.1.

If $`p+q=2m+1`$, then there exist following homomorphisms:
1) $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$

$$ϵ:C\mathrm{}_{p,q}𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}$$

where $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ if $`pq1(mod8)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ if $`pq5(mod8)`$.
2) $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$

$$ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\text{if}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}$$

###### Proof.

Let us start the proof with a more general case $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. In accordance with (1.4) the element $`\omega `$ belongs to a center of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and, therefore, this element commutes with all the basis elements of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Further, we see that the basis vectors $`\{e_1,e_2,\mathrm{},e_n\}`$ generate a subspace $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Thus, the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ in $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}`$ is a subalgebra of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ and consists of the elements which do not contain the element $`\text{e}_{n+1}`$. The each element $`𝒜\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ can be decomposed as follows

$$𝒜=𝒜^1+𝒜^0,$$

where the set $`𝒜^0`$ contains all the elements with $`\text{e}_{n+1}`$, and $`𝒜^1`$ does not contain it, therefore, $`𝒜^1\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. At the multiplication $`𝒜^0`$ by $`ϵ\omega `$ the elements $`\text{e}_{n+1}`$ are mutually annihilate. Hence it follows that $`ϵ\omega 𝒜^0\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Denoting $`𝒜^2=ϵ\omega 𝒜^0`$ and taking into account that $`(ϵ\omega )^2=1`$ we obtain

$$𝒜=𝒜^1+\epsilon \omega 𝒜^2,$$

where $`𝒜^1,𝒜^2\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Let us define now an homomorphism $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, acting on the following law

$$ϵ:𝒜^1+\epsilon \omega 𝒜^2𝒜^1+𝒜^2.$$
(3.1)
It is obvious that the operations of addition, multiplication and multiplication by the number are preserved. Indeed, if we take

$$𝒜=𝒜^1+\epsilon \omega 𝒜^2,=^1+^2,$$

then in virtue of $`(\epsilon \omega )^2=1`$ and commutativity of $`\omega `$ with the all elements we have for the multiplication operation:

$$\begin{array}{c}𝒜=(𝒜^1^1+𝒜^2^2)+\epsilon \omega (𝒜^1^2+𝒜^2^1)\stackrel{ϵ}{}\hfill \\ \hfill (𝒜^1^1+𝒜^2^2)+(𝒜^1^2+𝒜^2^1)=(𝒜^1+𝒜^2)(^1+^2),\end{array}$$
(3.2)
that is, an image of the product is equal to the product of factor images in the same order. In particular case at $`𝒜=\epsilon \omega `$ we have $`𝒜^1=0`$ and $`𝒜^2=1`$, therefore,

$$\epsilon \omega 1.$$

Thus, a kernel of the homomorphism $`ϵ`$ consists of the all elements of the form $`𝒜^1\epsilon \omega 𝒜^1`$, which, as it is easy to see, under action of $`ϵ`$ are mapped into zero. It is clear that $`\mathrm{Ker}ϵ=\{𝒜^1\epsilon \omega 𝒜^1\}`$ is a subalgebra of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Moreover, the kernel of $`ϵ`$ is a bilateral ideal of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Therefore, the algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ obtaining in the result of the mapping $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a quotient algebra on the ideal $`\mathrm{Ker}ϵ=\{𝒜^1\epsilon \omega 𝒜^1\}`$:

$${}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}ϵ\mathrm{}$$

Since the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ at $`n=2m`$ is isomorphically mapped onto the full matrix algebra $`𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, then in virtue of $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ we obtain an homomorphic mapping of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ onto the matrix algebra $`𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$.

An homomorphism $`ϵ:C\mathrm{}_{p,q}𝖬_{2^m}(\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ is proved analogously. In this case a quotient algebra has the form

$${}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p1,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}/\mathrm{Ker}ϵ,$$

or

$${}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}/\mathrm{Ker}ϵ,$$

where $`\mathrm{Ker}ϵ=\{𝒜^1\omega 𝒜^1\}`$, since in accordance with (1.3) at $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ we have always $`\omega ^2=1`$ and, therefore, $`\epsilon =1`$.∎

Let us consider now the automorphisms $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜},𝒜𝒜^{}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ defined in $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. We will examine the form of the fundamental automorphisms defined in $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ after the homomorpic mapping $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. First of all, for the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ it is necessary that elements $`𝒜,,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, which are mapped into one and the same element $`𝒟\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ (a kernel of the homomorphism $`ϵ`$ if $`𝒟=0`$), after the transformation $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ are must converted to the elements $`\stackrel{~}{𝒜},\stackrel{~}{},\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, which are also mapped into one and the same element $`\stackrel{~}{𝒟}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Otherwise, the transformation $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is not transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ in $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ as an unambiguous transformation. In particular, it is necessary that $`\stackrel{~}{\epsilon \omega }=\epsilon \omega `$, since 1 and the element $`\epsilon \omega `$ under action of $`ϵ`$ are equally mapped into the unit, then $`\stackrel{~}{1}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\epsilon \omega }`$ are also must be mapped into one and the same element in $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, but $`\stackrel{~}{1}1`$, and $`\stackrel{~}{\epsilon \omega }=\pm \epsilon \omega \pm 1`$ (in virtue of (1.7)). Therefore, we must assume that

$$\stackrel{~}{\epsilon \omega }=\epsilon \omega .$$
(3.3)
The condition (3.3) is sufficient for the transfer of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ to $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Indeed, in this case at $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ we have

$$𝒜^1𝒜^1\epsilon \omega \stackrel{~}{𝒜^1}\stackrel{~}{\epsilon \omega }\stackrel{~}{𝒜^1}=\stackrel{~}{𝒜^1}\epsilon \omega \stackrel{~}{𝒜^1}.$$

Therefore, elements of the form $`𝒜^1𝒜^1\epsilon \omega `$ consisting of the kernel of the homomorphism $`ϵ`$ are converted at the transformation $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ into elements of the same form.

Analogous conditions take place for other fundamental automorphisms. However, for the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ the condition $`(\epsilon \omega )^{}=\epsilon \omega `$ is never fulfilled, since $`\omega `$ is odd and in accordance with (1.5) we have

$$\omega ^{}=\omega .$$
(3.4)
Therefore, the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ is never transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ to $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

Let us return to the antiautomorpism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and consider in more detail conditions which sufficient for the transfer of this transformation from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ to $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. At first, in dependence on condition $`(\epsilon \omega )^2=1`$ and square of the element $`\omega =e_{12\mathrm{}n+1}`$ the factor $`\epsilon `$ has the following values

$$\epsilon =\{\begin{array}{cc}1,\hfill & \text{if }pq1,5(mod8);\hfill \\ i,\hfill & \text{if }pq3,7(mod8).\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.5)
Further, in accordance with the formula (1.7) for the transformation $`\omega \stackrel{~}{\omega }`$ we obtain

$$\stackrel{~}{\omega }=\{\begin{array}{cc}\omega ,\hfill & \text{if }pq1,5(mod8);\hfill \\ \omega ,\hfill & \text{if }pq3,7(mod8).\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.6)
Therefore, for the algebras over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is transferred at the mappings $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1},C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$, where $`pq1,5(mod8)`$. Over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is transferred in any case, since the algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ with signatures $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ and $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ are isomorphic. At this point, the condition (3.3) in accordance with (3.5), (3.6) takes a following form:

$`\stackrel{~}{\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`\omega ,\text{if }pq1,5(mod8);`$
$`\stackrel{~}{i\omega }`$ $`=`$ $`i\omega ,\text{if }pq3,7(mod8).`$
Besides, each of these equalities satisfies to condition $`(\epsilon \omega )^2=1`$.

Let us consider now the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$. It is obvious that for the transfer of $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ to $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ it is sufficient that

$$\stackrel{~}{(\epsilon \omega )^{}}=\epsilon \omega .$$
(3.7)
It is easy to see that in virtue of (3.4) and second equality from (3.6) the mapping $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ satisfies to this condition at $`pq3,7(mod8)`$, since in this case

$$\stackrel{~}{(\epsilon \omega )^{}}=\epsilon \stackrel{~}{\omega ^{}}=\epsilon \omega ^{}=\epsilon \omega .$$

Hence it follows that for the algebras over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ at the mappings $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1},C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$ ($`pq1,5(mod8)`$) is never transferred.

Summarizing the results obtained previously we come to the following

###### Theorem 3.2 ().

1) If $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ is the Clifford algebra over $`\mathrm{}`$, where $`pq1,3,5,7(mod8)`$, then at the homomorphic mapping $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is transferred onto the quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$ in any case, the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ is never transferred, and the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ is transferred in the case $`pq3,7(mod8)`$.
2) If $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1},C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$ are the Clifford algebras over $`\mathrm{}`$, where $`pq1,5(mod8)`$, then at the homomorphic mappings $`ϵ:C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ and $`ϵ:C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$ the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is transferred onto the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$ in any case, and the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ and antiautomorpism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ are never transferred.

According to Theorem 3.2 in case of odd–dimensional spaces $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ the algebra homomorphisms $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1},C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$ and $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ induce group homomorphisms $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q1),\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(q,p1)`$, $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}(p+q,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$.

###### Theorem 3.3 ().

1) If $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q1)\omega \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q1),\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p1)\omega \mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p1)`$ are Da̧browski groups over the field $`\mathrm{}`$, where $`pq1,5(mod8)`$, then in the results of homomorphic mappings $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q1)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(q,p1)`$ take place the following quotient groups:

$`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^b(p,q1)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_0(p,q1)\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}}},`$
$`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^b(q,p1)`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{(\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_0(q,p1)\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}}}.`$
2) If $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p+q,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ are Da̧browski groups over the field $`\mathrm{}`$, where $`p+q1,3,5,7(mod8)`$, then in the result of the homomorphic mapping $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p+q,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ take place the following quotient groups:

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^b(p+q1,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\frac{\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}$$

if $`p+q1,5(mod8)`$ and

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{b,c}(p+q1,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}$$

if $`p+q3,7(mod8)`$, at this point the automorphisms corresponded to discrete transformations of the space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, associated with the quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$, do not form a group.

###### Proof.

Indeed, according to Theorem 3.2 over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ at the homomorphic mappings $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$ from all the fundamental automorphisms only the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is transferred onto the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$. Further, in virtue of Proposition 2.1 the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ corresponds the time reversal $`T`$. Therefore, discrete groups of the spaces $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}`$ associated with the quotient groups $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$, are defined by two–element group $`\{1,T\}\{𝖨,𝖤\}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, where $`\{𝖨,𝖤\}`$ is an automorphism group of $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1},{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$, $`𝖤`$ is the matrix of $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$. Thus, at $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ the homomorphic mappings $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^b(p,q1)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p,q)\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^b(q,p1)`$ take place, where $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^b(p,q1),\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^b(q,p1)`$ are the quotient groups, $`b=T^2=𝖤^2`$. At this point, the double covering $`C^b`$ of the discrete group is isomorphic to $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

Analogously, over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ at $`p+q1,5(mod8)`$ we have the quotient group $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^b(p+q1,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. Further, according to Theorem 3.2 at $`p+q3,7(mod8)`$ in the result of the homomorphic mapping $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ the transformations $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ are transferred onto $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$. Therefore, a set of the discrete transformations of the space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ associated with $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$ is defined by a trhee–element set $`\{1,T,PT\}\{𝖨,𝖤,𝖢\}`$, where $`\{𝖨,𝖤,𝖢\}`$ is the automorphism set of $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$, $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ are the matrices of $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, correspondingly. It is easy to see that the set $`\{1,T,PT\}\{𝖨,𝖤,𝖢\}`$ does not form a group. Thus, the homomorphism $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{a,b,c}(p+q,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ takes place at $`p+q3,7(mod8)`$, where $`\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{b,c}(p+q1,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ is the quotient group, $`b=T^2=𝖤^2,c=(PT)^2=𝖢^2`$.

### 3.2. Discrete symmetries of many body system

In conclusion of this chapter let us consider the many body system described by the tensor product $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}\mathrm{}C\mathrm{}_{3,0}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ . We will find an explicit form of the symmetry in dependence from the number of particles belonged the system. With this end in view let us recall some basic facts concerning tensor decompositions of the Clifford algebras. Let $`C\mathrm{}(V,Q)`$ be the Clifford algebra over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, where $`V`$ is a vector space endowed with quadratic form $`Q=x_1^2+\mathrm{}+x_p^2\mathrm{}x_{p+q}^2`$. If $`p+q`$ is even and $`\omega ^2=1`$, then $`C\mathrm{}(V,Q)`$ is called positive and correspondingly negative if $`\omega ^2=1`$, that is, $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}>0`$ if $`pq0,4(mod8)`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}<0`$ if $`pq2,6(mod8)`$.

###### Theorem 3.4 (Karoubi ).

1) If $`C\mathrm{}(V,Q)>0`$ and $`dimV`$ is even, then

$$C\mathrm{}(VV^{},QQ^{})C\mathrm{}(V,Q)C\mathrm{}(V^{},Q^{}).$$

2) If $`C\mathrm{}(V,Q)<0`$ and $`dimV`$ is even, then

$$C\mathrm{}(VV^{},QQ^{})C\mathrm{}(V,Q)C\mathrm{}(V^{},Q^{}).$$

Over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ the Clifford algebra is always positive (if $`\omega ^2=\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}^2=1`$, then we can suppose $`\omega =i\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}`$). Thus, using Karoubi Theorem we find that

$$\underset{m\text{times}}{\underset{}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}$$
(3.8)
Therefore, the tensor product in (3.8) is isomorphic to $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1According to  the system consisting of $`m`$ partices is described by this product..

###### Theorem 3.5 ().

Let $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}\mathrm{}C\mathrm{}_{3,0}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ be the algebra describing the system composed of $`m`$ identical particles ($`m=\frac{p+q}{2}`$) and let $`\{1,P,T,PT\}\{𝖨,𝖶,𝖤,𝖢\}`$ be a group of discrete transformations of the a $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ associated with the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Then
1) If the particle number $`m`$ is even, then the symmetry of the system is described by the non–Cliffordian group

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{+,+,+}(p+q,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\frac{\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}$$

at $`p+q0,1(mod4)`$.
2) If the particle number $`m`$ is odd ($`p+q2,3(mod4)`$), then the symmetry of the system is described by the Cliffordian group

$$\mathrm{𝐏𝐢𝐧}^{,,}(p+q,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\frac{\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}$$

## Chapter 4 Lorentz group

### 4.1. Finite-dimensional representations of the Lorentz group and complex Clifford algebras

It is well–known  that representations of the Lorentz group play a fundamental role in the quantum field theory. Physical fields are defined in terms of finite–dimensional irreducible representations of the Lorentz group $`O(1,3)O(3,1)`$ (correspondingly, Poincaré group $`O(1,3)T(4)`$, where $`T(4)`$ is a subgroup of four–dimensional translations). It should be noted that in accordance with  any finite–dimensional irreducible representation of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+=O_0(1,3)O_0(3,1)SL(2;\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is equivalent to some spinor representation. Moreover, spinor representations exhaust in essence all the finite–dimensional representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$. This fact we will widely use below.

Let us consider in brief the basic facts concerning the theory of spinor representations of the Lorentz group. The initial point of this theory is a correspondence between transformations of the proper Lorentz group and complex matrices of the second order. Indeed, follows to  let us compare the Hermitian matrix of the second order

$$X=\left(\begin{array}{cc}x_0+x_3& x_1ix_2\\ x_1+ix_2& x_0x_3\end{array}\right)$$
(4.1)
to the vector $`v`$ of the Minkowski space–time $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ with coordinates $`x_0,x_1,x_2,x_3`$. At this point $`detX=x_0^2x_1^2x_2^2x_3^2=S^2(x)`$. The correspondence between matrices $`X`$ and vectors $`v`$ is one–to–one and linear. Any linear transformation $`X^{}=aXa^{}`$ in a space of the matrices $`X`$ may be considered as a linear transformation $`g_a`$ in $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, where $`a`$ is a complex matrix of the second order with $`deta=1`$. The correspondence $`ag_a`$ possesses following properties: 1) $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right)e`$ (identity element); 2) $`g_{a_1}g_{a_2}=g_{a_1a_2}`$ (composition); 3) two different matrices $`a_1`$ and $`a_2`$ correspond to one and the same transformation $`g_{a_1}=g_{a_2}`$ only in the case $`a_1=a_2`$. Since every complex matrix is defined by eight real numbers, then from the requirement $`deta=1`$ it follow two conditions $`\text{Re}deta=1`$ and $`\text{Im}deta=0`$. These conditions leave six independent parameters, that coincides with parameter number of the proper Lorentz group.

Further, a set of all complex matrices of the second order forms a full matrix algebra $`𝖬_2(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ that is isomorphic to a biquaternion algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. In its turn, Pauli matrices

$$\sigma _0=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right),\sigma _1=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right),\sigma _2=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& i\\ i& 0\end{array}\right),\sigma _3=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right).$$
(4.2)
form one from a great number of isomorphic spinbasis of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ (by this reason in physics the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ is called Pauli algebra). Using the basis (4.2) we can write the matrix (4.1) in the form

$$X=x^\mu \sigma _\mu .$$
(4.3)
The Hermitian matrix (4.3) is correspond to a spintensor $`(1,1)`$ $`X^{\lambda \dot{\nu }}`$ with following coordinates

$`x^0=+(1/\sqrt{2})(\xi ^1\xi ^{\dot{1}}+\xi ^2\xi ^{\dot{2}}),`$ $`x^1=+(1/\sqrt{2})(\xi ^1\xi ^{\dot{2}}+\xi ^2\xi ^{\dot{1}}),`$
$`x^2=(i/\sqrt{2})(\xi ^1\xi ^{\dot{2}}\xi ^2\xi ^{\dot{1}}),`$ $`x^3=+(1/\sqrt{2})(\xi ^1\xi ^{\dot{1}}\xi ^2\xi ^{\dot{2}}),`$ (4.4)
where $`\xi ^\mu `$ and $`\xi ^{\dot{\mu }}`$ are correspondingly coordinates of spinors and cospinors of spinspaces $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_2`$. Linear transformations of ‘vectors’ (spinors and cospinors) of the spinspaces $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_2`$ have the form

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\begin{array}{ccc}{}_{}{}^{}\xi _{}^{1}& =& \alpha \xi ^1+\beta \xi ^2,\\ {}_{}{}^{}\xi _{}^{2}& =& \gamma \xi ^1+\delta \xi ^2,\end{array}& & \begin{array}{ccc}{}_{}{}^{}\xi _{}^{\dot{1}}& =& \dot{\alpha }\xi ^{\dot{1}}+\dot{\beta }\xi ^{\dot{2}},\\ {}_{}{}^{}\xi _{}^{\dot{2}}& =& \dot{\gamma }\xi ^{\dot{1}}+\dot{\delta }\xi ^{\dot{2}},\end{array}\\ \sigma =\left(\begin{array}{cc}\alpha & \beta \\ \gamma & \delta \end{array}\right)& & \dot{\sigma }=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\dot{\alpha }& \dot{\beta }\\ \dot{\gamma }& \dot{\delta }\end{array}\right).\end{array}$$
(4.5)
Transformations (4.5) form the group $`SL(2;\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, since $`\sigma 𝖬_2(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and

$$SL(2;\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\{\mathrm{}\begin{array}{cc}\alpha & \beta \\ \gamma & \delta \end{array}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}det\mathrm{}\begin{array}{cc}\alpha & \beta \\ \gamma & \delta \end{array}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}$$

The expressions (4.4) and (4.5) compose a base of the 2–spinor van der Waerden formalism , in which the spaces $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_2`$ are called correspondingly spaces of undotted and dotted spinors. The each of the spaces $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_2`$ is homeomorphic to an extended complex plane $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ representing an absolute (the set of infinitely distant points) of a Lobatchevskii space $`S^{1,2}`$. At this point a group of fractional linear transformations of the plane $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ is isomorphic to a motion group of $`S^{1,2}`$ . Besides, in accordance with  the Lobatchevskii space $`S^{1,2}`$ is an absolute of the Minkowski world $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ and, therefore, the group of fractional linear transformations of the plane $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ (motion group of $`S^{1,2}`$) twice covers a ‘rotation group’ of the space–time $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, that is the proper Lorentz group.

###### Theorem 4.1.

Let $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ be a biquaternion algebra and let $`\sigma _i`$ be a canonical spinor representations (Pauli matrices) of the units of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, then $`2k`$ tensor products of the $`k`$ matrices $`\sigma _i`$ form a basis of the full matrix algebra $`𝖬_{2^k}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, which is a spinor representation of a complex Clifford algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. The set containing $`2k+1`$ tensor products of the $`k`$ matrices $`\sigma _i`$ is homomorphically mapped onto a set consisting of the same $`2k`$ tensor products and forming a basis of the spinor representation of a quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$.

###### Proof.

As a basis of the spinor representation of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ we take the Pauli matrices (4.2). This choice is explained by physical applications only (from mathematical viewpoint the choice of the spinbasis for $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is not important). Let us compose now $`2k`$ $`2^k`$–dimensional matrices:

$$\begin{array}{ccc}_1\hfill & =& \sigma _1\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0\sigma _0\sigma _0,\hfill \\ _2\hfill & =& \sigma _3\sigma _1\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0\sigma _0,\hfill \\ _3\hfill & =& \sigma _3\sigma _3\sigma _1\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,\hfill \\ [2]3\hfill & & \\ _k\hfill & =& \sigma _3\sigma _3\mathrm{}\sigma _3\sigma _1,\hfill \\ _{k+1}\hfill & =& \sigma _2\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,\hfill \\ _{k+2}\hfill & =& \sigma _3\sigma _2\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,\hfill \\ [2]3\hfill & & \\ _{2k}\hfill & =& \sigma _3\sigma _3\mathrm{}\sigma _3\sigma _2.\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.6)
Since $`\sigma _i^2=\sigma _0`$, then for a square of any matrix from the set (4.6) we have

$$_i^2=\sigma _0\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,i=1,2,\mathrm{},2k,$$
(4.7)
where the product $`\sigma _0\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0`$ equals to $`2^k`$–dimensional unit matrix. Further,

$$_i_j=_j_i,i<j;i,j=1,2,\mathrm{}2k.$$
(4.8)
Indeed, when $`i=1`$ and $`j=3`$ we obtain

$`_1_3`$ $`=`$ $`\sigma _1\sigma _3\sigma _3\sigma _1\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,`$
$`_3_1`$ $`=`$ $`\sigma _3\sigma _1\sigma _3\sigma _1\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0.`$
Thus, the equalities (4.7) and (4.8) show that the matrices of the set (4.6) satisfy the multiplication law of the Clifford algebra. Moreover, let us show that a set of the matrices $`_1^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{2k}^{\alpha _{2k}}`$, where each of the indices $`\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\mathrm{},\alpha _{2k}`$ takes either of the two values 0 or 1, consists of $`2^{2k}`$ matrices. At this point these matrices form a basis of the full $`2^k`$–dimensional matrix algebra (spinor representation of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$). Indeed, in virtue of $`i\sigma _1\sigma _2=\sigma _3`$ from (4.6) it follows

$$𝒩_j=_j_{k+j}=\sigma _0\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _3\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,$$
(4.9)
$$j=1,2,\mathrm{}k,$$

here the matrix $`\sigma _3`$ occurs in the $`j`$–th position. Further, since the tensor product $`\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0`$ of the unit matrices of the second order is also unit matrix $`_0`$ of the $`2^k`$–order, then we can write

$`Z_j^{++}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(_0𝒩_j)=\sigma _0\sigma _0\mathrm{}Q^{++}\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,`$
$`Z_j^{}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(_0+𝒩_j)=\sigma _0\sigma _0\mathrm{}Q^{}\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,`$
where the matrices $`Q^{++}`$ and $`Q^{}`$ occur in the $`j`$–th position and have the following form

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 0\end{array}\right),\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right).$$

From (4.9) it follows

$$𝒩_1𝒩_2\mathrm{}𝒩_j=\sigma _3\sigma _3\mathrm{}\sigma _3\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,$$

where on the left side we have $`j`$ matrices $`\sigma _3`$. In virtue of this equality we obtain

$`_j`$ $`=`$ $`𝒩_1\mathrm{}𝒩_{j1}_j=\sigma _0\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _1\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,`$
$`_{k+j}`$ $`=`$ $`𝒩_1\mathrm{}𝒩_{j1}_{k+j}=\sigma _0\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _2\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0.`$
here the matrices $`\sigma _1`$ and $`\sigma _2`$ occur in the $`j`$–th position, $`j=1,2,\mathrm{},k`$. Thus,

$`Z_j^+`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(_j+i_{k+j})=\sigma _0\sigma _0\mathrm{}Q^+\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,`$
$`Z_j^+`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(_ji_{k+j})=\sigma _0\sigma _0\mathrm{}Q^+\sigma _0\mathrm{}\sigma _0,`$
where the matrices $`Q^+`$ and $`Q^+`$ also occur in the $`j`$–th position and have correspondingly the following form

$$\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 0& 0\end{array}\right),\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 0\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right).$$

Therefore, a matrix

$$\underset{j}{\overset{k}{}}(Z_j^{s_jr_j})=Q^{s_1r_1}Q^{s_2r_2}\mathrm{}Q^{s_kr_k},$$
(4.10)
$$s_j=\pm ,r_j=\pm $$

has unit elements at the intersection of $`(s_1,s_2,\mathrm{},s_k)`$–th row and $`(r_1,r_2,\mathrm{},r_k)`$–th column, the other elements are equal to zero. In virtue of (4.7) and (4.8) each of the matrices $`_j,_{k+j}`$ and, therefore, each of the matrices $`Z_j^{s_jr_j}`$, is represented by a linear combination of the matrices $`_1^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{2k}^{\alpha _{2k}}`$. Hence it follows that the matrices $`_j^k(Z_j^{s_jr_j})`$ and, therefore, all the $`2^k`$–dimensional matrices, are represented by such the linear combinations. Thus, $`2k`$ matrices $`_1,\mathrm{},_{2k}`$ generate a group consisting of the products $`\pm _1^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{2k}^{\alpha _{2k}}`$, and an enveloped algebra of this group is a full $`2^k`$–dimensional matrix algebra.

The following part of this Theorem tells that the full matrix algebra, forming by the tensor products (4.6), is a spinor representation of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Let us prove this part on the several examples. First of all, in accordance with (4.6) tensor products of the $`k=2`$ order are

$$_1=\sigma _1\sigma _0=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 1& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\end{array}\right),$$

$$_2=\sigma _3\sigma _1=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 1& 0& 0\\ 1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\end{array}\right),$$

$$_3=\sigma _2\sigma _0=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& i\\ i& 0\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& i& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& i\\ i& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& i& 0& 0\end{array}\right),$$

$$_4=\sigma _3\sigma _2=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& i\\ i& 0\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& i& 0& 0\\ i& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& i\\ 0& 0& i& 0\end{array}\right).$$
(4.11)
It is easy to see that $`_i^2=_0`$ and $`_i_j=_j_i`$ $`(i,j=1,\mathrm{},4)`$. The set of the matrices $`_1^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_4^{\alpha _4}`$, where each of the indices $`\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3,\alpha _4`$ takes either of the two values 0 or 1, consists of $`2^4=16`$ matrices. At this point these matrices form a basis of the full 4–dimensional matrix algebra. Thus, we can define a one–to–one correspondence between sixteen matrices $`_1^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_4^{\alpha _4}`$ and sixteen basis elements $`\text{e}_{i_1}\text{e}_{i_2}\mathrm{}\text{e}_{i_k}`$ of the Dirac algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Therefore, the matrices (4.11) form a basis of the spinor representation of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Moreover, from (4.11) it follows that $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, that is, the Dirac algebra is a tensor product of the two Pauli algebras.

Analogously, when $`k=3`$ from (4.6) we obtain following products (matrices of the eighth order):

$$_1=\sigma _1\sigma _0\sigma _0,_2=\sigma _3\sigma _1\sigma _0,_3=\sigma _3\sigma _3\sigma _1,$$

$$_4=\sigma _2\sigma _0\sigma _0,_5=\sigma _3\sigma _2\sigma _0,_6=\sigma _3\sigma _3\sigma _2,$$

The set of the matrices $`_1^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_6^{\alpha _6}`$, consisting of $`2^6=64`$ matrices, forms a basis of the full 8–dimensional matrix algebra, which is isomorphic to a spinor representation of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Generalizing we obtain that $`2k`$ tensor products of the $`k`$ Pauli matrices form a basis of the spinor representation of the complex Clifford algebra

$$\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\underset{\mathrm{}\text{times}}{\underset{}{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}}}\mathrm{}$$
(4.12)
Let us consider now a case of odd dimensions. When $`n=2k+1`$ we add to the set of the tensor products (4.6) a matrix

$$_{2k+1}=\underset{k\text{times}}{\underset{}{\sigma _3\sigma _3\mathrm{}\sigma _3}},$$
(4.13)
which satisfying the conditions

$$_{2k+1}^2=_0,_{2k+1}_i=_i_{2k+1},$$

$$i=1,2,\mathrm{},k.$$

It is obvious that a product $`_1_2\mathrm{}_{2k}_{2k+1}`$ commutes with all the products of the form $`_1^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{2k}^{\alpha _{2k}}`$. Further, let

$$\epsilon =\{\begin{array}{cc}1,\hfill & \text{if }k0(mod2),\hfill \\ i,\hfill & \text{if }k1(mod2).\hfill \end{array}$$

Then a product

$$𝖴=\epsilon _1_2\mathrm{}_{2k}_{2k+1}$$

satisfies the condition $`𝖴^2=_0`$. Let $`𝖯`$ be a set of all $`2^{2k+1}`$ matrices $`_1^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{2k}^{\alpha _{2k}}_{2k+1}^{\alpha _{2k+1}}`$, where $`\alpha _j`$ equals to 0 or 1, $`j=1,2,\mathrm{},2k+1`$. Let us divide the set $`𝖯`$ into two subsets by the following manner:

$$𝖯=𝖯^1+𝖯^0,$$
(4.14)
where the subset $`𝖯^0`$ contains products with the matrix $`_{2k+1}`$, and $`𝖯^1`$ contains products without the matrix $`_{2k+1}`$. Therefore, products $`^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{2k}^{\alpha _{2k}}𝖯^1`$ form a full $`2^k`$–dimensional matrix algebra. Further, when we multiply the matrices from the subset $`𝖯^0`$ by the matrix $`𝖴`$ the factors $`_{2k+1}`$ are mutually annihilate. Thus, matrices of the set $`\mathrm{𝖴𝖯}^0`$ are also belong to the $`2^k`$–dimensional matrix algebra. Let us denote $`\mathrm{𝖴𝖯}^0`$ via $`𝖯^2`$. Taking into account that $`𝖴^2=_0`$ we obtain $`𝖯^0=\mathrm{𝖴𝖯}^2`$ and

$$𝖯=𝖯^1+𝖯^2,$$

where $`𝖯^1,𝖯^2𝖬_{2^k}`$. Let

$$\chi :𝖯^1+\mathrm{𝖴𝖯}^2𝖯^1+𝖯^2$$
(4.15)
be an homomorphic mapping of the set (4.14) containing the matrix $`_{2k+1}`$ onto the set $`𝖯^1+𝖯^2`$ which does not contain this matrix. The mapping $`\chi `$ preserves addition and multiplication operations. Indeed, let $`𝖯=𝖯^1+\mathrm{𝖴𝖯}^2`$ and $`𝖰=𝖰^1+\mathrm{𝖴𝖰}^2`$, then

$$𝖯+𝖰=𝖯^1+\mathrm{𝖴𝖯}^2+𝖰^1+\mathrm{𝖴𝖰}^2𝖯^1+𝖯^2+𝖰^1+𝖰^2,$$

$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{𝖯𝖰}=(𝖯^1+\mathrm{𝖴𝖯}^2)(𝖰^1+\mathrm{𝖴𝖰}^2)=(𝖯^1𝖰^1+𝖯^2𝖰^2)+𝖴(𝖯^1𝖰^2+𝖯^2𝖰^1)\hfill \\ \hfill (𝖯^1𝖰^1+𝖯^2𝖰^2)+(𝖯^1𝖰^2+𝖯^2𝖰^1)=(𝖯^1+𝖯^2)(𝖰^1+𝖰^2),\end{array}$$
(4.16)
that is, an image of the products equals to the product of factor images in the same order. In particular, when $`𝖯=𝖴`$ we obtain $`𝖯^1=0,𝖯^2=_0`$ and

$$𝖴_0.$$
(4.17)
In such a way, at the mapping $`\chi `$ all the matrices of the form $`_1^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{2k}^{\alpha _{2k}}𝖴_1^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{2k}^{\alpha _{2k}}`$ are mapped into zero. Therefore, a kernel of the homomorphism $`\chi `$ is defined by an expression $`\mathrm{Ker}\chi =\left\{𝖯^1\mathrm{𝖴𝖯}^1\right\}`$. We obtain the homomorphic mapping of the set of all the $`2^{2k+1}`$ matrices $`_1^{\alpha _1}_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{2k}^{\alpha _{2k}}_{2k+1}^{\alpha _{2k+1}}`$ onto the full matrix algebra $`𝖬_{2^k}`$. In the result of this mapping we have a quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }𝖬_{2^k}^{}𝖯/\mathrm{Ker}\chi `$. As noted previously, $`2k`$ tensor products of the $`k`$ Pauli matrices (or other $`k`$ matrices defining spinor representation of the biquaternion algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$) form a basis of the spinor representation of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. It is easy to see that there exists one–to–one correspondence between $`2^{2k+1}`$ matrices of the set $`𝖯`$ and basis elements of the odd–dimensional Clifford algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. It is well–known  that $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ is isomorphic to a direct sum of two even–dimensional subalgebras: $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Moreover, there exists an homomorphic mapping $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, in the result of which we have a quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}ϵ`$, where $`\mathrm{Ker}ϵ=\left\{𝒜^1\epsilon \omega 𝒜^1\right\}`$ is a kernel of the homomorphism $`ϵ`$, $`𝒜^1`$ is an arbitrary element of the subalgebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, $`\omega `$ is a volume element of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. It is easy to see that the homomorphisms $`ϵ`$ and $`\chi `$ have a similar structure. Thus, hence it immediately follows an isomorphism $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}{}_{}{}^{\chi }\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}^{}`$. Therefore, a basis of the matrix quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }𝖬_{2^k}^{}`$ is also a basis of the spinor representation of the Clifford quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$, that proves the latter assertion of Theorem.

Let us consider now spintensor representations of the proper Lorentz group $`O_0(1,3)SL(2;\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and their relations with the complex Clifford algebras. From each complex Clifford algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ we obtain a spinspace $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$, which is a complexification of the minimal left ideal of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$: $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕀}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, where $`e_{pq}`$ is a primitive idempotent of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. Further, a spinspace corresponding the Pauli algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ has a form $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕀}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ or $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕀}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}{}^{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕀}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}{}^{}\mathrm{}`$. Therefore, the tensor product (4.12) of the $`k`$ algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ induces a tensor product of the $`k`$ spinspaces $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}`$:

$$\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}$$

Vectors of the spinspace $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}`$ (or elements of the minimal left ideal of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$) are spintensors of the following form

$$\xi ^{\alpha _1\alpha _2\mathrm{}\alpha _k}=\xi ^{\alpha _1}\xi ^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}\xi ^{\alpha _k},$$
(4.18)
where summation is produced on all the index collections $`(\alpha _1\mathrm{}\alpha _k)`$, $`\alpha _i=1,2`$. In virtue of (4.5) for each spinor $`\xi ^{\alpha _i}`$ from (4.18) we have a transformation rule $`{}_{}{}^{}\xi _{}^{\alpha _i^{}}=\sigma _{\alpha _i}^{\alpha _i^{}}\xi ^{\alpha _i}`$. Therefore, in general case we obtain

$${}_{}{}^{}\xi _{}^{\alpha _1^{}\alpha _2^{}\mathrm{}\alpha _k^{}}=\sigma _{\alpha _1}^{\alpha _1^{}}\sigma _{\alpha _2}^{\alpha _2^{}}\mathrm{}\sigma _{\alpha _k}^{\alpha _k^{}}\xi ^{\alpha _1\alpha _2\mathrm{}\alpha _k}.$$
(4.19)
A representation (4.19) is called undotted spintensor representation of the proper Lorentz group of the rank $`k`$.

Further, let $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ be a biquaternion algebra, the coefficients of which are complex conjugate. Let us show that the algebra $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is obtained from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ under action of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ or antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$. Indeed, in virtue of an isomorphism $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ a general element

$$𝒜=a^0\text{e}_0+\underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}a^i\text{e}_i+\underset{i=1}{\overset{3}{}}\underset{j=1}{\overset{3}{}}a^{ij}\text{e}_{ij}+a^{123}\text{e}_{123}$$

of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$ can be written in the form

$$𝒜=(a^0+\omega a^{123})\text{e}_0+(a^1+\omega a^{23})\text{e}_1+(a^2+\omega a^{31})\text{e}_2+(a^3+\omega a^{12})\text{e}_3,$$
(4.20)
where $`\omega =\text{e}_{123}`$. Since $`\omega `$ belongs to a center of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$ (commutes with all the basis elements) and $`\omega ^2=1`$, then we can to suppose $`\omega i`$. The action of the automorphism $``$ on the homogeneous element $`𝒜`$ of a degree $`k`$ is defined by a formula $`𝒜^{}=(1)^k𝒜`$. In accordance with this the action of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$, where $`𝒜`$ is the element (4.20), has a form

$$𝒜𝒜^{}=(a^0\omega a^{123})\text{e}_0(a^1\omega a^{23})\text{e}_1(a^2\omega a^{31})\text{e}_2(a^3\omega a^{12})\text{e}_3.$$
(4.21)
Therefore, $`:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Correspondingly, the action of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ on the homogeneous element $`𝒜`$ of a degree $`k`$ is defined by a formula $`\stackrel{~}{𝒜}=(1)^{\frac{k(k1)}{2}}𝒜`$. Thus, for the element (4.20) we obtain

$$𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}=(a^0\omega a^{123})\text{e}_0+(a^1\omega a^{23})\text{e}_1+(a^2\omega a^{31})\text{e}_2+(a^3\omega a^{12})\text{e}_3,$$
(4.22)
that is, $`\stackrel{~}{}:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$. This allows to define an algebraic analog of the Wigner’s representation doubling: $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Further, from (4.20) it follows that $`𝒜=𝒜_1+\omega 𝒜_2=(a^0\text{e}_0+a^1\text{e}_1+a^2\text{e}_2+a^3\text{e}_3)+\omega (a^{123}\text{e}_0+a^{23}\text{e}_1+a^{31}\text{e}_2+a^{12}\text{e}_3)`$. In general case, by virtue of an isomorphism $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, where $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is a real Clifford algebra with a division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq3,7(mod8)`$, we have for a general element of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ an expression $`𝒜=𝒜_1+\omega 𝒜_2`$, here $`\omega ^2=\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}^2=1`$ and, therefore, $`\omega i`$. Thus, from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ under action of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ we obtain a general algebraic doubling

$$\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}$$
(4.23)
Correspondingly, a tensor product $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ of $`r`$ algebras $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ induces a tensor product of $`r`$ spinspaces $`\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_2`$:

$$\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_2\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_2\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_2=\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{2^r}.$$

Te vectors of the spinspace $`\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{2^r}`$ have the form

$$\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_1\dot{\alpha }_2\mathrm{}\dot{\alpha }_r}=\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_1}\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_2}\mathrm{}\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_r},$$
(4.24)
where the each cospinor $`\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_i}`$ from (4.24) in virtue of (4.5) is transformed by the rule $`{}_{}{}^{}\xi _{}^{\dot{\alpha }_i^{}}=\sigma _{\dot{\alpha }_i}^{\dot{\alpha }_i^{}}\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_i}`$. Therefore,

$${}_{}{}^{}\xi _{}^{\dot{\alpha }_1^{}\dot{\alpha }_2^{}\mathrm{}\dot{\alpha }_r^{}}=\sigma _{\dot{\alpha }_1}^{\dot{\alpha }_1^{}}\sigma _{\dot{\alpha }_2}^{\dot{\alpha }_2^{}}\mathrm{}\sigma _{\dot{\alpha }_r}^{\dot{\alpha }_r^{}}\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_1\dot{\alpha }_2\mathrm{}\dot{\alpha }_r}.$$
(4.25)
A representation (4.25) is called a dotted spintensor representation of the proper Lorentz group of the rank $`r`$.

In general case we have a tensor product of $`k`$ algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`r`$ algebras $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$:

$$\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}$$

which induces a spinspace

$$\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}$$

with the vectors

$$\xi ^{\alpha _1\alpha _2\mathrm{}\alpha _k\dot{\alpha }_1\dot{\alpha }_2\mathrm{}\dot{\alpha }_r}=\xi ^{\alpha _1}\xi ^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}\xi ^{\alpha _k}\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_1}\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_2}\mathrm{}\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_r}.$$
(4.26)
In this case we have a natural unification of the representations (4.19) and (4.25):

$${}_{}{}^{}\xi _{}^{\alpha _1^{}\alpha _2^{}\mathrm{}\alpha _k^{}\dot{\alpha }_1^{}\dot{\alpha }_2^{}\mathrm{}\dot{\alpha }_r^{}}=\sigma _{\alpha _1}^{\alpha _1^{}}\sigma _{\alpha _2}^{\alpha _2^{}}\mathrm{}\sigma _{\alpha _k}^{\alpha _k^{}}\sigma _{\dot{\alpha }_1}^{\dot{\alpha }_1^{}}\sigma _{\dot{\alpha }_2}^{\dot{\alpha }_2^{}}\mathrm{}\sigma _{\dot{\alpha }_r}^{\dot{\alpha }_r^{}}\xi ^{\alpha _1\alpha _2\mathrm{}\alpha _k\dot{\alpha }_1\dot{\alpha }_2\mathrm{}\dot{\alpha }_r}.$$
(4.27)
So, a representation (4.27) is called a spintensor representation of the proper Lorentz group of the rank $`(k,r)`$.

In general case, the representations defining by the formulas (4.19), (4.25) and (4.27), are reducible, that is there exists possibility of decomposition of the initial spinspace $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$ (correspondingly, spinspaces $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}`$ and $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}`$) into a direct sum of invariant (with respect to transformations of the group $`𝔊_+`$) spinspaces $`\mathrm{𝕊}_\mathrm{}^\nu _{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕊}_\mathrm{}^\nu _{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}_\mathrm{}^\nu _{\mathrm{}}`$, where $`\nu _1+\nu _2+\mathrm{}+\nu _s=k+r`$.

Further, an important notion of the physical field is closely related with finite–dimensional representations of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$. In accordance with Wigner interpretation , an elementary particle is described by some irreducible finite–dimensional representation of the Poincaré group. The double covering of the proper Poincaré group is isomorphic to a semidirect product $`SL(2;\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕋}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, or $`\mathrm{𝐒𝐩𝐢𝐧}_+(1,3)T(4)`$, where $`T(4)`$ is the subgroup of four–dimensional translations. Let $`\psi (x)`$ be a physical field, then at the transformations $`(a,\mathrm{\Lambda })`$ of the proper Poincaré group the field $`\psi (x)`$ is transformed by a following rule

$$\psi _m^{}u(x)=\underset{\nu }{}_{\mu \nu }(\sigma )\psi _\nu (\mathrm{\Lambda }^1(xa)),$$
(4.28)
where $`aT(4)`$, $`\sigma 𝔊_+`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is a Lorentz transformation, and $`_{\mu \nu }`$ is a representation of the group $`𝔊_+`$ in the space $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$. Since the group $`T(4)`$ is Abelian, then all its representations are one–dimensional. Thus, all the finite–dimensional representations of the proper Poincaré group in essence are equivalent to the representations $``$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$. If the representation $``$ is reducible, then the space $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$ is decomposed into a direct sum of irreducible subspaces, that is, it is possible to choose in $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$ such a basis, in which all the matrices $`_{\mu \nu }`$ take a block–diagonal form. Then the field $`\psi (x)`$ is reduced to some number of the fields corresponding to obtained irreducible representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$, each of which is transformed independently from the other, and the field $`\psi (x)`$ in this case is a collection of the fields with more simple structure. It is obvious that these more simple fields correspond to irreducible representations $``$. As known , a system of irreducible finite–dimensional representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$ is realized in the space $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(k,r)}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$ of symmetric spintensors. The dimensionality of $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(k,r)}`$ is equal to $`(k+1)(r+1)`$. A representation of the group $`𝔊_+`$ by such spintensors is irreducible and denoted by the symbol $`^{j,j^{}}`$, where $`2j=k,\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}2}j^{}=r`$, numbers $`j`$ and $`j^{}`$ defining the spin are integer or half–integer. Then the field $`\psi (x)`$ transforming by the formula (4.28) is, in general case, a field of the type $`(j,j^{})`$. In such a way, all the physical fields are reduced to the fields of this type, the mathematical structure of which requires a knowledge of representation matrices $`_{\mu \nu }^{j,j^{}}`$. As a rule, in physics there are two basic types of the fields:
1) The field of type $`(j,0)`$. The structure of this field (or the field $`(0,j)`$) is described by the representation $`^{j,0}`$ ($`^{0,j^{}}`$), which is realized in the space $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(k,0)}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}`$ ($`\mathrm{Sym}_{(0,r)}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}`$). At this point in accordance with Theorem 4.1 the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ (correspondingly, $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$) is associated with the field of type $`(j,0)`$ (correspondingly, $`(0,j^{})`$) The trivial case $`j=0`$ corresponds to a Pauli–Weisskopf field describing the scalar particles. In other particular case, when $`j=j^{}=1/2`$ we have a Weyl field describing the neutrino. At this point the antineutrino is described by a fundamental representation $`^{1/2,0}=\sigma `$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$ and the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ related with this representation (Theorem 4.1). Correspondingly, the neutrino is described by a conjugated representation $`^{0,1/2}`$ and the algebra $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$. In relation with this, it is hardly too much to say that the neutrino field is a more fundamental physical field, that is a kind of the basic building block, from which other physical fields built by means of direct sum or tensor product.
2) The field of type $`(j,0)(0,j)`$. The structure of this field admits a space inversion and, therefore, in accordance with a Wigner’s doubling  is described by a representation $`^{j,0}^{0,j}`$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$. This representation is realized in the space $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(k,k)}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$. In accordance with (4.23) the Clifford algebra related with this representation is a direct sum $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$. In the simplest case $`j=1/2`$ we have bispinor (electron–positron) Dirac field $`(1/2,0)(0,1/2)`$ with the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$. It should be noted that the Dirac algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ considered as a tensor product $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ (or $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$) in accordance with (4.18) (or (4.26)) gives rise to spintensors $`\xi ^{\alpha _1\alpha _2}`$ (or $`\xi ^{\alpha _1\dot{\alpha }_1}`$), but it contradicts with the usual definition of the Dirac bispinor as a pair $`(\xi ^{\alpha _1},\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_1})`$. Therefore, the Clifford algebra associated with the Dirac field is $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$, and a spinspace of this sum in virtue of unique decomposition $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}`$ ($`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a spinspace of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$) allows to define $`\gamma `$–matrices in the Weyl basis. The case $`j=1`$ corresponds to Maxwell fields $`(1,0)`$ and $`(0,1)`$ with the algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$. At this point the electromagnetic field is defined by complex linear combinations $`𝐅=𝐄i𝐇,\stackrel{}{𝐅}=𝐄+i𝐇`$ (Helmholtz representation). Besides, the algebra related with Maxwell field is a tensor product of the two algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ describing the neutrino fields. In this connection it is of interest to recall a neutrino theory of light was proposed by de Broglie and Jordan . In the de Broglie–Jordan neutrino theory of light electromagnetic field is constructed from the two neutrino fields (for more details and related papers see ). Traditionally, physicists attempt to describe electromagnetic field in the framework of $`(1,0)(0,1)`$ representation (see old works  and recent developments based on the Joos–Weinberg formalism  and its relation with a Bargmann–Wightman–Wigner type quantum field theory ). However, Weinberg’s equations (or Weinberg–like equations) for electromagnetic field obtained within the subspace $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(k,r)}`$ with dimension $`2(2j+1)`$ have acausal (tachionic) solutions . Electromagnetic field in terms of a quotient representation $`(1,0)(0,1)`$ in the full representation space $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$ will be considered in separate paper.

In this connection it should be noted two important circumstances related with irreducible representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$ and complex Clifford algebras associated with these representations. The first circumstance relates with the Wigner interpretation of an elementary particle. Namely, a relation between finite–dimensional representations of the proper Lorentz group and comlex Clifford algebras (Theorem 4.1) allows to essentially extend the Wigner interpretation by means of the use of an extraordinary rich and universal structure of the Clifford algebras at the study of space–time (and also intrinsic) symmetries of elementary particles. The second circumstance relates with the spin. Usually, the Clifford algebra is associated with a half–integer spin corresponding to fermionic fields, so–called ‘matter fields’, whilst the fields with an integer spin (bosonic fields) are eliminated from an algebraic description. However, such a non–symmetric situation is invalid, since the fields with integer spin have a natural description in terms of spintensor representations of the proper Lorentz group with even rank and algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ associated with these representations, where $`k`$ is even (for example, Maxwell field). In this connection it should be noted that generalized statistics in terms of Clifford algebras have been recently proposed by Finkelstein and collaborators .

As known, complex Clifford algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ are modulo 2 periodic  and, therefore, there exist two types of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$: $`n0(mod2)`$ and $`n1(mod2)`$. Let us consider these two types in the form of following series:

$$\begin{array}{cccccccccc}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}& & \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}& & \mathrm{}& & \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}& & \mathrm{}& \\ & \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}& & \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}& & \mathrm{}& & \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}& & \mathrm{}\end{array}$$

Let us consider the decomposition $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ in more details. This decomposition may be represented by a following scheme

Here central idempotents

$$\lambda ^+=\frac{1+\epsilon \text{e}_1\text{e}_2\mathrm{}\text{e}_{2k+1}}{2},\lambda ^{}=\frac{1\epsilon \text{e}_1\text{e}_2\mathrm{}\text{e}_{2k+1}}{2},$$

where

$$\epsilon =\{\begin{array}{cc}1,\hfill & \text{if }k0(mod2),\hfill \\ i,\hfill & \text{if }k1(mod2)\hfill \end{array}$$

satisfy the relations $`(\lambda ^+)^2=\lambda ^+`$, $`(\lambda ^{})^2=\lambda ^{}`$, $`\lambda ^+\lambda ^{}=0`$. Thus, we have a decomposition of the initial algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into a direct sum of two mutually annihilating simple ideals: $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\frac{\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\epsilon \omega \mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\frac{\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\epsilon \omega \mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Each of the ideals $`\lambda ^\pm \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ is isomorphic to the subalgebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. In accordance with Chisholm and Farwell  the idempotents $`\lambda ^+`$ and $`\lambda ^{}`$ can be identified with helicity projection operators which distinguish left and right handed spinors. The Chisholm–Farwell notation for $`\lambda ^\pm `$ we will widely use below.Therefore, in virtue of the isomorphism $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ and the homomorphic mapping $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ the second series (type $`n1(mod2)`$) is replaced by a sequence of the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$, that is,

$$\begin{array}{cccccccccc}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}& & \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}& & \mathrm{}& & \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}& & \mathrm{}& \\ & {}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}& & {}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}& & \mathrm{}& & {}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}& & \mathrm{}\end{array}$$

Representations corresponded these two series of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ ($`n0,1(mod2)`$) form a full system $`𝔐=𝔐^0𝔐^1`$ of finite–dimensional representations of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$.

All the physical fields used in quantum field theory and related representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$ $`^{j,0}(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}`$, $`^{j,0}^{0,j}(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$) are constructed from the upper series (type $`n0(mod2)`$). Whilst the lower series (type $`n1(mod2)`$) is not considered in physics as yet. In accordance with Theorem 4.1 we have an isomorphism $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}{}_{}{}^{\chi }\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}^{}`$. Therefore, the quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$ induces a spinspace $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}^{}`$ that is a space of a quotient representation $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{}^{j,0}`$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$. Analogously, a quotient representation $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{}^{0,j^{}}`$ is realised in the space $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{2^r}^{}`$ which induced by the quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$. In general case, we have a quotient representation $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{}^{j,j^{}}`$ defined by a tensor product $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$. Thus, the complex type $`n1(mod2)`$ corresponds to a full system of irreducible finite–dimensional quotient representations $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{}^{j,j^{}}`$ of the proper Lorentz group. Therefore, until now in physics only one half ($`n0(mod2)`$) of all possible finite–dimensional representations of the Lorentz group has been used.

Let us consider now a full system of physical fields with different types. First of all, the field

$$(j,0)=(1/2,0)(1/2,0)\mathrm{}(1/2,0)$$
(4.29)
in accordance with Theorem 4.1 is a tensor product of the $`k`$ fields of type $`(1/2,0)`$, each of which corresponds to the fundamental representation $`^{1/2,0}=\sigma `$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$ and the biquaternion algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ related with fundamental representation. In its turn, the field

$$(0,j^{})=(0,1/2)(0,1/2)\mathrm{}(0,1/2)$$
(4.30)
is a tensor product of the $`r`$ fundamental fields of the type $`(0,1/2)`$, each of which corresponds to a conjugated representation $`^{0,1/2}=\dot{\sigma }`$ and the conjugated algebra $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ obtained in accordance with (4.21)–(4.22) under action of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ (space inversion), or under action of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ (time reversal). The numbers $`j`$ and $`j^{}`$ are integer (bosonic fields) if in the products (4.29) and (4.30) there are $`k,r0(mod2)`$ $`(1/2,0)`$ (or $`(0,1/2)`$) factors, and the numbers $`j`$ and $`j^{}`$ are half–integer (fermionic fields) if in the products (4.29)–(4.30) there are $`k,r1(mod2)`$ factors. Further, the field

$$(j,j^{})=(1/2,0)(1/2,0)\mathrm{}(1/2,0)(0,1/2)(0,1/2)\mathrm{}(0,1/2)$$
(4.31)
is a tensor product of the fields (4.29) and (4.30). As consequence of the doubling (4.23) we have the field of type $`(j,0)(0,j)`$:

$$(j,0)(0,j)=(1/2,0)(1/2,0)\mathrm{}(1/2,0)(0,1/2)(0,1/2)\mathrm{}(0,1/2)$$

In general, all the fields (4.29)–(4.31) describe multiparticle states. The decompositions of these multiparticle states into single states provided in the full representation space $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$, where $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(k,r)}`$ and $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(k,k)}`$ with dimensions $`(2j+1)(2j^{}+1)`$ and $`2(2j+1)`$ are subspaces of $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$ (for example, the Clebsh–Gordan decomposition of two spin 1/2 particles into singlet and triplet: $`(1/2,1/2)=(1/2,0)(0,1/2)=(0,0)(1,0)`$). In the papers  a multiparticle state is described in the framework of a tensor product $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}C\mathrm{}_{3,0}\mathrm{}C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$. It is easy to see that in virtue of the isomorphism $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ the tensor product of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$ is isomorphic to the product (4.12). Therefore, the Holland approach naturally incorporates into a more general scheme considered here. Finally, for the type $`n1(mod2)`$ we have quotient representations $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{}^{j,j^{}}`$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$. The physical fields corresponding to the quotient representations are constructed like the fields (4.29)-(4.31). Due to the decomposition $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ ($`n1(mod2)`$) we have a field

$$(j,0)(j,0)=(1/2,0)(1/2,0)\mathrm{}(1/2,0)(1/2,0)(1/2,0)\mathrm{}(1/2,0),$$
(4.32)
and also we have fields $`(0,j)(0,j)`$ and $`(j,0)(0,j)`$ if the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$ admit space inversion or time reversal. The field

$$(j,0)(0,j)=(1/2,0)(1/2,0)\mathrm{}(1/2,0)(0,1/2)(0,1/2)\mathrm{}(0,1/2)$$
(4.33)
is analogous to the field $`(j,0)(0,j)`$, but, in general, the field $`(j,0)(0,j)`$ has a quantity of violated discrete symmetries. An explicit form of the quotient representations and their relations with discrete symmetries will be explored in the following sections.

### 4.2. Discrete symmetries on the representation spaces of the Lorentz group

Since all the physical fields are defined in terms of finite–dimensional representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$, then a construction of the discrete symmetries (space inversion $`P`$, time reversal $`T`$ and combination $`PT`$) on the representation spaces of the Lorentz group has a primary importance.

In general case, according to Theorem 4.1 a space of the finite–dimensional representation of the group $`SL(2;\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ is a spinspace $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$, or a minimal left ideal of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Therefore, in the spinor representation the fundamental automorphisms of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ by virtue of the isomorphism $`\mathrm{Aut}(C\mathrm{})\{1,P,T,PT\}`$ induce discrete transformations on the representation spaces (spinspaces) of the Lorentz group.

###### Theorem 4.2.

1) The field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. The tensor products $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ of the Pauli algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ correspond to finite–dimensional representations $`^{l_0+l_11,0}`$, $`^{0,l_0l_1+1}`$, $`^{l_0+l_11,l_0l_1+1}`$ of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$, where $`(l_0,l_1)=(\frac{k}{2},\frac{k}{2}+1)`$, $`(l_0,l_1)=(\frac{r}{2},\frac{r}{2}+1)`$, $`(l_0,l_1)=(\frac{kr}{2},\frac{k+r}{2}+1)`$, and spinspaces $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}`$, $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}`$, $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}}`$ are representation spaces of the group $`𝔊_+`$, $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ ($`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$) is a fundamental representation of $`𝔊_+`$. Then in a spinor representation of the fundamental automorphisms of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ for the matrix $`𝖶`$ of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ (space inversion) and also for the matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ of the antiautomorphisms $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ (time reversal) and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ (full reflection) the following permutation relations with infinitesimal operators of the group $`𝔊_+`$ take place:

$`[𝖶,A_{23}]`$ $`=[𝖶,A_{13}]`$ $`=[𝖶,A_{12}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖶,B_1\}`$ $`=\{𝖶,B_2\}`$ $`=\{𝖶,B_3\}`$ $`=0`$ (4.34)
$`[𝖶,H_+]`$ $`=[𝖶,H_{}]`$ $`=[𝖶,H_3]`$ $`=0,\{𝖶,F_+\}`$ $`=\{𝖶,F_{}\}`$ $`=\{𝖶,F_3\}`$ $`=0.`$ (4.35)
$`[𝖤,A_{23}]`$ $`=[𝖤,A_{13}]`$ $`=[𝖤,A_{12}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,B_1\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,B_2\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,B_3\}`$ $`=0,`$ (4.36)
$`[𝖢,A_{23}]`$ $`=[𝖢,A_{13}]`$ $`=[𝖢,A_{12}]`$ $`=0,[𝖢,B_1]`$ $`=[𝖢,B_2]`$ $`=[𝖢,B_3]`$ $`=0,`$ (4.37)
$`[𝖤,H_+]`$ $`=[𝖤,H_{}]`$ $`=[𝖤,H_3]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,F_+\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,F_{}\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,F_3\}`$ $`=0,`$ (4.38)
$`[𝖢,H_+]`$ $`=[𝖢,H_{}]`$ $`=[𝖢,H_3]`$ $`=0,[𝖢,F_+]`$ $`=[𝖢,F_{}]`$ $`=[𝖢,F_3]`$ $`=0.`$ (4.39)
$`[𝖤,A_{23}]`$ $`=[𝖤,A_{13}]`$ $`=[𝖤,A_{12}]`$ $`=0,[𝖤,B_1]`$ $`=[𝖤,B_2]`$ $`=[𝖤,B_3]`$ $`=0,`$ (4.40)
$`[𝖢,A_{23}]`$ $`=[𝖢,A_{13}]`$ $`=[𝖢,A_{12}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,B_1\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,B_2]`$ $`=\{𝖢,B_3]`$ $`=0,`$ (4.41)
$`[𝖤,H_+]`$ $`=[𝖤,H_{}]`$ $`=[𝖤,H_3]`$ $`=0,[𝖤,F_+]`$ $`=[𝖤,F_{}]`$ $`=[𝖤,F_3]`$ $`=0,`$ (4.42)
$`[𝖢,H_+]`$ $`=[𝖢,H_{}]`$ $`=[𝖢,H_3]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,F_+\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,F_{}\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,F_3\}`$ $`=0.`$ (4.43)
$`[𝖤,A_{23}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,A_{13}\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,A_{12}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,B_1]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,B_2\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,B_3\}`$ $`=0,`$ (4.44)
$`[𝖢,A_{23}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,A_{13}\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,A_{12}\}`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,B_1\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,B_2]`$ $`=[𝖢,B_3]`$ $`=0.`$ (4.45)
$`[𝖤,A_{23}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,A_{13}\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,A_{12}\}`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,B_1\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,B_2]`$ $`=[𝖤,B_3]`$ $`=0,`$ (4.46)
$`[𝖢,A_{23}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,A_{13}\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,A_{12}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,B_1]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,B_2\}`$ $`=[𝖢,B_3\}`$ $`=0.`$ (4.47)
$`\{𝖤,A_{23}\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,A_{13}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,A_{12}]`$ $`=0,[𝖤,B_1]`$ $`=[𝖤,B_2]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,B_3\}`$ $`=0,`$ (4.48)
$`\{𝖢,A_{23}\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,A_{13}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,A_{12}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,B_1\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,B_2\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,B_3]`$ $`=0,`$ (4.49)
$`\{𝖤,H_+\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,H_{}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,H_3]`$ $`=0,[𝖤,F_+]`$ $`=[𝖤,F_{}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,F_3\}`$ $`=0,`$ (4.50)
$`\{𝖢,H_+\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,H_{}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,H_3]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,F_+\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,F_{}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,F_3]`$ $`=0.`$ (4.51)
$`\{𝖤,A_{23}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,A_{13}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,A_{12}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,B_1]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,B_2\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,B_3]`$ $`=0,`$ (4.52)
$`\{𝖢,A_{23}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,A_{13}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,A_{12}\}`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,B_1\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,B_2]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,B_3\}`$ $`=0.`$ (4.53)
$`\{𝖤,A_{23}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,A_{13}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,A_{12}\}`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,B_1\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,B_2]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,B_3\}`$ $`=0,`$ (4.54)
$`\{𝖢,A_{23}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,A_{13}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,A_{12}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,B_1]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,B_2\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,B_3]`$ $`=0.`$ (4.55)
$`\{𝖤,A_{23}\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,A_{13}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,A_{12}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,B_1\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,B_2\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,B_3]`$ $`=0,`$ (4.56)
$`\{𝖢,A_{23}\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,A_{13}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,A_{12}]`$ $`=0,[𝖢,B_1]`$ $`=[𝖢,B_2]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,B_3\}`$ $`=0,`$ (4.57)
$`\{𝖤,H_+\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,H_{}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,H_3]`$ $`=0,\{𝖤,F_+\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,F_{}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,F_3]`$ $`=0,`$ (4.58)
$`\{𝖢,H_+\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,H_{}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,H_3]`$ $`=0,[𝖢,F_+]`$ $`=[𝖢,F_{}]`$ $`=0,\{𝖢,F_3\}`$ $`=0.`$ (4.59)
where $`A_{23},A_{13},A_{12}`$ are infinitesimal operators of a subgroup of three–dimensional rotations, $`B_1,B_2,B_3`$ are infinitesimal operators of hyperbolic rotations.
2) The field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. The factorization $`C\mathrm{}_{s_i,t_j}C\mathrm{}_{s_i,t_j}\mathrm{}C\mathrm{}_{s_i,t_j}`$ of the real Clifford algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ corresponds to a real finite–dimensional representation of the group $`𝔊_+`$ with a pair $`(l_0,l_1)=(\frac{p+q}{4},0)`$, that is equivalent to a representation of the subgroup $`SO(3)`$ of three–dimensional rotations ($`B_1=B_2=B_3=0`$). Then there exist two classes of real representations $`_{0,2}^{l_0}`$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$ corresponding to the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with a division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq0,2(mod8)`$, and also there exist two classes of quaternionic representations $`_{4,6}^{l_0}`$ of $`𝔊_+`$ corresponding to the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with a ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq4,6(mod8)`$. For the real representations $`_{0,2}^{l_0}`$ operators of the discrete subgroup of $`𝔊_+`$ defining by the matrices $`𝖶,𝖤,𝖢`$ of the fundamental automorphisms of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with $`pq0,2(mod8)`$ are always commute with all the infinitesimal operators of the representation. In turn, for the quaternionic representations $`_{4,6}^{l_0}`$ following relations hold:

$$[𝖶,A_{23}]=[𝖶,A_{13}]=[𝖶,A_{12}]=0,[𝖶,H_+]=[𝖶,H_{}]=[𝖶,H_3]=0.$$
(4.60)
$`[𝖤,A_{23}]`$ $`=[𝖤,A_{13}]`$ $`=[𝖤,A_{12}]`$ $`=0,[𝖢,A_{23}]`$ $`=[𝖢,A_{13}]`$ $`=[𝖢,A_{12}]`$ $`=0,`$ (4.61)
$`[𝖤,H_+]`$ $`=[𝖤,H_{}]`$ $`=[𝖤,H_3]`$ $`=0,[𝖢,H_+]`$ $`=[𝖢,H_{}]`$ $`=[𝖢,H_3]`$ $`=0.`$ (4.62)
$$[𝖤,A_{23}]=0,\{𝖤,A_{13}\}=\{𝖤,A_{12}\}=0,[𝖢,A_{23}]=0,\{𝖢,A_{13}\}=\{𝖢,A_{12}\}=0.$$
(4.63)
$`\{𝖤,A_{23}\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,A_{13}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,A_{12}]=0,\{𝖢,A_{23}\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,A_{13}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,A_{12}]=0,`$ (4.64)
$`\{𝖤,H_+\}`$ $`=\{𝖤,H_{}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖤,H_3]=0,\{𝖢,H_+\}`$ $`=\{𝖢,H_{}\}`$ $`=0,[𝖢,H_3]=0.`$ (4.65)
$$\{𝖤,A_{23}\}=0,[𝖤,A_{13}]=0,\{𝖤,A_{12}\}=0,\{𝖢,A_{23}\}=0,[𝖢,A_{13}]=0,\{𝖢,A_{12}\}=0.$$
(4.66)
###### Proof.

1) Complex representations.
As noted previously, a full representation space of the finite–dimensional representation of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$ is defined in terms of the minimal left ideal of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Indeed, in virtue of an isomorphism

$$\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}$$
(4.67)
where $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is a Clifford algebra over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ with a division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq3,7(mod8)`$, we have for the minimal left ideal of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ an expression $`\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}`$, here

$$f=\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{\alpha _1})\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{\alpha _2})\mathrm{}\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \text{e}_{\alpha _t})$$

is a primitive idempotent of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ , and $`\text{e}_{\alpha _1},\text{e}_{\alpha _2},\mathrm{},\text{e}_{\alpha _t}`$ are commuting elements with square 1 of the canonical basis of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ generating a group of order $`2^t`$. The values of $`t`$ are defined by a formula $`t=qr_{qp}`$, where $`r_i`$ are the Radon–Hurwitz numbers , values of which form a cycle of the period 8: $`r_{i+8}=r_i+4`$. The dimension of the minimal left ideal $`\mathrm{𝕊}`$ is equal to $`2^k=2^{\frac{p+q1}{2}}`$. Therefore, for the each finite–dimensional representation of the group $`𝔊_+`$ we have $`2^t`$ copies of the spinspace $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}`$ (full representation space). It should be noted that not all these copies are equivalent to each other, some of them give rise to different reflection groups (see ).

In general, all the finite–dimensional representations of group $`𝔊_+`$ in the spinspace $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}`$ are reducible. Therefore, there exists a decomposition of the spinspace $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}`$ into a direct sum of invariant subspaces $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(k_j,0)}`$ of symmetric spintensors with dimensions $`(k_j+1)`$:

$$\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}$$

where $`k_1+k_2+\mathrm{}+k_s=k`$, $`k_j\mathrm{}`$. At this point there exists an orthonormal basis with matrices of the form

$$\left(\begin{array}{cccccccc}A_t^0& & & & & & & \\ & A_t^{1/2}& & & & & & \\ & & \mathrm{}& & & & & \\ & & & A_t^s& & & & \\ & & & & B_t^0& & & \\ & & & & & B_t^{1/2}& & \\ & & & & & & \mathrm{}& \\ & & & & & & & B_t^s\end{array}\right),$$

where for the matrices $`A_1^i,A_2^j,A_3^j,B_1^j,B_2^j,B_3^j`$ (matrices of the infinitesimal operators of $`𝔊_+`$) in accordance with Gel’fand–Naimark formulas

$$A_{23}\xi _{l,m}=\frac{i}{2}\sqrt{(l+m+1)(lm)}\xi _{l,m+1}\frac{i}{2}\sqrt{(l+m)(lm+1)}\xi _{l,m1},$$
(4.68)
$$A_{13}\xi _{l,m}=\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{(l+m)(lm+1)}\xi _{l,m1}\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{(l+m+1)(lm)}\xi _{l,m+1},$$
(4.69)
$$A_{12}\xi _{l,m}=im\xi _{l,m},$$
(4.70)
$$\begin{array}{c}B_1\xi _{l,m}=\frac{i}{2}C_l\sqrt{(lm)(lm1)}\xi _{l1,m+1}+\frac{i}{2}A_l\sqrt{(lm)(l+m+1)}\xi _{l,m+1}\hfill \\ \hfill \frac{i}{2}C_{l+1}\sqrt{(l+m+1)(l+m+2)}\xi _{l+1,m+1}+\frac{i}{2}C_l\sqrt{(l+m)(l+m1)}\xi _{l1,m1}+\\ \hfill \frac{i}{2}A_l\sqrt{(l+m)(lm+1)}\xi _{l,m1}+\frac{i}{2}C_{l+1}\sqrt{(lm+1)(lm+2)}\xi _{l+1,m1},\end{array}$$
(4.71)
$$\begin{array}{c}B_2\xi _{l,m}=\frac{1}{2}C_l\sqrt{(l+m)(l+m1)}\xi _{l1,m1}\frac{1}{2}A_l\sqrt{(l+m)(lm+1)}\xi _{l,m1}\hfill \\ \hfill \frac{1}{2}C_{l+1}\sqrt{(lm+1)(lm+2)}\xi _{l+1,m1}\frac{1}{2}C_l\sqrt{(lm)(lm1)}\xi _{l1,m+1}+\\ \hfill \frac{1}{2}A_l\sqrt{(lm)(l+m+1)}\xi _{l,m+1}\frac{1}{2}C_{l+1}\sqrt{(l+m+1)(l+m+2)}\xi _{l+1,m+1},\end{array}$$
(4.72)
$$B_3\xi _{l,m}=iC_l\sqrt{l^2m^2}\xi _{l1,m}+iA_lm\xi _{l,m}+iC_{l+1}\sqrt{(l+1)^2m^2}\xi _{l+1,m},$$
(4.73)
$$A_l=\frac{il_0l_1}{l(l+1)},C_l=\frac{i}{l}\sqrt{\frac{(l^2l_0^2)(l^2l_1^2)}{4l^21}}$$
(4.74)
$$m=l,l+1,\mathrm{},l1,l$$

$$l=l_0,l_0+1,\mathrm{}$$

we have

$$A_{23}^j=\frac{i}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cccccc}0& \alpha _{l_j+1}& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ \alpha _{l_j+1}& 0& \alpha _{l_j+2}& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ 0& \alpha _{l_j+2}& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ [2]6\\ [2]6\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& \alpha _{l_j}\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& \alpha _{l_j}& 0\end{array}\right]$$
(4.75)
$$A_{13}^j=\frac{1}{2}\left[\begin{array}{cccccc}0& \alpha _{l_j+1}& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ \alpha _{l_j+1}& 0& \alpha _{l_j+2}& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ 0& \alpha _{l_j+2}& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ [2]6\\ [2]6\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& \alpha _{l_j}\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& \alpha _{l_j}& 0\end{array}\right]$$
(4.76)
$$A_{12}^j=\left[\begin{array}{cccccc}il_j& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ 0& i(l_j1)& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& i(l_j2)& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ [2]6\\ [2]6\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& i(l_j1)& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& il_j\end{array}\right]$$
(4.77)
$$B_1^j=\frac{i}{2}A_j\left[\begin{array}{cccccc}0& \alpha _{l_j+1}& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ \alpha _{l_j+1}& 0& \alpha _{l_j+2}& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ 0& \alpha _{l_j+2}& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ [2]6\\ [2]6\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& \alpha _{l_j}\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& \alpha _{l_j}& 0\end{array}\right]$$
(4.78)
$$B_2^j=\frac{1}{2}A_j\left[\begin{array}{cccccc}0& \alpha _{l_j+1}& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ \alpha _{l_j+1}& 0& \alpha _{l_j+2}& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ 0& \alpha _{l_j+2}& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ [2]6\\ [2]6\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& \alpha _{l_j}\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& \alpha _{l_j}& 0\end{array}\right]$$
(4.79)
$$B_3^j=\frac{1}{2}A_j\left[\begin{array}{cccccc}il_j& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ 0& i(l_j1)& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& i(l_j2)& \mathrm{}& 0& 0\\ [2]6\\ [2]6\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& i(l_j1)& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& \mathrm{}& 0& il_j\end{array}\right]$$
(4.80)
where $`\alpha _m=\sqrt{(l_j+m)(l_jm+1)}`$. The formulas (4.68)–(4.74) define a finite–dimensional representation of the group $`𝔊_+`$ when $`l_1^2=(l_0+p)^2`$, $`p`$ is some natural number, $`l_0`$ is an integer or half–integer number, $`l_1`$ is an arbitrary complex number. In the case $`l_1^2(l_0+p)^2`$ we have an infinite–dimensional representation of $`𝔊_+`$. We will deal below only with the finite–dimensional representations, because these representations are most useful in physics.

The relation between the numbers $`l_0`$, $`l_1`$ and the number $`k`$ of the factors $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ in the product $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is given by a following formula

$$(l_0,l_1)=(\frac{k}{2},\frac{k}{2}+1),$$

whence it immediately follows that $`k=l_0+l_11`$. Thus, we have a complex representation $`^{l_0+l_11,0}`$ of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$ in the spinspace $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}}`$.

Let us calculate now infinitesimal operators of the fundamental representation $`^{1,0}`$ of $`𝔊_+`$. The representation $`^{1,0}`$ is defined by a pair $`(l_0,l_1)=(\frac{1}{2},\frac{3}{2})`$. In accordance with (4.68)–(4.74) from (4.75)–(4.80) we obtain

$`A_{23}^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& \alpha _{1/2}\\ \alpha _{1/2}& 0\end{array}\right]={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right],`$ (4.81)
$`A_{13}^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& \alpha _{1/2}\\ \alpha _{1/2}& 0\end{array}\right]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right],`$ (4.82)
$`A_{12}^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}i& 0\\ 0& i\end{array}\right],`$ (4.83)
$`B_1^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}A_{1/2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& \alpha _{1/2}\\ \alpha _{1/2}& 0\end{array}\right]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right],`$ (4.84)
$`B_2^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}A_{1/2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& \alpha _{1/2}\\ \alpha _{1/2}& 0\end{array}\right]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& i\\ i& 0\end{array}\right],`$ (4.85)
$`B_3^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}A_{1/2}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right]={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}1& 0\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right].`$ (4.86)
The operators (4.81)–(4.86) satisfy the relations

$`[A_{23},A_{13}]`$ $`=A_{12},`$ $`[A_{13},A_{12}]`$ $`=A_{23},[A_{12},A_{23}]`$ $`=A_{13},`$
$`[B_1,B_2]`$ $`=A_{12},`$ $`[B_2,B_3]`$ $`=A_{23},[B_3,B_1]`$ $`=A_{13},`$
$`[A_{23},B_1]`$ $`=0,`$ $`[A_{13},B_2]`$ $`=0,[A_{12},B_3]`$ $`=0,`$
$`[A_{23},B_2]`$ $`=B_3,`$ $`[A_{23},B_3]`$ $`=B_2,`$
$`[A_{13},B_3]`$ $`=B_1,`$ $`[A_{13},B_1]`$ $`=B_3,`$
$`[A_{12},B_1]`$ $`=B_2,`$ $`[A_{12},B_2]`$ $`=B_1.`$ (4.87)
From (4.84)–(4.86) it is easy to see that there is an equivalence between infinitesimal operators $`B_i^{1/2}`$ and Pauli matrices:

$$B_1^{1/2}=\frac{1}{2}\sigma _1,B_2^{1/2}=\frac{1}{2}\sigma _2,B_3^{1/2}=\frac{1}{2}\sigma _3.$$
(4.88)
In its turn, from (4.81)–(4.83) it follows

$$A_{23}^{1/2}=\frac{1}{2}\sigma _2\sigma _3,A_{13}^{1/2}=\frac{1}{2}\sigma _1\sigma _2,A_{12}^{1/2}=\frac{1}{2}\sigma _1\sigma _2.$$
(4.89)
It is obvious that this equivalence takes place also for high dimensions, that is, there exists an equivalence between infinitesimal operators (4.75)–(4.80) and tensor products of the Pauli matrices. In such a way, let us suppose that

$`A_{23}^j`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_a_b,`$ $`A_{13}^j`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_c_b,`$ $`A_{12}^j`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_c_a,`$ (4.90)
$`B_1^j`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_c,`$ $`B_2^j`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_a,`$ $`B_3^j`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_b,`$ (4.91)
where $`_i`$ ($`i=a,b,c`$) are $`k`$–dimensional matrices (the tensor products (4.6)) and $`c<a<b`$. It is easy to verify that the operators (4.90)–(4.91) satisfy the relations (4.87). Indeed, for the commutator $`[A_{23},A_{13}]`$ we obtain

$$\begin{array}{c}[A_{23},A_{13}]=A_{23}A_{13}A_{13}A_{23}=\frac{1}{4}_a_b_c_b\hfill \\ \hfill \frac{1}{4}_c_b_a_b=\frac{1}{4}_a_c+\frac{1}{4}_c_a=\frac{1}{2}_c_a=A_{12}\end{array}$$
(4.92)
and so on. Therefore, the operator set (4.90)–(4.91) isomorphically defines the set of infinitesimal operators of the group $`𝔊_+`$.

In accordance with Gel’fand–Yaglom approach  (see also ) an operation of space inversion $`P`$ commutes with all the operators $`A_{ik}`$ and anticommutes with all the operators $`B_i`$:

$`PA_{23}P^1`$ $`=A_{23},`$ $`PA_{13}P^1`$ $`=A_{13},`$ $`PA_{12}P^1`$ $`=A_{12},`$
$`PB_1P^1`$ $`=B_1,`$ $`PB_2P^1`$ $`=B_2,`$ $`PB_3P^1`$ $`=B_3.`$ (4.93)
Let us consider permutation conditions of the operators (4.90)–(4.91) with the matrix $`𝖶`$ of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ (space inversion). Since $`𝖶=_1_2\mathrm{}_n`$ is a volume element of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, then $`_a,_b,_c𝖶`$, $`_i^2=𝖨`$, $`𝖶^2=𝖨`$ at $`n0(mod4)`$ and $`𝖶^2=𝖨`$ at $`n2(mod4)`$. Therefore, for the operator $`A_{23}\frac{1}{2}_a_b`$ we obtain

$`A_{23}𝖶`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{a+b2}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_1_2\mathrm{}_{a1}_{a+1}\mathrm{}_{b1}_{b+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$
$`𝖶A_{23}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{2nab}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_1_2\mathrm{}_{a1}_{a+1}\mathrm{}_{b1}_{b+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$
whence it immediately follows a comparison $`a+b22nab(mod2)`$ or $`2(a+b)2(n+1)(mod2)`$. Thus, $`𝖶`$ and $`A_{23}`$ are always commute. It is easy to verify that analogous conditions take place for the operators $`A_{13},A_{12}`$ (except the case $`n=2`$). Further, for $`B_1\frac{1}{2}_c`$ we obtain

$`B_1𝖶`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{c1}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_1_2\mathrm{}_{c1}_{c+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$
$`𝖶B_1`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{nc}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_1_2\mathrm{}_{c1}_{c+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$
that is, $`c1nc(mod2)`$ or $`n2c1(mod2)`$. Therefore, the matrix $`𝖶`$ always anticommute with $`B_1`$ (correspondingly with $`B_1,B_2`$), since $`n0(mod2)`$. Thus, in full accordance with Gel’fand–Yaglom relations (4.93) we have<sup>1</sup><sup>1</sup>1Except the case of the fundamental representation $`^{1,0}`$ for which the automorphism group is $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\{\mathrm{𝕀}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕎}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝔼}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\}\mathrm{}\{\sigma _{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\sigma _{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\sigma _{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\sigma _{\mathrm{}}\}\mathrm{𝔻}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. It is easy to verify that the matrix $`𝖶\sigma _3`$ does not satisfy the relations (4.94). Therefore, in case of $`^{1,0}`$ we have an anomalous behaviour of the parity transformation $`𝖶P`$. This fact will be explained further within quotient representations.

$`𝖶A_{23}𝖶^1`$ $`=A_{23},`$ $`𝖶A_{13}𝖶^1`$ $`=A_{13},`$ $`𝖶A_{12}𝖶^1`$ $`=A_{12},`$
$`𝖶B_1𝖶^1`$ $`=B_1,`$ $`𝖶B_2𝖶^1`$ $`=B_2,`$ $`𝖶B_3𝖶^1`$ $`=B_3,`$ (4.94)
where the matrix $`𝖶`$ of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ is an element of an Abelian automorphism group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,+,+)`$ at $`n0(mod4)`$ and also a non–Abelian automorphism group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(,,)`$ at $`n2(mod4)`$, here $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a Gauss–Klein group and $`Q_4`$ is a quaternionic group (see Theorem 2.1 in Chapter 2).

Let us consider now permutation conditions of the operators (4.90)–(4.91) with the matrix $`𝖤`$ of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ (time reversal). Over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ the matrix $`𝖤`$ has two forms (Theorem 2.1): 1) $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$ at $`m1(mod2)`$, the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$; 2) $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_n`$ at $`m0(mod2)`$, the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Obviously, in both cases $`𝖶=_1_2\mathrm{}_m_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_n`$, where the matrices $`_i`$ are symmetric for $`1<im`$ and skewsymmetric for $`m<in`$.

So, let $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_n`$ be a matrix of $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$, $`m0(mod2)`$. Let us assume that $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$, then for the operator $`A_{23}\frac{1}{2}_a_b`$ we obtain

$`A_{23}𝖤`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{b+a2}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{a1}_{a+1}\mathrm{}_{b1}_{b+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$
$`𝖤A_{23}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{2mab}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{a1}_{a+1}\mathrm{}_{b1}_{b+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$ (4.95)
that is, $`b+a22mab(mod2)`$ and in this case the matrix $`𝖤`$ commutes with $`A_{23}`$ (correspondingly with $`A_{13},A_{12}`$). For the operator $`B_1`$ we have (analogously for $`B_2`$ and $`B_3`$):

$`B_1𝖤`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{c1}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{c1}_{c+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$
$`𝖤B_1`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{mc}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{c1}_{c+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$ (4.96)
that is, $`m2c1(mod2)`$ and, therefore, the matrix $`𝖤`$ in this case always anticommutes with $`B_i`$, since $`m0(mod2)`$. Thus,

$`𝖤A_{23}𝖤^1`$ $`=A_{23},`$ $`𝖤A_{13}𝖤^1`$ $`=A_{13},`$ $`𝖤A_{12}𝖤^1`$ $`=A_{12},`$
$`𝖤B_1𝖤^1`$ $`=B_1,`$ $`𝖤B_2𝖤^1`$ $`=B_2,`$ $`𝖤B_3𝖤^1`$ $`=B_3.`$ (4.97)
Let us assume now that $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$, then

$$A_{23}𝖤=(1)^{2m}𝖤A_{23},$$
(4.98)
that is, in this case $`𝖤`$ and $`A_{ik}`$ are always commute. For the hyperbolic operators we obtain

$$B_i𝖤=(1)^m𝖤B_i(i=1,2,3)$$
(4.99)
and since $`m0(mod2)`$, then $`𝖤`$ and $`B_i`$ are also commute. Therefore,

$$[𝖤,A_{23}]=0,[𝖤,A_{13}]=0,[𝖤,A_{12}]=0,[𝖤,B_1]=0,[𝖤,B_2]=0,[𝖤,B_3]=0.$$
(4.100)
Assume now that $`_a,_b𝖤`$ and $`_c𝖤`$. Then in accordance with (4.95) and (4.99) the matrix $`𝖤`$ commutes with $`A_{23}`$ and $`B_1`$, and according to (4.96) anticommutes with $`B_2`$ and $`B_3`$. For the operator $`A_{13}`$ we find

$`A_{13}𝖤`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{b1}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_c_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{b1}_{b+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$
$`𝖤A_{23}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{2mb}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_c_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{b1}_{b+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$ (4.101)
that is, $`2m2b1(mod2)`$ and, therefore, in this case $`𝖤`$ always anticommutes with $`A_{13}`$ and correspondingly with the operator $`A_{12}`$ which has the analogous structure. Thus,

$$[𝖤,A_{23}]=0,\{𝖤,A_{13}\}=0,\{𝖤,A_{12}\}=0,[𝖤,B_1]=0,\{𝖤,B_2\}=0,\{𝖤,B_3\}=0.$$
(4.102)
If we take $`_a𝖤`$, $`_b,_c𝖤`$, then for the operator $`A_{23}`$ it follows that

$`A_{23}𝖤`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{a2}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_b_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{a1}_{a+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$
$`𝖤A_{23}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{2ma1}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_b_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{a1}_{a+1}\mathrm{}_n,`$ (4.103)
that is, $`a22ma1(mod2)`$ or $`2m2a1(mod2)`$. Therefore, $`𝖤`$ anticommutes with $`A_{23}`$. Further, in virtue of (4.98) $`𝖤`$ commutes with $`A_{13}`$ and anticommutes with $`A_{12}`$ in virtue of (4.101). Correspondingly, from (4.99) and (4.96) it follows that $`𝖤`$ commutes with $`B_1,B_3`$ and anticommutes with $`B_2`$. Thus,

$$\{𝖤,A_{23}\}=0,[𝖤,A_{13}]=0,\{𝖤,A_{12}\}=0,[𝖤,B_1]=0,\{𝖤,B_2\}=0,[𝖤,B_3]=0.$$
(4.104)
Cyclic permutations of the indices in $`_i,_j𝖤`$, $`_k𝖤`$ and $`_i𝖤`$, $`_j,_k𝖤`$, $`i,j,k=\{a,b,c\}`$, give the following relations

$$\begin{array}{ccc}\{𝖤,A_{23}\}=0,\hfill & \{𝖤,A_{13}\}=0,\hfill & [𝖤,A_{12}]=0,\hfill \\ \{𝖤,B_1\}=0,\hfill & \{𝖤,B_2\}=0,\hfill & [𝖤,B_3]=0,\hfill \end{array}_a,_c𝖤,_b𝖤.$$
(4.105)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}\{𝖤,A_{23}\}=0,\hfill & [𝖤,A_{13}]=0,\hfill & \{𝖤,A_{12}\}=0,\hfill \\ \{𝖤,B_1\}=0,\hfill & [𝖤,B_2]=0,\hfill & \{𝖤,B_3\}=0,\hfill \end{array}_b,_c𝖤,_a𝖤.$$
(4.106)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}\{𝖤,A_{23}\}=0,\hfill & \{𝖤,A_{13}\}=0,\hfill & [𝖤,A_{12}]=0,\hfill \\ [𝖤,B_1]=0,\hfill & [𝖤,B_2]=0,\hfill & \{𝖤,B_3\}=0,\hfill \end{array}_b𝖤,_a,_c𝖤.$$
(4.107)
$$\begin{array}{ccc}[𝖤,A_{23}]=0,\hfill & \{𝖤,A_{13}\}=0,\hfill & \{𝖤,A_{12}\}=0,\hfill \\ \{𝖤,B_1\}=0,\hfill & [𝖤,B_2]=0,\hfill & [𝖤,B_3]=0,\hfill \end{array}_c𝖤,_a,_b𝖤.$$
(4.108)
Let us consider now the matrix $`𝖤`$ of the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. In this case $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, $`m1(mod2)`$. At $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$ from (4.95) it follows that $`2(a+b)2(m+1)(mod2)`$, therefore, in this case $`𝖤`$ always commutes with $`A_{ik}`$. In its turn, from (4.96) it follows that $`𝖤`$ always commutes with $`B_i`$, since $`m1(mod2)`$. Thus, we have the relations (4.100). At $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$ (except the cases $`n=2`$ and $`n=4`$) from (4.98) it follows that $`𝖤`$ always commutes with $`A_{ik}`$, and from (4.99) it follows that $`𝖤`$ always anticommutes with $`B_i`$. Therefore, for the case $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$ we have the relations (4.97). Analogously, at $`_a,_b𝖤`$, $`_c𝖤`$ in accordance with (4.95) and (4.96) $`𝖤`$ commutes with $`A_{23}`$ and $`B_1,B_3`$, and in accordance with (4.101) and (4.99) anticommutes with $`A_{13},A_{12}`$ and $`B_1`$. Therefore, for this case we have the relations (4.108). At $`_a𝖤`$, $`_b,_c𝖤`$ from (4.103) it follows that $`𝖤`$ anticommutes with $`A_{23}`$. In virtue of (4.98) $`𝖤`$ commutes with $`A_{13}`$ and anticommutes with $`A_{12}`$ in virtue of (4.101). Correspondingly, from (4.99) and (4.96) it follows that $`𝖤`$ anticommutes with $`B_1,B_3`$ and commutes with $`B_2`$. Therefore, for the case $`_a𝖤`$, $`_b,_c𝖤`$ we have the relations (4.106). Further, cyclic permutations of the indices in $`_i,_j𝖤`$, $`_k𝖤`$ and $`_i𝖤`$, $`_j,_k𝖤`$, $`i,j,k=\{a,b,c\}`$, give for $`_a,_c𝖤`$, $`_b𝖤`$ the relations (4.107), for $`_b,_c𝖤`$, $`_a𝖤`$ the relations (4.104), for $`_b𝖤`$, $`_a,_c𝖤`$ the relations (4.105) and for $`_c𝖤`$, $`_a,_b𝖤`$ the relations (4.102).

Let us consider now the permutation conditions of the operators (4.90)–(4.91) with the matrix $`𝖢`$ of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ (full reflection). Over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ the matrix $`𝖢`$ has two different forms (Theorem 2.1): 1) $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$ at $`m0(mod2)`$, the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$; 2) $`𝖢=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_n`$ at $`m1(mod2)`$, the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. So, let $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$ be a matrix of $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, $`m1(mod2)`$, then by analogy with the matrix $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_n`$ of $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$, $`m0(mod2)`$, we have for $`𝖢`$ the relations of the form (4.97)–(4.108). In its turn, the matrix $`𝖢=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_n`$ is analogous to $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, $`m1(mod2)`$, therefore, in this case we have also the relations (4.97)–(4.108) for $`𝖢`$.

Now we have all possible combinations of permutation relations between the matrices of infinitesimal operators (4.90)–(4.91) of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$ and matrices of the fundamental automorphisms of the complex Clifford algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ associated with the complex representation $`^{l_0+l_11,0}`$ of $`𝔊_+`$. It is obvious that the relations (4.94) take place for any representation $`^{l_0+l_11,0}`$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$. Further, if $`^{l_0+l_11,0}`$ with $`2(l_0+l_11)0(mod4)`$ and if $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_n`$, $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, $`m0(mod2)`$, then at $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$ ($`_a,_b,_c𝖢`$) we have the relations (4.97) for $`𝖤`$ and the relations of the form (4.100) for $`𝖢`$ and, therefore, we have the relations (4.36) and (4.37) of the present Theorem. Correspondingly, at $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$ ($`_a,_b,_c𝖢`$) we have the relations (4.100) for $`𝖤`$ and the relations of the form (4.97) for $`𝖢`$, that is, the relations (4.40) and (4.41) of Theorem. At $`_a,_b𝖤`$, $`_c𝖤`$ ($`_a,_b𝖢`$, $`_c𝖢`$) we obtain the relations (4.102) for $`𝖤`$ and the relations of the form (4.108) for $`𝖢`$ ((4.44)–(4.45) in Theorem) and so on. Analogously, if $`^{l_0+l_11,0}`$ with $`2(l_0+l_11)2(mod4)`$ and if $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$, $`𝖢=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_n`$, $`m1(mod2)`$, then at $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$ ($`_a,_b,_c𝖢`$) we have the relations (4.100) for $`𝖤`$ and the relations of the form (4.97) for $`𝖢`$ (relations (4.37) and (4.36) in Theorem) and so on.

Further, let us consider the following combinations of $`A_{ik}`$ and $`B_i`$ (rising and lowering operators):

$`H_+`$ $`=iA_{23}A_{13},`$ $`H_{}`$ $`=iA_{23}+A_{13},`$ $`H_3`$ $`=iA_{13},`$
$`F_+`$ $`=iB_1B_2,`$ $`F_{}`$ $`=iB_1+B_2,`$ $`F_3`$ $`=iB_3,`$ (4.109)
satisfying in virtue of (4.87) the relations

$$[H_+,H_3]=H_+,[H_{},H_3]=H_{},[H_+,H_{}]=2H_3,$$

$$[H_+,F_+]=[H_{},F_{}]=[H_3,F_3]=0,$$

$$[F_+,F_3]=H_+,[F_{},F_3]=H_{},[F_+,F_{}]=2H_3,$$

$$[H_+,F_3]=F_+,[H_{},F_3]=F_{},$$

$$[H_{},F_+]=[H_+,F_{}]=2F_3,$$

$$[F_+,H_3]=F_+,[F_{},H_3]=F_{}.$$
(4.110)
It is easy to see that for $`𝖶`$ from (4.94) and (4.109) we have always the relations (4.34). Further, for $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ at $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$ from (4.97) and (4.100) in virtue of (4.109) it follow the relations (4.38) and (4.39). Analogously, at $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$ from (4.100) and (4.97) we obtain the relations (4.42) and (4.43). In contrast with this, at $`_a,_b𝖤`$, $`_c𝖤`$ the combinations (4.102) and (4.108) do not form permutation relations with operators $`H_{+,,3}`$ and $`F_{+,,3}`$, since $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ commute with $`A_{23}`$ and anticommute with $`A_{13}`$, and $`B_1`$ commutes with $`𝖢`$ and anticommutes with $`𝖤`$ (inverse relations take place for $`B_2`$). Other two relations (4.56)–(4.59) and (4.48)–(4.51) for $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ correspond to $`_a,_c𝖤`$, $`_b𝖤`$ and $`_b𝖤`$, $`_a,_c𝖤`$. It is easy to see that in such a way for the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ we obtain the relations (4.42)–(4.43), (4.38)–(4.39), (4.56)–(4.59) and (4.48)–(4.51) correspondingly for $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$, $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$, $`_a,_c𝖤`$, $`_b𝖤`$ and $`_b𝖤`$, $`_a,_c𝖤`$.

In accordance with  a representation conjugated to $`^{l_0+l_11,0}`$ is defined by a pair

$$(l_0,l_1)=(\frac{r}{2},\frac{r}{2}+1),$$

that is, this representation has a form $`^{0,l_0l_1+1}`$. In its turn, a representation conjugated to fundamental representation $`^{1,0}`$ is $`^{0,1}`$. Let us find infinitesimal operators of the representation $`^{0,1}`$. At $`l_0=1/2`$ and $`l_1=3/2`$ from (4.68)–(4.74) and (4.75)–(4.80) we obtain

$`A_{23}^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right],`$ $`A_{13}^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right],`$ $`A_{12}^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}i& 0\\ 0& i\end{array}\right],`$
$`B_1^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& 1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right],`$ $`B_2^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}0& i\\ i& 0\end{array}\right],`$ $`B_3^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\left[\begin{array}{cc}i& 0\\ 0& i\end{array}\right].`$
Or

$`A_{23}^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma _2\sigma _3,`$ $`A_{13}^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma _1\sigma _3,`$ $`A_{12}^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma _1\sigma _2,`$
$`B_1^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma _1,`$ $`B_2^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma _2,`$ $`B_3^{1/2}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma _3.`$ (4.111)
It is easy to see that operators (4.111) differ from (4.88)–(4.89) only in the sign at the operators $`B_i`$ of the hyperbolic rotations. This result is a direct consequence of the well–known definition of the group $`SL(2;\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ as a complexification of the special unimodular group $`SU(2)`$ (see ). Indeed, the group $`SL(2;\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ has six parameters $`a_1,a_2,a_3,ia_1,ia_2,ia_3`$, where $`a_1,a_2,a_3SU(2)`$. It is easy to verify that operators (4.111) satisfy the relations (4.87). Therefore, as in case of the the representation $`^{l_0+l_11,0}`$ infinitesimal operators of the conjugated representation $`^{0,l_0l_1+1}`$ are defined as follows

$`A_{23}^j^{}`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_a_b,`$ $`A_{13}^j^{}`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_c_b,`$ $`A_{12}^j^{}`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_c_a,`$
$`B_1^j^{}`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_c,`$ $`B_2^j^{}`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_a,`$ $`B_3^j^{}`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}_b,`$ (4.112)
where $`_a,_b,_c`$ are tensor products of the form (4.6). It is not difficult to verify that operators (4.112) satisfy the relations (4.87), and their linear combinations $`H_{+,,3}`$, $`F_{+,,3}`$ satisfy the relations (4.110). Since the structure of the operators (4.112) is analogous to the structure of the operators (4.90)–(4.91), then all the permutation conditions between the operators of discrete symmetries and operators (4.90)–(4.91) of the representation $`^{l_0+l_11,0}`$ are valid also for the conjugated representation $`^{0,l_0l_1+1}`$ and, obviously, for a representation $`^{l_0+l_11,l_0l_1+1}`$.
2) Real representations.
As known , if an irreducible representation of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$ is defined by the pair $`(l_0,l_1)`$, then a conjugated representation is also irreducible and defined by a pair $`\pm (l_0,l_1)`$. Hence it follows that the irreducible representation is equivalent to its conjugated representation only in case when this representation is defined by a pair $`(0,l_1)`$ or $`(l_0,0)`$, that is, either of the two numbers $`l_0`$ and $`l_1`$ is equal to zero. We assume that $`l_1=0`$. In its turn, for the complex Clifford algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ ($`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$) associated with the representation $`^{l_0+l_11,0}(^{0,l_0l_1+1})`$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$ the equivalence of the representation to its conjugated representation induces a relation $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$, which, obviously, is fulfilled only in case when the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ is reduced into its real subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ ($`p+q=n`$). Thus, a restriction of the complex representation $`^{l_0+l_11,0}`$ (or $`^{0,l_0l_1+1}`$) of the group $`𝔊_+`$ onto a real representation, $`(l_0,l_1)(l_0,0)`$, induces a restriction $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Further, over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ at $`p+q0(mod2)`$ there are four types of real algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$: two types $`pq0,2(mod8)`$ with a real division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ and two types $`pq4,6(mod8)`$ with a quaternionic division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. Thus, we have four classes of the real representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$:

$`_0^{l_0}`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q},pq0(mod8),\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$
$`_2^{l_0}`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q},pq2(mod8),\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$
$`_4^{l_0}`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q},pq4(mod8),\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$
$`_6^{l_0}`$ $``$ $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q},pq6(mod8),\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ (4.113)
We will call the representations $`_4^{l_0}`$ and $`_6^{l_0}`$ are quaternionic representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$. It is not difficult to see that for the real representations with the pair $`(l_0,0)`$ all the coefficients $`A_l=il_0l_1/l(l+1)`$ are equal to zero, since $`l_1=0`$. Therefore, all the infinitesimal operators $`B_1^j,B_2^j,B_3^j`$ (see formulas (4.78)–(4.80)) of hyperbolic rotations are also equal to zero. Hence it follows that the restriction $`(l_0,l_1)(l_0,0)`$ induces a restriction of the group $`𝔊_+`$ onto its subgroup $`SO(3)`$ of three–dimensional rotations. Thus, real representations with the pair $`(l_0,0)`$ are representations of the subgroup $`SO(3)`$. This result directly follows from the complexification of $`SU(2)`$ which is equivalent to $`SL(2;\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. Indeed, the parameters $`a_1,a_2,a_3`$ compose a real part of $`SL(2;\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ which under complex conjugation remain unaltered, whereas the parameters $`\pm ia_1,\pm ia_2,\pm ia_3`$ of the complex part of $`SL(2;\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ under complex conjugation are mutually annihilate for the representations with the pairs $`(l_0,l_1)`$ and $`\pm (l_0,l_1)`$.

Let us find a relation of the number $`l_0`$ with dimension of the real algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. If $`p+q0(mod2)`$ and $`\omega ^2=\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}p+q}^2=1`$, then $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is called positive ($`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}>0`$ at $`pq0,4(mod8)`$) and correspondingly negative if $`\omega ^2=1`$ ($`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}<0`$ at $`pq2,6(mod8)`$). Further, in accordance with Karoubi Theorem \[96, Prop. 3.16\] it follows that if $`C\mathrm{}(V,Q)>0`$, and $`dimV`$ is even, then $`C\mathrm{}(VV^{},QQ^{})C\mathrm{}(V,Q)C\mathrm{}(V^{},Q^{})`$, and also if $`C\mathrm{}(V,Q)<0`$, and $`dimV`$ is even, then $`C\mathrm{}(VV^{},QQ^{})C\mathrm{}(V,Q)C\mathrm{}(V^{},Q^{})`$, where $`V`$ is a vector space associated with $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, $`Q`$ is a quadratic form of $`V`$. Using the Karoubi Theorem we obtain for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ a following factorization

$$C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\underset{r\text{times}}{\underset{}{C\mathrm{}_{s_i,t_j}C\mathrm{}_{s_i,t_j}\mathrm{}C\mathrm{}_{s_i,t_j}}}$$
(4.114)
where $`s_i,t_j\{0,1,2\}`$. For example, there are two different factorizations $`C\mathrm{}_{1,1}C\mathrm{}_{0,2}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{1,1}C\mathrm{}_{2,0}`$ for the spacetime algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ and Majorana algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,1}`$. It is obvious that $`l_0=r/2`$ and $`n=2r=p+q=4l_0`$, therefore, $`l_0=(p+q)/4`$.

So, we begin with the representation of the class $`_0^{l_0}`$. In accordance with Theorem 2.3 (see Chapter 2) for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ of the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ a matrix of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ has a form $`𝖶=_1_2\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ and $`𝖶^2=𝖨`$. It is obvious that for $`_a^2=_b^2=_c^2=𝖨`$ permutation conditions of the matrix $`𝖶`$ with $`A_{ik}`$ are analogous to (4.94), that is, $`𝖶`$ always commutes with the operators $`A_{ik}`$ of the subgroup $`SO(3)`$. It is sufficient to consider permutation conditions of $`𝖶`$ with the operators $`A_{ik}`$ of $`SO(3)`$ only, since $`B_i=0`$ for the real representations. In this case the relations (4.87) take a form

$$[A_{23},A_{13}]=A_{12},[A_{13},A_{12}]=A_{23},[A_{12},A_{23}]=A_{13}.$$
(4.115)
Assume now that $`_a^2=_b^2=_c^2=𝖨`$, then it is easy to verify that operators

$$A_{23}\frac{1}{2}_a_b,A_{13}\frac{1}{2}_c_b,A_{12}\frac{1}{2}_c_a$$
(4.116)
satisfy the relations (4.115) and commute with the matrix $`𝖶`$ of $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$. It is easy to see that at $`_i^2=𝖨`$, $`_j^2=_k^2=𝖨`$ and $`_i^2=_j^2=𝖨`$, $`_k^2=𝖨`$ ($`i,j,k=\{a,b,c\}`$) the operators $`A_{ik}`$ do not satisfy the relations (4.115). Therefore, there exist only two possibilities $`_a^2=_b^2=_c^2=𝖨`$ and $`_a^2=_b^2=_c^2=𝖨`$ corresponding to the operators (4.90) and (4.116), respectively.

Further, for the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ ($`p=q=m`$) at $`𝖤=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ and $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ there exist Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the signature $`(+,+,+)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,,)`$ correspondingly at $`p,q0(mod4)`$ and $`p,q2(mod4)`$, and also at $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ and $`𝖢=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ there exist non–Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,,+)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,+,)`$ correspondingly at $`p,q3(mod4)`$ and $`p,q1(mod4)`$ (Theorem 2.3). Besides, for the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{8t,0}`$ of the type $`pq0(mod8)`$, $`t=1,2,\mathrm{}`$, the matrices $`𝖤𝖨`$, $`𝖢_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ and $`𝖶`$ form an Abelian group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,0})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Correspondingly, for the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{0,8t}`$ of the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ the matrices $`𝖤_1_2\mathrm{}_q`$, $`𝖢𝖨`$ and $`𝖶`$ also form the group $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{0,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

So, let $`𝖤=_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{2m}`$ and $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_m`$ be matrices of $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, $`p=q=m`$, $`m0(mod2)`$. Then for the operators (4.90) we obtain

$$A_{ik}𝖤=(1)^{2m}𝖤A_{ik},$$
(4.117)
$`A_{ik}𝖢`$ $`=`$ $`\pm (1)^{i+j2}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (i)\sigma (j)_1_2\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{j1}_{j+1}\mathrm{}_m,`$
$`𝖢A_{ik}`$ $`=`$ $`\pm (1)^{2mij}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (i)\sigma (j)_1_2\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{j1}_{j+1}\mathrm{}_m,`$ (4.118)
since $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$ and a function $`\sigma (n)=\sigma (mn)`$ has a form

$$\sigma (n)=\{\begin{array}{cc}1\hfill & \text{if }n0\hfill \\ +1\hfill & \text{if }n>0\hfill \end{array}$$

Analogously, for the operators (4.116) we find

$`A_{ik}𝖤`$ $`=`$ $`\pm (1)^{i+j2}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (i)\sigma (j)_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{j1}_{j+1}\mathrm{}_{2m},`$
$`𝖤A_{ik}`$ $`=`$ $`\pm (1)^{2mij}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (i)\sigma (j)_{m+1}_{m+2}\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{j1}_{j+1}\mathrm{}_{2m},`$ (4.119)
$$A_{ik}𝖢=(1)^{2m}𝖢A_{ik}.$$
(4.120)
It is easy to see that in both cases the matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ always commute with the operators $`A_{ik}`$. Therefore, for the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ at $`p,q0(mod4)`$ and $`p,q2(mod4)`$ the elements of the Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,,)`$ are always commute with infinitesimal operators $`A_{ik}`$ of $`SO(3)`$. Correspondingly, for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{8t,0}`$ the elements of $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{8t,0})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ are also commute with $`A_{ik}`$. The analogous statement takes place for other degenerate case $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{0,8t})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. In the case of non–Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ (signatures $`(+,,+)`$ and $`(+,+,)`$) we obtain the same permutation conditions as (4.117)–(4.120), that is, in this case the matrices of the fundamental automorphisms always commute with $`A_{ik}`$. Thus, for the real representation of the class $`_0^{l_0}`$ operators of the discrete subgroup always commute with all the infinitesimal operators of $`SO(3)`$.

Further, for the real representation of the class $`_2^{l_0}`$, type $`pq2(mod8)`$, at $`𝖤=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ and $`𝖢=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ there exist Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,,+)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,+,)`$ correspondingly at $`p0(mod4)`$, $`q2(mod4)`$ and $`p2(mod4)`$, $`q0(mod4)`$, and also at $`𝖤=_1_2\mathrm{}_p`$ and $`𝖢=_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{p+q}`$ there exist non–Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,,)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,+,+)`$ correspondingly at $`p3(mod4)`$, $`q1(mod4)`$ and $`p1(mod4)`$, $`q3(mod4)`$ (Theorem 2.3). So, for the Abelian groups at $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$ (operators (4.90)) we obtain

$$A_{ik}𝖤=(1)^{2q}𝖤A_{ik},$$
(4.121)
$`A_{ik}𝖢`$ $`=`$ $`\pm (1)^{i+j2}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (i)\sigma (j)_1_2\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{j1}_{j+1}\mathrm{}_p,`$
$`𝖢A_{ik}`$ $`=`$ $`\pm (1)^{2pij}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (i)\sigma (j)_1_2\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{j1}_{j+1}\mathrm{}_p.`$ (4.122)
Correspondingly, for the operators (4.116) ($`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$) we have

$`A_{ik}𝖤`$ $`=`$ $`\pm (1)^{i+j2}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (i)\sigma (j)_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{j1}_{j+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q},`$
$`𝖤A_{ik}`$ $`=`$ $`\pm (1)^{2qij}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (i)\sigma (j)_{p+1}_{p+2}\mathrm{}_{i1}_{i+1}\mathrm{}_{j1}_{j+1}\mathrm{}_{p+q},`$ (4.123)
$$A_{ik}𝖢=(1)^{2p}𝖢A_{ik}.$$
(4.124)
The analogous relations take place for the non–Abelian groups. From (4.121)–(4.124) it is easy to see that the matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ always commute with $`A_{ik}`$. Therefore, for the real representation of the class $`_2^{l_0}`$ operators of the discrete subgroup always commute with all the infinitesimal operators of $`SO(3)`$.

Let us consider now quaternionic representations. Quaternionic representations of the classes $`_4^{l_0}`$ and $`_6^{l_0}`$, types $`pq4,6(mod8)`$, in virtue of the more wide ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ have a more complicated structure of the reflection groups than in the case of $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. Indeed, if $`𝖤=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$ is a product of $`k`$ skewsymmetric matrices (among which $`l`$ matrices have ‘$`+`$’-square and $`t`$ matrices have ‘$``$’-square) and $`𝖢=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$ is a product of $`p+qk`$ symmetric matrices (among which there are $`h`$$`+`$’-squares and $`g`$$``$-squares), then at $`k0(mod2)`$ for the type $`pq4(mod8)`$ there exist Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,,)`$ if correspondingly $`lt,hg0,1,4,5(mod8)`$ and $`lt,hg2,3,6,7(mod8)`$, and also at $`k1(mod2)`$ for the type $`pq6(mod8)`$ there exist $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,+,)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_{}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,,+)`$ if correspondingly $`lt0,1,4,5(mod8)`$, $`hg2,3,6,7(mod8)`$ and $`lt2,3,6,7(mod8)`$, $`hg0,1,4,5(mod8)`$. Inversely, if $`𝖤=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$ and $`𝖢=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$, then at $`k1(mod8)`$ for the type $`pq4(mod8)`$ there exist non–Abelian groups $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,,+)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(+,+,)`$ if correspondingly $`hg2,3,6,7(mod8)`$, $`lt0,1,4,5(mod8)`$ and $`hg0,1,4,5(mod8)`$, $`lt2,3,6,7(mod8)`$, and also at $`k1(mod2)`$ for the type $`pq6(mod8)`$ there exist $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})Q_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,,)`$ and $`\mathrm{𝖠𝗎𝗍}_+(C\mathrm{}_{p,q})D_4/\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with $`(,+,+)`$ if correspondingly $`hg,lt2,3,6,7(mod8)`$ and $`hg,lt0,1,4,5(mod8)`$ (see Theorem 2.3).

So, let $`𝖤=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$ and $`𝖢=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$ be the matrices of $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, $`k0(mod2)`$. Assume that $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$, that is, all the matrices $`_i`$ in the operators (4.90) or (4.116) are skewsymmetric. Then for the operators (4.90) and (4.116) we obtain

$`A_{23}𝖤`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{b+a2}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (j_a)\sigma (j_b)_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_{a1}}_{j_{a+1}}\mathrm{}_{j_{b1}}_{j_{b+1}}\mathrm{}_{j_k},`$
$`𝖤A_{23}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{2kab}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (j_a)\sigma (j_b)_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_{a1}}_{j_{a+1}}\mathrm{}_{j_{b1}}_{j_{b+1}}\mathrm{}_{j_k},`$ (4.125)
$$A_{23}𝖢=(1)^{2(p+qk)}𝖢A_{23},$$
(4.126)
that is, $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ commute with $`A_{23}`$ (correspondingly with $`A_{13}`$, $`A_{12}`$). It is easy to see that relations (4.125) and (4.126) are analogous to the relations (4.95) and (4.98) for the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. Therefore, from (4.125) and (4.126) we obtain the relations (4.61) of Theorem. Further, assume that $`_a,_b,_c𝖤`$, that is, all the matrices $`_i`$ in the operators (4.90) and (4.116) are symmetric. Then

$$A_{23}𝖤=(1)^{2k}𝖤A_{23},$$
(4.127)
$`A_{23}𝖢`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{b+a2}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (i_a)\sigma (i_b)_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{a1}}_{i_{a+1}}\mathrm{}_{i_{b1}}_{i_{b+1}}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}},`$
$`𝖢A_{23}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{2(p+qk)ab}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\sigma (i_a)\sigma (i_b)_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{a1}}_{i_{a+1}}\mathrm{}_{i_{b1}}_{i_{b+1}}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$ (4.128)
and analogous relations take place for $`A_{13},A_{12}`$. It is easy to verify that from (4.127) and (4.128) we obtain the same relations (4.61), since (4.61) are relations (4.36) or (4.40) at $`B_i=0`$. Therefore, over the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ (quasicomplex case) the elements of Abelian reflection groups of the quaternionic representations $`_{4,6}^{l_0}`$ satisfy the relations (4.36)–(4.59) over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ at $`B_i=0`$. Indeed, at $`_a,_b𝖤`$, $`_c𝖤`$ and $`_c𝖤`$, $`_a,_b𝖤`$ we have relations (4.63) which are particular cases of (4.44) at $`B_i=0`$ and so on. It is easy to verify that the same relations take place for non–Abelian reflection groups at $`𝖤=_{i_1}_{i_2}\mathrm{}_{i_{p+qk}}`$ and $`𝖢=_{j_1}_{j_2}\mathrm{}_{j_k}`$, $`k1(mod2)`$. ∎

Remark. Theorem exhausts all possible permutation relations between transformations $`P,T,PT`$ and infinitesimal operators of the group $`𝔊_+`$. The relations (4.34)–(4.35) take place always, that is, at any $`n0(mod2)`$ (except the case $`n=2`$). In turn, the relations (4.36)–(4.59) are divided into two classes. The first class contains relations with operators $`H_{+,,3}`$ and $`F_{+,,3}`$ (the relations (4.36)–(4.39), (4.40)–(4.43), (4.48)–(4.51), (4.56)–(4.59)). The second class does not contain the relations with $`H_{+,,3}`$, $`F_{+,,3}`$ (the relations (4.44)–(4.45), (4.46)–(4.47), (4.52)–(4.53), (4.54)–(4.55). Besides, in accordance with  for the transformation $`T`$ there are only two possibilities $`T=P`$ and $`T=P`$ (both these cases correspond to relation (4.36)). However, from other relations it follows that $`T\pm P`$, as it should be take place in general case. The exceptional case $`n=2`$ corresponds to neutrino field and further it will be explored in the following sections within quotient representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$. Permutations relations with respect to symmetric subspaces $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(k,r)}`$ can be obtained by similar manner.

### 4.3. Atiyah–Bott–Shapiro periodicity on the Lorentz group

In accordance with the section 2 the finite–dimensional representations $``$, $`\stackrel{}{}`$, $`\stackrel{}{}`$ related with the algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$, $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ of the type $`n0(mod2)`$ and the quotient representations $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }`$, $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }\stackrel{}{}`$, $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }{}_{}{}^{\chi }`$ ($`{}_{}{}^{\chi }{}_{}{}^{\chi }\stackrel{}{}`$) related with the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$, $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$, $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{}`$ corresponding to the type $`n1(mod2)`$ form a full system $`𝔐=𝔐^0𝔐^1`$ of the finite–dimensional representations of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$. This extension of the Lorentz group allows to apply Atiyah–Bott–Shapiro periodicity  on the system $`𝔐`$, and also it allows to define on $`𝔐`$ some cyclic relations that give rise to interesting applications in particle physics (in the spirit of Gell-Mann–Ne’eman eightfold way ).

As known, ABS–periodicity based on the $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$–graded structure of the Clifford algebra $`C\mathrm{}`$. The graded central simple Clifford algebras over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ form two similarity classes, which, as it is easy to see, coincide with the two types of the algebras $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$: $`n0,1(mod2)`$. The set of these 2 types (classes) forms a Brauer–Wall group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}`$  that is isomorphic to a cyclic group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Thus, the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is an element of the Brauer–Wall group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, and a group operation is the graded tensor product $`\widehat{}`$. Coming back to representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$ we see that in virtue of identifications $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}`$ ($`n0(mod2)`$) and $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ ($`n1(mod2)`$) a group action of $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ can be transferred onto the system $`𝔐=𝔐^0𝔐^1`$. Indeed, a cyclic structure of the group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is defined by a transition $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, where the type of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is defined by a formula $`n=h+2r`$, here $`h\{0,1\}`$, $`r\mathrm{}`$ . Therefore, the action of $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ on $`𝔐`$ is defined by a transition $`\stackrel{+}{}\stackrel{}{}`$, where $`\stackrel{+}{}{}_{}{}^{l_0+l_11,0}^{l_0+l_12,0}`$ when $`𝔐^0`$ ($`h=1`$) and $`\stackrel{+}{}=\left(^{l_0+l_11,0}^{l_0+l_11,0}\right)^+{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{}^{l_0+l_11,0}`$ when $`𝔐^1`$ ($`h=0`$), $`dim=h+2r`$ ($`dim=l_0+l_11`$ if $`𝔐^0`$ and $`dim=2(l_0+l_11)`$ if $`𝔐^1`$). For example, in virtue of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ a transition $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ ($`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$) induces on the system $`𝔐`$ a transition $`\stackrel{+}{}{}_{}{}^{1,0}^{1,0}`$ that in virtue of $`\stackrel{+}{}{}_{}{}^{1,0}^{0,0}`$ is equivalent to $`^{0,0}^{1,0}`$ ($`^{0,0}`$ is one–dimensional representation of $`𝔊_+`$) and, therefore, $`h=1`$. In its turn, a transition $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ induces on the system $`𝔐`$ a transition $`\left(^{1,0}^{1,0}\right)^+^{1,0}^{1,0}`$ or $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{}^{1,0}^{1,0}^{1,0}`$ and, therefore, $`h=0`$. In such a way, we see that a cyclic structure of the group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ induces on the system $`𝔐`$ modulo 2 periodic relations which can be explicitly showed on the Trautmann–like diagram (spinorial clock , see also  and Chapter 2):

Fig.1 The action of the Brauer–Wall group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ on the full system $`𝔐=𝔐^0𝔐^1`$ of complex finite–dimensional representations $``$ of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$.

It is obvious that a group structure over $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, defined by the group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, immediately relates with a modulo 2 periodicity of the complex Clifford algebras : $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Therefore, we have the following relations for $``$ and $`\stackrel{}{}`$:

$`^{l_0+l_1,0}`$ $``$ $`^{l_0+l_11,0}^{1,0},`$
$`^{0,l_0l_1}`$ $``$ $`^{0,l_0l_1+1}^{0,1}`$
and correspondingly for $`\stackrel{}{}`$

$$^{l_0+l_1,l_0l_1}^{l_0+l_11,l_0l_1+1}^{1,1}.$$

Thus, the action of $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ form a cycle of the period 2 on the system $`𝔐`$, where the basic 2-period factor is the fundamental representation $`^{1,0}`$ ($`^{0,1}`$) of the group $`𝔊_+`$. This cyclic structure is intimately related with de Broglie–Jordan neutrino theory of light and, moreover, this structure is a natural generalization of BJ–theory. Indeed, in the simplest case we obtain two relations $`^{2,0}^{1,0}^{1,0}`$ and $`^{0,2}^{0,1}^{0,1}`$, which, as it is easy to see, correspond two helicity states of the photon (left– and right–handed polarization)<sup>2</sup><sup>2</sup>2Such a description corresponds to Helmholtz–Silberstein representation of the electromagnetic field as the complex linear combinations $`𝐅=𝐄+i𝐇`$, $`\stackrel{}{𝐅}=𝐄i𝐇`$ that form a basis of the Majorana–Oppenheimer quantum electrodynamics  (see also recent development on this subject based on the Joos–Weinberg and Bargmann–Wigner formalisms ).. In such a way, subsequent rotations of the representation 2-cycle give all other higher spin physical fields and follows to de Broglie and Jordan this structure should be called as ‘neutrino theory of everything’.

Further, when we consider restriction of the complex representation $``$ onto real representations $``$ and $``$, that corresponds to restriction of the group $`𝔊_+`$ onto its subgroup $`SO(3)`$<sup>3</sup><sup>3</sup>3Physical feilds defined within such representations describe neutral particles, or particles at rest such as atomic nuclei., we come to a more high–graded modulo 8 periodicity over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. Indeed, the Clifford algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is central simple if $`pq1,5(mod8)`$. It is known that for the Clifford algebra with odd dimensionality, the isomorphisms are as follows: $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q+1}^+C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{p+1,q}^+C\mathrm{}_{q,p}`$ . Thus, $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q+1}^+`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{p+1,q}^+`$ are central simple algebras. Further, in accordance with Chevalley Theorem  for the graded tensor product there is an isomorphism $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\widehat{}C\mathrm{}_{p^{},q^{}}C\mathrm{}_{p+p^{},q+q^{}}`$. Two algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{p^{},q^{}}`$ are said to be of the same class if $`p+q^{}p^{}+q(mod8)`$. The graded central simple Clifford algebras over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ form eight similarity classes, which, as it is easy to see, coincide with the eight types of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. The set of these 8 types (classes) forms a Brauer–Wall group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}`$  that is isomorphic to a cyclic group $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Therefore, in virtue of identifications (4.113) a group action of $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ can be transferred onto the system $`𝔐=𝔐^+𝔐^{}`$. In its turn, a cyclic structure of the group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is defined by a transition $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}^+\stackrel{}{}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, where the type of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is defined by a formula $`qp=h+8r`$, here $`h\{0,\mathrm{},7\}`$, $`r\mathrm{}`$ . Thus, the action of $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ on $`𝔐`$ is defined by a transition $`\stackrel{+}{𝔇}{}_{}{}^{l_0}\stackrel{}{}𝔇^{l_0}`$, where $`𝔇^{ł_0}=\{_{0,2}^{l_0},_{4,6}^{l_0},_{3,7}^{l_0},_{0,2}^{l_0}_{0,2}^{l_0},_{4,6}^{l_0}_{4,6}^{l_0}\}`$, and $`\stackrel{+}{𝔇}{}_{}{}^{r/2}𝔇^{\frac{r1}{2}}`$ when $`𝔇𝔐^+`$ and $`\left(𝔇^{r/2}𝔇^{r/2}\right)^+{}_{}{}^{\chi }𝔇_{}^{r/2}`$ when $`𝔇𝔐^{}`$, $`r`$ is a number of tensor products in (4.114). Therefore, a cyclic structure of the group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ induces on the system $`𝔐`$ modulo 8 periodic relations which can be explicitly showed on the following diagram (the round on the diagram is realized by an hour–hand):

Fig.2 The action of the Brauer–Wall group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ on the full system $`𝔐=𝔐^+𝔐^{}`$ of real representations $`𝔇`$ of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$, $`l_0=\frac{p+q}{4}`$.

Further, it is well–known that a group structure over $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, defined by $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, immediately relates with the Atiyah–Bott–Shapiro periodicity . In accordance with , the Clifford algebra over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ is modulo 8 periodic: $`C\mathrm{}_{p+8,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{8,0}(C\mathrm{}_{p,q+8}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{0,8})`$. Therefore, we have a following relation

$$𝔇^{l_0+2}𝔇^{l_0}_0^2,$$

since $`_0^2C\mathrm{}_{8,0}(C\mathrm{}_{0,8})`$ and in virtue of Karoubi Theorem from (4.114) it follows that $`C\mathrm{}_{8,0}C\mathrm{}_{2,0}C\mathrm{}_{0,2}C\mathrm{}_{0,2}C\mathrm{}_{2,0}`$ ($`C\mathrm{}_{0,8}C\mathrm{}_{0,2}C\mathrm{}_{2,0}C\mathrm{}_{2,0}C\mathrm{}_{0,2}`$)<sup>4</sup><sup>4</sup>4The minimal left ideal of $`C\mathrm{}_{8,0}`$ is equal to $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ and in virtue of the real ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ is defined within the full matrix algebra $`𝖬_{16}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. At first glance, from the factorization of $`C\mathrm{}_{8,0}`$ it follows that $`𝖬_2(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\simeq ̸\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, but it is wrong, since there is an isomorphism $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕄}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ (see Appendix B in )., therefore, $`r=4`$, $`l_0=r/2=2`$. On the other hand, in terms of minimal left ideal the modulo 8 periodicity looks like

$$\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}$$

In virtue of the mapping $`\gamma _{8,0}:C\mathrm{}_{8,0}𝖬_2(\mathrm{𝕆}\mathrm{}`$  (see also excellent review ) the latter relation can be written in the form

$$\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{𝕆}^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}$$

where $`\mathrm{𝕆}`$ is an octonion algebra. Since the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{8,0}C\mathrm{}_{0,8}`$ admits an octonionic representation, then in virtue of the modulo 8 periodicity the octonionic representations can be defined for all high dimensions and, therefore, on the system $`𝔐=𝔐^+𝔐^{}`$ we have a relation

$$𝔇^{l_0+2}𝔇^{l_0}𝔒,$$

where $`𝔒`$ is an octonionic representation of the group $`𝔊_+`$ ($`𝔒_0^2`$). Thus, the action of $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ form a cycle of the period 8 on the system $`𝔐`$. This is intimately related with an octonionic structure. In 1973, Günaydin and Gürsey showed that an automorphism group of the algebra $`\mathrm{𝕆}`$ is isomorphic to an exceptional Lie group $`G_2`$ that contains $`SU(3)`$ as a subgroup . The Günaydin–Gürsey construction allows to incorporate the quark phenomenology into a general algebraic framework. Moreover, this construction allows to define the quark structure on the system $`𝔐`$ within octonionic representations of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$. It is obvious that within such a framework the quark structure cannot be considered as a fundamental physical structure underlieing of the world (as it suggested by QCD). This is fully derivative structure firstly appearred in 8-dimension and further reproduced into high dimensions by the round of 8-cycle generated by the group $`BW_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ from 8 ad infinitum (growth of quark’s flavors with increase of energy). One can say that such a description, included very powerful algebraic tools, opens an another way of understanding of the Gell-Mann–Ne’emann eightfold way in particle physics.

### 4.4. Pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ and charge conjugation

As noted previously, an extraction of the minimal left ideal of the complex algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ induces a space of the finite–dimensional spintensor representation of the group $`𝔊_+`$. Besides, the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is associated with a complex vector space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}`$. Let $`n=p+q`$, then an extraction operation of the real subspace $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ in $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}`$ forms the foundation of definition of the discrete transformation known in physics as a charge conjugation $`C`$. Indeed, let $`\{\text{e}_1,\mathrm{},\text{e}_n\}`$ be an orthobasis in the space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}`$, $`\text{e}_i^2=1`$. Let us remain the first $`p`$ vectors of this basis unchanged, and other $`q`$ vectors multiply by the factor $`i`$. Then the basis

$$\{\text{e}_1,\mathrm{},\text{e}_p,i\text{e}_{p+1},\mathrm{},i\text{e}_{p+q}\}$$
(4.129)
allows to extract the subspace $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ in $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}`$. Namely, for the vectors $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ we take the vectors of $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}`$ which decompose on the basis (4.129) with real coefficients. In such a way we obtain a real vector space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ endowed (in general case) with a non–degenerate quadratic form

$$Q(x)=x_1^2+x_2^2+\mathrm{}+x_p^2x_{p+1}^2x_{p+2}^2\mathrm{}x_{p+q}^2,$$

where $`x_1,\mathrm{},x_{p+q}`$ are coordinates of the vector $`𝐱`$ in the basis (4.129). It is easy to see that the extraction of $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ in $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}`$ induces an extraction of a real subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ in $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Therefore, any element $`𝒜\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ can be unambiguously represented in the form

$$𝒜=𝒜_1+i𝒜_2,$$

where $`𝒜_1,𝒜_2C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. The one–to–one mapping

$$𝒜\overline{𝒜}=𝒜_1i𝒜_2$$
(4.130)
transforms the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ into itself with preservation of addition and multiplication operations for the elements $`𝒜`$; the operation of multiplication of the element $`𝒜`$ by the number transforms to an operation of multiplication by the complex conjugate number. Any mapping of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ satisfying these conditions is called a pseudoautomorphism. Thus, the extraction of the subspace $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ in the space $`\mathrm{}^{\mathrm{}}`$ induces in the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ a pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ .

Let us consider a spinor representation of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ when $`n0(mod2)`$. In the spinor representation the every element $`𝒜\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ should be represented by some matrix $`𝖠`$, and the pseudoautomorphism (4.130) takes a form of the pseudoautomorphism of the full matrix algebra $`𝖬_{2^{n/2}}`$:

$$𝖠\overline{𝖠}.$$

On the other hand, a transformation replacing the matrix $`𝖠`$ by the complex conjugate matrix, $`𝖠\dot{𝖠}`$, is also some pseudoautomorphism of the algebra $`𝖬_{2^{n/2}}`$. The composition of the two pseudoautomorpisms $`\dot{𝖠}𝖠`$ and $`𝖠\overline{𝖠}`$, $`\dot{𝖠}𝖠\overline{𝖠}`$, is an internal automorphism $`\dot{𝖠}\overline{𝖠}`$ of the full matrix algebra $`𝖬_{2^{n/2}}`$:

$$\overline{𝖠}=\mathrm{\Pi }\dot{𝖠}\mathrm{\Pi }^1,$$
(4.131)
where $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is a matrix of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ in the spinor representation. The sufficient condition for definition of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ is a choice of the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ in such a way that the transformation $`𝖠\mathrm{\Pi }\dot{𝖠}\mathrm{\Pi }^1`$ transfers into itself the matrices $`_1,\mathrm{},_p,i_{p+1},\mathrm{},i_{p+q}`$ (the matrices of the spinbasis of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$), that is,

$$_i_i=\mathrm{\Pi }\dot{}_i\mathrm{\Pi }^1(i=1,\mathrm{},p+q).$$
(4.132)
###### Theorem 4.3.

Let $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ be a complex Clifford algebra when $`n0(mod2)`$ and let $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ be its subalgebra with a real division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ when $`pq0,2(mod8)`$ and quaternionic division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ when $`pq4,6(mod8)`$, $`n=p+q`$. Then in dependence on the division ring structure of the real subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ has the following form:
1) $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq0,2(mod8)`$.
The matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ for any spinor representation over the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ is proportional to the unit matrix.
2) $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq4,6(mod8)`$.
$`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a}`$ when $`a0(mod2)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _b}`$ when $`b1(mod2)`$, where $`a`$ complex matrices $`_{\alpha _t}`$ and $`b`$ real matrices $`_{\beta _s}`$ form a basis of the spinor representation of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ over the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`a+b=p+q,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}<ta,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}<sb`$. At this point

$`\mathrm{\Pi }\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}`$ $`=`$ $`𝖨\text{if }a,b0,1(mod4),`$
$`\mathrm{\Pi }\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}`$ $`=`$ $`𝖨\text{if }a,b2,3(mod4),`$
where $`𝖨`$ is the unit matrix.

###### Proof.

The algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ ($`n0(mod2)`$, $`n=p+q`$) in virtue of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ and definition of the division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}`$ ($`f`$ is a primitive idempotent of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$) has four different real subalgebras: $`pq0,2(mod8)`$ for the real division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ and $`pq4,6(mod8)`$ for the quaternionic division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.
1) $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.
Since for the types $`pq0,2(mod8)`$ there is an isomorphism $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}𝖬_{2^{\frac{p+q}{2}}}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ (Wedderburn–Artin Theorem), then all the matrices $`_i`$ of the spinbasis of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ are real and $`\dot{}_i=_i`$. Therefore, in this case the condition (4.132) can be written as follows

$$_i_i=\mathrm{\Pi }_i\mathrm{\Pi }^1,$$

whence $`_i\mathrm{\Pi }=\mathrm{\Pi }_i`$. Thus, for the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ of the types $`pq0,2(mod8)`$ the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ commutes with all the matrices $`_i`$. It is easy to see that $`\mathrm{\Pi }𝖨`$.
2) $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$.
In turn, for the quaternionic types $`pq4,6(mod8)`$ there is an isomorphism $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}𝖬_{2^{\frac{p+q}{2}}}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. Therefore, among the matrices of the spinbasis of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ there are matrices $`_\alpha `$ satisfying the condition $`\dot{}_\alpha =_\alpha `$. Let $`a`$ be a quantity of the complex matrices, then the spinbasis of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ is divided into two subsets. The first subset $`\{\dot{}_{\alpha _t}=_{\alpha _t}\}`$ contains complex matrices, $`0<ta`$, and the second subset $`\{\dot{}_{\beta _s}=_{\beta _s}\}`$ contains real matrices, $`0<sp+qa`$. In accordance with a spinbasis structure of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}𝖬_{2^{\frac{p+q}{2}}}(\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ the condition (4.132) can be written as follows

$$_{\alpha _t}_{\alpha _t}=\mathrm{\Pi }_{\alpha _t}\mathrm{\Pi }^1,_{\beta _s}_{\beta _s}=\mathrm{\Pi }_{\beta _s}\mathrm{\Pi }^1.$$

Whence

$$_{\alpha _t}\mathrm{\Pi }=\mathrm{\Pi }_{\alpha _t},_{\beta _s}\mathrm{\Pi }=\mathrm{\Pi }_{\beta _s}.$$
(4.133)
Thus, for the quaternionic types $`pq4,6(mod8)`$ the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ anticommutes with a complex part of the spinbasis of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ and commutes with a real part of the same spinbasis. From (4.133) it follows that a structure of the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is analogous to the structure of the matrices $`𝖤`$ and $`𝖢`$ of the antiautomorphisms $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, correspondingly (see Theorem 2.3), that is, the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a product of only complex matrices, or only real matrices of the spinbasis of the subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$.

So, let $`0<a<p+q`$ and let $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a}`$ be a matrix of $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$, then permutation conditions of the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ with the matrices $`_{\beta _s}`$ of the real part ($`0<sp+qa`$) and with the matrices $`_{\alpha _t}`$ of the complex part ($`0<ta`$) have the form

$$\mathrm{\Pi }_{\beta _s}=(1)^a_{\beta _s}\mathrm{\Pi },$$
(4.134)
$`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\alpha _t}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{at}\sigma (\alpha _t)_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _{t1}}_{\alpha _{t+1}}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a},`$
$`_{\alpha _t}\mathrm{\Pi }`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{t1}\sigma (\alpha _t)_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _{t1}}_{\alpha _{t+1}}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a},`$ (4.135)
that is, when $`a0(mod2)`$ the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ commutes with the real part and anticommutes with the complex part of the spinbasis of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. Correspondingly, when $`a1(mod2)`$ the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ anticommutes with the real part and commutes with the complex part. Further, let $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _{p+qa}}`$ be a product of the real matrices, then

$`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\beta _s}`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{p+qas}\sigma (\beta _s)_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _{s1}}_{\beta _{s+1}}\mathrm{}_{\beta _{p+qa}},`$
$`_{\beta _s}\mathrm{\Pi }`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{s1}\sigma (\beta _s)_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _{s1}}_{\beta _{s+1}}\mathrm{}_{\beta _{p+qa}},`$ (4.136)
$$\mathrm{\Pi }_{\alpha _t}=(1)^{p+qa}_{\alpha _t}\mathrm{\Pi },$$
(4.137)
that is, when $`p+qa0(mod2)`$ the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ anticommutes with the real part and commutes with the complex part of the spinbasis of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. Correspondingly, when $`p+qa1(mod2)`$ the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ commutes with the real part and anticommutes with the complex part.

The comparison of the conditions (4.134)–(4.135) with the condition (4.133) shows that the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a}`$ exists only at $`a0(mod2)`$, that is, $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is a product of the complex matrices $`_{\alpha _t}`$ of the even number. In its turn, a comparison of (4.136)–(4.137) with (4.133) shows that the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _{p+qa}}`$ exists only at $`p+qa1(mod2)`$, that is, $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is a product of the real matrices $`_{\beta _s}`$ of the odd number.

Let us calculate now the product $`\mathrm{\Pi }\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}`$. Let $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _{p+qa}}`$ be a product of the $`p+qa`$ real matrices. Since $`\dot{}_{\beta _s}=_{\beta _s}`$, then $`\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}=\mathrm{\Pi }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}=\mathrm{\Pi }^2`$. Therefore,

$$\mathrm{\Pi }\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}=(_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _{p+qa}})^2=(1)^{\frac{(p+qa)(p+qa1)}{2}}𝖨.$$
(4.138)
Further, let $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a}`$ be a product of the $`a`$ complex matrices. Then $`\dot{}_{\alpha _t}=_{\alpha _t}`$ and $`\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}=(1)^a\mathrm{\Pi }=\mathrm{\Pi }`$, since $`a0(mod2)`$. Therefore,

$$\mathrm{\Pi }\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}=(_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a})^2=(1)^{\frac{a(a1)}{2}}𝖨.$$
(4.139)
Let $`p+qa=b`$ be a quantity of the real matrices $`_{\beta _s}`$ of the spinbasis of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, then $`p+q=a+b`$. Since $`p+q`$ is always even number for the quaternionic types $`pq4,6(mod8)`$, then $`a`$ and $`b`$ are simultaneously even or odd numbers. Thus, from (4.138) and (4.139) it follows

$$\mathrm{\Pi }\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}=\{\begin{array}{cc}𝖨,\hfill & \text{if }a,b0,1(mod4),\hfill \\ 𝖨,\hfill & \text{if }a,b2,3(mod4),\hfill \end{array}$$

which required to be proved. ∎

In the present form of quantum field theory complex fields correspond to charged particles. Thus, the extraction of the subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the real ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ in $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`pq0,2(mod8)`$, corresponds to physical fields describing truly neutral particles such as photon and neutral mesons ($`\pi ^0,\eta ^0,\rho ^0,\omega ^0,\phi ^0,K^0`$). In turn, the subalgebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq4,6(mod8)`$ correspond to charged or neutral fields.

As known , the charge conjugation $`C`$ should be satisfied the following requirement

$$CI^{ik}=I^{ik}C,$$
(4.140)
where $`I^{ik}`$ are infinitesimal operators of the group $`𝔊_+`$<sup>5</sup><sup>5</sup>5The requirement $`CP=PC`$ presented also in the Gel’fand–Yaglom work  is superfluous, since the inverse relation $`CP=PC`$ is valid in BWW–type quantum field theories .. This requirement is necessary for the definition of the operation $`C`$ on the representation spaces of $``$. Let us find permutation conditions of the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ with $`I^{ik}`$ defined by the relations (4.90)–(4.91). It is obvious that in the case of $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }𝖨`$ commutes with all the operators $`I^{ik}`$ and, therefore, the relations (4.140) hold. In the case of $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a}`$ it is easy to verify that at $`_a,_b,_c\mathrm{\Pi }`$ (all $`_a,_b,_c`$ are complex matrices) the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ commutes with $`A_{ik}`$ and anticommutes with $`B_i`$ (permutation conditions in this case are analogous to (4.95) and (4.96)). In its turn, when $`_a,_b,_c\mathrm{\Pi }`$ (all $`_a,_b,_c`$ are real matrices) the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ commutes with all the operators $`I^{ik}`$. It is easy to see that all other cases given by the cyclic permutations $`_i,_j\mathrm{\Pi }`$, $`_k\mathrm{\Pi }`$ and $`_i\mathrm{\Pi }`$, $`_j,_k\mathrm{\Pi }`$ ($`i,j,k\{a,b,c\}`$) do not satisfy the relations (4.140). For example, at $`_a,_b\mathrm{\Pi }`$ and $`_c\mathrm{\Pi }`$ the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ commutes with $`A_{23}`$ and $`B_1`$ and anticommutes with $`A_{13},A_{12},B_2,B_3`$. Further, in the case of $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _b}`$ it is not difficult to see that only at $`_a,_b,_c\mathrm{\Pi }`$ (all $`_a,_b,_c`$ are real matrices) the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ commutes with all $`I^{ik}`$. Therefore, in both cases $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _b}`$ the relations (4.140) hold when all the matrices $`_a,_b,_c`$ belonging to (4.90)–(4.91) are real.

When we restrict the complex representation $``$ (charged particles) of $`𝔊_+`$ to real representation $``$ (truly neutral particles) and $``$ (neutral particles) we see that in this case the charge conjugation is reduced to an identical transformation $`𝖨`$ for $``$ and to a particle–antiparticle conjugation $`C^{}`$ for $``$. Moreover, as follows from Theorem 4.2 for the real representations $`B_i=0`$ and, therefore, the relations (4.140) take a form

$$C^{}A_{ik}=A_{ik}C^{}.$$
(4.141)
Over the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ the relations (4.141) hold identically. It is easy to verify that over the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ for the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a}`$ the relations (4.141) hold at $`_a,_b,_c\mathrm{\Pi }`$ and $`_a,_b,_c\mathrm{\Pi }`$. The same result takes place for the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _b}`$. All other cases given by the cyclic permutations do not satisfy the relations (4.141). Therefore, in both cases the relations (4.141) hold when all the matrices $`_a,_b,_c`$ in (4.90) (correspondingly in (4.116)) are complex or real. Let us consider the action of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ on the spinors (4.5) (‘vectors’ of the fundamental representation of the group $`𝔊_+`$). The matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ allows to compare to each spinor $`\xi ^\alpha `$ its conjugated spinor $`\overline{\xi }^\alpha `$ by the following rule

$$\overline{\xi }^\alpha =\mathrm{\Pi }_{\dot{\alpha }}^\alpha \xi ^{\dot{\alpha }},$$
(4.142)
here $`\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }}=(\xi ^\alpha )^{}`$. In accordance with Theorem 4.3 for the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\dot{\beta }}^\alpha `$ we have $`\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}=\mathrm{\Pi }^1`$ or $`\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}=\mathrm{\Pi }^1`$, where $`\mathrm{\Pi }^1=\mathrm{\Pi }_\beta ^{\dot{\alpha }}`$. Then a twice conjugated spinor looks like

$$\overline{\xi }^\alpha =\overline{\mathrm{\Pi }_{\dot{\beta }}^\alpha \xi ^{\dot{\beta }}}=\mathrm{\Pi }_{\dot{\alpha }}^\alpha (\mathrm{\Pi }_{\dot{\beta }}^\alpha \xi ^{\dot{\beta }})^{}=\mathrm{\Pi }_{\dot{\alpha }}^\alpha (\pm \mathrm{\Pi }_\beta ^{\dot{\alpha }})\xi ^\beta =\pm \xi ^\alpha .$$

Therefore, the twice conjugated spinor coincides with the initial spinor in the case of the real subalgebra of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ (the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{1,1}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{2,0}`$), and also in the case of $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ (the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{0,2}\mathrm{}`$) at $`ab0,1(mod4)`$. Since for the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{0,2}\mathrm{}`$ we have always $`ab0(mod4)`$, then a property of the reciprocal conjugacy of the spinors $`\xi ^\alpha `$ ($`\alpha =1,2`$) is an invariant fact for the fundamental representation of the group $`𝔊_+`$ (this property is very important in physics, since this is an algebraic expression of the requirement $`C^2=1`$). Further, since the ‘vector’ (spintensor) of the finite–dimensional representation of the group $`𝔊_+`$ is defined by the tensor product $`\xi ^{\alpha _1\alpha _2\mathrm{}\alpha _k}=\xi ^{\alpha _1}\xi ^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}\xi ^{\alpha _k}`$, then its conjugated spintensor takes a form

$$\overline{\xi }^{\alpha _1\alpha _2\mathrm{}\alpha _k}=\mathrm{\Pi }_{\dot{\alpha }_1}^{\alpha _1}\mathrm{\Pi }_{\dot{\alpha }_2}^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{\Pi }_{\dot{\alpha }_k}^{\alpha _k}\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_1\dot{\alpha }_2\mathrm{}\dot{\alpha }_k},$$
(4.143)
It is obvious that the condition of reciprocal conjugacy $`\overline{\overline{\xi }}{}_{}{}^{\alpha _1\alpha _2\mathrm{}\alpha _k}=\xi ^{\alpha _1\alpha _2\mathrm{}\alpha _k}`$ is also fulfilled for (4.143), since for each matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\dot{\alpha }_i}^{\alpha _i}`$ in (4.143) we have $`\dot{\mathrm{\Pi }}=\mathrm{\Pi }^1`$ (all the matrices $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\dot{\alpha }_i}^{\alpha _i}`$ are defined for the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$).

Let us define now permutation conditions of the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ (charge conjugation) with the matrix $`𝖶`$ of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ (space inversion). First of all, in accordance with Theorem 4.3 in the case of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the real ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ (types $`pq0,2(mod8)`$) the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is proportional to the unit matrix and, therefore, commutes with the matrix $`𝖶`$. In the case of $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ (types $`pq4,6(mod8)`$) from Theorem 4.3 it follows two possibilities: $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a}`$ is a product of $`a`$ complex matrices at $`a0(mod2)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _b}`$ is a product of $`b`$ real matrices at $`b1(mod2)`$. Since $`a+b=p+q`$, then the matrix $`𝖶`$ can be represented by the product $`_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a}_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _b}`$. Then for $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a}`$ we have

$`\mathrm{\Pi }𝖶`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{\frac{a(a1)}{2}}\sigma (\alpha _1)\sigma (\alpha _2)\mathrm{}\sigma (\alpha _a)_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _b},`$
$`𝖶\mathrm{\Pi }`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{\frac{a(a1)}{2}+ba}\sigma (\alpha _1)\sigma (\alpha _2)\mathrm{}\sigma (\alpha _a)_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _b}.`$
Hence it follows that at $`ab0(mod2)`$ the matrices $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ and $`𝖶`$ always commute, since $`a0(mod2)`$. Taking $`\mathrm{\Pi }=_{\beta _1}_{\beta _2}\mathrm{}_{\beta _b}`$ we obtain following conditions:

$`\mathrm{\Pi }𝖶`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{\frac{b(b1)}{2}+ab}\sigma (\beta _1)\sigma (\beta _2)\mathrm{}\sigma (\beta _b)_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a},`$
$`𝖶\mathrm{\Pi }`$ $`=`$ $`(1)^{\frac{b(b1)}{2}}\sigma (\beta _1)\sigma (\beta _2)\mathrm{}\sigma (\beta _b)_{\alpha _1}_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}_{\alpha _a}.`$
Hence it follows that $`ab1(mod2)`$, since in this case $`b1(mod2)`$, and $`p+q=a+b`$ is even number, $`a`$ is odd number. Therefore, at $`ab1(mod2)`$ the matrices $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ and $`𝖶`$ always anticommute.

It should be noted one important feature related with the anticommutation of the matrices $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ and $`𝖶`$, $`\mathrm{\Pi }𝖶=𝖶\mathrm{\Pi }`$, that corresponds to relation $`CP=PC`$. The latter relation holds for Bargmann–Wightmann–Wigner type quantum field theories in which bosons and antibosons have mutually opposite intrinsic parities . Thus, in this case the matrix of the operator $`C`$ is a product of real matrices of odd number.

### 4.5. Quotient representations of the Lorentz group

###### Theorem 4.4.

1) $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. Let $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$, $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$, $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ be the automorphisms of the odd–dimensional complex Clifford algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ ($`n+11,3(mod4)`$) corresponding the discrete transformations $`C,P,T`$ (charge conjugation, space inversion, time reversal) and let $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ be a quotient algebra obtained in the result of the homomorphic mapping $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Then over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ in dependence on the structure of $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ all the quotient representations of the Lorentz group are divided in the following six classes:

$`1)^\chi ^{l_0+l_11,0}_{a_1}`$ $`:`$ $`\{T,CI\},`$
$`2)^\chi ^{l_0+l_11,0}_{a_2}`$ $`:`$ $`\{T,C\},`$
$`3)^\chi ^{l_0+l_11,0}_b`$ $`:`$ $`\{T,CP,CPT\},`$
$`4)^\chi ^{l_0+l_11,0}_c`$ $`:`$ $`\{PT,C,CPT\},`$
$`5)^\chi ^{l_0+l_11,0}_{d_1}`$ $`:`$ $`\{PT,CPIP,CTIT\},`$
$`6)^\chi ^{l_0+l_11,0}_{d_2}`$ $`:`$ $`\{PT,CP,CT\}.`$
2) $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. Real quotient representations are divided into four different classes:

$`7)^\chi ^{l_0}_{e_1}`$ $`:`$ $`\{T,CI,CTIT\},`$
$`8)^\chi ^{l_0}_{e_2}`$ $`:`$ $`\{T,CPIP,CPTIPT\},`$
$`9)^\chi ^{l_0}_{f_1}`$ $`:`$ $`\{T,CC^{},CTC^{}T\},`$
$`10)^\chi ^{l_0}_{f_2}`$ $`:`$ $`\{T,CPC^{}P,CPTC^{}PT\}.`$
###### Proof.

1) Complex representations.
Before we proceed to find an explicit form of the quotient representations $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }`$ it is necessary to consider in details a structure of the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ obtaining in the result of the homomorphic mapping $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. The structure of the quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ depends on the transfer of the automorphisms $`𝒜𝒜^{},𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜},𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}},𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ under action of the homomorphism $`ϵ`$ onto its subalgebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. As noted previously (see conclusion of Theorem 4.1), the homomorphisms $`ϵ`$ and $`\chi `$ have an analogous texture. The action of the homomorphism $`ϵ`$ is defined as follows

$$ϵ:𝒜^1+\epsilon \omega 𝒜^2𝒜^1+𝒜^2,$$

where $`𝒜^1,𝒜^2\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`\omega =\text{e}_{12\mathrm{}n+1}`$, and

$$\epsilon =\{\begin{array}{cc}1,\hfill & \text{if }n+11(mod4),\hfill \\ i,\hfill & \text{if }n+13(mod4);\hfill \end{array}$$

so that $`(\epsilon \omega )^2=1`$. At this point $`\epsilon \omega 1`$ and the quotient algebra has a form

$${}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}ϵ\mathrm{}$$

where $`\mathrm{Ker}ϵ=\left\{𝒜^1\epsilon \omega 𝒜^1\right\}`$ is a kernel of the homomorphism $`ϵ`$.

For the transfer of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ it is necessary that

$$\stackrel{~}{\epsilon \omega }=\epsilon \omega .$$
(4.144)
Indeed, since under action of $`ϵ`$ the elements 1 and $`\epsilon \omega `$ are equally mapped into the unit, then transformed elements $`\stackrel{~}{1}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\epsilon \omega }`$ are also should be mapped into 1, but $`\stackrel{~}{1}=11`$, and $`\stackrel{~}{\epsilon \omega }=\pm \epsilon \omega \pm 1`$ in virtue of $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }=(1)^{\frac{n(n1)}{2}}\omega `$, whence

$$\stackrel{~}{\omega }=\{\begin{array}{cc}\omega ,\hfill & \text{if }n+11(mod4);\hfill \\ \omega ,\hfill & \text{if }n+13(mod4).\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.145)
Therefore, under action of the homomorphism $`ϵ`$ the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ only at $`n0(mod4)`$.

In its turn, for the transfer of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ it is necessary that $`(\epsilon \omega )^{}=\epsilon \omega `$. However, since the element $`\omega `$ is odd and $`\omega ^{}=(1)^{n+1}\omega `$, then we have always

$$\omega ^{}=\omega .$$
(4.146)
Thus, the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ is never transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

Further, for the transfer of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ it is necessary that

$$\stackrel{~}{(\epsilon \omega )^{}}=\epsilon \omega .$$
(4.147)
It is easy to see that the condition (4.147) is satisfied only at $`n+13(mod4)`$, since in this case from the second equality of (4.145) and (4.146) it follows

$$\stackrel{~}{(\epsilon \omega )^{}}=\epsilon \stackrel{~}{\omega ^{}}=\epsilon \omega ^{}=\epsilon \omega .$$
(4.148)
Therefore, under action of the homomorphism $`ϵ`$ the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ is transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ only at $`n2(mod4)`$.

Let $`n+1=p+q`$. Defining in $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ the basis $`\{\text{e}_1,\mathrm{},\text{e}_p,i\text{e}_{p+1},\mathrm{},i\text{e}_{p+q}\}`$ we extract the real subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, where at $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ we have a complex division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, and at $`pq1(mod8)`$ and $`pq5(mod8)`$ correspondingly a double real division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and a double quaternionic division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$. The product $`\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\mathrm{}\text{e}_pi\text{e}_{p+1}\mathrm{}i\text{e}_{p+q}=i^q\omega \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ sets a volume element of the real subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$. At this point we have a condition $`\overline{(i^q\omega )}=i^q\omega `$, that is, $`(i)^q\overline{\omega }=i^q\omega `$, whence

$$\overline{\omega }=(1)^q\omega .$$
(4.149)
When $`q`$ is even, from (4.149) it follows $`\overline{\omega }=\omega `$ and, therefore, the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ is transferred at $`q0(mod2)`$, and since $`p+q`$ is odd number, then we have always $`p1(mod2)`$. In more detail, at $`n+13(mod4)`$ the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ is transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ if the real subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ possesses the complex ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq3,7(mod8)`$, and is not transferred ($`\overline{\omega }=\omega ,q1(mod2),p0(mod2)`$) in the case of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with double rings $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq1,5(mod8)`$. In its turn, at $`n+11(mod4)`$ the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ is transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ if the subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ has the type $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ and is not transferred in the case of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with $`pq3,7(mod8)`$. Besides, in virtue of (4.146) at $`n+13(mod4)`$ with $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ and at $`n+11(mod4)`$ with $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ a pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜^{}}`$ (a composition of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ with the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$) is transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, since

$$\overline{\epsilon \omega ^{}}=\epsilon \omega .$$

Further, in virtue of the second equality of (4.145) at $`n+13(mod4)`$ with $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ a pseudoantiautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜}}`$ (a composition of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ with the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$) is transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, since

$$\overline{\stackrel{~}{\epsilon \omega }}=\epsilon \omega .$$

Finally, a pseudoantiautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}}`$ (a composition of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ with the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$), corresponded to $`CPT`$–transformation, is transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ at $`n+13(mod4)`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with $`pq3,7(mod8)`$, since in this case in virtue of (4.148) and (4.149) we have

$$\overline{\stackrel{~}{(\epsilon \omega ^{})}}=\epsilon \omega .$$

Also at $`n+11(mod4)`$ and $`q1(mod2)`$ we obtain

$$\overline{\stackrel{~}{(\epsilon \omega ^{})}}=\stackrel{~}{(\epsilon \omega ^{})}=(\epsilon \omega )^{}=\epsilon \omega ,$$

therefore, the transformation $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}}`$ is transferred at $`n+11(mod4)`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with $`pq3,7(mod8)`$.

The conditions for the transfer of the fundamental automorphisms of the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into its subalgebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ under action of the homomorphism $`ϵ`$ allow to define in evident way an explicit form of the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$.
1) The quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$, $`n0(mod4)`$.
As noted previously, in the case $`n+11(mod4)`$ the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ are transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ if the subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ possesses the double rings $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq1,5(mod8)`$), and also the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜^{}}`$ and pseudoantiautomorpism $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}}`$ are transferred if $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ has the complex ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq3,7(mod8)`$). It is easy to see that in dependence on the type of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ the structure of the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ of this type is divided into two different classes:
a) The class of quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ containing the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$. It is obvious that in dependence on a division ring structure of the subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ this class is divided into two subclasses:

$`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ with $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$, $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ at $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq1(mod8)`$.

$`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ with $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$, $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ at $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq5(mod8)`$.

b) The class of quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ containing the transformations $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$, $`𝒜\overline{𝒜^{}}`$, $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}}`$ if the subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ has the complex ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq3,7(mod8)`$.
2) The quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$, $`n2(mod4)`$.
In the case $`n+13(mod4)`$ the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ and pseudoantiautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}}`$ are transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ if the subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ possesses the complex ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq3,7(mod8)`$), and also the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜^{}}`$ and pseudoantiautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜}}`$ are transferred if $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ has the double rings $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ ($`pq1,5(mod8)`$). In dependence on the type of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ all the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ of this type are divided into following two classes:
c) The class of quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ containing the transformations $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$, $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}}`$ if the subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ has the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq3,7(mod8)`$.
d) The class of quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ containing the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜^{}}`$ and pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜}}`$. At this point, in dependence on the division ring structure of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ we have two subclasses

$`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ with $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, $`𝒜\overline{𝒜^{}}`$ and $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜}}`$ at $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq1(mod8)`$.

$`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ with $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, $`𝒜\overline{𝒜^{}}`$ and $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜}}`$ at $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq5(mod8)`$.

Thus, we have 6 different classes of the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$. Further, in accordance with  the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ corresponds to space inversion $`P`$, the antiautomorphisms $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ set correspondingly time reversal $`T`$ and full reflection $`PT`$, and the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ corresponds to charge conjugation $`C`$. Taking into account this relation and Theorem 4.1 we come to classification presented in Theorem for complex quotient representations.
2) Real representations.
Let us define real quotient representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$. First of all, in the case of types $`pq3,7(mod8)`$ we have the isomorphism (4.67) and, therefore, these representations are equivalent to complex representations considered in the section 3. Further, when $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ we have the real algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the rings $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$, $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and, therefore, there exist homomorphic mappings $`ϵ:C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$, $`ϵ:C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$. In this case the quotient algebra has a form

$${}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}/\mathrm{Ker}ϵ$$

or

$${}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}/\mathrm{Ker}ϵ,$$

where $`\mathrm{Ker}ϵ=\left\{𝒜^1\omega 𝒜^1\right\}`$ is a kernel of $`ϵ`$, since in accordance with

$$\omega ^2=\{\begin{array}{cc}1\hfill & \text{if }pq2,3,6,7(mod8),\hfill \\ +1\hfill & \text{if }pq0,1,4,5(mod8)\hfill \end{array}$$

at $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ we have always $`\omega ^2=1`$ and, therefore, $`\epsilon =1`$. Thus, for the transfer of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ from $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ into $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$) it is necessary that

$$\stackrel{~}{\omega }=\omega $$

In virtue of the relation $`\stackrel{~}{\omega }=(1)^{\frac{(p+q)(p+q+1)}{2}}\omega `$ we obtain

$$\stackrel{~}{\omega }=\{\begin{array}{cc}+\omega \hfill & \text{if }pq1,5(mod8),\hfill \\ \omega \hfill & \text{if }pq3,7(mod8).\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.150)
Therefore, for the algebras over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is transferred at the mappings $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$, $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$, where $`pq1,5(mod8)`$.

In its turn, for the transfer of the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ it is necessary that $`\omega ^{}=\omega `$. However, since the element $`\omega `$ is odd and $`\omega ^{}=(1)^{p+q}\omega `$, then we have always

$$\omega ^{}=\omega .$$
(4.151)
Thus, the automorphism $`𝒜𝒜^{}`$ is never transferred from $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ into $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$)

Further, for the transfer of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ it is necessary that

$$\stackrel{~}{\omega ^{}}=\omega .$$

From (4.150) and (4.151) for the types $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ we obtain

$$\stackrel{~}{\omega ^{}}=\omega ^{}=\omega .$$
(4.152)
Therefore, under action of the homomorphism $`ϵ`$ the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ is never transferred from $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ into $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$).

As noted previously, for the real representations of $`𝔊_+`$ the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ is reduced into identical transformation $`𝖨`$ for $`_{0,2}^{l_0}`$ and to particle–antiparticle conjugation $`C^{}`$ for $`_{4,6}^{l_0}`$. The volume element $`\omega `$ of $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ (types $`pq1,5(mod8)`$) can be represented by the product $`\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\mathrm{}\text{e}_p\text{e}_{p+1}^{}\text{e}_{p+2}^{}\mathrm{}\text{e}_{p+q}^{}`$, where $`\text{e}_{p+j}^{}=i\text{e}_{p+j}`$, $`\text{e}_j^2=1`$, $`(\text{e}_{p+j}^{})^2=1`$. Therefore, for the transfer of $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ from $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ into $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$) we have a condition

$$\overline{\omega }=\omega ,$$

and in accordance with (4.149) it follows that the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ is transferred at $`q0(mod2)`$. Further, in virtue of the relation (4.151) the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜^{}}`$ is transferred at $`q1(mod2)`$, since in this case we have

$$\overline{\omega ^{}}=\omega .$$

Also from (4.150) it follows that the pseudoantiautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜}}`$ is transferred at $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ and $`q0(mod2)`$, since

$$\overline{\stackrel{~}{\omega }}=\omega .$$

Finally, the pseudoantiautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}}`$ ($`CPT`$–transformation) in virtue of (4.152) and (4.149) is transferred from $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ into $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$) at $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ and $`q1(mod2)`$.

Now we are in a position that allows to classify the real quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$).
1) The quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$, $`pq1(mod8)`$.
In this case the initial algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ has the double real division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and its subalgebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$ are of the type $`pq0(mod8)`$ or $`pq2(mod8)`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. Therefore, in accordance with Theorem 4.3 for all such quotient algebras the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ is equivalent to the identical transformation $`𝖨`$. The antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ in this case is transferred into $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$) at any $`pq1(mod8)`$. Further, in dependence on the number $`q`$ we have two different classes of the quotient algebras of this type:

$`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$) with $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$, $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$, $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜}}`$, $`pq1(mod8)`$, $`q0(mod2)`$.

$`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$) with $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$, $`𝒜\overline{𝒜^{}}`$, $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}}`$, $`pq1(mod8)`$, $`q1(mod2)`$.

2) The quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$), $`pq5(mod8)`$.
In this case the initial algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ has the double quaternionic division ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ and its subalgebras $`C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ and $`C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$ are of the type $`pq4(mod8)`$ or $`pq6(mod8)`$ with the ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$. Therefore, in this case the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ is equivalent to the particle–antiparticle conjugation $`C^{}`$. As in the previous case the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ is transferred at any $`pq5(mod8)`$. For this type in dependence on the number $`q`$ there are two different classes:

$`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$) with $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$, $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$, $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜}}`$, $`pq5(mod8)`$, $`q0(mod2)`$.

$`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q1}`$ ($`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{q,p1}`$) with $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$, $`𝒜\overline{𝒜^{}}`$, $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}}`$, $`pq5(mod8)`$, $`q1(mod2)`$.

### 4.6. Algebraic construction of physical fields

Many years ago Bogoliubov and Shirkov  pointed out that among all physical fields the electromagnetic field (beyond all shadow of doubt the main physical field) is quantized with the most difficulty. In the standard Gupta–Bleuler approach an unobservable magnitude (electromagnetic four–potential $`𝐀`$) is quantized. At this point, the four–potential has four degrees of freedom, but in nature there are only two degrees of freedom for a photon field (left and right handed polarizations). Besides, the electromagnetic four–potential is transformed within $`(1/2,1/2)`$–representaion of the homogeneous Lorentz group and, therefore, in accordance with a well-known Weinberg Theorem  the field described by $`𝐀`$ has a null helicity, that also contradicts with experience. Moreover, at the present time electromagnetic field is understood as a ‘gauge field’ that gives rise to a peculiar opposition with other physical fields called by this reason as ‘matter fields’.

With the aim of overcoming this unnatural opposition all the physical fields should be considered on an equal footing. In this section we present an algebraic construction of the most fundamental physical fields such as neutrino field, electron–positron field and electromagnetic field (see also ). Our consideration based mainly on the relation between Clifford algebras and Lorentz group considered in the previous sections. In  all the Clifford algebras are understood as ‘algebraic coverings’ of finite–dimensional representations of the proper Lorentz group $`𝔊_+`$. In the previous sections (see also ) it has been shown that there is a following classification:
I. Complex representations.

Representations $`^{l_0+l_11,0}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the field $`(j,0)`$, where $`j=\frac{l_0+l_11}{2}`$.

Representations $`^{0,l_0^{}l_1^{}+1}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the field $`(0,j^{})`$, where $`j^{}=\frac{l_0^{}l_1^{}+1}{2}`$.

Representations $`^{l_0+l_11,l_0^{}l_1^{}+1}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the field $`(j,j^{})`$.

Representations $`^{l_0+l_11,0}^{0,l_0l_1+1}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ with the field $`(j,0)(0,j)`$, $`j=j^{}`$.

Quotient representations $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{}^{l_0+l_11,0}{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{}^{0,l_0l_1+1}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ with the field $`(j,0)(0,j)`$.

II. Real representations.

Real representations $`_{0,2}^{l_0}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, $`pq0,2(mod8)`$, with the field $`[j]`$, where $`j=\frac{l_0}{2}`$, $`l_0=\frac{p+q}{4}`$.

Quaternionic representations $`_{4,6}^{l_0}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$, $`pq4,6(mod8)`$, with the field $`[j]`$.

Quotient representations $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }𝔇_{}^{l_0}{}_{}{}^{\chi }𝔇_{}^{l_0}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}C\mathrm{}_{p,q}`$ with the field $`[j][j]`$, where $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }𝔇_{}^{l_0}=\{{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{0,2}^{l_0},{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{4,6}^{l_0}\}`$.

Here the numbers $`l_0`$ and $`l_1`$ define the finite–dimensional representation in the Gel’fand–Naimark representation theory of the Lorentz group . In its turn, quotient representations correspond to the type $`n1(mod2)`$ of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ (or to the types $`pq1,5(mod8)`$ for the real representations). Over the field $`\mathrm{𝔽}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}`$ these representations obtained in the result of the following decomposition

Here central idempotents

$$\lambda ^+=\frac{1+\epsilon \text{e}_1\text{e}_2\mathrm{}\text{e}_{2k+1}}{2},\lambda ^{}=\frac{1\epsilon \text{e}_1\text{e}_2\mathrm{}\text{e}_{2k+1}}{2},$$

where

$$\epsilon =\{\begin{array}{cc}1,\hfill & \text{if }k0(mod2),\hfill \\ i,\hfill & \text{if }k1(mod2)\hfill \end{array}$$

satisfy the relations $`(\lambda ^+)^2=\lambda ^+`$, $`(\lambda ^{})^2=\lambda ^{}`$, $`\lambda ^+\lambda ^{}=0`$.

Analysing the quotient representations of the group $`𝔊_+`$ presented in Theorem 4.4, we see that only a repsesentation of the class $`c`$ at $`j=(l_0+l_11)/2=1/2`$ is adequate for description of the neutrino field. This representation admits full reflection $`PT`$, charge conjugation $`C`$ and $`CPT`$–transformation (space inversion $`P`$ is not defined). In contrast with this, the first three classes $`a_1,a_2`$ and $`b`$ are unsuitable for description of neutrino, since in this case $`j`$ is an integer number, $`n0(mod4)`$ (bosonic fields). In turn, the classes $`d_1`$ and $`d_2`$ admit $`CT`$–transformation that in accordance with $`CPT`$–Theorem is equivalent to space inversion $`P`$, which, as known, is a forbidden operation for the neutrino field. So, we have an homomorphic mapping $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, where $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a simplest Clifford algebra of the type $`n+13(mod4)`$. In accordance with Theorem 4.4 under action of the homomorphism $`ϵ:\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ the transformations $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$, $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\overline{\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}}`$ are transferred from $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ into $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. At this point, the real subalgebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ has the complex ring $`\mathrm{𝕂}\mathrm{}`$, $`pq3(mod8)`$, and, therefore, the matrix $`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ is not unit, that according to Theorem 4.3 corresponds to charged or neutral fields.

The first simplest case of the decomposition $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ is presented by the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ related with the neutrino field. Indeed,

here central idempotents

$$\lambda _{}=\frac{1i\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3}{2},\lambda _+=\frac{1+i\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3}{2}$$
(4.153)
in accordance with  can be identified with helicity projection operators. In such a way, we have two helicity states describing by the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$, and a full neutrino–antineutrino algebra is $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ (cf. electron–positron algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$).

Let $`\phi \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ be an algebraic spinor of the form (sometimes called operator spinor, see )

$$\phi =a^0+a^1\text{e}_1+a^2\text{e}_2+a^3\text{e}_3+a^{12}\text{e}_1\text{e}_2+a^{13}\text{e}_1\text{e}_3+a^{23}\text{e}_2\text{e}_3+a^{123}\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3.$$
(4.154)
Then it is easy to verify that spinors

$$\phi ^+=\lambda _+\phi =\frac{1}{2}(1+i\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3)\phi ,\phi ^{}=\lambda _{}\phi =\frac{1}{2}(1i\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3)\phi $$
(4.155)
are mutually orthogonal, $`\phi ^+\phi ^{}=0`$, since $`\lambda _+\lambda _{}=0`$, and also $`\phi ^+\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`\phi ^{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Further, it is obvious that a spinspace of the algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ is $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}`$. It should be noted here that structures of the spinspaces $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ are different. Indeed<sup>6</sup><sup>6</sup>6See also .,

$$\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}\\ \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}\end{array}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\begin{array}{cccc}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\mathrm{}& & \\ \mathrm{}\mathrm{}& \mathrm{}\mathrm{}& & \\ & & \dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}& \dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\\ & & \dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}& \dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\end{array}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}$$

Under action of the pseudoautomorphism $`𝒜\overline{𝒜}`$ (charge conjugation $`C`$, see ) spinspace $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ take a form

$$\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_2\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{^}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{~}\\ \mathrm{^}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{~}\end{array}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}$$

Since spinor representations of the quotient algebras $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ are defined in terms of Pauli matrices $`\sigma _i`$, then the algebraic spinors $`\phi ^+{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ and $`\phi ^{}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ correspond to spinors $`\xi ^{\alpha _i}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_i}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_2`$ ($`i=0,1`$). Hence we have Weyl equations

$$\left(\frac{}{x^0}𝝈\frac{}{𝐱}\right)\xi ^\alpha =0,\left(\frac{}{x^0}+𝝈\frac{}{𝐱}\right)\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }}=0.$$
(4.156)
Therefore, two–component Weyl theory can be formulated naturally within quotient representation $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{c}^{1,0}{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{c}^{0,1}`$ of the group $`𝔊_+`$. Further, in virtue of an isomorphism $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}`$ ($`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ is the space–time algebra) the spinor field of the quotient representation $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{c}^{0,1}`$ ($`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{c}^{1,0}`$) can be expressed via the Dirac–Hestenes spinor field $`\varphi (x)C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$ . Indeed, the Dirac–Hestenes spinor is represented by the biquaternion number (1.31) (see Chapter 1), or using $`\gamma `$–matrix basis (1.28) we can write $`\varphi (x)`$ in the matrix form

$$\varphi =\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\varphi _1& \varphi _2^{}& \varphi _3& \varphi _4^{}\\ \varphi _2& \varphi _1^{}& \varphi _4& \varphi _3^{}\\ \varphi _3& \varphi _4^{}& \varphi _1& \varphi _2^{}\\ \varphi _4& \varphi _3^{}& \varphi _2& \varphi _1^{}\end{array}\right),$$
(4.157)
where

$$\varphi _1=a^0ia^{12},\varphi _2=a^{13}ia^{23},\varphi _3=a^{03}ia^{0123},\varphi _4=a^{01}+ia^{02}.$$

From (4.154)–(4.155) and (1.31) it is easy to see that spinors $`\phi ^+`$ and $`\phi ^{}`$ are algebraically equivalent to the spinor $`\varphi \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$. Further, since $`\varphi C\mathrm{}_{1,3}^+`$, then actions of the antiautomorphisms $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ and $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜^{}}`$ on the field $`\varphi `$ are equivalent. On the other hand, in accordance with Feynman–Stueckelberg interpretation, time reversal for the chiral field is equivalent to charge conjugation (particles reversed in time are antiparticles). Thus, for the field $`\varphi {}_{}{}^{\chi }_{c}^{0,1}`$ we have $`CT`$ and, therefore, this field is $`CP`$–invariant.

As known, the spinor (1.31) (or (4.157)) satisfies the Dirac–Hestenes equation

$$\varphi \gamma _2\gamma _1\frac{mc}{\mathrm{}}\varphi \gamma _0=0,$$
(4.158)
where $`=\gamma ^\mu \frac{}{x^\mu }`$ is the Dirac operator. Let us show that a massless Dirac–Hestenes equation

$$\varphi \gamma _2\gamma _1=0$$
(4.159)
describes the neutrino field. Indeed, the matrix $`\gamma _0\gamma _1\gamma _2\gamma _3`$ commutes with all the elements of the biquaternion (1.31) and, therefore, $`\gamma _0\gamma _1\gamma _2\gamma _3`$ is equivalent to the volume element $`\omega =\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3`$ of the biquaternion algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$. In such a way, we see that idempotents

$$P_+=\frac{1+\gamma _5}{2},P_{}=\frac{1\gamma _5}{2}$$

cover the central idempotents (4.153), where $`\gamma _5=i\gamma _0\gamma _1\gamma _2\gamma _3`$. Further, from (4.159) we obtain

$$P_\pm \gamma ^\mu \frac{}{x^\mu }\varphi \gamma _2\gamma _1=\gamma ^\mu P_mp\frac{}{x^\mu }\varphi \gamma _2\gamma _1=0,$$

that is, there are two separated equations for $`\varphi ^\pm =P_\pm \varphi \gamma _2\gamma _1`$:

$$\gamma ^\mu \frac{}{x^\mu }\varphi ^\pm =0,$$
(4.160)
where

$$\varphi ^\pm =\frac{1}{2}(1\pm \gamma _5)\varphi \gamma _2\gamma _1=\frac{i}{2}\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\varphi _1\varphi _3& \varphi _2^{}\pm \varphi _4^{}& \varphi _3\varphi _1& \varphi _4^{}\varphi _2^{}\\ \varphi _2\varphi _4& \varphi _1^{}\varphi _3^{}& \varphi _4\varphi _2& \varphi _3^{}\pm \varphi _1^{}\\ \varphi _1+\varphi _2& \varphi _2^{}\varphi _4^{}& \varphi _3+\varphi _1& \pm \varphi _4^{}+\varphi _2^{}\\ \varphi _2+\varphi _4& \pm \varphi _1^{}+\varphi _3^{}& \varphi _4+\varphi _2& \varphi _3^{}\varphi _1^{}\end{array}\right)$$

Therefore, each of the functions $`\varphi ^+`$ and $`\varphi ^{}`$ contains only four independent components and in the split form we have

$$\varphi ^+=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\psi _1& \psi _2& \psi _3& \psi _4\\ \psi _1& \psi _2& \psi _3& \psi _4\end{array}\right),\varphi ^{}=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\psi _5& \psi _6& \psi _7& \psi _8\\ \psi _5& \psi _6& \psi _7& \psi _8\end{array}\right),$$

where

$$\psi _1=\frac{i}{2}\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _1\varphi _3\\ \varphi _2\varphi _4\end{array}\right),\psi _2=\frac{i}{2}\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _2^{}+\varphi _4^{}\\ \varphi _1^{}\varphi _3^{}\end{array}\right),\psi _3=\frac{i}{2}\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _3\varphi _1\\ \varphi _4\varphi _2\end{array}\right),\psi _4=\frac{i}{2}\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _4^{}\varphi _2^{}\\ \varphi _3^{}+\varphi _1^{}\end{array}\right),$$

$$\psi _5=\frac{i}{2}\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _1+\varphi _3\\ \varphi _2+\varphi _4\end{array}\right),\psi _6=\frac{i}{2}\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _2^{}\varphi _4^{}\\ \varphi _1^{}+\varphi _3^{}\end{array}\right),\psi _7=\frac{i}{2}\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _3+\varphi _1\\ \varphi _4+\varphi _2\end{array}\right),\psi _8=\frac{i}{2}\left(\begin{array}{c}\varphi _4^{}+\varphi _2^{}\\ \varphi _3^{}\varphi _1^{}\end{array}\right).$$

Thus, in the $`\gamma `$–matrix basis we obtain from (4.160)

$$\left(\frac{}{x^0}𝝈\frac{}{𝐱}\right)\psi _i=0,\left(\frac{}{x^0}+𝝈\frac{}{𝐱}\right)\psi _{i+4}=0,(i=1,2,3,4)$$

These equations are equivalent to Weyl equations (4.156) for neutrino field and, therefore, by analogy with the Dirac–Hestenes equations for $`m0`$ it should be called Weyl–Hestenes equations for neutrino field.

The Dirac electron–positron field $`(1/2,0)(0,1/2)`$ corresponds to the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$. It should be noted that the Dirac algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ considered as a tensor product $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ (or $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$) gives rise to spintensors $`\xi ^{\alpha _1\alpha _2}`$ (or $`\xi ^{\alpha _1\dot{\alpha }_1}`$), but it contradicts with the usual definition of the Dirac bispinor as a pair $`(\xi ^{\alpha _1},\xi ^{\dot{\alpha }_1})`$. Therefore, the Clifford algebra associated with the Dirac field is $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$, and a spinspace of this sum in virtue of unique decomposition $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}`$ ($`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a spinspace of $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$) allows to define $`\gamma `$–matrices in the Weyl basis.

In common with other massless fields (such as the neutrino field $`(1/2,0)(0,1/2)`$) the Maxwell electromagnetic field is also described within the quotient representations of the Lorentz group. In accordance with Theorem 4.4 in  the photon field can be described by a quotient representation of the class $`{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{a_1}^{2,0}{}_{}{}^{\chi }_{a_1}^{0,2}`$. This representation admits time reversal $`T`$ and an identical charge conjugation $`C𝖨`$ that corresponds to truly neutral particles (see Theorem 4.3). The quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ associated with the Maxwell field $`(1,0)(0,1)`$ is obtained in the result of an homomorphic mapping $`ϵ:C_5\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Indeed, for the algebra $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ we have a decomposition

where the central idempotents

$$\lambda _+=\frac{1+\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3\text{e}_4\text{e}_5}{2},\lambda _{}=\frac{1\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3\text{e}_4\text{e}_5}{2}$$

correspond to the helicity projection operators of the Maxwell field. As known, for the photon there are two helicity states: left and right handed polarizations.

Let $`\phi \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ be an algebraic spinor of the form

$$\phi =a^0+\underset{i=1}{\overset{5}{}}a^i\text{e}_i+\underset{i,j=1}{\overset{5}{}}a^{ij}\text{e}_i\text{e}_j+\underset{i,j,k=1}{\overset{5}{}}a^{ijk}\text{e}_i\text{e}_j\text{e}_k+\underset{i,j,k,l=1}{\overset{5}{}}a^{ijkl}\text{e}_i\text{e}_j\text{e}_k\text{e}_l+a^{12345}\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3\text{e}_4\text{e}_5,$$

then the spinors

$$\phi ^+=\lambda _+\phi =\frac{1}{2}(1+\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3\text{e}_4\text{e}_5)\phi ,\phi ^{}=\lambda _{}\phi =\frac{1}{2}(1\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3\text{e}_4\text{e}_5)\phi $$

are mutually orthogonal, $`\phi ^+\phi ^{}=0`$, and $`\phi ^+\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, $`\phi ^{}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}`$. The spinspace of the algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$ has a form

$$\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\begin{array}{cccc}\mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}\\ \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}\\ \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}\\ \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}& \mathrm{^}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{~}\end{array}\mathrm{}$$

Let us consider now an explicit construction of the Maxwell field $`(1,0)(0,1)`$ within the quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\stackrel{}{\mathrm{}}_{\mathrm{}}^{}`$. First of all, let us define a spinor representation of the field $`(1,0)(0,1)`$. As a rule, a spinor field of the quotient algebra $`{}_{}{}^{ϵ}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}^{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}}`$ is appearred at the extraction of the minimal left ideal  (see also Chapter 1):

$$I_{4,1}=C\mathrm{}_{4,1}e_{41}C\mathrm{}_{1,3}^+e_{13}\frac{1}{2}(1+i\gamma _1\gamma _2)=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\psi _1& 0& 0& 0\\ \psi _2& 0& 0& 0\\ \psi _3& 0& 0& 0\\ \psi _4& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),$$
(4.161)
where $`e_{13}\frac{1}{2}(1+\gamma _0)`$ and $`e_{41}=\frac{1}{2}(1+\gamma _0)\frac{1}{2}(1+i\gamma _1\gamma _2)`$ are primitive idempotents of the algebras $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}`$ and $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Further, since $`C\mathrm{}_{1,3}^+C\mathrm{}_{3,0}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$, then the spinor field $`\psi `$ in (4.161) can be expressed via the Dirac–Hestenes spinor field $`\varphi C\mathrm{}_{3,0}\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$. Let

$$=^0\text{e}_0+^1\text{e}_1+^2\text{e}_2+^3\text{e}_3,A=A^0\text{e}_0+A^1\text{e}_1+A^2\text{e}_2+A^3\text{e}_3$$

be linear elements of the algebra $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$, where $`A_i`$ are the components of the electromagnetic four–potential. Then

$$\begin{array}{c}A=(^0\text{e}_0+^1\text{e}_1+^2\text{e}_2+^3\text{e}_3)(A^0\text{e}_0+A^1\text{e}_1+A^2\text{e}_2+A^3\text{e}_3)=\hfill \\ \hfill (\underset{E^0}{\underset{}{^0A^0+^1A^1+^2A^2+^3A^3}})\text{e}_0+(\underset{E^1}{\underset{}{^0A^1+^1A^0}})\text{e}_0\text{e}_1+\\ \hfill (\underset{E^2}{\underset{}{^0A^2+^2A^0}})\text{e}_0\text{e}_2+(\underset{E^3}{\underset{}{^0A^3+^3A^0}})\text{e}_0\text{e}_3+(\underset{H^1}{\underset{}{^2A^3^3A^2}})\text{e}_2\text{e}_3+\\ \hfill (\underset{H^2}{\underset{}{^3A^1^1A^3}})\text{e}_3\text{e}_1+(\underset{H^3}{\underset{}{^1A^2^2A^1}})\text{e}_1\text{e}_2.\end{array}$$
(4.162)
The scalar part $`E_00`$, since the first bracket in (4.162) is a Lorentz condition $`^0A^0+\text{div}𝐀=0`$. It is easy to see that other brackets are components of electric and magnetic fields: $`E^i=(^iA^0+^0A^i)`$, $`H^i=(\text{curl}\text{A})^i`$.

Since $`\omega =\text{e}_{123}`$ belongs to a center of $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$, then

$$\omega \text{e}_1=\text{e}_1\omega =\text{e}_2\text{e}_3,\omega \text{e}_2=\text{e}_2\omega =\text{e}_3\text{e}_1,\omega \text{e}_3=\text{e}_3\omega =\text{e}_1\text{e}_2.$$

In accordance with these relations we can write (4.162) as follows

$$A=(E^1+\omega H^1)\text{e}_1+(E^2+\omega H^2)\text{e}_2+(E^3+\omega H^3)\text{e}_3$$
(4.163)
Further, let us compose the product $`𝐅`$, where $`𝐅`$ is an expression of the type (4.162):

$$\begin{array}{c}𝐅=\text{div}\text{E}\text{e}_0((\text{curl}\text{H})^1^0E_1)\text{e}_1((\text{curl}\text{H})^2^0E^2)\text{e}_2\hfill \\ \hfill ((\text{curl}\text{H})^3^0E^3)\text{e}_3+((\text{curl}\text{E})^1+^0H^1)\text{e}_2\text{e}_3+((\text{curl}\text{E})^2+^0H^2)\text{e}_3\text{e}_1+\\ \hfill ((\text{curl}\text{E})^3+^0H^3)\text{e}_1\text{e}_2+\text{div}\text{H}\text{e}_1\text{e}_2\text{e}_3.\end{array}$$
(4.164)
It is easy to see that the first coefficient of the product $`𝐅`$ is a left part of the equation $`\text{div}\text{E}=\varrho `$. The following three coefficients compose a left part of the equation $`\text{curl}\text{H}^0\text{E}=j`$, other coefficients compose the equations $`\text{curl}\text{E}+^0\text{H}=0`$ and $`\text{div}\text{H}=0`$, respectively.

Further, since the element $`\gamma _5=\gamma _0\gamma _1\gamma _2\gamma _3`$ commutes with all other elements of the biquaternion (1.31) and $`\gamma _5^2=1`$, then we can rewrite (1.31) as follows

$$\varphi =(a^0+\gamma _{0123}a^{0123})+(a^{01}+\gamma _{0123}a^{23})\gamma _{01}+(a^{02}+\gamma _{0123}a^{31})\gamma _{02}+(a^{03}+\gamma _{0123}a^{12})\gamma _{03}$$

or taking into account (4.163) we obtain

$$\varphi =(E^1+iH^1)\gamma _{01}+(E^2+iH^2)\gamma _{02}+(E^3+iH^3)\gamma _{03}=F_1\gamma _{01}+F_2\gamma _{02}+F_3\gamma _{03}.$$

In the matrix form we have

$$\varphi =\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& F_3& F_1iF_2\\ 0& 0& F_1+iF_2& F_3\\ F_3& F_1iF_2& 0& 0\\ F_1+iF_2& F_3& 0& 0\end{array}\right)$$

Then from (4.161) the relation immediately follows between spinors $`\psi \mathrm{}_{\mathrm{}}`$ and $`\varphi C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$

$$\psi =\varphi \frac{1}{2}(1+\gamma _0)\frac{1}{2}(1+i\gamma _1\gamma _2)=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ F_3& 0& 0& 0\\ F_1+iF_2& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ F_1\\ F_2\\ F_3\end{array}\right)$$
(4.165)
Let us consider now an action of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ on the arbitrary element of $`C\mathrm{}_{3,0}`$ represented by a formula

$$𝒜=(a^0+\omega a^{123})\text{e}_0+(a^1+\omega a^{23})\text{e}_1+(a^2+\omega a^{31})\text{e}_2+(a^3+\omega a^{12})\text{e}_3.$$
(4.166)
The action of the antiautomorphism $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ on the homogeneous element $`𝒜`$ of a degree $`k`$ is defined by a formula $`\stackrel{~}{𝒜}=(1)^{\frac{k(k1)}{2}}𝒜`$. Thus, for the element (4.166) we obtain

$$𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}=(a^0\omega a^{123})\text{e}_0+(a^1\omega a^{23})\text{e}_1+(a^2\omega a^{31})\text{e}_2+(a^3\omega a^{12})\text{e}_3.$$

Therefore, under action of $`𝒜\stackrel{~}{𝒜}`$ the element (4.163) takes a form

$$\stackrel{~}{(A)}=(E^1iH^1)\text{e}_1+(E^2iH^2)\text{e}_2+(E^3iH^3)\text{e}_3$$

and

$$\stackrel{~}{\varphi }=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& \stackrel{}{F}_3& \stackrel{}{F}_1i\stackrel{}{F}_2\\ 0& 0& \stackrel{}{F}_1+i\stackrel{}{F}_2& \stackrel{}{F}_3\\ \stackrel{}{F}_3& \stackrel{}{F}_1i\stackrel{}{F}_2& 0& 0\\ \stackrel{}{F}_1+i\stackrel{}{F}_2& \stackrel{}{F}_3& 0& 0\end{array}\right).$$

Hence it immediately follows

$$\stackrel{~}{\psi }=\stackrel{~}{\varphi }\frac{1}{2}(1+\gamma _0)\frac{1}{2}(1+i\gamma _1\gamma _2)=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0\\ \stackrel{}{F}_3& 0& 0& 0\\ \stackrel{}{F}_1+i\stackrel{}{F}_2& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}0\\ \stackrel{}{F}_1\\ \stackrel{}{F}_2\\ \stackrel{}{F}_3\end{array}\right)$$
(4.167)
From (4.165) and (4.167) it follows that the full representation space $`\mathrm{𝕊}_{\mathrm{}}\dot{\mathrm{𝕊}}_{\mathrm{}}`$ is reduced to a 3–dimensional symmetric space $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(2,0)}\mathrm{Sym}_{(0,2)}`$. The transition from operator spinors to $`SO(3)`$ vectors has been done by several authors (see, for example ). The ‘vectors’ (spintensors) of the spaces $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(2,0)}`$ and $`\mathrm{Sym}_{(0,2)}`$ are

$$f^{00}=\xi ^0\xi ^0,f^{01}=f^{10}=\xi ^0\xi ^1=\xi ^1\xi ^0,f^{11}=\xi ^1\xi ^1,$$

$$f^{\dot{0}\dot{0}}=\xi ^{\dot{0}}\xi ^{\dot{0}},f^{\dot{0}\dot{1}}=f^{\dot{1}\dot{0}}=\xi ^{\dot{0}}\xi ^{\dot{1}}=\xi ^{\dot{1}}\xi ^{\dot{0}},f^{\dot{1}\dot{1}}=\xi ^{\dot{1}}\xi ^{\dot{1}}.$$
(4.168)
It is well–known  that spintensors (4.168) correspond to a Helmholtz–Silberstein representation $`𝐅=𝐄+i𝐇`$ and form a basis of the Majorana–Oppenheimer quantum electrodynamics  in which the electromagnetism has to be considered as the wave mechanics of the photon. Moreover, the field $`(1,0)(0,1)`$ satisfies the Weinberg Theorem.

In such a way, it is easy to see that

Weyl neutrino field $`(1/2,0)(0,1/2),`$
Dirac electron–positron field $`(1/2,0)(0,1/2),`$
Maxwell electromagnetic field $`(1,0)(0,1)`$ (4.169)
$`(1/2,0)(1/2,0)(0,1/2)(0,1/2)`$
have the same mathematical structure. Namely, all these fields are obtained from the fundamental field $`(1/2,0)`$ ($`(0,1/2)`$) by means of unification, direct sum and tensor product. From this point of view a division of all the physical fields into ‘gauge fields’ and ‘matter fields’ has an artificial character. It is obvious that an origin of such a division takes its beginning from the invalid description (from group theoretical viewpoint) of electromagnetic field in quantum field theory (a la Gupta–Bleuler approach) and a groundless extension of the Yang–Mills idea (as known, a long derivative is equivalent to a minimal interaction in the lagrangian). Further, as follows from (4.169) the Maxwell field has a composite structure that gives rise to a de Broglie–Jordan neutrino theory of light , in which the electromagnetic field is constructed via the two neutrino fields.

As known, the neutrino theory of light has a long and dramatic history (see excellent review ). The main obstacle that decelerates the development of the neutrino theory of light is a Pryce’s Theorem  (see also a Berezinskii modification of this Theorem ). In 1938, Pryce claimed the incompatibility of obtaining transversely–polarized photons and Bose statistics from neutrinos. However, as it has been recently shown by Perkins  the Pryce’s Theorem contains an assumption which is unsupported and probably incorrect. The Perkins arguments based on the experimental similarities between bosons and quasi–bosons allow to overcome this obstacle (Pryce’s Theorem). In the present paper we show that transversely–polarized photons follow naturally from composite neutrinos (it is a direct consequence of the group theoretical consideration). It is obvious that such photons are quasi–bosons  that do not satisfy the Bose statistics, but they satisfy the Lipkin statistics of a composite particle such as the deuteron and Cooper pairs . In conclusion, one can say that a correct description of electromagnetic field is a synthesis of the Majorana–Oppenheimer quantum electrodynamics and de Broglie–Jordan neutrino theory of light.