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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

In a series of papers  we have dealt with the problem of the construction of induced representations of quantum inhomogeneous algebras. In particular, in Ref.  we have focussed our attention on quantum Hopf algebras having the structure of bicrossproduct $`=U(𝒦)U_z()`$, with $`U(𝒦)`$ a cocommutative Hopf algebra, $`U_z()`$ a commutative but noncocommutative Hopf algebra and $`𝒦`$ and $``$ Lie algebras . Remember that this bicrossproduct structure is the deformed counterpart of the semidirect product of Lie groups ($`H=LK`$). In this paper we want to profit of some of the techniques developed in the above mentioned papers to obtain relevant information about some aspects related with the bicrossproduct algebras object of our study.

We shall reinterpret the above bicrossproduct structure as $`H=U(𝒦)\mathrm{Fun}(L_z)`$, because the commutativity of $``$ allows to identify it with the algebra of functions over a certain group $`L_z`$. The bicrossproduct structure determines an action of $`U(𝒦)`$ on $`\mathrm{Fun}(L_z)`$ which at the level of groups originates a nonlinear action of the group $`K`$ on $`L_z`$. At the infinitesimal level this last action is described by vector fields associated to the generators of $`𝒦`$. These vector fields give rise to oneparameter flows some of them linear (‘nondeformed’) and other nonlinear (‘deformed’). In other words, we can study some dynamical systems associated to this action.

As it is well known in the nondeformed case, the homogeneous space $`X=H/K`$ is diffeomorphic to $`\text{}^N`$ which is associated to $`L`$, being $`N`$ the dimension of $`L`$. In the quantum case the homogeneous space is now identified with $`\mathrm{Fun}(L_z)`$. However, we can study the nonlinear action of $`K`$ over $`L_z`$. Note that in the limit $`z0`$ we recover the linear action of $`K`$ on $`X`$.

We will consider the family of inhomogeneous algebras related by graded contractions with the compact algebra $`so(N+1)`$ . They are called inhomogeneous Cayley–Klein algebras. Among the elements of this family we find the Poincaré and the Galilei algebras in $`(N1,1)`$ dimensions and the Euclidean algebra in $`N`$ dimensions. The bicrossproduct structure that share these quantum algebras  allows to present a unified study of the properties mentioned above.

The organization of the paper is as follows. Section 2 presents a brief review about the inhomogeneous Cayley–Klein algebras, their quantum deformations and their bicrossproduct structure. Next section, the most important of the work, is devoted to compute the flow associated to the action, the invariant under this action that coincides with the Casimir, and the dynamical systems associated. In section 4 we present, as an example, the case of $`N=3`$ to illustrate the ideas introduced in the previous section. We finish with some conclusions and remarks.

## 2 Quantum Cayley-Klein algebras $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))`$

The family of Cayley–Klein pseudo-orthogonal algebras is a set of $`(N+1)N/2`$ dimensional real Lie algebras characterized by $`N`$ real parameters $`(\omega _1,\omega _2,\mathrm{},\omega _N)`$ and denoted $`𝔰𝔬_{\omega _1,\omega _2,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N+1)`$ . In an appropriate basis $`(J_{ij})_{0i<jN}`$ the nonvanishing commutators are

$$[J_{ij},J_{ik}]=\omega _{ij}J_{jk},[J_{ij},J_{jk}]=J_{ik},[J_{ik},J_{jk}]=\omega _{jk}J_{ij},$$

with the subindices verifying $`0<i<j<k<N`$ and $`\omega _{ij}={\displaystyle \underset{s=i+1}{\overset{j}{}}}\omega _s`$. The generators can be rescaled in such a way that the parameters $`\omega _i`$ only take the values $`1,0`$ and $`1`$. When all the $`\omega _i`$’s are different to zero the algebra $`𝔰𝔬_{\omega _1,\omega _2,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N+1)`$ is isomorphic to some of the pseudo-orthogonal algebras $`𝔰𝔬(p,q)`$ with $`p+q=N+1`$ and $`pq>0`$. If some of the coefficients $`\omega _i`$ vanishes the corresponding algebra is inhomogeneous and can be obtained from $`𝔰𝔬(p,q)`$ by means of a sequence of contractions. In the particular case of $`\omega _1=0`$, the algebras $`𝔰𝔬_{0,\omega _2,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N+1)`$ can be realized as algebras of groups of affine transformations on $`^N`$ . In this case, the generators $`J_{0i}`$ are denoted by $`P_i`$ stressing, in this way, its role as generators of translations. The remaining generators $`J_{ij}`$ originate compact and ‘noncompact’ rotations. These inhomogeneous algebras, henceforth denoted by $`𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N)`$, are characterized by the following nonvanishing commutators

$$\begin{array}{cccc}& [J_{ij},J_{ik}]=\omega _{ij}J_{jk},\hfill & [J_{ij},J_{jk}]=J_{ik},\hfill & [J_{ik},J_{jk}]=\omega _{jk}J_{ij},\hfill \\ & [J_{ij},P_i]=P_j,\hfill & [J_{ij},P_i]=\omega _{ij}P_i,\hfill & 1i<j<kN.\hfill \end{array}$$

In  simultaneous standard deformations (i.e. their associated classical $`r`$–matrices are quasi-triangular ) for all the enveloping algebras $`U(𝔰𝔬_{\omega _1,\omega _2}(3))`$ and $`U(𝔰𝔬_{\omega _1,\omega _2,\omega _3}(4))`$, respectively, were introduced. In  the case of $`U(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\omega _4}(4))`$ was considered, and in  the general case $`U(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))`$ (all of them standard deformations).

It was proved in  that the standard quantum Hopf algebras $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))`$ have a structure of bicrossproduct. Using a basis adapted to the bicrossproduct structure we can describe together all these quantum algebras $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))`$. In order to avoid repetitions we use the following convention: the variation rank of $`i,j,k`$ is $`1,\mathrm{},N1`$ and the index $`N`$ is treated separately. Besides, when two indices $`i,j`$ appear in a generator it is assumed that $`i<j`$. The commutation relations are

$$\begin{array}{cc}& [P_i,P_j]=0,[P_i,P_N]=0,\hfill \\ & [J_{ij},J_{ik}]=\omega _{ij}J_{jk},[J_{ij},J_{jk}]=J_{ik},[J_{ik},J_{jk}]=\omega _{jk}J_{ij},\hfill \\ & [J_{ij},J_{iN}]=\omega _{ij}J_{jN},[J_{ij},J_{jN}]=J_{iN},[J_{ik},J_{jN}]=\omega _{jN}J_{ij},\hfill \\ & [J_{ij},P_k]=\delta _{ik}P_k\delta _{jk}\omega _{ij}P_i,[J_{ij},P_N]=0,\hfill \\ & [J_{iN},P_j]=\delta _{ij}\left(\frac{1e^{2zP_N}}{2z}\frac{z}{2}\underset{s=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}P_s^2\right)+z\omega _{iN}P_iP_j,[J_{iN},P_N]=\omega _{iN}P_i;\hfill \end{array}$$
(2.1)
and the coproduct is given by

$$\begin{array}{cc}& \mathrm{\Delta }(P_i)=P_i1+e^{zP_N}P_i,\mathrm{\Delta }(P_N)=P_N1+1P_N,\hfill \\ & \mathrm{\Delta }(J_{ij})=J_{ij}1+1J_{ij},\hfill \\ & \mathrm{\Delta }(J_{iN})=J_{iN}1+e^{zP_N}J_{ij}+z\underset{s=1}{\overset{i1}{}}\omega _{iN}P_sJ_{si}z\underset{s=i+1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}P_sJ_{is}.\hfill \end{array}$$

The bicrossproduct structure $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))=𝒦`$, with $`𝒦=U(𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))`$ and $``$ the commutative Hopf subalgebra generated by $`P_1,P_2,\mathrm{},P_N`$, is described by the right action of $`𝒦`$ over $``$

$$P_iJ_{jk}=[P_i,J_{jk}],j<k,i,j,k=1,2,\mathrm{},N,$$

with the commutators given by (2.1), and the left coaction of $``$ over $`𝒦`$, whose expression over the generators of $`𝒦`$ is

$$\begin{array}{cc}& J_{ij}=1J_{ij},\hfill \\ & J_{iN}=e^{zP_N}J_{iN}+z\underset{s=1}{\overset{i1}{}}\omega _{iN}P_sJ_{si}z\underset{s=i+1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}P_sJ_{is}.\hfill \end{array}$$

## 3 Oneparameter flows

In  the algebra $`U_z(T_N)`$ was considered as a noncommutative deformation of the Lie algebra of the group of translations of $`^N`$. However, here we can profit the commutativity of $`U_z(T_N)`$ for interpreting it as the algebra of functions over a group, in such a way that we have the following bicrossproduct decomposition

$$U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))=U(𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))F(T_{z,N}),$$

where $`T_{z,N}`$ is the space $`^N`$ equipped with the composition law

$$\begin{array}{cc}& (\alpha _1^{},\alpha _2^{},\mathrm{},\alpha _{N1}^{},\alpha _N^{})(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\mathrm{},\alpha _{N1},\alpha _N)=\hfill \\ & (\alpha _1^{}+e^{z\alpha _N^{}}\alpha _1,\alpha _2^{}+e^{z\alpha _N^{}}\alpha _2,\mathrm{},\alpha _{N1}^{}+e^{z\alpha _N^{}}\alpha _{N1},\alpha _N^{}+\alpha _N),\hfill \end{array}$$

that equips it with a structure of $`N`$–dimensional Lie group. The group $`T_{z,N}`$ has the structure of semidirect product of the additive groups $`^{N1}`$ and $``$

$$T_{z,N}^{N1}>,(a^{},b^{})(a,b)=(a^{}+ab_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{1},b^{}+b),$$

where the right action of $``$ over $`^{N1}`$ is given by means of the usual product over each component,

$$ab=e^{zb}a,a^{N1},b.$$

The generators $`P_i`$ of $`U_z(T_N)`$ give in this context a global chart over $`T_{z,N}`$,

$$P_i(\alpha )=\alpha _i,\alpha T_{z,N}.$$

The structure of $`U(𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))`$–module algebra of $`F(T_{z,N})`$ implies that an action of the group $`SO_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N)`$ on $`T_{z,N}`$ is defined. At the infinitesimal level this action is described by the vector fields

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \widehat{J}_{ij}=& P_j\frac{}{P_i}+\omega _{ij}P_i\frac{}{P_j},\hfill \\ \hfill \widehat{J}_{iN}=& \underset{j=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\left[\delta _{ij}\left(\frac{1e^{2zP_N}}{2z}\frac{z}{2}\underset{s=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}P_s^2\right)+z\omega _{iN}P_iP_j\right]\frac{}{P_j}+\omega _{iN}P_i\frac{}{P_N}\hfill \\ \hfill =& \underset{ji,N}{}z\omega _{iN}P_iP_j\frac{}{P_j}\left[\frac{1e^{2zP_N}}{2z}\frac{z}{2}\underset{s=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}P_s^2+z\omega _{iN}P_i^2\right]\frac{}{P_i}+\omega _{iN}P_i\frac{}{P_N}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.1)
Since only the generators $`J_{1N},J_{2N},\mathrm{},J_{N1N}`$ have deformed action the integration of the equations of the fields $`\widehat{J}_{ij}`$ is immediate and gives the well known linear flows

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_{ij}^t(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _i,\mathrm{},\alpha _j,\mathrm{},\alpha _N)=(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _{i1},\alpha _i^{},\alpha _{i+1}\mathrm{},\alpha _{j1},\alpha _j^{},\alpha _{j+1}\mathrm{},\alpha _N),$$
(3.2)
with

$$\alpha _i^{}=C_{\omega _{ij}}(t)\alpha _iS_{\omega _{ij}}(t)\alpha _j,\alpha _j^{}=\omega _{ij}S_{\omega _{ij}}(t)\alpha _i+C_{\omega _{ij}}(t)\alpha _j,$$

where

$$C_\omega (t)=\frac{e^{\sqrt{\omega }t}+e^{\sqrt{\omega }t}}{2},S_\omega (t)=\frac{e^{\sqrt{\omega }t}e^{\sqrt{\omega }t}}{2\sqrt{\omega }}.$$

So, we have simple compact or noncompact rotations in the $`ij`$ plane.

The computation of the flows associated to the ‘deformed’ fields $`\widehat{J}_{iN}`$ requires a more careful analysis. Let us start by obtaining their invariants. Supposing that the differential form

$$\eta =\underset{s=1}{\overset{N}{}}\mu _sdP_s,$$
(3.3)
verifies $`\widehat{J}_{iN}\eta =0`$, the following equation is obtained

$$\underset{ji,N}{}z\omega _{iN}P_iP_j\mu _j+\left[\frac{1e^{2zP_N}}{2z}\frac{z}{2}\underset{s=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}P_s^2+z\omega _{iN}P_i^2\right]\mu _i\omega _{iN}P_i\mu _N=0.$$
(3.4)
Using this expression $`(N1)`$ invariant functions are obtained as follows. For the first invariant we choose

$$\mu _s=\omega _{sN}P_s\tau ,s=1,2,\mathrm{},N1,$$

with $`\tau `$ a function to be evaluated. Hence, equation (3.4) reduces to

$$\omega _{iN}P_i\left[\frac{1e^{2zP_N}}{2z}+\frac{z}{2}\underset{s=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}P_s^2\right]\tau \omega _{iN}P_i\mu _N=0.$$
(3.5)
From equation (3.5) we find the value of $`\mu _N`$ obtaining the differential form

$$\eta =\tau \left[\underset{j=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{jN}P_jdP_j+\left(\frac{1e^{2zP_N}}{2z}+\frac{z}{2}\underset{s=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}P_s^2\right)dP_N\right],$$

where $`\tau `$ plays the role of integration factor. Solving the case $`N=2`$ we get $`\tau =2e^{zP_N}`$, that it is proved to be valid for every $`N`$. The integration of the equations

$$\frac{h}{P_s}=\mu _s,1sN,$$

gives $`\eta =dh`$. By an appropriate choice of the integration constant, in order to have a well behaviour in the limit $`z0`$, we obtain

$$h_{\omega ,z}=\underset{j=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{jN}P_j^2e^{zP_N}+\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(zP_N)1}{\frac{z^2}{2}}.$$
(3.6)
This function is, in fact, invariant under the action of all the generators $`J_{ij}`$. Indeed, it belongs to the center of the algebra $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))`$ and is the Casimir $`C_z`$ given in , but now it appears in a natural way.

To obtain the other $`N2`$ invariants we start fixing $`k\{1,2,\mathrm{},N1\}\{i\}`$ and taking $`\mu _j=0`$ if $`jk,N`$, we get from expression (3.3) the differential form $`\eta _k=\mu _kdP_k+\mu _NdP_N`$. Condition (3.4) applied to $`\eta _k`$ establishes a relationship between $`\mu _k`$ and $`\mu _N`$ that allows to write

$$\eta _k=\mu _kdP_k+\mu _kzP_kdP_N.$$

Choosing $`\mu _k=e^{zP_N}`$ the differential form is exact, that is, $`\eta _k=dh_{\omega ,z}^{iN,k}`$, with

$$h_{\omega ,z}^{iN,k}=P_ke^{zP_N},k\{1,2,\mathrm{},N1\}\{i\}.$$
(3.7)
To obtain the integral curves of $`\widehat{J}_{iN}`$ it is necessary to solve the system of $`N`$ differential equations

$$\begin{array}{cc}& \dot{\alpha }_j=z\omega _{iN}\alpha _i\alpha _j,ji,N,\hfill \\ & \dot{\alpha }_i=\frac{1e^{2z\alpha _n}}{2z}+\frac{z}{2}\underset{s=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}\alpha _s^2z\omega _{iN}\alpha _i^2,\hfill \\ & \dot{\alpha }_N=\omega _{iN}\alpha _i.\hfill \end{array}$$

The invariants $`h_{\omega ,z}^{iN,k}`$ (3.7) allow to remove $`N2`$ degrees of freedom, from $`h_{\omega ,z}^{iN,k}(\alpha )=\alpha _ke^{z\alpha _N}=\beta _k`$ we obtain $`\alpha _k=\beta _ke^{z\alpha _N}`$, restricting the study of the $`N`$–dimensional system to the following family of 2–dimensional systems depending on the $`N`$ parameters $`\beta _k`$, $`\omega `$ and $`z`$

$$\begin{array}{cc}& \dot{\alpha }_i=\left[\frac{1e^{2z\alpha _N}}{2z}\frac{z}{2}\left(\underset{si,N}{}\omega _{sN}\beta _s^2\right)e^{2z\alpha _N}+\frac{z}{2}\omega _{iN}\alpha _i^2\right],\hfill \\ & \dot{\alpha }_N=\omega _{iN}\alpha _i.\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.8)
Due to the way in which the parameters $`\beta _k`$ appear grouped, the set of systems (3.8) only depends on three parameters $`z`$, $`\omega _{iN}`$ and $`\rho =_{si,N}\omega _{sN}\beta _s^2`$. The function $`h_{\omega ,z}`$ (3.6) gives the following invariant for the system (3.8)

$$\omega _{iN}\alpha _i^2e^{z\alpha _N}+\rho e^{z\alpha _N}+\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(z\alpha _N)1}{\frac{z^2}{2}}.$$
(3.9)
The description of the systems when $`z=0`$ is trivial, since it reduces to the study of linear systems analogue to those of the fields $`\widehat{J}_{ij}`$. If $`z`$ does not vanish the equations may be rescaled considering

$$x(t)=z\alpha _i(t),y(t)=z\alpha _N(t),$$

and setting $`a=\omega _{iN}`$, $`b1=z^2\rho =z^2{\displaystyle \underset{si,N}{}}\omega _{sN}\beta _s^2`$ the system becomes

$$\dot{x}=\frac{1}{2}ax^2\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{2}be^{2y},\dot{y}=ax.$$
(3.10)
In this form the limit $`z0`$ cannot be studied, but in advantage it depends on only two parameters. The possibility of reabsortion of the parameter $`z`$ is followed from the fact that all the Hopf algebras $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))`$ are isomorphic (for fixed values of the parameters $`\omega _s`$) whenever $`z`$ is nonzero. The function (3.9) gives rise to the following invariant of (3.10)

$$h_{a,b}=ax^2e^y+e^y+be^y.$$
(3.11)
The research of fixed points of the system reveals that:

* if $`b0`$ the system has not equilibrium points;
* if $`b>0`$ there are three possibilities:

+ if $`a<0`$ then there is only one fixed point $`(0,\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}b)`$ of hyperbolic character,
    + if $`a=0`$ then all the points like $`(x,\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}b)`$ are fixed points,
    + if $`a>0`$ there is only one equilibrium point $`(0,\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}b)`$ of elliptic character.

Let us go to analyze in detail the case $`a>0`$ and $`b>0`$. Here the invariant (3.11) has a global minimum of value $`2\sqrt{b}`$ at $`(0,\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}b)`$ and it is easy to check that $`h_{a,b}`$ takes arbitrarily high values over points going to infinity in any direction. Since the orbits of the system (3.10) are the level curves of $`h_{a,b}`$ all the orbits are bounded. Note that the point of equilibrium disappears in the limit $`b0`$. Let us consider the integral curve $`\gamma _r`$ passing through the point $`(0,r)`$, with $`r>\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}b`$, at the initial time. For small values of $`t>0`$ the invariant allows to obtain $`x`$ in terms of $`y`$

$$ax=\sqrt{ae^y(e^r+be^re^ybe^y)},$$
(3.12)
in such a way that substituting in the second of the equations of the system (3.10) it is enough to do a quadrature. The final result gives the following expression for the curve $`\gamma _r`$

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \gamma _r(t)=& (\frac{(e^rbe^r)S_a(t)}{(e^r+be^r)+(e^rbe^r)C_a(t)},\mathrm{ln}\frac{1}{2}\left[(e^r+be^r)+(e^rbe^r)C_a(t)\right]).\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.13)
From (3.13) the flow associated to the system (3.10) is obtained supposed $`a>0`$ and $`b>0`$

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \mathrm{\Phi }_{a,b}^t(x,y)=& (\frac{(ax^2e^ye^y+be^y)S_a(t)+(2xe^y)C_a(t)}{(ax^2e^y+e^y+be^y)+(ax^2e^y+e^ybe^y)C_a(t)+(2axe^y)S_a(t)},\hfill \\ & \mathrm{ln}\frac{1}{2}[(ax^2e^y+e^y+be^y)+(ax^2e^y+e^ybe^y)C_a(t)+(2axe^y)S_a(t)]).\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.14)
It is immediate to prove that (3.14) is also correct for the remaining values of $`a`$ and $`b`$. However, if the parameters $`a`$ and $`b`$ are positive the flow is defined globally, but this does not happen, in general, for any other value of the parameters.

The preceding study allows to write the flow $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{iN}^t:T_{z,N}T_{z,N}`$ of the vector field $`\widehat{J}_{iN}`$ (3.1). For its description it is convenient to introduce the functions $`F_{iN}^{\omega ,z}:T_{z,N}\times `$, defined by

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill F_{iN}^{\omega ,z}(\alpha ,t)=& \left[\mathrm{cosh}(z\alpha _N)+\frac{z^2}{2}\underset{s=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}\alpha _s^2e^{z\alpha _N}\right]\hfill \\ & +\left[\mathrm{sinh}(z\alpha _N)\frac{z^2}{2}\underset{s=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}\alpha _s^2e^{z\alpha _N}\right]C_{\omega _{iN}}(t)+\left[z\omega _{iN}\alpha _ie^{z\alpha _N}\right]S_{\omega _{iN}}(t).\hfill \end{array}$$

Note that the first term can be written in terms of the invariant $`h_{\omega ,z}`$ as

$$\mathrm{cosh}(z\alpha _N)+\frac{z^2}{2}\underset{s=1}{\overset{N1}{}}\omega _{sN}\alpha _s^2e^{z\alpha _N}=1+\frac{z^2}{2}h_{\omega ,z}(\alpha ).$$

Writing the flow action as

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_{iN}^t(\alpha )=\alpha ^{},$$
(3.15)
we get

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \alpha _i^{}=& \frac{\left[\mathrm{sinh}(z\alpha _N)\frac{z^2}{2}_{s=1}^{N1}\omega _{sN}\alpha _s^2e^{z\alpha _N}\right]S_{\omega _{iN}}(t)+\left[z\alpha _ie^{z\alpha _N}\right]C_{\omega _{iN}}(t)}{zF_{iN}^{\omega ,z}(\alpha ,t)},\hfill \\ \hfill \alpha _N^{}=& \frac{1}{z}\mathrm{ln}F_{iN}^{\omega ,z}(\alpha ,t),\hfill \\ \hfill \alpha _j^{}=& \frac{\alpha _je^{z\alpha _N}}{F_{iN}^{\omega ,z}(\alpha ,t)},ji,N.\hfill \end{array}$$

The limit $`z0`$ can be obtained after considering the first order in $`z`$ of the function $`F_{iN}^{\omega ,z}`$:

$$F_{iN}^{\omega ,z}(\alpha ,t)=1+z\left[\omega _{iN}S_{\omega _{iN}}(t)\alpha _i+C_{\omega _{iN}}(t)\alpha _N\right]+o(z^2),$$

and this result yields the known linear flow, consisting of ‘rotations’ around the origin of the $`iN`$ plane,

$$\alpha _i^{}=C_{\omega _{iN}}(t)\alpha _iS_{\omega _{iN}}(t)\alpha _N,\alpha _N^{}=\omega _{iN}S_{\omega _{iN}}(t)\alpha _i+C_{\omega _{iN}}(t)\alpha _N,\alpha _j^{}=\alpha _j.$$

## 4 Example: $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3}(3))`$

In the previous section $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))`$ has been studied, now we consider the particular case $`N=3`$. The following discussion clarifies the concepts introduced till now due to the 3–dimensional nature of the group $`T_{z3}`$. It is possible to represent graphically all the geometric constructions (an enlarged version of this paper with some figures can be sent under request to the authors).

The Hopf algebra $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3}(3))`$ is generated by $`P_1,P_2,P_3,J_{12},J_{13}`$ and $`J_{23}`$. The commutators and the rest of structure tensors are obtained after setting the corresponding expressions of the previous section for $`N=3`$. In this case $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3}(3))=U_z(𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3}(3))F(T_{z,3})`$, where the group $`T_{z,3}`$ is characterized by the composition law

$$(\alpha _1^{},\alpha _2^{},\alpha _3^{})(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)=(\alpha _1^{}+e^{z\alpha _3^{}}\alpha _1,\alpha _2^{}+e^{z\alpha _3^{}}\alpha _2,\alpha _3^{}+\alpha _3).$$

The translation generators constitute a system of global coordinates over $`T_{z,3}`$

$$P_1(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)=\alpha _1,P_2(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)=\alpha _2,P_3(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)=\alpha _3.$$

Respect to these coordinates the action of $`SO_{\omega _2,\omega _3}(3)`$ over $`T_{z,3}`$, induced by the structure of $`U_z(𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3}(3))`$–algebra module of $`F(T_{z,3})`$, is given by the vector fields

$$\begin{array}{cc}& \widehat{J}_{12}=P_2\frac{}{P_1}+\omega _{12}P_1\frac{}{P_2},\hfill \\ & \widehat{J}_{13}=\left[\frac{1e^{2zP_3}}{2z}+\frac{z}{2}(\omega _{13}P_1^2\omega _{23}P_2^2)\right]\frac{}{P_1}z\omega _{13}P_1P_2\frac{}{P_2}+\omega _{13}P_1\frac{}{P_3},\hfill \\ & \widehat{J}_{23}=z\omega _{23}P_2P_1\frac{}{P_1}\left[\frac{1e^{2zP_3}}{2z}+\frac{z}{2}(\omega _{13}P_1^2+\omega _{23}P_2^2)\right]\frac{}{P_2}+\omega _{23}P_2\frac{}{P_3}.\hfill \end{array}$$

The (generalized) distribution generated by these fields is integrable since they close the algebra $`𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3}(3)`$. The invariant

$$h_{\omega ,z}=\omega _{13}P_1^2e^{zP_3}+\omega _{23}P_2^2e^{zP_3}+\left[\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(\frac{z}{2}P_3)}{\frac{z}{2}}\right]^2$$

allows us to analyze easily the nature of the leaves of the foliation. The 2–dimensional leaves correspond to the connected components of the sets $`h_{\omega ,z}^1(t)T_{z,3}`$, being $`t`$ a regular value of $`h_{\omega ,z}`$. For example, when $`(\omega _2>0,\omega _3>0;z>0)`$ two strata appear: the origin point and the rest of the space. In the non-deformed case the study is reduced essentially to classify the family of quadrics

$$\omega _{13}\alpha _1^2+\omega _{23}\alpha _2^2+\alpha _3^2+c=0.$$

When $`c0`$ every connected component constitutes a 2–dimensional orbit of the action, but for $`c=0`$ zero-dimensional orbits appear.

Last expressions (3.2) and (3.15) allow to describe the oneparameter flows associated to the generators. For $`\widehat{J}_{12}`$ it is obtained a linear action

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_{12}^t(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)=(C_{\omega _{12}}(t)\alpha _1S_{\omega _{12}}(t)\alpha _2,\omega _{12}S_{\omega _{12}}(t)\alpha _1+C_{\omega _{12}}(t)\alpha _2,\alpha _3),$$

unlike that happens for $`\widehat{J}_{13}`$ and $`\widehat{J}_{23}`$

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \mathrm{\Phi }_{13}^t(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)=& (\frac{\left[\mathrm{sinh}(z\alpha _3)+\frac{z^2}{2}(\omega _{13}\alpha _1^2+\omega _{23}\alpha _2^2)e^{z\alpha _3}\right]S_{\omega _{13}}(t)+z\alpha _2C_{\omega _{13}}(t)}{zF_{13}(\alpha ,t)},\hfill \\ & \frac{\alpha _2e^{z\alpha _3}}{F_{13}(\alpha ,t)},\frac{1}{z}\mathrm{ln}F_{13}(\alpha ,t)),\hfill \\ \hfill \mathrm{\Phi }_{23}^t(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)=& (\frac{\alpha _1e^{z\alpha _3}}{F_{23}(\alpha ,t)},\hfill \\ & \frac{\left[\mathrm{sinh}(z\alpha _3)+\frac{z^2}{2}(\omega _{13}\alpha _1^2+\omega _{23}\alpha _2^2)e^{z\alpha _3}\right]S_{\omega _{23}}(t)+z\alpha _2C_{\omega _{23}}(t)}{zF_{23}(\alpha ,t)},\frac{1}{z}\mathrm{ln}F_{23}(\alpha ,t)),\hfill \end{array}$$

where

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill F_{i3}(\alpha ,t)=& \left[\mathrm{cosh}(z\alpha _3)+\frac{z^2}{2}(\omega _{13}\alpha _1^2+\omega _{23}\alpha _2^2)e^{z\alpha _3}\right]\hfill \\ & +\left[\mathrm{sinh}(z\alpha _3)\frac{z^2}{2}(\omega _{13}\alpha _1^2+\omega _{23}\alpha _2^2)e^{z\alpha _3}\right]C_{\omega _{i3}}(t)+z\omega _{i3}\alpha _ie^{z\alpha _3}S_{\omega _{i3}}(t).\hfill \end{array}$$

The action of the oneparameter subgroups gives a new foliation of the 2–dimensional leaves presented in the previous subsection.

The curves that appear in the foliation due, for example, to $`\widehat{J}_{13}`$ may be interpreted as the intersection of the surfaces determined by the invariants

$$\omega _{13}P_1^2e^{zP_3}+\omega _{23}P_2^2e^{zP_3}+\left[\frac{\mathrm{sin}(\frac{z}{2}P_3)}{\frac{z}{2}}\right]^2,P_2e^{zP_3}.$$

Summarizing, all the qualitative characteristics relative to the deformation with respect to the flow of the fields $`\widehat{J}_{ij}`$, appear in the case $`N=3`$.

## 5 Concluding remarks

It is worthy to note that the reinterpretation of the bicrossproduct structure $`=U(𝒦)U_z()`$, in the case that $`U_z()`$ is commutative (but noncocommutative) Hopf algebra, as $`H=U(𝒦)\mathrm{Fun}(L_z)`$ allows to carry the action determining the bicrossproduct to an action of the group $`K`$ on $`L_z`$.

For the algebras involved in this work, in the deformed case, i.e, $`z0`$, the above mentioned action is local and nonlinear although in the opposite case the action is global and linear.

The flows have been obtained studying the case of $`\omega _i>0`$. An analytical dependence of the flow on the parameters $`\omega _i`$ is observed, which makes unnecessary to repeat the computations for the other values of the $`\omega _i`$’s. This result is very interesting since the structure of the orbit space of the action of $`SO_{\omega _2,\omega _3,\mathrm{},\omega _N}(N))`$ on $`T_{z,N}`$ is very complicated, which difficulties to obtain directly the flows for each particular case.

In  the flows have been used for the computation of the induced representations for the $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_\omega (2))`$. For higher dimensions the problem of constructing the induced representations is very cumbersome and it is still an open problem.

The CK family $`U_z(𝔦𝔰𝔬_{\omega _2,\omega _3}(3))`$ contains, for instance, the $`q`$–Poincaré algebra $`(\omega _2<0,\omega _3>0)`$, $`(\omega _2>0,\omega _3<0)`$, $`(\omega _2<0,\omega _3<0)`$, the $`q`$–Galilei algebra $`(\omega _2=0,\omega _3>0)`$ and the $`q`$–Euclidean algebra $`(\omega _2>0,\omega _3>0)`$. For a physical meaning of their generators see Ref. .

We finish with the following remarks about the systems (3.10):

1) The second order systems associated to (3.10),

$$\begin{array}{c}\hfill \ddot{x}=ax\dot{x}a(1+2x+ax^2)x,\ddot{y}=\frac{1}{2}\dot{y}^2\frac{1}{2}a(1+be^{2y}),\end{array}$$

can be interpreted in both cases as moving objects over a straight line under the action of forces depending on the position and the velocity.

2) The system (3.10) is associated to the vector field over $`^2`$

$$X_{a,b}=\left[\frac{1}{2}ax^2\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{2}be^{2y}\right]\frac{}{x}+ax\frac{}{y},$$

which admits a hamiltonian description as we are going to prove. Obviously, the pair $`(x,y)`$ is not a chart of canonical coordinates since the 1–form obtained by contraction of the vector field and the symplectic 2–form associated to this chart ($`X_{a,b}(dxdy)`$) is not exact. Hence, let us consider a general symplectic 2–form $`\omega =\mathrm{\Omega }dxdy`$, with $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ to be determined. Since $`h_{a,b}`$ is an invariant of the system it is evident that the Hamiltonian of the system has to be of the form $`h=fh_{a,b}`$, with $`f:`$, which is not univocally determined. The vector field associated to $`h`$ by means of the symplectic structure is fixed by $`X_h\omega =dh`$. So,

$$X_h=\frac{f^{}h_{a,b}}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_yh_{a,b}\frac{}{x}+\frac{f^{}h_{a,b}}{\mathrm{\Omega }}_xh_{a,b}\frac{}{y}.$$

Identifying $`X_h`$ with $`X_{a,b}`$ two equations are obtained, but only one is independent. Hence,

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=f^{}h_{a,b}\frac{_xh_{a,b}}{ax}=2e^yf^{}h_{a,b}.$$

The simple choice $`f(t)=t`$ allows us to obtain the 2–form $`\omega =2e^ydxdy`$, that is independent of the parameters $`a`$ and $`b`$. With the above election of $`f`$ the Hamiltonian of $`X_{a,b}`$ is the invariant $`h_{a,b}`$.

## Acknowledgments

This work has been partially supported by DGES of the Ministerio de Educación y Cultura de España under Project PB98–0360, and the Junta de Castilla y León (Spain).


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# 0.0.1 GAUSS INTEGERS AND DIOPHANTINE FIGURES

### 0.0.1  <br>GAUSS INTEGERS AND DIOPHANTINE FIGURES

Stancho Dimiev and Krassimir Markov

INTRODUCTION

The study of Diophantine figures in the plane (see \[DT\], \[BDM\], \[D\], \[B\]) involves different geometric and number-theoretic motions. First this is Diophantine plane, i.e. the set of all points in Descartes plane $`\times `$ with integer coordinates . So Diophantine plane is just the Cartesian product $`\times `$. Z is the ring of all integers. In terms of coordinate’s operation in $`\times `$ we develop a kind of geometry of Diophantine figures, for instance constructions of some triangles etc. However it is more reasonable to replace Descartes plane by Gauss plane of all complex numbers $`=\{a+ib:`$ $`a,b\},`$ and Diophantine plane by Gauss-Diophantine plane $`+i=\{n+im:n,m\}.`$ In fact $`+i`$ is defined as a tensor product of $``$ with itself under the base $`(1,0)`$ and $`(0,1).`$ Gauss-Diophantine plane is stable under the operation ”multiplication” which give the possibility to define indecomposable elements. So Gauss-Diophantine plane is a commutative ring without zero divisors, denoted ordinary by $`[i].`$ The elements of $`[i]`$ are called Gauss integers. This paper gives a survey on the obtained up to now results and proposes some new results and problems.

### 0.0.2 GAUSS INTEGERS

#### GENERAL PROPERTIES, UNITIES, ASSOCIATE ELEMENT

It is well known that the ring $`[i]`$ is an Euclidean domain with respect to the norm $`𝐍(n+im)=`$ $`n^2+m^2.`$ The norm is a function of the type $`[i]`$, such that for every two elements $`a`$ and $`b`$ in $`[i],`$ with $`b`$ different from zero, there are two elements $`c`$ and $`d`$ in $`[i]`$ for which $`a=cb+d`$ and in the case $`d0`$ we have $`𝐍(d)<𝐍(b).`$

An element $`a+ib`$ is an unit in $`[i]`$ if there is $`x+iy[i]`$ such that

$$(a+ib)(x+iy)=1,\text{ }1=1+i.0$$

It is not difficult to see that there are only four units in $`[i],`$ namely $`1,`$ $`1,i,i.`$

We say that $`\beta [i]`$ is an associate element of $`\alpha [i]`$ if $`\beta =\epsilon \alpha ,`$ where $`\epsilon `$ is an unit in $`[i].`$ Clearly if $`\beta `$ is an associate to $`\alpha ,`$ then $`\alpha `$ is an associate to $`\beta .`$ Every $`\alpha [i]`$ has four associate elements $`1.\alpha ,(1).\alpha ,i.\alpha ,(i).\alpha .`$

#### PARITY IN $`[i]:`$EVEN AND ODD GAUSS INTEGERS

###### Definition 1

We say that the Gauss integers $`n+im,`$ $`n,m,`$ is an even integer in $`[i]`$ if $`n`$ and $`m`$ are of the same parity in $`.`$ If $`n`$ and $`m`$ are of different parity in $``$ we say that $`n+im`$ is an odd Gauss integer in $`[i].`$

###### Proposition 2

1. If the Gauss integer $`\mathrm{n}+\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}`$ is even in $`[\mathrm{i}]`$ there is $`\mathrm{p}+\mathrm{i}\mathrm{q}[\mathrm{i}]`$ such that

$$n+im=2(p+iq)\text{ or }n+im=2(p+iq)+1+i$$

Respectively, if $`n+im`$ is odd in $`[i]`$ there is $`r+is`$ such that

$$n+im=2(r+is)+1\text{or}n+im=2(r+is)+i$$

###### Proposition 3

2. The Gauss integer $`\mathrm{n}+\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}`$ is even in $`[\mathrm{i}]`$ iff $`\mathrm{n}+\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}0(\mathrm{mod}(1+\mathrm{i})),`$ respectively $`\mathrm{n}+\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}`$ is odd in $`[\mathrm{i}]`$ iff $`\mathrm{n}+\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}1(\mathrm{mod}(1+\mathrm{i})).`$

###### Proposition 4

3. The Gauss integer $`\mathrm{n}+\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}`$ is even in $`[\mathrm{i}]`$ iff the norm $`𝐍(\mathrm{n}+\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m})=`$ $`\mathrm{n}^2+\mathrm{m}^2`$ is even in $`.`$ Respectively, $`\mathrm{n}+\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m}`$ is odd in $`[\mathrm{i}]`$ iff the norm $`𝐍(\mathrm{n}+\mathrm{i}\mathrm{m})`$ is odd in $`.`$

It is not difficult to prove that the above three propositions are equivalent.

#### ARITHMETIC PROPERTIES OF GAUSS INTEGERS

It is easy to prove (with the help of the above stated propositions) that :

The sum of Gauss integers of common parity is even, and the sum of Gauss integers of different parity is odd.

The product of Gauss integers satisfy the same rules as in $`.`$

$`(even)\times (even)=(even)`$, $`(odd)\times (odd)=(odd),`$ $`(even)\times (odd)=(een).`$

The square of an even Gauss integer is an even Gauss integer, respectively the square of an odd Gauss integer is an odd Gauss integer. More precisely, if $`\alpha `$ is even in $`[i]`$ then $`\alpha =(1+i)^2\alpha _2=4\alpha _1.`$ If $`\beta `$ is odd in $`[i]`$ then $`\beta ^2=(1+i)^2\beta _2+1=4\beta _1+1.`$

Square radical of a Gauss integer (S. Dimiev)

Let $`\alpha =m+im`$ be a Gauss integer with $`m0.`$ We consider the equation $`z^2=\alpha `$ with $`z.`$ Each solution of this equation is called square radical of $`\alpha .`$ In the case that there is $`l`$ such that $`(n,m,l)`$ to be a Pythagorean triple in $`,`$ i.e. $`n^2+m^2=l^2,`$ we have

$$\sqrt{\frac{n+im}{2}}=\frac{t+i\frac{m}{t}}{2},\text{ }t^2=n+l$$

If we set $`ln=k^2,`$ then $`m=kt,`$ and the above formula will see as follows

$$2\sqrt{\frac{n+im}{2}}=t+ik$$

Proof (according to P.Guncheva).

We set $`z=x+iy,`$ $`x,y.`$ It follows that $`x^2y^2=n`$ and $`2xy=m.`$ Then we have $`x0`$ and $`y=\frac{m}{2x}`$. The following biquadratic equation for $`x`$ holds:

$$4x^44nx^2m^2=0$$

Setting $`x^2=v`$ we obtain:

$$v_1=\frac{1}{2}(n+\sqrt{n^2+m^2})\text{ and }v_2=\frac{1}{2}(n\sqrt{n^2+m^2})$$

As $`v_2<0`$ the equation $`x^2=v_2`$ has no real solutions. So

$$x^2=\frac{1}{2}(n+\sqrt{n^2+m^2})$$

As by the condition $`(n,m,l)`$ is a Pyhtagorean triple in $`,`$ we have:

$$x^2=\frac{1}{2}(n+l)\text{ and }y=\frac{m}{2x}$$

Now we set $`n+l=t^2`$ and obtain the above written formula.$`\mathrm{}`$

#### INDECOMPOSABLE GAUSS INTEGERS

###### Definition 5

Definition\[IR\] An element $`\alpha `$ of $`[i]`$ is called indecomposable Gauss integer or prime Gauss integer if it is impossible to present it as product of two elements $`\lambda ,\mu [i],`$ both of which are not units, i.e. different from $`1,1,i,i.`$

Below we shall give examples of Gauss prime integers.

The norm of a Gauss integer is sum of two squares, i.e. if $`\alpha =n+im,`$ $`n,m,`$ then $`𝐍(\alpha )=n^2+m^2.`$ With this in mind we set $`𝐍(\alpha )t(\mathrm{mod}4),`$ where $`t=0,1,2,3.`$ It is not difficult to see that the case $`t=3`$ is impossible. More precisely, we have:

$$𝐍(\alpha )=n^2+m^24s+3,\text{ }s$$

So in the case $`𝐍(\alpha )`$ is odd, it follows $`𝐍(\alpha )=4s+1,`$ or $`𝐍(\alpha )1(\mathrm{mod}4).`$ In the next exposition we need two well known theorems from the number theory in $`.`$

The first one is a theorem of Fermat (see Edwards \[ \]): each prime number in $``$ such that $`p1(\mathrm{mod}4)`$ can be written as sum of two squares, i.e. there exist $`a,b`$ such that $`p=a^2+b^2.`$ When $`a,b`$ are positive integers $`a`$ is odd, $`b`$ is even, the above mentioned representation is unique.

The second theorem asserts: if $`(x,y)=1`$ then $`x^2+y^2`$ has at least one prime divisor of the form $`4k+1`$ (see for instance T. Tonkov, Figural numbers, Sofia, 1971, pp. 56-102).

Now we turn to the description of the prime Gauss integers. The mentioned description is based on the comparison with prime integers in $`.`$ We will see that some prime integers in $``$ are decomposable in $`[i]`$ and that all prime Gauss integers are divisors of prime integers in $`.`$

More precisely we have the following (sugested by \[IR\])

###### Lemma 6

1. If $`\mathrm{\alpha }`$ is a prime element of $`[\mathrm{i}]`$, then there is a prime $`\mathrm{p}`$ such that $`\mathrm{\alpha }|`$ $`\mathrm{p}.`$

For the proof it is enough to write $`𝐍(\alpha )=\alpha \overline{a}=p_1p_2\mathrm{}p_s`$ where $`p_k`$ are primes in $`.\mathrm{}`$

###### Lemma 7

2. If $`\mathrm{\alpha }`$ is a Gauss integer and $`𝐍(\mathrm{\alpha })`$ is a prime integer in $`,`$ then $`\mathrm{\alpha }`$ is prime Gauss integer.

For the proof it is enough to remark that if $`\alpha =\lambda \mu ,`$ with $`\lambda `$ and $`\mu `$ non units, then $`𝐍(\alpha )=𝐍(\lambda )𝐍(\mu ).`$ As $`𝐍(\alpha )`$ is a prime in $``$ it follows that $`𝐍(\lambda )`$ or $`𝐍(\mu )`$ is equal to 1, which means that either $`\lambda `$ or $`\mu `$ is unit.$`\mathrm{}`$

Based on the above proved two lemmas we give examples of prime Gauss integer and decomposable in $`[i]`$ prime integers in $`.`$ These are $`1+i`$ in $`[i]`$ and 2 in $`.`$ Indeed $`𝐍(1+i)=2`$ and we apply Lemma 2; $`2=(=i)(1+i)^2`$ and applying Lemma 1 we obtain $`(1+i)|2,`$ $`(i)`$ is an unit.$`\mathrm{}`$

The exact description of the prime Gauss integers is given by the following

###### Theorem 8

The indecomposable elements or the prime integers in $`[i]`$ are the following:

a) All prime integers in $``$ of the form $`4k+3`$ and all their associate elements in $`[i];`$

b) The number $`1+i`$ and its associates;

c) If $`p`$ is a prime integer in $``$ of the form $`4k+1`$ and $`𝐍(\alpha )=p,`$ $`\alpha =x+iy,`$ $`x,y,`$ i.e. $`p=x^2+y^2,`$ then $`\alpha `$ and $`\overline{a}`$ are indecomposable elements in $`[i]`$ with all their associates.

d) There are no other indecomposable elements in $`[i]`$, more precisely if $`𝐍(\alpha )=q`$, where $`q`$ is not prime integer in $``$, then $`\alpha `$ is indecomposable element in $`[i].`$

Proof. a). Let $`s`$ be a prime number in $``$ of the form $`s=4k+3.`$ As $`𝐍(s)=s^2,`$ supposing the validity of the decomposition $`s=\lambda \mu ,`$ $`\lambda =a+ib,`$ $`\mu =c+id,`$ we obtain $`s^2=(a^2+b^2)(c^2+d^2),`$ which is impossible. Indeed $`s(a^2+b^2),(c^2+d^2)`$ in view of $`s=4k+3`$ (see a remark above). Of course, $`s^2=(a^2+b^2)(c^2+d^2).`$ This asserts that $`s`$ is indecomposable in $`[i].`$

b). In this case the proof was given above.

c). Let $`\alpha =x+iy`$ be non-trivial decomposable in $`[i]`$, say $`\alpha =\lambda \mu ,\lambda =a+ib,`$ $`\mu =c+id,\lambda `$ and $`\mu `$ are both non-units in $`[i].`$ It follows that $`p=x^2+y^2=(a^2+b^2)(c^2+d^2).`$ In view that $`p`$ is prime number in $``$, we obtain that either of $`(a^2+b^2)`$ or $`(c^2+d^2)`$ must be 1, which implies that it is an unit. This means that the admitted decomposition is trivial, which is a contradiction.

d). If $`\alpha =x+iy,q=x^2+y^2.`$ We can suppose that $`(x,y)=1.`$ As $`q`$ is sum of two squares, according to the above cited theorem $`q=pt,`$ with $`t>1`$ and $`p`$ is prime in $``$ of the form $`4k+1.`$ Applying the cited theorem of Fermat we obtain $`p=u^2+v^2.`$ Now setting $`\beta =u+iv`$ we receive $`x^2+y^2=(u^2+v^2)t.`$ According to c). we have that $`\beta `$ and $`\overline{\beta }`$ are prime Gauss integers. (indecomposable elements in $`[i])`$. Clearly $`\alpha \overline{\alpha }=\beta \overline{\beta }t,`$ and , for instance, $`\alpha =\beta t_1,`$ $`\overline{\alpha }=\overline{\beta }t_2,`$ where $`t_1t_2=t.`$ As $`t>1`$ at least $`t_1`$ or $`t_2`$ must be greater then 1. It gives a nontrivial decomposition of $`\alpha .\mathrm{}`$

#### GAUSS-PYTHAGOREAN INTEGERS

###### Definition 9

(S. Dimiev) The Gauss integer $`\alpha =x+iy,`$ $`x,y,`$ is said to be a Gauss-Pythagorean number if there exists $`z`$ such that the triple $`x,y,z`$ be a Pythagorean triple: $`x^2+y^2=z^2.`$

We shall denote the set of all Gauss-Pythagorean integers by $`𝔾[i],`$ $`𝔾[i][i].`$ The zero element and the units of $`[i]`$ are not Gauss-Pythagorean integers. We remark that the sum of two Gauss-Pythagorean numbers is not Gauss-Pythagorean number in general, but it is easy to prove that the product of two Gauss-Pythagorean numbers is always a Gauss- Pythagorean integer. So $`𝔾[i]`$ is a multiplicative subsemigroup of the multiplicative group $`[i]\{0\}`$ of the ring $`[i].`$

The conjugate and the associate elements of a Gauss-Pythagorean element are Gauss-Pythagorean integers too. The following Lemma is useful in the following exposition

###### Lemma 10

(K. Markov) Let $`\alpha =x+iy`$ be a Gauss-Pythagorean number them there exists a Gauss integer $`\tau `$ such that $`𝐍(\alpha )=(𝐍(\tau ))^2.`$

Proof: First let we assume that $`(x,y)=1.`$ As $`\alpha 𝔾[i]`$ there exist $`z`$ for which $`(x,y,z)`$ is a primitive Pythagorean triple in $`.`$ According to the well known representation of Pythagorean triples in $`,`$ there are $`p,q`$such that $`z=p^2+q^2.`$ We set $`\tau =p+iq`$ which gives the statement. In the general case $`(x,y)=d>1,`$ we have $`𝐍(\alpha )=d^2𝐍(x_1+iy_1)`$ with $`x_1,y_1`$ and $`(x_1,y_1)=1.`$ Setting $`\tau =`$ $`x_1+iy_1`$ we apply the first remark above: $`𝐍(\alpha )=d^2(𝐍(\tau _1))^2=𝐍(d\tau _1),`$ with $`d\tau _1[i].\mathrm{}`$

###### Corollary 11

There is no element in $`𝔾`$$`[i]`$ which is prime Gauss integer.

###### Definition 12

An element $`\tau 𝔾[i]`$ is said to be prime Gauss-Pythagorean integer if is impossible to represent it as product of two elements of $`𝔾[i].`$

###### Theorem 13

There exists an infinite number of indecomposable Gauss-Pythagorean numbers.

Proof: (K. Markov) Let we remark that if $`\alpha 𝔾[i]`$ and $`𝐍(\alpha )=p^2,`$ where $`p`$ is prime integer in $``$, then $`\alpha `$ is prime integer in $`𝔾[i].`$ Indeed supposing $`\alpha =\beta \gamma `$ with $`\beta ,\gamma 𝔾[i],`$ $`𝐍(\beta )>1,`$ $`𝐍(\gamma )>1,`$ we apply the Lemma proved above and obtain: $`𝐍(\beta )=(𝐍(\beta _1))^2`$ and $`𝐍(\gamma )=(𝐍(\gamma _1))^2.`$ Thus in $``$ we have $`p^2=𝐍(\beta )𝐍(\gamma )=(𝐍(\beta _1)𝐍(\gamma _1))^2,`$ $`\beta _1,\gamma _1𝔾[i],`$ which implies $`p=𝐍(\beta _1)𝐍(\gamma _1)`$ with $`𝐍(\beta _1)>1,`$ $`𝐍(\gamma _1)>1.`$ But this contradicts the condition $`p`$ to be prime integer in $`.`$ So $`\alpha `$ is prime integer in $`𝔾[i].`$

Now we take a prime integer $`p=4k+1.`$ By the above cited Fermat theorem there are natural integers $`t`$ and $`s`$ such that $`p=t^2+s^2.`$ We shall consider the Gauss integer $`t+is.`$ Having in mind that $`(t+is)^2=t^2s^2+2its,`$ we consider the triple $`(2ts,t^2s^2,t^2+s^2).`$ This triple is a Pythagorean triple according to the well known formulae for natural Pythagorean numbers. So $`(t+is)^2`$ is a Gauss-Pythagorean triple. The mapping $`p(t+is)^2`$ is an injective mapping between the sets: $`\{p`$ is prime : $`p=4k+1\}𝔾[i].`$ Indeed if $`p_1p_2`$ are two numbers from the first set then the corresponding $`(t_j+is_j)^2,`$ $`j=1,2`$ are different because $`𝐍((t_j+is_j)^2)=p_j`$ are different for $`j=1,2.`$ Finally it is to be recalled that there are an infinite number of prime integers in the progression $`4k+1.\mathrm{}`$

#### PRIMITIVE TRIPLES IN $`[i]`$

###### Definition 14

We say that the triple $`\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma `$ of Gauss integers is primitive triple if the unique common divisors of the elements of the triple are the unities in $`[i],`$ i.e. $`1,1,i,i.`$

We denote this by $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=1.`$ Like in $``$ we shall write $`(\alpha ,\beta )=1`$ when $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ satisfy the same condition. Ordinary by $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )`$ is denoted the GCD of $`\alpha ,\beta `$ and $`\gamma .`$ Analogously $`(\alpha ,\beta )`$ is the GCD of $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta .`$ It is easy to see that $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=((\alpha ,\beta ),\gamma )=(\alpha ,(\beta ,\gamma ))=((\alpha ,\gamma ),\beta ).`$ If $`\overline{\alpha }`$ is the complex conjugate of $`\alpha `$ we have: $`(\alpha ,\beta )=\delta `$ iff $`(\overline{\alpha },\overline{\beta })=\overline{\delta }`$ in particular $`(\alpha ,\beta )=1`$ iff $`(\overline{\alpha },\overline{\beta })=1.`$ Analogously $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=\delta `$ iff $`(\overline{\alpha },\overline{\beta },\overline{\gamma })=\overline{\delta }`$ and in particular $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=1`$ iff $`(\overline{\alpha },\overline{\beta },\overline{\gamma })=1.`$ Clearly $`(\alpha ,\beta )=(\alpha ,\gamma )=(\beta ,\gamma )=1`$ implies $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=1`$ but the inverse is not true.

###### Proposition 15

4. $`(𝐍(\mathrm{\alpha }),𝐍(\mathrm{\beta }),𝐍(\mathrm{\gamma }))=1`$ in $``$ implies $`(\mathrm{\alpha },\mathrm{\beta },\mathrm{\gamma })=1`$ in $`[\mathrm{i}].`$

Proof: Let we remark that if $`\lambda `$ is a divisor of $`\alpha ,\beta `$ or $`\gamma `$ then $`𝐍(\lambda )`$ is a divisor of $`𝐍(\alpha ),𝐍(\beta )`$ or $`𝐍(\gamma ).`$ This follows from $`\alpha =\lambda \eta `$ implies $`𝐍(\alpha )=𝐍(\lambda )𝐍(\eta ).`$

Now supposing that $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=\delta `$ with $`𝐍(\delta )>1`$ we receive that $`𝐍(\delta )`$ is a divisor of $`(𝐍(\alpha ),𝐍(\beta ),𝐍(\gamma ))`$ which is impossible. The inverse is not true.

Example: $`(3+i,2+i,8+i)=1,`$ but  $`(𝐍(3+i),𝐍(2+i),𝐍(8+i))=(10,5,65)=5.`$ We remark that $`(3+i,2+i)=1`$ does not imply $`(𝐍(3+i),𝐍(2+i))=1.\mathrm{}`$

#### PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES, PRIMITIVE PYTHAGOREAN TRIPLES

In a primitive Pythagorean triple in $`[i]`$ at least one element is odd. Let $`\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma `$ be a primitive Pythagorean triple, i.e. $`\alpha ^2+\beta ^2=\gamma ^2`$ and $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=1.`$ There are two possibilities for $`\gamma :`$ the first one is $`\gamma `$ to be even. In this case we have:

$$(odd)^2+(odd)^2=(even)^2$$

The second possibility is $`\gamma `$ to be odd. So we have for instance:

$$(even)^2+(odd)^2=(odd)^2$$

Proposition 4 obtains for Pythagorean triples the following stronger form:

###### Proposition 16

###### Proposition 17

4’.  $`(𝐍(\mathrm{\alpha }),𝐍(\mathrm{\beta }),𝐍(\mathrm{\gamma }))=1`$ in $``$ is equivalent to $`(\mathrm{\alpha },\mathrm{\beta },\mathrm{\gamma })=1`$ in $`[\mathrm{i}].`$

Proof: It is sufficient to prove that $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=1`$ in $`[i]`$ implies $`(𝐍(\alpha ),𝐍(\beta ),𝐍(\gamma ))=1`$ in $`.`$ Let $`(𝐍(\alpha ),𝐍(\beta ),𝐍(\gamma ))=d`$ in $`.`$Let $`p`$ e a prime divisor of $`d.`$ Clearly $`d|𝐍(\alpha ),d|𝐍(\beta ),d|𝐍(\gamma ).`$

Let $`𝐍(\alpha )=\alpha \overline{\alpha }=\alpha _1d,𝐍(\beta )=\beta \overline{\beta }=\beta _1d,𝐍(\gamma )=\gamma \overline{\gamma }=\gamma _1d.`$ $`p|d`$ implies: $`p|\alpha `$ or $`p|\overline{\alpha },`$ $`p|\beta `$ or $`p|\overline{\beta },`$ $`p|\gamma `$ or $`p|\overline{\gamma }.`$ If $`p|\alpha `$ and $`p|\beta `$ it follows $`p|\gamma `$ and this contradicts the condition $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=1.`$ If $`p|\overline{\alpha }`$ and $`p|\overline{\beta }`$ it follows $`p|\overline{\gamma }`$ and contradicts the condition $`(\overline{\alpha },\overline{\beta },\overline{\gamma })=1.\mathrm{}`$

###### Proposition 18

5. Formulae for primitive Pythagorean triples:

$`\alpha =2\lambda \mu ,`$ $`\beta =\lambda ^2\mu ^2,\gamma =\lambda ^2+\mu ^2,(\lambda ,\mu )=1,\lambda ,\mu [i]`$

where $`\lambda `$ and $`\mu `$ are of different parity.

Proof: By condition $`\alpha ^2+\beta ^2=\gamma ^2`$ and $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=1.`$ As $`\alpha ^2=\gamma ^2\beta ^2=(\gamma \beta )(\gamma +\beta ),`$ let $`\delta =(\gamma \beta ,\gamma +\beta ).`$ It follows that $`\gamma \beta =\delta \gamma _1,\gamma +\beta =\delta \gamma _2`$ and also $`2\gamma =\delta (\gamma _2+\gamma _1),2\beta =\delta (\gamma _2\gamma _1).`$ So $`\delta `$ is a divisor of $`(2\gamma ,2\beta )=`$ $`2(\gamma ,\beta )=2`$ as $`(\gamma ,\beta )=1.`$ It is proved that $`\delta `$ is a divisor of $`2.`$ The divisors of $`2`$ in $`[i]`$ are $`1,1+i,2`$ up to an associate element in $`[i].`$

In the case $`\delta =1,`$ having in mind that $`\gamma `$ and $`\beta `$ are of common parity, we conclude that $`\gamma \beta `$ and $`\gamma +\beta `$ are both even and we can write $`\gamma \beta =(1+i)\delta _1,\gamma +\beta =(1+i)\delta _2.`$ But this means that $`1+i`$ is a divisor of $`1=(\gamma \beta )(\gamma +\beta ),`$ which is impossible.

In the case $`\delta =1+i`$ we have $`\gamma \beta =(1+i)\gamma _1`$ and $`\gamma +\beta =(1+i)\gamma _2`$ and, as corollary, $`1+i=(1+i)(\gamma _{1,}\gamma _2)`$ or $`(\gamma _{1,}\gamma _2)=1.`$ So we obtain $`\alpha ^2=(1+i)^2\gamma _1\gamma _2`$ and also $`\left(\frac{\alpha }{1+i}\right)^2=\gamma _1\gamma _2.`$ According to a well known lemma there are $`\rho ,\sigma `$ such that $`\gamma _1=\rho ^2`$ and $`\gamma _2=\sigma ^2.`$ This implies: $`\alpha =(1+i)\rho \sigma ,2\gamma =(1+i)(\rho ^2+\sigma ^2),2\beta =(1+i)(\sigma ^2\rho ^2).`$ If $`\rho `$ and $`\sigma `$ are of common parity $`\rho ^2+\sigma ^2`$ and $`\sigma ^2\rho ^2`$ are both even . This implies that $`1+i`$ is a common multiple for $`\alpha ,\beta `$ and $`\gamma `$ in contradiction with the primitivity of the triple $`\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma .`$ If $`\rho `$ and $`\sigma `$ are of different parity $`\gamma `$ and $`\beta `$ will be not Gauss integers as $`1/(1+i)`$ is not a Gauss integer.

Finally we have the case $`\delta =2.`$ In this case we have $`2=(\gamma \beta )(\gamma +\beta ),`$ and therefore $`(\gamma _{1,}\gamma _2)=1.`$ Applying the same Lemma for $`\left(\frac{\alpha }{2}\right)^2=\gamma _1\gamma _2`$ we conclude that the are $`\tau `$ and $`\kappa `$ in $`[i]`$ such that $`\gamma _1=\tau ^2,\gamma _2=\kappa ^2,(\tau ,\kappa )=1.`$ It follows: $`\alpha =2\tau \kappa ,\beta =\gamma _2\gamma _1=\kappa ^2\tau ^2,\gamma =\kappa ^2+\tau ^2.`$ In view that $`(\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma )=1,`$ then $`\tau `$ and $`\kappa `$ must be of different parity.$`\mathrm{}`$

###### Proposition 19

6.(Fermat Last Theorem in $`[\mathrm{i}]`$ for $`\mathrm{n}=4).`$ The equation $`\mathrm{x}^4+\mathrm{y}^4=\mathrm{z}^4`$ has no integer solutions.

Proof: First let consider the equation $`x^4+y^4=z^2.`$ Supposing that there exists in $`[i]`$ a solution $`\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma `$, we apply the Proposition 5 to the triple $`(\alpha ^2,\beta ^2,\gamma )`$ which will be a solution of the equation $`x^2+y^2=z^2.`$ According to Proposition 5 there are two Gauss integers $`\kappa `$ and $`\tau `$, such that:

$$\alpha ^2=2\kappa \tau ,\beta ^2=\kappa ^2\tau ^2,\gamma =\kappa ^2+\tau ^2$$

It is easy to prove that the combination $`\kappa =even`$ and $`\tau =odd`$ is impossible. Thus we have $`\kappa =odd`$ and $`\tau =even.`$ Let $`\tau =2\xi .`$ We receive $`\left(\frac{\alpha }{2}\right)^2=\kappa \tau `$ and we apply the Lemma to the equation $`W^2=UV`$ in $`[i].`$ There are two Gauss integers $`\kappa _1`$ and $`\xi _1,`$ such that: $`\kappa =\kappa _1^2,\xi =\xi _1^2,(\kappa _1,\xi _1)=1.`$ It follows that $`\tau =2\xi _1`$ and $`(2\xi _1^2)^2+\beta ^2=(\kappa _1^2)^2.`$ Applying again Proposition 5:

$$2\xi _1^2=2\eta \zeta ,\beta ^2=\eta ^2\zeta ^2,\kappa _1^2=\eta ^2+\zeta ^2$$

Now we apply again the Lemma to the equation $`W^2=UV`$ in $`[i]`$ to the first equation above. There are two Gauss integers $`\eta _1,\zeta _1`$ such that $`\eta =\eta _1^2,\zeta =\zeta _1^2,(\eta _1,\zeta _1)=1.`$ Replacing these two integers in the third equation we obtain:

$$\eta _1^4+\zeta _1^4=\kappa _1^2$$

We can choose $`\gamma `$ in the solution $`\alpha ,\beta ,\gamma `$ to be with minimal norm $`𝐍(\gamma ).`$ With this in mind we have: $`𝐍(\gamma )<𝐍(\kappa _1).`$ So

$$𝐍(\gamma )<𝐍(\kappa _1)<(𝐍(\kappa _1))^2=𝐍(\kappa )$$

On the other hand : $`𝐍(\gamma )=𝐍(\kappa ^2+\tau ^2)=(𝐍(\kappa ))^2+(𝐍(\tau ))^2+2\mathrm{Re}(\kappa \overline{\tau })^2.`$ In the case $`\mathrm{Re}(\kappa \overline{\tau })^20`$ we obtain:

$$(𝐍(\kappa ))^2+(𝐍(\tau ))^2+2\mathrm{Re}(\kappa \overline{\tau })^2𝐍(\kappa )$$

which is impossible as $`𝐍(\kappa )`$ is a natural integer $`1.`$

In the case $`\mathrm{Re}(\kappa \overline{\tau })^20`$ the proposed method of a Fermat type desante with respect to the norm falls. A more sophisticated method is developted, but it is more longer and will be exposed elsewhere. .

#### DIOPHANTINE FIGURES

We shall consider the Cartesian plane $`\times `$ ($``$ the field of real numbers). A complete Cartesian graph is by definition the couple (V,S) where V is the set of points in $`\times ,`$ called vertices, and S is the set of all segments $`[P.Q]`$ with $`P,Q𝐕`$, $`PQ.`$ A Cartesian Erdös graph is by definition a Cartesian graph $`(𝐕,𝐒)`$ for which the length of each segment in $`𝐒`$ is a integer number $`0.`$ If the set of vertices $`𝐕`$ is infinite we shall say that $`(𝐕,𝐒)`$ is an infinite graph.

###### Theorem 20

(Erdös): The vertices of an infinite Cartesian Erdös graph are situated on a straight line in the Cartesian plane.

###### Definition 21

The Cartesian product $`\times `$ will be called Diophantine plane.

Clearly $`\times \times ,`$ or the Diophantine plane is the lattice of the points in $`\times `$ with integer coordinates. We will consider complete graphs in the Diophantine plane, i.e. the set of couples $`(𝐕,𝐒),`$ $`𝐕\times `$ and $`𝐒`$ is the same as above. A Diophantine figure is by definition a complete graph in the Diophantine plane for which the length of each of its segments is an integer number. Diophantine figures which contain at least three different non-collinear vertices will be considered. Erdös-Diophantine figure is by definition a maximal Diophantine figure, i.e. a Diophantine figure for which there is no a larger one.

The existence of Erdös-Diophantine figures follows from the above cited Erdös theorem. Indeed, according this theorem each increasing sequence of finite non-linear Diophantine figures $`F_1F_2\mathrm{}F_n`$ …stabilizes at some index $`k_0.`$ Then $`F_{k_0}`$ is an Erdös-Diophantine figure.

Diophantine planimetry: examples

A closed path in a Diophantine figure $`F`$ is defined by a sequence of vertices $`P_0,P_1,\mathrm{},P_n=P_0,`$ $`P_jF,`$ and the union of the connecting segments. For a Diophantine triangle there is only one closed path constituted from all vertices and all segments of the triangle.

###### Proposition 22

6. The sum of lengths of the segments of a closed path in a Diophantine figure is an even integer.

The proof can be derived by induction from the following

###### Lemma 23

(M. Brancheva) The sum of lengths of the sides of a Diophantine triangle is always an even integer.$`\mathrm{}`$

This Lemma is generalization of the analogous property of Pythagorean triangles.

###### Proposition 24

7. (M. Brancheva) Let $`\mathrm{}\mathrm{A}\mathrm{B}\mathrm{X}`$ lies in the Diophantine plane and $`(\mathrm{a}_1,\mathrm{a}_2),(\mathrm{b}_1,\mathrm{b}_2),(\mathrm{x}_1,\mathrm{x}_2)`$ are the coordinates of the vertices $`\mathrm{A},\mathrm{B},\mathrm{X}`$ resp. Let suppose $`\mathrm{a}_1=\mathrm{a}_2=0;`$ let the lengths of the segments of the triangle are: $`|\mathrm{A}\mathrm{B}|=𝐜,|\mathrm{B}\mathrm{C}|=𝐚,|\mathrm{A}\mathrm{C}|=𝐛.`$ For given lengths $`𝐚,𝐛,𝐜`$ and given coordinates $`(\mathrm{b}_1,\mathrm{b}_2)`$ we have the following Diophantine equation of first degree for $`\mathrm{x}_1,\mathrm{x}_2:`$

$$2b_1x_1+2b_2x_2=𝐛^2+𝐜^2𝐚^2$$

Proof: Clearly we have $`𝐜^2=b_1^2+b_2^2`$ , $`𝐛^2=x_1^2+x_2^2.`$ On the other hand we have $`a^2=(b_1x_1)^2+(b_2x_2)^2.`$ The last three equalities imply the statement of the proposition. $`\mathrm{}`$

According to the theory of Diophantine equations of first degree if $`(x_1^{},x_2^{})`$ is a solution of the equation then all solutions are given by the formulae:

$$x_1=x_1^{}+\frac{b_2t}{(b_1,b_2)},\text{ }x_2=x_2^{}\frac{b_1t}{(b_1,b_2)}$$

where $`t`$ and $`(b_1,b_2)`$ is the GCD of $`b_1,b_2.`$ Eliminating $`t`$ from the above two equations we obtain for the solutions $`x_1,x_2:`$

$$x_2x_2^{}=\frac{b_1}{b_2}(x_1x_1^{})$$

Thus the point with coordinates $`(x_1,x_2)`$ lies on the perpendicular to the segment $`AB`$ through the point with coordinates $`(x_1^{},x_2^{}).`$

Fig. 1

Remark:The above written Diophantine equation is not always solvable. Indeed, if a solution exists the number $`𝐛^2+𝐜^2𝐚^2`$ must be even, but according to Proposition 7 the same is true for the number $`𝐛^2+𝐜^2+𝐚^2.`$ This implies the following necessary condition: the number $`𝐛^2+𝐜^2`$ must be even. We see that the classical construction is not always possible for Diophantine triangles.

#### DIOPHANTINE TRIANGLES: CLASSIFICATION

Each Diophantine triangle can be inscribed in a uniquely determined rectangle with sides parallel to the coordinate axes. with the help of this enveloping rectangle we can formulate the following

###### Lemma 25

(Classification lemma): There are 4 essentially different types of Diophantine triangles (see the Figures below):

(1) Pythagorean triangle;

(2) and (3) obtained from 2 Pythagorean triangles with common cathetus;

(4) new kind of Diophantine triangle.

The proof can be obtained by simple examination of the possibilities for the disposition of the vertices of the inscribed triangle on the sides of the enveloping rectangle.

Fig. 2

Remark:The supplementary part of the enveloping rectangle with respect to the inscribed Diophantine triangle is composed by 1, 2 or 3 Pythagorean triangles.

The Classification lemma suggests the possibility of different calculations. We shall consider only the case (4).

Applying the well known formulae for Pythagorean triples we can write:

for $`\mathrm{}APB:`$ $`AP=u^2v^2,BP=2uv,AB=u^2v^2,`$ $`u>v`$

for $`\mathrm{}BQC:`$ $`CQ=p^2q^2,BQ=2pq,BC=p^2+q^2,`$ $`p>q`$

for $`\mathrm{}ACR:`$ $`RC=x^2y^2,AR=2xy,AC=x^2+y^2,`$ $`x>y`$

From $`AR=PQ`$ it follows: $`2xy=2pq+2uv`$ and from $`AP=RQ`$ it follows: $`u^2v^2=x^2y^2+p^2q^2.`$

In the Gauss-Diophantine plane we have:

$$(x+iy)^2=(q+ip)^2+(u+iv)^2$$

This means that $`(q+ip,u+iv,x+iy)`$ is a Pythagorean triple in $`[i].`$ Now we apply the Proposition 5, according to which:

$`x+iy=(a+ib)^2+(c+id)^2,`$ $`a,b,c,d`$

$`u+iv=(a+ib)^2(c+id)^2,`$

$`q+ip=2(a+ib)(c+id).`$

Consequently:

$`x=a^2b^2+c^2d^2,y=2(abcd),u=a^2b^2c^2+d^2,v=2(abcd),p=2(ad+bc),q=2(acbd).`$

Taking $`b=c=d=1`$ we get only one parameter $`a.`$ After calculations we obtain for $`a=4`$ the following triple: $`AB=261,BC=136,AC=325.`$ For $`a=5`$ we obtain another triple:$`AB=640,BC=208,AC=270.`$ It can be verified that these two triples define Diophantine triangles, and the supplementary triangles $`APB,BQC,CRA`$ are Pythagorean ( $`AP=189,PB=180,BQ=120,QC=64,CR=125,RA=300`$ ).

Remark: The above exposed examples give an idea how to proceed practically for to get Diophantine triangles of kind 4.

#### <br>DIOPHANTINE FIGURES COMPOSED BY PYTHAGOREAN TRIANGLES WITH COMMON CATHETUS

The simplest Diophantine figures of many vertices are composed by many Pythagorean triangles (see Fig.3)

Fig. 3.

We shall consider the set of Pythagorean triples $`(x,n,z)`$ in $`,`$ i. e. $`x^2+n^2=z^2.`$ It is not supposed that these triples are primitive. We introduce the function $`\kappa :,`$ $`n\kappa (n),`$ where $`\kappa (n)`$ is the number of all Pythagorean triangles with cathetus $`n.`$ By definition $`\kappa (0)=0`$ and $`\kappa (m)=0`$ if $`m`$ is not a cathetus in a Pythagorean triangle.

We shall write $`d`$$`|n`$ if $`d`$ is a divisor of $`n.`$ By $`\eta (d)`$ is denoted the set of all primitive Pythagorean triples with $`d`$ as cathetus. It is clear that from each primitive Pythagorean triple $`(u,d,v)`$ we can obtain a Pythagorean triple $`(x,n,y)`$ with cathetus $`n.`$ It is sufficient to multiply by $`\frac{n}{d}=k,`$ i.e. $`x=\frac{n}{d}u,`$ $`y=\frac{n}{d}v.`$ Having in mind all divisors of $`n`$ we can introduce the following formula:

$$\kappa (n)=\underset{d|n}{}\eta (d)$$

###### Lemma 26

If $`\delta (d)`$ is the set of all divisors of $`d`$ then $`\eta (d)<\delta (d).`$

Proof: As we have a primitive Pythagorean triple $`(u,d,v)`$ we can use the representation:

$$u=2st,d=s^2t^2,v=s^2+t^2,\text{ }s,t\text{ }$$

Then $`d=(st)(s+t).`$ If $`p`$ is a divisor of $`d`$ we can set $`st=p`$ and $`s+t=\frac{d}{p}.`$ The number of solutions in $``$ of the above written system may be $`0`$ in general. This shows that $`\delta (d)>\eta (d).`$

Now let $`n`$ be as follows: $`n=p_1^{\alpha _1}p_2^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}p_r^{\alpha _r}`$ and $`d=p_1^{\beta _1}p_2^{\beta _2}\mathrm{}p_r^{\beta _r}`$ with $`0\beta _j\alpha _j.`$ We have:

$`\delta (p_1^{\beta _1}p_2^{\beta _2}\mathrm{}p_r^{\beta _r})`$ $`=(1+\beta _1)(1+\beta _2)\mathrm{}(1+\beta _r)`$
$`{\displaystyle \underset{d|n}{}}\beta (d)`$ $`={\displaystyle \underset{d|n}{}}(1+\beta _1)(1+\beta _2)\mathrm{}(1+\beta _r)`$
So we have:

$$\kappa (n)<\delta (n)<\left(\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}(1+\alpha _j)\right)^2$$

###### Theorem 27

(M. Brancheva): $`\kappa (n)=O(n^\epsilon ).`$

Proof: According to a well known formula (see Prachar \[P\])

$$\delta (n)<\mathrm{exp}\{(1+\rho )\frac{\mathrm{ln}2\mathrm{ln}n}{\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{ln}(n)}\}$$

But $`\mathrm{exp}\{(1+\rho )\frac{\mathrm{ln}2\mathrm{ln}n}{\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{ln}(n)}\}=n^{2(1+\rho )\mathrm{ln}2/\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{ln}(n)}.`$ We receive:

$`[\delta (n)]^2`$ $`<n^{2(1+\rho )\mathrm{ln}2/\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{ln}(n)}`$
$`[\delta (n)]^2`$ $`<O(n^\epsilon ),\epsilon >0.\mathrm{}`$
Application:$`\underset{n\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{\kappa (n)}{n}=0`$ which is conjecture of S. Dimiev.

It is proved in stronger form: $`\underset{n\mathrm{}}{lim}\frac{\kappa (n)}{n^\epsilon }=0`$ for every $`\epsilon >0.`$

## 0.1  <br>PROBLEMS

1. Let us denote by $`\chi (l)`$ the number of all Pythagorean triangles with hypotenuse $`l,l.`$ Find the asymptotic of the function $`\chi (l)`$ when $`l\mathrm{}`$ following the above exposed case of the function $`\kappa (n).`$

2. Given a Diophantine triangle $`ABC`$ is it possible to find a point $`D`$ in the Diophantine plane such that $`ABCD`$ to be a Diophantine figure? The case when there is no such point $`D`$ means that the triangle $`ABC`$ is an Erdös-Diophantine figure. Are there Erdös-Diophantine triangles? In the case when there is such a point $`D`$ is it possible to find an effective algorithm of searching such points.

3. We say that the pyramid $`ABCD`$ is a Pythagorean-Diophantine pyramid if the coordinates of the vertices are integers, the lengths of each segment $`AB,AC,BC,BD,AD,CD`$ are natural numbers and the triangles $`ADC,BDC`$ and $`ADB`$ are Pythagorean. Are there Pythagorean-Diophantine pyramids?

4. We say that the quaternion $`q=n+im+jr+ks,`$ with $`n,m,r,s`$ $``$, is a Hamiltonian integer. Each $`q`$ is represented by a couple of Gauss integers as follows: $`q=z+wj`$, where $`z=n+im`$ and $`w=r+is.`$ It is interesting to examine the possibility to develop analogous theory for Hamiltonian integers.

5. Examine the coloring problem for Diophantine carpets. For a large class of such carpets the chromatic number is 2.

### 0.1.1 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are grateful to R. Lazov for an useful discussion and the suggestion of Problem 5 and to I.Tonov for his interest to this subject.

## 0.2 REFERENCES

\[DT\] S. Dimiev, I. Tonov, Diophantine Figures, Mathematics and Mathematical Education, 15 (1986), 383-390 (in Bulgarian).

\[B1\] M.N.Brancheva, Diophantine Figures and Diophantine Carpets, Mathematics and Mathematical Education, 30 (2001), 289-296.

\[D\] S.Dimiev, Physicalism in mathematics? Mathematics and Mathematical Education, 30 (2001), 78-85.

\[BDM\] M. N. Brancheva, S. Dimiev, N. Milev, On Diophantine Figures, (submited for publication)

\[B2\] M. N. Brancheva, Assymptotic for the function $`\kappa (n)`$ (submited for publication)

\[IR\] K. Ireland, M. Rosen, A Classical Introduction to ModernNumber Theory, Springer Verlag, 1982

\[TT\] T. Tonkov, Figural Numbers (in bulgarian), Sofia, 1971

\[P\] K. Prachar, Primzahlverteilung, Springer Verlag, 1957

\[E\] H.M.Edwards, Fermat’s Last Theorem, Springer Verlag, New-York, 1977

\[G\] P.Guncheva, Square Radicals of Gauss Integers (to be published).

\[DMY\] S.Dimiev, K.Markov, M.Yawata, On the Geometry of Pythagorean Triples (to be published)

Authors addresses:

S.Dimiev K.Markov

Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Mladost-3,

Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, block 325, entry 6,

8, G.Bonchev str., Sofia 1113 Sofia 1117

e-mail: sdimiev@math.bas.bg tel. (0357 2) 779133