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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

It is well known that in Quantum Mechanics the symmetry group $`G`$ of a quantum system is realized by local unitary operators $`U`$ acting on the space of wavefunctions $`\psi `$ defined on the space-time manifold (a homogeneous space of $`G`$) $`X`$ in the form

$$\psi ^{}(x^{})(U(g)\psi )(gx)=A(g,x)\psi (x),gG,xX,$$

being $`A(g,x)`$ a matrix-valued function. When the wavefunctions are single component $`A(g,x)`$ is a phase function $`A(g,x)=\mathrm{exp}^{i\zeta (g,x)}`$. In general, the operators $`U(g)`$ do not close a true representation but a projective or ‘up to a factor’ representation of $`G`$ called local realization

$$U(g_2)U(g_1)=\omega (g_2,g_1)U(g_2g_1),g_2,g_1G.$$

The function $`\omega :G\times GU(1)`$ is the factor system of the realization and it is a 2–cocycle. To construct the local realizations of a given group $`G`$ the first step is to linearize the problem. In other words, instead of computing directly the representations up to a factor of $`G`$ we can obtain them from the linear local representations of a new group $`\overline{G}`$, which is a central extension of $`G`$ by an Abelian group $`A`$. It can be shown that $`A`$ is related with the second cohomology group of $`G`$ . So, the computation of $`𝐇^2(G,U(1))`$ can be done by solving the equivalent problem of the central extensions of $`G`$ by $`U(1)`$. It can be proved  that the local representations can be obtained by induction from the finite dimensional representations of the subgroup $`\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ of $`\overline{G}`$ such that $`\overline{G}/\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}X`$.

On the other hand, the study of the $`q`$–deformed symmetries of the space-time is one of the main applications of quantum kinematical groups in order to establish the structure of the space-time at the level of the distances and energies of Planck scale. This is an important problem to be solved in relation with the statement of a quantum gravity theory.

So, it looks interesting to study the $`q`$–deformed version of the local representations of kinematical groups in order to construct models of deformed quantum mechanics, where the deformation parameter of the quantum algebra is introduced as a fundamental length that can be interpreted as a lattice spacing. Attempts in this direction has been presented in Ref. ,  and . Also recent progress has been made in $`q`$-deformed quantum field theory by Wess and coworkers . This work can be seen from the point of view of non-commutative geometry .

In  we constructed the induced representations of some quantum versions of the Galilei algebra in $`(1+1)`$–dimensions, among them the quantum extended Galilei algebra $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$. However, the construction of induced representations of “local type” for $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$ presented two problems: the generators associated to the space-time coordinates do not appeared isolated on a side of the monomial basis chosen, and the linear space spanned by the elements related with $`\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ does not close a subalgebra of $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$. In this paper we have solved these difficulties and we present the ‘local’ induced representations of $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$. The solution proposed by us does without the requirement of duality or pairing between algebras replacing it with a less restrictive condition of duality between linear spaces. The price payed is to drop the coalgebra sector.

The organization of the paper is as follows. Section 2 is devoted to present a brief review about the theory of induced representations of quantum algebras developed in Ref. . In Section 3 we describe the quantum extended Galilei algebra in $`(1+1)`$–dimensions. The main results of the paper about the construction of the local representations of the quantum algebra mentioned above are presented in Section 4. We finish with some conclusions and remarks.

## 2 Induced representations of quantum algebras

The main results about the theory of induced representation of quantum algebras will be summarized in this section (see  and  for a detailed description).

We will use multi-index notation: let $`A`$ be an algebra generated by the elements $`(a_1,a_2,\mathrm{},a_r)`$ such that the ordered monomials $`a^n:=a_1^{n_1}a_2^{n_2}\mathrm{}a_r^{n_r}A,n=(n_1,n_2,\mathrm{},n_r)^r`$, form a basis of the linear space underlying to $`A`$. An arbitrary product of generators of $`A`$ is written in a normal ordering if it is expressed in terms of the (ordered) basis $`(a^n)_{n^r}`$. The unit of $`A`$, $`1_A`$, is denoted by $`a^0`$ ($`0\text{}^n`$). Multi-factorials and multi-deltas are defined by $`l!=_{i=1}^nl_i!`$ and $`\delta _l^m=_{i=1}^n\delta _{l_i}^{m_i}`$.

We will denote the different actions involved by the following symbols (or their symmetric for the corresponding right actions and coactions): $``$ ($``$) (actions (coactions)), $``$ (induced and inducting representations) and $``$ (regular actions).

Let $`H`$ be a Hopf algebra and $`V`$ a linear vector space over a field 𝕂 ( or ). The triplet $`(V,,H)`$ is said to be a left $`H`$–module if $`\alpha `$ is a left action of $`H`$ on $`V`$, i.e., a linear map $`\alpha :HVV`$ ($`\alpha :(hv)\alpha (hv)hv`$) such that

$$h_1(h_2v)=(h_1h_2)v,1_Hv=v,h_1,h_2H,vV.$$

Right $`H`$–modules can be defined in a similar way.

There are two canonical modules associated to any pair of Hopf algebras, $`H`$ and $`H^{}`$, related by a nondegenerate pairing $`,`$, in the sense of being simultaneously left and right nondegenerate pairing  (in this case $`(H,H^{},,)`$ will be called a nondegenerate triplet):

i) The left regular module $`(H,,H)`$ with action

$$h_1h_2=h_1h_2,h_1,h_2H.$$

ii) The right coregular module $`(H^{},,H)`$ with action defined by

$$h_2,h^{}h_1=h_1h_2,h^{},h_1,h_2H,h^{}H^{}.$$

Using the coproduct ($`\mathrm{\Delta }(h^{})=h_{(1)}^{}h_{(2)}^{}`$) in $`H^{}`$ the action takes the form: $`h^{}h=h,h_{(1)}^{}h_{(2)}^{}`$.

The induction and coinduction algorithms of algebra representations are adapted to the Hopf algebras as follows. Let $`(H,H^{},,)`$ be a nondegenerate triplet and $`(V,,K)`$ a left $`K`$–module with $`K`$ a subalgebra of $`H`$. The carrier space, $`\text{𝕂}^{}`$, of the coinduced representation is the subspace of $`H^{}V`$ with elements $`f`$ verifying

$$f,kh=kf,h,kK,hH.$$
(2.1)
The pairing used in expression (2.1) is $`V`$–valued and is defined by $`h^{}v,h=h^{},hv`$, with $`hH,h^{}H^{},vV`$. The action $`hf`$ on the coinduced module is determined by

$$h_1f,h_2=f,h_2h_1,h_2H.$$

Let $`(\text{𝕂},,K)`$ be a coinducing module. The carrier space of the coinduced representation is the subspace of $`H^{}\text{𝕂}H^{}`$ composed by the elements $`\phi `$ that verify the equivariance condition $`\phi k=(1k)\phi ,kK.`$ The action of $`H`$ on $`\text{𝕂}^{}`$ induced by the action of $`K`$ on 𝕂 is given by

$$h_2\phi ,h_1=\phi ,h_1h_2,h_1,h_2H,\phi \text{𝕂}^{},$$

or explicitly by $`h\phi h\phi =h,\phi _{(2)}\phi _{(1)}`$.

Note that to describe the induced module the right, $`(H^{},,H)`$, and left, $`(H^{},,H)`$, coregular modules are both pertinent, the former to determine the carrier space and the last to obtain the induced action.

Let $`(H,H^{},,)`$ be a nondegenerate triplet with finite sets of generators, $`\{h_1,\mathrm{},h_n\}`$ of $`H`$ and $`\{\phi ^1,\mathrm{},\phi ^n\}`$ of $`H^{}`$, such that $`\{h_l=h_1^{l_1}\mathrm{}h_n^{l_n}\}_{l\text{}^n}`$ and $`\{\phi ^m=(\phi ^1)^{m_1}\mathrm{}(\phi ^n)^{m_n}\}_{m\text{}^n}`$ ($`l=(l_1,\mathrm{},l_n)`$, $`m=(m_1,\mathrm{},m_n)`$) are bases of $`H`$ and $`H^{}`$, respectively. The action on the coregular module $`(H^{},,H)`$ is obtained after to compute the action of the generators

$$h_i\phi ^j=\underset{k\text{}^n}{}\alpha _{ik}^j\phi ^k,i,j\{1,2,\mathrm{},n\},$$

and to extend it to the ordered polynomial $`\phi ^j=(\phi ^1)^{j_1}\mathrm{}(\phi ^n)^{j_n}`$ using the compatibility relation between the action and the algebra structure in $`H^{}`$. Thus, we get

$$h(\phi \psi )=(h_{(1)}\phi )(h_{(2)}\psi ),h1_H^{}=ϵ(h)1_H^{}.$$
(2.2)
In order to write explicitly the expression of the action on a generic ordered polynomial we take into account that:

1) There is a natural representation $`\rho `$ of $`H`$ associated to $`(H,,H)`$

$$[\rho (h_2)](h_1)=h_1h_2.$$

2) The action on $`(H^{},,H)`$ can be expressed in terms of $`\rho `$ using the adjoint with respect to the pairing ($`f^{}:H^{}H^{}`$ is the adjoint of $`f:HH`$ if $`h,f^{}(h^{})=f(h),h^{}`$) defined by

$$h\phi =[\rho (h)]^{}(\phi ).$$
(2.3)
If the bases $`\{h_l\}_{l\text{}^n}`$ and $`\{\phi ^m\}_{m\text{}^n}`$ are dual (i.e. $`h_l,\phi ^m=l!\delta _l^m,l,m\text{}^n`$) we define ‘multiplication’ operators $`\overline{h}_i`$, $`\overline{\phi }^j`$ and formal derivatives $`/h_i`$, $`/\phi ^j`$ by

$$\begin{array}{c}\overline{h}_i(h_1^{l_1}\mathrm{}h_i^{l_i}\mathrm{}h_n^{l_n})=h_1^{l_1}\mathrm{}h_i^{l_i+1}\mathrm{}h_n^{l_n},\hfill \\ \overline{\phi }_i\left((\phi ^1)^{m_1}\mathrm{}(\phi ^i)^{m_i}\mathrm{}(\phi ^n)^{m_n}\right)=(\phi ^1)^{m_1}\mathrm{}(\phi ^i)^{m_i+1}\mathrm{}(\phi ^n)^{m_n},\hfill \\ \frac{}{h_i}(h_1^{l_1}\mathrm{}h_i^{l_i}\mathrm{}h_n^{l_n})=l_ih_1^{l_1}\mathrm{}h_i^{l_i1}\mathrm{}h_n^{l_n},\hfill \\ \frac{}{\phi ^i}\left((\phi ^1)^{m_1}\mathrm{}(\phi ^i)^{m_i}\mathrm{}(\phi ^n)^{m_n}\right)=m_i(\phi ^1)^{m_1}\mathrm{}(\phi ^i)^{m_i1}\mathrm{}(\phi ^n)^{m_n}.\hfill \end{array}$$

The adjoint operators are given by $`\overline{h}_i^{}=/\phi ^i`$ and $`\overline{\phi }^i=/h_i`$.

## 3 Quantum extended Galilei algebra $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$

The quantum extended Galilei group, $`F_q(\overline{G(1,1)})`$, can be obtained as a deformation of a Lie–Poisson structure defined by a nontrivial 1–cocycle of the extended Galilei group , $`\overline{G(1,1)}`$, with values on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }^2\overline{𝔤(1,1)}`$ . Thus, $`F_q(\overline{G(1,1)})`$ is the Hopf algebra generated by $`\mu ,x,t`$ and $`v`$ with nonvanishing commutation relations

$$[\mu ,x]=2a\mu ,[\mu ,v]=av^2,[x,v]=2av.$$

The coproduct, counit and antipode are

$$\begin{array}{c}\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{\Delta }\mu =\mu 1+1\mu +vx+\frac{1}{2}v^2t,\hfill & \mathrm{\Delta }x=x1+1x+vt,\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }t=t1+1t,\hfill & \mathrm{\Delta }v=v1+1v;\hfill \end{array}\\ \\ ϵ(\mu )=ϵ(x)=ϵ(t)=ϵ(v)=0;\\ S(\mu )=\mu +x\frac{1}{2}v^2t,S(x)=x+tv,S(t)=t,S(v)=v.\end{array}$$

The dual (enveloping) algebra $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$  is generated by $`I,P,H`$ and $`N`$, in such a way that its pairing with $`F_q(\overline{G(1,1)})`$ is given by

$$I^pP^qH^rN^s,\mu ^p^{}x^q^{}t^r^{}v^s^{}=p!q!r!s!\delta _p^{}^p\delta _q^{}^q\delta _r^{}^r\delta _s^{}^s.$$
(3.1)
The duality relations fix the Hopf algebra structure in $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$. The nonvanishing commutation relations are

$$[I,N]=ae^{2aP}I^2,[P,N]=e^{2aP}I,[H,N]=\frac{1e^{2aP}}{2a}.$$
(3.2)
Note that $`I,P`$ and $`H`$ close a commutative subalgebra but now $`I`$ is not central. However, the commutation relations (3.2) are simpler in terms of the generators $`(M,P,H,K)`$, whose nonzero Lie brackets are

$$[P,K]=M,[H,K]=\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(aP)}{a}.$$
(3.3)
where $`M=e^{aP}I`$ and $`K=e^{aP}N`$. However, the pairing has a ‘diagonal’ expression using $`(I,P,H,N)`$.

The coproduct, counit and antipode can be written as

$$\begin{array}{c}\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{\Delta }M=Me^{aP}+e^{aP}M,\hfill & \mathrm{\Delta }P=P1+1P,\hfill \\ \mathrm{\Delta }H=H1+1H,\hfill & \mathrm{\Delta }K=Ke^{aP}+e^{aP}K;\hfill \end{array}\\ \\ ϵ(M)=ϵ(P)=ϵ(H)=ϵ(K)=0;\\ S(M)=M,S(P)=P,S(H)=H,S(K)=KaM;\end{array}$$

From the commutation relations (3.3) we see that $`M,P`$ and $`H`$ span a commutative subalgebra where the generator $`K`$ acts like a derivation by means of the commutator. Moreover, since $`M`$ is a central generator we will identify it with the mass operator of a physical system.

## 4 Local representations of $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$

We mentioned before in the Introduction the difficulties that prevented the construction of local representations for $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$ in , related with that the generators $`x`$ and $`t`$ do not appear isolated on a side of the monomial basis, and with that the linear space spanned by the elements $`I^mN^n`$ does not close a subalgebra of $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$. Here we will use an alternative basis of $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$ determined by $`(M,P,H,K)`$. However, new troubles appear because the pairing between $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$ and $`F_q(\overline{G(1,1)})`$ is not like (3.1) (i.e., $`M^pP^qH^rK^s,\mu ^p^{}x^q^{}t^r^{}v^s^{}p!q!r!s!\delta _p^{}^p\delta _q^{}^q\delta _r^{}^r\delta _s^{}^s`$). But in order to avoid them let us consider a unital associative algebra $`𝒜`$ spanned by four elements $`v,\mu ,x,t`$, whose commutation relations are not specified. Although, let us suppose that the ordered monomials $`v^m\mu ^nx^pt^q`$ determine a basis of the underlying linear space of $`𝒜`$, and the nondegenerate bilinear form defined on $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})\times 𝒜`$ is

$$K^mM^nP^pH^q,v^m^{}\mu ^n^{}x^p^{}t^q^{}=m!n!p!q!\delta _m^{}^m\delta _n^{}^n\delta _p^{}^p\delta _q^{}^q.$$
(4.1)
So, in the following we will work only with the algebra sector of $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$. Note that the nondegenerate pairings play a fundamental role to transfer the module structure to the dual spaces.

The first step is to know the structure of the module-coalgebra $`(U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)}),,U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)}))`$. Taking into account that

$$M^nP^pH^qK=KM^nP^pH^qpM^{n+1}P^{p1}H^qqM^n\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(aP)}{a}P^pH^{q1},$$
(4.2)
the action of the generators can be written as

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill K^mM^nP^pH^qK=& K^{m+1}M^nP^pH^qpK^mM^{n+1}P^{p1}H^qqK^mM^n\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(aP)}{a}P^pH^{q1},\hfill \\ \hfill K^mM^nP^pH^qM=& K^mM^{n+1}P^pH^q,\hfill \\ \hfill K^mM^nP^pH^qP=& K^mM^nP^{p+1}H^q,\hfill \\ \hfill K^mM^nP^pH^qH=& K^mM^nP^pH^{q+1}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.3)
The endomorphism associated to this action is given by

$$\begin{array}{cccc}& \rho (K)=\overline{K}\overline{M}\frac{}{P}\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(a\overline{P})}{a}\frac{}{H},\hfill & & \rho (M)=\overline{M},\hfill \\ & \rho (P)=\overline{P},\hfill & & \rho (H)=\overline{H}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.4)
The adjoint operators respect to the bilinear form (4.1),

$$\begin{array}{cccc}& \rho (K)^{}=\frac{}{v}\overline{x}\frac{}{\mu }\overline{t}\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(a\frac{}{x})}{a},\hfill & & \rho (M)^{}=\frac{}{\mu },\hfill \\ & \rho (P)^{}=\frac{}{x},\hfill & & \rho (H)^{}=\frac{}{t},\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.5)
allow to obtain the action that characterizes $`(U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)}),,U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)}))`$

$$\begin{array}{cccc}& Kf=\left[\frac{}{v}\overline{x}\frac{}{\mu }\overline{t}\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(a\frac{}{x})}{a}\right]f,\hfill & & Mf=\frac{}{\mu }f,\hfill \\ & Pf=\frac{}{x}f,\hfill & & Hf=\frac{}{t}f.\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.6)
Now let study the module $`(𝒜,,U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)}))`$, dual of $`(U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)}),,U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)}))`$ respect to the bilinear form (4.1). The following lemma will be useful for our task.

###### Lemma 4.1.

For every real number $`s`$ the following relations hold

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill Me^{sK}=& e^{sK}M,\hfill \\ \hfill Pe^{sK}=& e^{sK}(PsM),\hfill \\ \hfill He^{sK}=& e^{sK}(H+\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(a(PsM))\mathrm{cosh}(aP)}{a^2M}).\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.7)
###### Proof.

Let $`\phi `$ be an element of the subalgebra generated by $`M,P`$ and $`H`$. We have

$$\phi e^{sK}=e^{sK}e^{s\text{ad}_K^\text{r}}(\phi ),$$
(4.8)
where

$$\text{ad}_a^\text{r}(a^{})=a^{}aaa^{}=[a^{},a],e^aa^{}e^a=e^{\text{ad}_a^\text{r}}(a^{}),$$
(4.9)
with $`a`$ and $`a^{}`$ belonging to an associative algebra. Since the subalgebra $`M,P,H`$ is isomorphic to $`F(^3)`$ the system $`(M,P,H)`$ can be seen as a global chart over $`^3`$ (see Ref.. ). The derivation $`\widehat{K}=\text{ad}_K^\text{r}`$ in this chart can be written as

$$\widehat{K}=M\frac{}{P}\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(aP)}{a}\frac{}{H}.$$
(4.10)
Denoting by $`\varphi `$ the flow associated to the vector field $`K`$ expression (4.8) becomes

$$\phi e^{sK}=e^{sK}(\phi \varphi ^s).$$
(4.11)
In order to obtain $`\varphi `$ it is necessary to compute firstly the integral curves of $`\widehat{K}`$, which are determined by the autonomous system

$$\dot{m}=0,\dot{p}=m,\dot{h}=\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(ap)}{a},$$
(4.12)
whose solution is

$$m(s)=c_1,p(s)=c_2sc_1,h(s)=\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(a(c_2sc_1))}{a^2c_1}+c_3.$$
(4.13)
From the expression of the integral curves we obtain the flow

$$\varphi ^s(m,p,h)=(m,psm,h+\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(a(psm))\mathrm{cosh}(ap)}{a^2m}).$$
(4.14)
Expressions (4.7) are obtained considering successively $`\phi `$ equal to $`M,P`$ and $`H`$ in expression (4.11). ∎

The lemma allows us to describe the action of the generators of $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$ over the elements like $`e^{sK}M^nP^pH^q`$. Thus,

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill Ke^{sK}M^nP^pH^q=& Ke^{sK}M^nP^pH^q,\hfill \\ \hfill Me^{sK}M^nP^pH^q=& e^{sK}M^{n+1}P^pH^q,\hfill \\ \hfill Pe^{sK}M^nP^pH^q=& e^{sK}(PsM)M^nP^pH^q,\hfill \\ \hfill He^{sK}M^nP^pH^q=& e^{sK}\left(H+\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(a(PsM))\mathrm{cosh}(aP)}{a^2M}\right)M^nP^pH^q.\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.15)
The endomorphism of $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$ associated to this action is

$$\begin{array}{cccc}& \lambda (K)=\overline{K},\hfill & & \lambda (M)=\overline{M},\hfill \\ & \lambda (P)=\overline{P}\overline{M}\frac{}{K},\hfill & & \lambda (H)=\overline{H}+\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(a(\overline{P}\overline{M}\frac{}{K}))\mathrm{cosh}(a\overline{P})}{a^2\overline{M}}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.16)
The adjoint operators respect to the bilinear form (4.1) are given by

$$\begin{array}{cccc}& \lambda (K)^{}=\frac{}{v},\hfill & & \lambda (M)^{}=\frac{}{\mu },\hfill \\ & \lambda (P)^{}=\frac{}{x}\overline{v}\frac{}{\mu },\hfill & & \lambda (H)^{}=\frac{}{t}+\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(a(\frac{}{x}\overline{v}\frac{}{\mu }))\mathrm{cosh}(a\frac{}{x})}{a^2\frac{}{\mu }}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.17)
These expressions lead immediately to the following action that characterizes the regular module $`(𝒜,,U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)}))`$

$$\begin{array}{cccc}& fK=\frac{}{v}f,\hfill & & fM=\frac{}{\mu }f,\hfill \\ & fP=\left[\frac{}{x}\overline{v}\frac{}{\mu }\right]f,\hfill & & fH=\left[\frac{}{t}+\frac{\mathrm{cosh}(a(\frac{}{x}\overline{v}\frac{}{\mu }))\mathrm{cosh}(a\frac{}{x})}{a^2\frac{}{\mu }}\right]f.\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.18)
Now we can state the following theorem that gives a family of local representations induced from the abelian subalgebra generated by $`M`$ and $`K`$.

###### Theorem 4.1.

Let us consider the character associated to the subalgebra generated by $`\{M,K\}`$ defined by

$$K^mM^n1=\alpha ^m\beta ^n,\alpha ,\beta .$$
(4.19)
The carrier space, $`^{}`$, of the representation of $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$ induced by (4.19) is constituted by the elements of $`𝒜`$ of the form

$$e^{\alpha v}e^{\beta \mu }\varphi (x,t),$$
(4.20)
and is isomorphic to the subspace generated by the elements $`x^pt^q`$. The action of the generators is described by

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill K\varphi (x,t)=& \left[\alpha \beta \overline{x}\overline{t}\frac{\mathrm{sinh}(a_x)}{a}\right]\varphi (x,t),\hfill \\ \hfill M\varphi (x,t)=& \beta \varphi (x,t),\hfill \\ \hfill P\varphi (x,t)=& \frac{}{x}\varphi (x,t),\hfill \\ \hfill H\varphi (x,t)=& \frac{}{t}\varphi (x,t).\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.21)
###### Proof.

The space $`^{}`$ is obtained solving the equivariance condition

$$fK=\alpha f,fM=\beta f,$$
(4.22)
which according to (4.18) can be written as

$$\frac{}{v}f=\alpha f,\frac{}{\mu }f=\beta f.$$
(4.23)
The general solution of (4.23) is, obviously,

$$f=e^{\alpha v}e^{\beta \mu }\varphi (x,t),$$
(4.24)
with $`\varphi (x,t)`$ a linear combination of monomials $`x^pt^q`$. The action of the induced representation (4.21) is obtained by restricting the action (4.6) of the module $`(𝒜,,U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)}))`$ to the elements (4.24). ∎

## 5 Concluding remarks

Note that in the above computations we have not used at any moment the commutation relations of the algebra $`𝒜`$. In other words, we have essentially used the structure of linear space of $`𝒜`$.

The representations characterized by $`(\alpha ,\beta )`$ and $`(0,\beta )`$ are equivalent. To see that it is enough to rescaled $`KK\alpha `$. So, in the following we will take $`\alpha =0`$.

The action of the Casimir $`C_a=MT+{\displaystyle \frac{1\mathrm{cosh}(aP)}{a^2}}`$ in the induced module $`(^{},,U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)}))`$ is given by

$$C_a\varphi (x,t)=\left[\beta _t+\frac{1\mathrm{cosh}(a_x)}{a^2}\right]\varphi (x,t).$$
(5.1)
Since the operator $`C_a`$ is not a constant, the induced representation is reducible, but the $`q`$–Casimir equation (5.1) gives a condition of irreducibility. For $`\beta 0`$ the generator $`M`$ acts by means of an invertible operator and we can consider the central element $`C_a^{}=M^1C_a`$ whose action is

$$C_a^{}\varphi (x,t)=\left[_t+\frac{1}{\beta }\frac{1\mathrm{cosh}(a_x)}{a^2}\right]\varphi (x,t).$$
(5.2)
The unitarity of the representations requires firstly to fix a $``$–structure on the algebra $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$. We here consider a real form that take over the generators the following value:

$$K^{}=K,M^{}=M,P^{}=P,H^{}=H.$$
(5.3)
On the other hand, it is necessary to determine an inner product on the corresponding space. Note that the action (4.21) is well defined over the functions of $`=L^2(^2)`$ which are $`𝒞^{\mathrm{}}`$. For this reason we fix, finally, the commutation relation $`[x,t]=0`$ and make the identification $`^{}_{\mathrm{}}`$.

Obviously, with the inner product given by

$$(\varphi |\varphi ^{})=_{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}𝑑x_{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}𝑑t\varphi (x,t)\overline{\varphi ^{}(x,t)}$$
(5.4)
we have

$$(P\varphi |\varphi ^{})=(\varphi |P^{}\varphi ^{}),(H\varphi |\varphi ^{})=(\varphi |H^{}\varphi ^{}),$$
(5.5)
independently of the values of $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ that characterize the representation from where we induced. However, to get

$$(M\varphi |\varphi ^{})=(\varphi |M^{}\varphi ^{}),(K\varphi |\varphi ^{})=(\varphi |K^{}\varphi ^{})$$
(5.6)
it is necessary to impose the condition $`\overline{\beta }=\beta `$.

In the limit $`a0`$ equation (5.2) reduces to

$$C_0^{}\varphi (x,t)=\left[_t\frac{1}{2\beta }_x^2\right]\varphi (x,t),$$
(5.7)
which coincides with the Schrödinger equation for a free elemental system of mass $`m`$ after making $`\beta =im/\mathrm{}`$. Also in the limit $`a0`$ the expressions (4.21) become

$$\begin{array}{cccc}& K\varphi (x,t)=\left(\frac{im}{\mathrm{}}xt_x\right)\varphi (x,t),\hfill & & M\varphi (x,t)=\frac{im}{\mathrm{}}\varphi (x,t),\hfill \\ & P\varphi (x,t)=\frac{}{x}\varphi (x,t),\hfill & & H\varphi (x,t)=\frac{}{t}\varphi (x,t).\hfill \end{array}$$
(5.8)
As we mention in the introduction, the motivation for constructing the $`q`$–deformed version of the local representations of $`U_q(\overline{𝔤(1,1)})`$ is to arrive at a ‘deformed’ quantum mechanics, where the deformation parameter of the quantum algebra is introduced as a fundamental length that can be interpreted as a lattice spacing. This is a first step to construct a $`q`$–version of quantum field theory. Results in these directions will be published elsewhere.

## Acknowledgments

This work has been partially supported by DGES of the Ministerio de Educación y Cultura de España under Project PB98–0360, and the Junta de Castilla y León (Spain).


text:
# BI3692 ACCEPTED FOR PHYS. LETT. A Nonlinear balance and exchange of stability in dynamics of solitons, peakons, ramps/cliffs and leftons in a 1+1 nonlinear evolutionary pde

## 1 Introduction

### 1.1 Linear and nonlinear balances in shallow water waves

The primary physical mechanism for the propagation of solitary shallow water waves is the balance between nonlinear steepening and linear dispersion. This balance appears uniquely at linear order in an asymptotic expansion in the Korteweg-de Vries equation (KdV),

$$u_t+c_0u_x+\frac{3ϵ_1}{2}uu_x+\frac{3ϵ_2}{20}u_{xxx}=0.$$
(1)
Here the expansion parameters satisfy $`ϵ_1ϵ_2>ϵ_1^2`$ and are defined by $`ϵ_1=a/h`$ and $`ϵ_2=h^2/l^2`$, in terms of $`a`$, $`h`$ and $`l`$, which denote wave amplitude, mean water depth, and typical horizontal length scale (e.g., a wavelength), respectively. KdV possesses the famous $`\mathrm{sech}^2`$ solitary wave solution $`u(x,t)=u_0\mathrm{sech}^2((xct)\sqrt{u_0/\gamma }/2)`$, for $`u_0=2(cc_0)/ϵ_1`$ and $`\gamma =3ϵ_2/(5ϵ_1)`$, see .

The Benjamin-Bona-Mahoney equation (BBM),

$$u_t+c_0u_x+\frac{3ϵ_1}{2}uu_x\frac{3ϵ_2}{20}c_0^1u_{xxt}=0,$$
(2)
has the same sech2 shape for its solitary wave, but with $`\gamma `$ replaced by $`\gamma ^{}=c\gamma /c_0`$. BBM is asymptotically equivalent to KdV at order $`O(ϵ_1,ϵ_2)`$. However, the linear dispersion relation for BBM is a better match than that for KdV in the physical application to shallow water waves.

Beyond KdV at linear order, the asymptotic expansion at quadratic order in the small parameters $`ϵ_1`$ and $`ϵ_2`$ does not produce a unique wave equation for unidirectional shallow water waves . Instead, the asymptotic expansion produces an entire family of shallow water wave equations that are asymptotically equivalent to each other at quadratic order in the shallow water expansion parameters. The equations in this family are related amongst themselves by a continuous, three-parameter group of nonlinear, nonlocal transformations of variables given by,

$$u=v+ϵ_1(a_1v^2+a_2v_x_x^1v)+ϵ_2a_3v_{xx},$$
(3)
in which $`(a_1,a_2,a_3)`$ are real parameters. This transformation group was first introduced for determining normal forms of shallow water equations by Kodama in .

Among the family of asymptotically equivalent shallow water wave equations at quadratic order accuracy in the small parameters $`ϵ_1=a/h`$ and $`ϵ_2=h^2/l^2`$ are several equations that are completely integrable. As for KdV at linear order, these integrable shallow water equations at quadratic order possess soliton solutions that interact via elastic collisions. In particular, the equation in the KdV hierarchy with fifth-order derivatives is present among these integrable equations, as shown in .

The family of shallow water equations at quadratic order accuracy that are asymptotically equivalent under Kodama transformations (3) contains the following sub-family, derived in ,

$$\underset{\text{Evolution}}{\underset{}{m_t}}+\underset{\text{Dispersion}}{\underset{}{c_0u_x+\frac{3ϵ_2}{20}u_{xxx}}}+\underset{\text{Nonlinearity}}{\underset{}{ϵ_1(um_x+bmu_x)}}=0,$$
(4)
where $`m=u(19ϵ_2/60)u_{xx}`$. The set of 1+1 evolutionary equations (4) is nonlocal, dispersive and nonlinear. The nonlinearity in this set of asymptotically equivalent shallow water equations is parameterized by the real constant $`b`$, which depends on the group parameters $`(a_1,a_2,a_3)`$ in the Kodama transformation (3). An asymptotically equivalent shallow water equation for any $`b1`$ may be achieved by a Kodama transformation. However, the case $`b=1`$ violates the asymptotic ordering and the corresponding Kodama transformation is singular in this case .

The cases $`b=2`$ and $`b=3`$ are special values for the $`b`$equation (4). The case $`b=2`$ restricts (4) to the integrable Camassa-Holm equation (CH) . The case $`b=3`$ in (4) is the Degasperis-Procesi equation (DP) , which was shown to be integrable in . These two cases exhaust the integrable candidates for (4), as was shown using Painlevé analysis in . The b-family of equations (4) was also shown in  to admit the symmetry conditions necessary for integrability only in the cases $`b=2`$ for CH and $`b=3`$ for DP.

KdV (1) and the cases $`b=2`$ (CH) and $`b=3`$ (DP) of equation (4) are three completely integrable Hamiltonian equations that possess solitons as traveling waves. In KdV, the balance that confines the traveling wave soliton occurs between nonlinear steepening and linear dispersion. This is the leading order asymptotic balance for shallow water waves. However, even in the absence of linear dispersion, the parameter $`b`$ in equation (4) introduces additional possibilities for balance, including the nonlinear/nonlocal balance in the following (rescaled) dispersionless case of CH that was studied previously for $`b=2`$ in ,

$$m_t+um_x+bmu_x=0,\text{ with }m=u\alpha ^2u_{xx}.$$
(5)
The nonlinear/nonlocal balance in this equation, even in the absence of linear dispersion, can still produce a confined solitary traveling wave pulse $`u(x,t)=ce^{|xct|/\alpha }`$, called the peakon . The peakon moves with speed equal to its amplitude and has a jump in derivative at its peak. Peakons for either $`b=2`$ or $`b=3`$ are true solitons that interact via elastic collisions under CH dynamics, or DP dynamics, respectively. In addition, the CH and DP initial value problems are both completely integrable as Hamiltonian systems by using the inverse spectral transform (IST) method for an isospectral linear eigenvalue problem whose purely discrete spectrum gives the asymptotic speeds of the peakons , . Figure 1 shows the evolution under dispersionless CH for the case $`b=2`$ in equation (5 ) of a Gaussian initial velocity distribution of unit area and width $`5\alpha `$. Peakon solutions exist for equation (5) with any value of $`b`$. However, we shall find that the stability of these peakon solutions requires $`b>1`$.

The properties of dispersionless CH for the case $`b=2`$ in equation (5) and also the related class of dispersionless equations consisting of (5) with $`u=gm=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}g(xy)m(y)𝑑y`$ for the case $`b=2`$ and an even kernel $`g(x)=g(x)`$ including $`g(x)=e^{|x|/\alpha }`$ are studied further in Fringer and Holm . The properties of dispersionless DP for the case $`b=3`$ in equation (5) are studied further in , .

The dispersionless limit of KdV in (1), upon rescaling velocity $`u`$, yields the Burgers equation

$$u_t+uu_x\nu u_{xx}=0,$$
(6)
in which we now also add constant viscosity $`\nu `$. The characteristic Burgers solution is the classic ramp and cliff shown arising from the Gaussian initial condition in Figure 2. In the ramp/cliff solution, nonlinear steepening is balanced by linear viscosity to produce the “cliff” whose width is controlled by the magnitude of viscosity $`\nu `$. The “ramp” is the self-similar $`ux/t`$ part of the solution for which the viscous term vanishes.

The equations KdV, BBM, CH, DP, the other $`b`$equations and Burgers all preserve the area $`M=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}u𝑑x`$ (total momentum) for a solution that vanishes at spatial infinity.

### 1.2 Problem statement for the present work

In this paper, we shall treat the constant $`b`$ in the dispersionless case of equation (4) as a bifurcation parameter. We shall study numerically the exchange of stability among three types of solitary wave solutions, as $`b`$ is varied. This is done by using numerical simulations to investigate its initial value problem on a periodic domain of length $`L\alpha `$ for various values of the parameter $`b`$. When necessary, we shall also add viscosity in the form111Relation of the $`b`$equation (4) to 3D turbulence closure models. Higher-dimensional representatives of the viscous $`b`$family of equations (4) have appeared recently in 3D turbulence modeling. The $`b=0`$ case of equation (7) is the 1D version of Leray’s regularization of the Navier-Stokes equations in 3D . Leray regularization has recently been revived as an approach to deriving turbulence closure models for large eddy simulations of turbulent mixing layers in 3D . For 3D studies of the turbulence model corresponding to the $`b`$equation (4) with $`b=2`$, see , , .

$$m_t+\underset{\text{convection}}{\underset{}{um_x}}+\underset{\text{stretching}}{\underset{}{bu_xm}}=\underset{\text{viscosity}}{\underset{}{\nu m_{xx}}},$$
(7)
with $`m=u\alpha ^2u_{xx}`$. We shall treat the following cases, which we shall show analytically are special values: $`b=0,\pm 1,\pm 2,\pm 3`$.

## 2 Exchange of stability

### 2.1 Numerics for exchange of stability from $`b=0`$ to $`b=\pm 2`$

We begin by considering the initial value problem for case $`b=0`$ in equation (7). The first part of Figure 3 shows for $`b=0`$ that a peakon of width $`w=5\alpha `$ is unstable to forming a ramp/cliff. Namely, the initial peakon develops into a Burgers-type ramp/cliff solution for $`b=0`$, just as it would have done for the Burgers equation. Note, however, that the case $`b=0`$ in equation (7) is not the Burgers equation. At time $`T=2500`$, we stopped this part of the numerical calculation and used the result as the initial condition for continuing the $`b`$equation evolution with $`b`$ changed to $`b=2`$, a case that supports peakons. The remainder of Figure 3 shows the exchange of stability after $`b=0`$ is changed to $`b=2`$. Thus, the Burgers-type ramp/cliff solution is stable for $`b=0`$ in equation (7). However, when treated as an initial condition, the ramp/cliff solution is unstable and breaks into a train of peakons for $`b=2`$. Figure 4 shows the spatial profiles of these solutions at the initial time, at the end of the $`b=0`$ evolution, and at the end of the $`b=2`$ evolution. A similar exchange of stability occurs between the ramp/cliff for $`b=0`$ and the train of peakons for $`b=3`$.

If we switch from $`b=0`$ to $`b=2`$ instead of $`b=2`$, then Figure 5 shows that the ramp/cliff at time $`T=2500`$ evolves into a train of leftward moving solitary waves (leftons). Thus, a different exchange of stability occurs between ramp/cliff solutions for $`b=0`$ and leftons for $`b=2`$ (and for $`b=3`$ as well). Figure 6 plots the comparison between the stationary solution $`u=u_0\mathrm{sech}^2(x/(2\alpha ))`$ for $`b=2`$ and the final states for an initial Gaussian of width $`w=10`$ evolved to leftons. Similar agreement occurs for the case $`b=3`$, whose stationary solution is $`u=u_0\mathrm{sech}(x/\alpha )`$. Thus, confined initial states move leftward and evolve into stationary solutions for $`b=2`$ and $`b=3`$.

### 2.2 Analytical discussion of the exchange of stability

The exchange of stability as the parameter $`b`$ varies can be understood analytically as arising from the following properties of the $`b`$equation (7).

$``$ For $`0b1`$, the $`L^{1/b}`$ norm of the momentum $`m_{L^{1/b}}=\left(_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}|m|^{1/b}\right)^b`$ is preserved by (7), in the inviscid case for which $`\nu =0`$. Thus, the ramp/cliff solution for $`b=0`$ forms in a regime of classical analytical control in which $`|m|`$ possesses a maximum principle. Numerically, we observe: (1) the cliff’s width is controlled by the magnitude of $`\alpha `$; and (2) the viscosity $`\nu `$ can be made negligible without measurably affecting the computed solution.

$``$ For $`1<b3`$ in the inviscid case, an inflection point with negative slope may be shown to develop into a vertical slope in finite time. However, numerically, we observe the nonlinear evolution conspires to eliminate such singular inflection points, e.g., by forming peakons, which are weak solutions.

$``$ For $`b=1`$ the lowest order nonlinearity in equation (7) (the steepening term $`uu_x`$) has coefficient zero. The evolution then develops from the higher order nonlinear terms. This can be seen by rewriting the $`b`$equation (7) equivalently as

$$u_t+(b+1)uu_x\nu u_{xx}=\alpha ^2\left(u_t+uu_x\nu u_{xx}+\frac{b3}{2}u_x^2\right)_{xx}.$$
(8)
Thus, solutions with small curvature are nearly stationary for $`b=1`$. The leading order nonlinearity is absent, so the dynamics is governed by the balance between viscous diffusion and higher-order terms. The case $`\alpha \mathrm{}`$ in (8) is interesting, as well. However, this case will be discussed elsewhere.

$``$ Equation (7) has stationary $`(c=0)`$ solutions $`u=u_0\mathrm{sech}^2(x/(2\alpha ))`$ for $`b=2`$ and $`u=u_0\mathrm{sech}(x/\alpha )`$ for $`b=3`$. Figure 6 shows that the evolution of equation (7) rapidly approaches the stationary solution for $`b=2`$. (A similar result holds for $`b=3`$.) The linearized evolution of (7) around these stationary solutions is stable for all wavelengths. Therefore, for any nonzero viscosity, these stationary solutions have a nontrivial basin of attraction. Note: equation (7) with either $`b=2`$, or $`b=3`$ is not Hamiltonian. The mathematical properties of the $`b`$equation in these cases is discussed in .

### 2.3 Confirmations of our numerical methods

In our numerical runs we advanced the $`b`$equation (7) with an explicit, variable timestep fourth/fifth order Runge-Kutta-Fehlberg (RKF45) predictor/corrector. We selected the timestep for numerical stability by trial and error, while our code selected the timestep for numerical accuracy (not to exceed the timestep for numerical stability). We used a very strict relative error tolerance per timestep, $`ϵ=10^8`$.

We computed spatial derivatives using 4th order finite differences, generally at resolutions of $`2^{13}=8192`$ or $`2^{14}=16384`$ zones. To invert the Helmholtz operator in determining $`u(x,t)`$ from $`m(x,t)`$, we used the Fourier transform. When the numerical approximation of the nonlinear terms had aliasing errors in the high wavenumbers, we removed these errors by applying a high pass filtered artificial viscosity.

The quality of the numerical convergence may be checked analytically in the collision of two peakons of asymptotic speeds $`c_1`$ and $`c_2`$, for which the minimum peakon separation with $`b>1`$ is

$$e^{|q_{min}|/\alpha }=1\left(\frac{4c_1c_2}{(c_1+c_2)^2}\right)^{1/(b1)}.$$
(9)
For $`b=2`$, $`c_1=1`$, $`c_2=1/2`$ and $`\alpha =5`$, formula (9) implies $`q_{min}=10\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3}=10.9861`$. Our numerical results with the resolution of $`2^{14}`$ zones yield $`q_{min}=11.0049`$. The small discrepancy, less than $`0.2\%`$, occurs largely because our numerical measurement of $`q_{min}`$ is obtained by examining the peakon positions at each internal timestep in the code without interpolation, although one is unlikely to land exactly on the time at which the minimum separation occurs. The code’s true accuracy is better than the above measure indicates, because the intermediate steps involved in advancing the solution from one discrete time to the next with an RKF45 method cancel the higher-order discretization errors.

Likewise, for peakons with $`b=3`$, formula (9) gives the minimum separation when $`c_1=1`$, $`c_2=1/2`$, and $`\alpha =5`$, as $`q_{min}=5\mathrm{ln}(3/(3\sqrt{8}))=14.3068`$. In this case, our numerical results yield $`q_{min}=14.2924`$, a discrepancy of only $`0.1\%`$.

Of course, the two-peakon collision is rather simple compared to the plethora of other multi-wave dynamics that occurs in this problem, as in Figures 7 and 8. For this reason, we also checked the convergence of our numerical algorithms by verifying that the relative phases of the peakons in the various figures remained invariant under grid refinement. Moreover, the integrity of the waveforms in our figures attests to the convergence of the numerical algorithm – after scores of collisions, the peakon waveforms are still extremely well preserved. The preservation of these peakon/soliton waveforms after so many collisions would not have occurred unless the numerics had converged well.

## 3 Conclusions and further comments

Equation (5) comprises a family of reversible, parity invariant, evolutionary 1+1 PDEs that arise in the zero-dispersion case of shallow water waves at quadratic order in the standard asymptotic expansion,

$$m_t+um_x+bmu_x=0,\text{ with }m=u\alpha ^2u_{xx}.$$
(10)
The paper identified the bifurcations and exchanges of stability of its traveling wave solutions as a function of the nonlinear balance parameter $`b`$.

Numerical computations of the initial value problem for (10) when $`b>1`$ showed the emergence of its stable particle-like peakon solutions and their interactions. These may be obtained analytically by superposing $`N`$ peakon traveling wave solutions for the inviscid case, $`u(x,t)=ce^{|xct|}`$ as

$$u(x,t)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}p_i(t)e^{|xq_i(t)|}\text{and}m(x,t)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}p_i(t)\delta (xq_i(t)),$$
(11)
for any real constant $`b`$. For any $`b>1`$, the peakons are stable and undergo particle-like dynamics in terms of the moduli variables $`p_i(t)`$ and $`q_i(t)`$, with $`i=1,\mathrm{},N`$. The peakon dynamics studied for $`b>1`$ in this framework displayed all of the classical soliton interaction behavior for peakons found in ,  for the case $`b=2`$. This behavior included pairwise elastic scattering of peakons, dominance of the initial value problem by confined pulses and asymptotic sorting according to height – all without requiring complete integrability. Thus, the “emergent pattern” for $`b>1`$ in the nonlinear evolution governed by the $`b`$equation (10) was the rightward moving peakon train, ordered by height.

A second type of emergent pattern of the initial value problem for (10) occurs in the parameter region $`0b<1`$. This is the classic Burgers-type ramp/cliff structure as in Figure 4. In contrast, for the parameter region $`b<1`$ a third type of behavior arises, consisting of leftward moving structures as in Figure 5. That the solution behavior should depend on the value of $`b`$ is clear from the velocity form of equation (10) written in (8).

#### Three regions of $`b`$.

We found that the solution behavior for the $`b`$equation (10) changes its character near the two boundaries, $`b=\pm 1`$, of the following three regions in the balance parameter $`b`$.

(B1) In the stable peakon region $`b>1`$, the Steepening Lemma for the $`b`$equation (10) proven in  for $`b=2`$ and in  for $`1<b3`$ allows inflection points with negative slopes to escape verticality by producing a jump in spatial derivative at the peak of a traveling wave that eliminates the inflection points altogether. Peakon behavior dominates this region. When $`b1`$ we found the solution behavior of the $`b`$equation (10) changed its character and excluded the peakons entirely.

(B2) In the Burgers region $`0b1`$, the $`L^{1/b}`$ norm of the variable $`m`$ is controlled222For $`b=0`$, this is a maximum principle for $`|m|`$. and the solution behavior is dominated by ramps and cliffs, as for the usual Burgers equation. Similar Burgers-type ramp/cliff solution properties hold for the region $`1b0`$, for which the $`L^{1/b}`$ norm of the variable $`1/|m|`$ is controlled. At the boundary of the latter region, for $`b=1`$, the active transport equation (10) admits stationary plane waves as exact nonlinear solutions. However, shallow water asymptotic ordering is broken at $`b=1`$.

(B3) In the steady pulse region $`b<1`$, pulse trains form that move leftward from a positive velocity initial condition (instead of moving rightward, as for $`b>1`$). These leftward-moving pulse trains are found to approach a steady state.

At the two boundaries, $`b=\pm 1`$, of these three regions in $`b`$, the emergent solutions of the $`b`$family of equations (10) are observed numerically to exchange stability. Although we discussed some analytical indications, a full explanation of these properties remains open for future research.

### Acknowledgments

We are grateful to A. Degasperis, A. N. W. Hone, J. M. Hyman, S. Kurien, C. D. Levermore, R. Lowrie and E. S. Titi for their thoughtful insights and remarks. This work was supported by the US DOE under contracts W-7405-ENG-36 and the Applied Mathematical Sciences Program KC-07-01-01.


text:
# Structure of the Malvenuto-Reutenauer Hopf algebra of permutations (Extended Abstract)

## Introduction

Malvenuto  introduced the Hopf algebra $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ of permutations, which has a linear basis $`\{_uu𝔖_n,n0\}`$ indexed by permutations in all symmetric groups $`𝔖_n`$. The Hopf algebra $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ is non-commutative, non-cocommutative, self-dual, and graded. Among its sub- and quotient- Hopf algebras are many algebras central to algebraic combinatorics. These include the algebra of symmetric functions , Gessel’s algebra $`𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ of quasi-symmetric functions , the algebra of non-commutative symmetric functions , the Loday-Ronco algebra of planar binary trees , Stembridge’s algebra of peaks , the Billera-Liu algebra of Eulerian enumeration , and others. The structure of these combinatorial Hopf algebras with respect to certain distinguished bases has been an important theme in algebraic combinatorics, with applications to the combinatorial problems these algebras were created to study. We give a detailed understanding of the structure of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$, both in algebraic and in combinatorial terms.

Our main tool is a new basis $`\{_uu𝔖_n,n0\}`$ for $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ related to its original basis by Möbius inversion on the weak order of the symmetric groups. These bases $`\{_u\}`$ and $`\{_u\}`$ are analogous to the monomial and fundamental basis of $`𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$, which are related via Möbius inversion on their index sets, the Boolean posets $`𝒬_n`$.

We give enumerative-combinatorial descriptions of the product, coproduct, and antipode of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ with respect to the basis $`\{_u\}`$. For example, the coproduct is obtained by splitting a permutation at certain special positions that we call global descents. Descents and global descents are left adjoint and right adjoint to a natural map $`𝒬_n𝔖_n`$.

The structure constants for the product with respect to the basis $`\{_u\}`$ are non-negative integers with the following geometric-combinatorial description. The $`1`$-skeleton of the permutahedron $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{n1}`$ is the Hasse diagram of the weak order on $`𝔖_n`$. The facets of the permutahedron are canonically isomorphic to products of lower dimensional permutahedra. Say that a facet isomorphic to $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{p1}\times \mathrm{\Pi }_{q1}`$ has type $`(p,q)`$. Given $`u𝔖_p`$ and $`v𝔖_q`$, such a facet has a distinguished vertex corresponding to $`(u,v)`$ under the canonical isomorphism. Then, for $`w𝔖_{p+q}`$, the coefficient of $`_w`$ in the product $`_u_v`$ is the number of facets of the permutahedron $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{p+q1}`$ of type $`(p,q)`$ with the property that the distinguished vertex is below $`w`$ and closer to $`w`$ than to any other vertex in the facet.

We also give explicit formulas for the antipode with respect to both bases. The structure constants with respect to the basis $`\{_u\}`$ have constant sign, as in the case of $`𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$. The situation is more complicated for the basis $`\{_u\}`$, which may explain why no such explicit formulas were previously known.

Elucidating the elementary structure of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ with respect to the basis reveals further algebraic structures. For example, $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ is a cofree graded coalgebra. A consequence is that the coradical filtration of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ (which encapsulates the complexity of iterated coproducts) is the algebraic counterpart of a filtration of the symmetric groups by certain lower order ideals. In particular, the space of primitive elements is spanned by the set $`\{_uu\text{ has no global descents}\}`$. Cofreenes was shown by Poirier and Reutenauer , in dual form, through the introduction of a different basis. The study of primitive elements was pursued from this point of view by Duchamp, Hivert, and Thibon .

There is a well-known morphism of Hopf algebras $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ that maps one fundamental basis onto the other, by associating to a permutation $`u`$ its descent set $`\mathrm{Des}(u)`$. We describe this map in terms of the bases $`\{_u\}`$ and $`\{M_\alpha \}`$.

Lastly, $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ decomposes as a crossed product over $`𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$. This construction from the theory of Hopf algebras is a generalization of the notion of group extensions. We provide a combinatorial description for the Hopf kernel of the map $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$.

These results are expanded on and proven in the manuscript  of the same name. For a background on quasi-symmetric functions, see \[22, §7.19\], for Hopf Algebras, we recommend the book of Montgomery . We also recommend the papers  of Poirier and Reutenauer and  of Duchamp, Thibon, and Hivert, who studied this same Hopf algebra of permutations from a different perspective, the latter under the name ‘free quasi-symmetric functions’.

We thank Swapneel Mahajan, Nantel Bergeron, and the referees for helpful comments.

## 1. Essential definitions

### 1.1. Quasi-symmetric functions

Gessel  introduced the algebra $`𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ of quasi-symmetric functions as the natural target for Stanley’s $`P`$-partition generating function. Subsequent work has shown its centrality, even universality, for generating functions in algebraic combinatorics .

A sequence $`\alpha =(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\mathrm{},\alpha _k)`$ of positive integers is a composition of $`n`$ if $`_i\alpha _i=n`$. Compositions of $`n`$ correspond to subsets of $`[n1]`$ as follows

$$\alpha =(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\mathrm{},\alpha _k)I(\alpha )=\{\alpha _1,\alpha _1+\alpha _2,\mathrm{},\alpha _1+\mathrm{}+\alpha _{k1}\}.$$

These subsets of $`[n1]`$ (and thus compositions of $`n`$) form the Boolean poset $`𝒬_n`$, and the induced order relation on compositions is called refinement.

For $`𝖲[n1]`$, the fundamental quasi-symmetric function $`F_{𝖲,n}`$ is

$$F_{𝖲,n}:=\underset{\begin{array}{c}j_1\mathrm{}j_n\\ i𝖲j_i<j_{i+1}\end{array}}{}x_{j_1}x_{j_2}\mathrm{}x_{j_n}.$$

These form a basis for $`𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$. Another basis is provided by the monomial quasi-symmetric functions $`M_\alpha `$, which are indexed by compositions $`\alpha =(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _k)`$

$$M_\alpha :=\underset{i_1<i_2<\mathrm{}<i_k}{}x_{i_1}^{\alpha _1}x_{i_2}^{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}x_{i_k}^{\alpha _k}.$$

These two bases are related via Möbius inversion on the Boolean poset $`𝒬_n`$.

$$F_\alpha =\underset{\alpha \beta }{}M_\beta \text{ and }M_\alpha =\underset{\alpha \beta }{}(1)^{c(\beta )c(\alpha )}F_\beta ,$$

where $`c((\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _k))=k`$ and $`(1)^{c(\beta )c(\alpha )}`$ is the Möbius function of $`𝒬_n`$.

The product of these $`M_\alpha `$ is given by quasi-shuffles of their indices \[9, Lemma 3.3\]. A *quasi-shuffle* of compositions $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ is a shuffle of the components of $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$, where in addition we may replace any number of pairs of consecutive components $`(\alpha _i,\beta _j)`$ in the shuffle by $`\alpha _i+\beta _j`$. Then we have

(1.1)
$$M_\alpha M_\beta =\underset{\gamma }{}M_\gamma ,$$

where the sum is over all quasi-shuffles $`\gamma `$ of the compositions $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$. For instance,

(1.2)
$$M_{(2)}M_{(1,1)}=M_{(1,1,2)}+M_{(1,2,1)}+M_{(2,1,1)}+M_{(1,3)}+M_{(3,1)}.$$

The unit element $`1=M_{()}`$ is indexed by the empty composition.

Let $`X`$ and $`Y`$ be ordered alphabets with $`X<Y`$ their disjoint union ordered as indicated. Substitution $`f(X)f(X<Y)`$ induces a coproduct $`\mathrm{\Delta }:𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}\text{ }𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ whose action on a monomial function is as follows.

(1.3)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }\left(M_{(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _k)}\right)=\underset{p=0}{\overset{k}{}}M_{(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _p)}\text{ }M_{(\alpha _{p+1},\mathrm{},\alpha _k)}.$$

For instance, $`\mathrm{\Delta }(M_{(2,1)})=1\text{ }M_{(2,1)}+M_{(2)}\text{ }M_{(1)}+M_{(2,1)}\text{ }1`$.

These definitions give $`𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ the structure of a graded, connected Hopf algebra. The degree $`n`$ component is spanned by those $`M_\alpha `$ where $`\alpha `$ is a composition of $`n`$. It is connected, as its degree $`0`$ component is 1-dimensional, and it is a Hopf algebra. An explicit formula for the antipode was given by Malvenuto \[15, corollaire 4.20\] and Ehrenborg \[9, Proposition 3.4\]

(1.4)
$$S(M_\alpha )=(1)^{c(\alpha )}\underset{\beta \alpha }{}M_{\stackrel{~}{\beta }}.$$

Here, if $`\beta =(\beta _1,\beta _2,\mathrm{},\beta _t)`$ then $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }`$ is $`\beta `$ written in reverse order $`(\beta _t,\mathrm{},\beta _2,\beta _1)`$.

### 1.2. The Hopf algebra of permutations

Let $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ be the graded $``$-vector space with fundamental basis $`\{_uu𝔖_n,n0\}`$, graded by $`n`$. $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ has a graded Hopf algebra structure first considered in Malvenuto’s thesis \[15, §5.2\] and in her work with Reutenauer . Write $`1`$ for the basis element of degree $`0`$.

The product of two basis elements is obtained by shuffling the corresponding permutations, as in the following example.

$`_{\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{12}}_{\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{312}}`$ $`=`$ $`_{\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{12}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{534}}+_{\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{1}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{5}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{2}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{34}}+_{\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{1}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{53}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{2}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{4}}+_{\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{1}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{534}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{2}}+_{\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{5}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{12}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{34}}`$
$`+_{\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{5}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{1}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{3}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{2}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{4}}+_{\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{5}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{1}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{34}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{2}}+_{\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{53}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{12}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{4}}+_{\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{53}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{1}\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{4}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{2}}+_{\textcolor[rgb]{0.4,0,0}{534}\textcolor[rgb]{0,0,1}{12}}.`$
More precisely, for $`p,q>0`$, set

$$𝔖^{(p,q)}:=\{\zeta 𝔖_{p+q}\zeta \text{ has at most one descent, at position }p\}.$$

This is the collection of minimal (in length) representatives of left cosets of the Young or parabolic subgroup $`𝔖_p\times 𝔖_q`$ in $`𝔖_{p+q}`$, called Grassmannian permutations. With these definitions, we describe the product. For $`u𝔖_p`$ and $`v𝔖_q`$, set

(1.5)
$$_u_v=\underset{\zeta 𝔖^{(p,q)}}{}_{(u\times v)\zeta ^1}.$$

This endows $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ with the structure of a graded algebra with unit 1.

The algebra $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ is also a graded coalgebra with coproduct given by all ways of splitting a permutation. For a sequence $`(a_1,\mathrm{},a_p)`$ of distinct integers, let its standard permutationfootnotetext: Some authors call this flattening. $`\mathrm{st}(a_1,\mathrm{},a_p)𝔖_p`$ be the permutation $`u`$ defined by

(1.6)
$$u_i<u_ja_i<a_j.$$

For instance, $`\mathrm{st}(625)=312`$. The coproduct $`\mathrm{\Delta }:𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}\text{ }𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ is defined by

(1.7)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }(_u)=\underset{p=0}{\overset{n}{}}_{\mathrm{st}(u_1,\mathrm{},u_p)}\text{ }_{\mathrm{st}(u_{p+1},\mathrm{},u_n)},$$

when $`u𝔖_n`$. For instance, $`\mathrm{\Delta }(_{42531})`$ is

$$1\text{ }_{42531}+_1\text{ }_{2431}+_{21}\text{ }_{321}+_{213}\text{ }_{21}+_{3142}\text{ }_1+_{42531}\text{ }1.$$

$`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ is a graded connected Hopf algebra \[15, théorème 5.4\].

This Hopf algebra $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ has been an object of recent interest . We remark that sometimes it is the dual Hopf algebra that is considered. To compare results, one may use that $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ is self-dual under the map $`_u_{u^1}^{}`$, where $`_{u^1}^{}`$ is the element of the dual basis that is dual to $`_{u^1}`$.

To define the *monomial* basis $`\{_u\}`$ for $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ (in analogy to the basis $`\{M_\alpha \}`$ of $`𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$), we use the weak order on the symmetric groups $`𝔖_n`$. Let $`\mathrm{}(n)`$ count the inversions $`\{i<ju_i>u_j\}`$ of a permutation $`u`$. The weak order on $`𝔖_n`$ is defined by

$$uvw𝔖_n\text{ such that }v=wu\text{ and }\mathrm{}(v)=\mathrm{}(w)+\mathrm{}(u).$$

The cover relation $`uv`$ occurs precisely when $`v`$ is obtained from $`u`$ by transposing a pair of consecutive values of $`u`$; a pair $`(u_i,u_j)`$ such that $`i<j`$ and $`u_j=u_i+1`$. The maximum element of $`𝔖_n`$ is $`\omega _n=(n,\mathrm{},2,1)`$.

Figure 1 shows the weak order on $`𝔖_4`$.

For each $`n0`$ and $`u𝔖_n`$, define

(1.8)
$$_u:=\underset{uv}{}\mu _{𝔖_n}(u,v)_v,$$

where $`\mu _{𝔖_n}(,)`$ is the Möbius function of the weak order in $`𝔖_n`$. By Möbius inversion,

(1.9)
$$_u:=\underset{uv}{}_v,$$

so these elements $`_u`$ indeed form a basis of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$. For instance,

$$_{4123}=_{4123}_{4132}_{4213}+_{4321}.$$

### 1.3. The descent map $`𝒟:𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$

The descent set $`\mathrm{Des}(u)`$ of a permutation $`u𝔖_n`$ is the subset of $`[n1]`$ recording the descents of $`u`$

(1.10)
$$\mathrm{Des}(u):=\{p[n1]u_p>u_{p+1}\}.$$

Thus $`\mathrm{Des}(46512837)=\{2,3,6\}`$. Malvenuto \[15, théorèmes 5.12, 5.13, and 5.18\] shows that there is a morphism of Hopf algebras

(1.11)
$$\begin{array}{ccccc}\hfill 𝒟& :& \hfill 𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}& & 𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}\hfill \\ & & \hfill _u& & F_{\mathrm{Des}(u)}\text{}\hfill \end{array}$$

### 1.4. Galois connections $`𝔖_n𝒬_n`$

Underlying our results are combinatorial facts concerning the lattices $`𝔖_n`$ and $`𝒬_n`$. We describe two important conceptual facts. For a subset $`𝖲[n1]`$, let $`𝔖_𝖲𝔖_n`$ be the parabolic subgroup

$$𝔖_{\alpha _1}\times 𝔖_{\alpha _2}\times \mathrm{}\times 𝔖_{\alpha _k},$$

where $`\alpha =(\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _k)`$ is the composition of $`n`$ such that $`I(\alpha )=𝖲`$. For a subset $`𝖲[n1]`$, let $`Z(𝖲)𝔖_n`$ be the maximal permutation with descent set $`𝖲`$.

A *Galois connection* between posets $`P`$ and $`Q`$ is a pair $`(f,g)`$ of order preserving maps $`f:PQ`$ and $`g:QP`$ such that for any $`xP`$ and $`yQ`$,

(1.12)
$$f(x)yxg(y).$$

Equivalently, the map $`f`$ is left adjoint to the map $`g`$.

###### Proposition 1.1.

The pair of maps $`(\mathrm{Des},Z):𝔖_n𝒬_n`$ is a Galois connection.

This Galois connection is why the monomial basis of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ is analogous to that of $`𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$, and is why we consider the weak order on $`𝔖_n`$. The connection between the monomial bases of these two algebras will be elucidated in Theorem 3.4.

A permutation $`u𝔖_n`$ has a *global descent* at a position $`p[n1]`$ if

$$ip<ju_i>u_j.$$

Equivalently, if $`\{u_1,\mathrm{},u_p\}=\{n,n1,\mathrm{},np+1\}`$. Let $`\mathrm{GDes}(u)[n1]`$ be the set of global descents of $`u`$. Note that $`\mathrm{GDes}(u)\mathrm{Des}(u)`$, but these are not equal in general.

The notion of global descents is a very natural companion of that of (ordinary) descents, in that the map $`\mathrm{GDes}:𝔖_n𝒬_n`$ is right adjoint to $`Z:𝒬_n𝔖_n`$.

###### Proposition 1.2.

The pair of maps $`(Z,\mathrm{GDes}):𝒬_n𝔖_n`$ is a Galois connection.

## 2. Elementary Algebraic Structure of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$

### 2.1. The coproduct of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$

The coproduct of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ (1.7) takes a simple form on the monomial basis. For a permutation $`u𝔖_n`$, define $`\overline{\mathrm{GDes}}(u)`$ to be $`\mathrm{GDes}(u)\{0,n\}`$.

###### Theorem 2.1.

Let $`u𝔖_n`$. Then

(2.1)
$$\mathrm{\Delta }(_u)=\underset{p\overline{\mathrm{GDes}}(u)}{}_{\mathrm{st}(u_1,\mathrm{},u_p)}\text{ }_{\mathrm{st}(u_{p+1},\mathrm{},u_n)}.$$

### 2.2. The product of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$

The product of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ in terms of its monomial basis has non-negative structure constants, which we describe. For instance,

(2.2)
$$\begin{array}{c}_{12}_{21}=_{4312}+_{4231}+_{3421}+_{4123}+_{2341}\hfill \\ \hfill +_{1243}+_{1423}+_{1342}+3_{1432}+2_{2431}+2_{4132}.\end{array}$$

First, for a Grassmannian permutation $`\zeta 𝔖^{(p,q)}`$ (a left coset representative of $`𝔖_p\times 𝔖_q`$ in $`𝔖_{p+q}`$), consider the map corresponding to the right coset of $`\zeta ^1`$.

$$\rho _\zeta :𝔖_p\times 𝔖_q𝔖_{p+q},\rho _\zeta (u,v):=(u\times v)\zeta ^1.$$

This order-preserving map is injective and its image is an interval in $`𝔖_{p+q}`$. For $`u𝔖_p`$, $`v𝔖_q`$ and $`w𝔖_{p+q}`$, define $`A_{u,v}^w𝔖^{(p,q)}`$ to be

(2.3)
$$A_{u,v}^w=\{\zeta 𝔖^{(p,q)}(u,v)=\mathrm{max}\rho _\zeta ^1[1,w]\},$$

where $`[w,w^{}]:=\{w^{\prime \prime }ww^{\prime \prime }w^{}\}`$ denotes the interval between $`w`$ and $`w^{}`$. This set has another description as the set of those $`\zeta 𝔖^{(p,q)}`$ satisfying

(2.4)
$$\begin{array}{cc}(i)\hfill & (u\times v)\zeta ^1w,\text{ and}\hfill \\ (ii)\hfill & \text{if }uu^{}\text{ and }vv^{}\text{ satisfy }(u^{}\times v^{})\zeta ^1w\text{,}\hfill \\ & \text{then }u=u^{}\text{ and }v=v^{}\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

Set $`\alpha _{u,v}^w:=\mathrm{\#}A_{u,v}^w`$.

###### Theorem 2.2.

For any $`u𝔖_p`$ and $`v𝔖_q`$, we have

(2.5)
$$_u_v=\underset{w𝔖_{p+q}}{}\alpha _{u,v}^w_w.$$

For instance, in (2.2) the coefficient of $`_{2431}`$ in $`_{12}_{21}`$ is 2 because among the six permutations in $`𝔖^{(2,2)}`$,

$$1234,1324,1423,2314,2413,3412,$$

only the first two satisfy conditions $`(i)`$ and $`(ii)`$ of (2.4).

The structure constants $`\alpha _{u,v}^w`$ admit a geometric-combinatorial description in terms of the permutahedron. The vertices of the $`(n1)`$-dimensional permutahedron are indexed by the elements of $`𝔖_n`$ so that the $`1`$-skeleton is the Hasse diagram of the weak order (see Figure 1). Facets of the permutahedron are products of two lower dimensional permutahedra, and the image of $`\rho _\zeta `$ is the set of vertices in a facet. Moreover, every facet arises in this way for a unique triple $`(p,q,\zeta )`$ with $`p+q=n`$ and $`\zeta 𝔖^{(p,q)}`$ (see \[5, Exer. 2.9\]). Such such a facet has type $`(p,q)`$. Figure 3 shows the image of $`\rho _{1324}`$, a facet of the $`3`$-permutahedron of type $`(2,2)`$, and the permutation $`2431`$.

The description (2.3) of $`A_{u,v}^w`$ (and hence of $`\alpha _{u,v}^w`$) can be interpreted as follows: Given $`u𝔖_p`$, $`v𝔖_q`$, and $`w𝔖_{p+q}`$, the structure constant $`\alpha _{u,v}^w`$ counts the number of facets of type $`(p,q)`$ of the $`(p+q1)`$-permutahedron such that the vertex $`\rho _\zeta (u,v)`$ is below $`w`$ and it is the maximum vertex in that facet below $`w`$.

For instance, the facet $`\rho _{1324}`$ contributes to the structure constant $`\alpha _{12,21}^{2431}`$ because the vertex $`\rho _{1324}(12,21)=1423`$ satisfies the required properties in relation to the vertex $`w=2431`$, as shown in Figure 3.

### 2.3. The antipode of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$

Malvenuto left open the problem of an explicit formula for the antipode of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ \[15, pp. 59-60\]. We identify the coefficients of the antipode in terms of both bases in explicit combinatorial terms. These are based upon a general formula for the antipode of a connected Hopf algebra due to Milnor and Moore .

For any subset $`𝖲=\{p_1<p_2<\mathrm{}<p_k\}[n1]`$ and $`v𝔖_n`$ set

$$v_𝖲:=\mathrm{st}(v_1,\mathrm{},v_{p_1})\times \mathrm{st}(v_{p_1+1},\mathrm{},v_{p_2})\times \mathrm{}\times \mathrm{st}(v_{p_k+1},\mathrm{},v_n)𝔖_𝖲.$$

###### Theorem 2.3.

For $`v,w𝔖_n`$ set

$`\lambda (v,w):=`$ $`\mathrm{\#}\{𝖲[n1]\mathrm{Des}(w^1v_𝖲)𝖲\text{ and }\mathrm{\#}𝖲\text{ is odd}\}`$
$`\mathrm{\#}\{𝖲[n1]\mathrm{Des}(w^1v_𝖲)𝖲\text{ and }\mathrm{\#}𝖲\text{ is even}\}.`$
Then

(2.6)
$$S(_v)=\underset{w𝔖_n}{}\lambda (v,w)_w.$$

These coefficients of the antipode may indeed be positive or negative. For instance,

$$S(_{231})=_{132}_{213}2_{231}+_{312}.$$

The coefficient of $`_{312}`$ is $`1`$ because $`\{1\}`$, $`\{2\}`$, and $`\{1,2\}`$ are the subsets $`𝖲`$ of $`\{1,2\}`$ which satisfy $`\mathrm{Des}\left((312)^1(231)_𝖲\right)𝖲`$.

Our description of these coefficients is semi-combinatorial, in the sense that it involves a difference of cardinalities of sets. On the monomial basis the situation is different. The sign of the coefficients of $`S(_v)`$ only depends on the number of global descents of $`v`$. We provide a fully combinatorial description of these coefficients. Let $`v,w𝔖_n`$ and suppose $`𝖲\mathrm{GDes}(v)`$. Define $`C_𝖲(v,w)𝔖^𝖲`$ to be those $`\zeta 𝔖^𝖲`$ satisfying

(2.7)
$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill (i)& v_𝖲\zeta ^1w\text{,}\hfill \\ \hfill (ii)& \text{if }vv^{}\text{ and }v_𝖲^{}\zeta ^1w\text{ then }v=v^{}\text{,  and}\hfill \\ \hfill (iii)& \text{if }\mathrm{Des}(\zeta )𝖱𝖲\text{ and }v_𝖱\zeta ^1w\text{ then }𝖱=𝖲\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

Set $`\kappa (v,w):=\mathrm{\#}C_{\mathrm{GDes}(v)}(v,w)`$.

###### Theorem 2.4.

For $`v,w𝔖_n`$, we have

(2.8)
$$S(_v)=(1)^{\mathrm{\#}\mathrm{GDes}(v)+1}\underset{w𝔖_n}{}\kappa (v,w)_w.$$

For instance,

$$\begin{array}{c}S(_{3412})=_{1234}+2_{1324}+_{1342}+_{1423}\hfill \\ \hfill +_{2314}+_{2413}+_{3124}+_{3142}+_{3412}.\end{array}$$

Consider the coefficient of $`_{3412}`$. In this case, $`𝖲=\mathrm{GDes}(3412)=\{2\}`$, so

$$𝔖^𝖲=\{1234,1324,1423,2314,2413,3412\}.$$

We invite the reader to verify that 3412 is the only element of $`𝔖^{\{2\}}`$ that satisfies all three conditions of (2.7). Therefore $`C_𝖲(3412,3412)=\{3412\}`$ and the coefficient is $`\kappa (3412,3412)=1`$.

###### Remark 2.5.

The antipode of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ has infinite order. A computation gives that

$$S^{2m}(_{231})=_{231}+2m(_{213}_{132})m.$$

## 3. Hopf-algebraic structure of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$

### 3.1. Cofreeness of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ and the coradical filtration

The basis $`\{_u\}`$ reveals the existence of a second coalgebra grading on $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$, given by the number of global descents. With respect to this grading, $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ is a cofree graded coalgebra. We deduce an elegant description of the coradical filtration: it corresponds to a filtration of the symmetric groups by certain lower order ideals determined by the number of global descents. In particular, the space of primitive elements is spanned by those $`_u`$ where $`u`$ has no global descents.

Let $`V`$ be a vector space and consider the graded vector space

$$Q(V):=\underset{k0}{}V^{\text{ }k}.$$

The space $`Q(V)`$ is a graded connected coalgebra under the *deconcatenation* coproduct

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(v_1\text{ }\mathrm{}\text{ }v_k)=\underset{i=0}{\overset{k}{}}(v_1\text{ }\mathrm{}\text{ }v_i)(v_{i+1}\text{ }\mathrm{}\text{ }v_k),$$

and counit $`ϵ(v_1\text{ }\mathrm{}\text{ }v_k)=0`$ if $`k1`$.

The following universal property is satisfied for the canonical projection $`\pi :Q(V)V`$. Given a graded coalgebra $`C=_{k0}C^k`$ and a linear map $`\phi :CV`$ such that $`\phi (C^k)=0`$ for $`k1`$, there is a unique morphism of graded coalgebras $`\widehat{\phi }:CQ(V)`$ such that the following diagram commutes

Explicitly, $`\widehat{\phi }`$ is defined by

(3.1)
$$\widehat{\phi }_{|_{C^k}}=\phi ^{\text{ }k}\mathrm{\Delta }^{(k1)}.$$

In particular, $`\widehat{\phi }_{|_{C^0}}=ϵ`$, $`\widehat{\phi }_{|_{C^1}}=\phi `$ and $`\widehat{\phi }_{|_{C^2}}=(\phi \text{ }\phi )\mathrm{\Delta }`$. We say that the graded coalgebra $`Q(V)`$ is cofreely cogenerated by the projection $`Q(V)V`$.

To establish the cofreeness of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$, we first define a second coalgebra grading. Let $`𝔖^0:=𝔖_0`$, and for $`k1`$, let

$`𝔖_n^k`$ $`:=\{u𝔖_nu\text{ has exactly }k1\text{ global descents}\},\text{ and}`$
$`𝔖^k`$ $`:={\displaystyle \underset{n0}{}}𝔖_n^k.`$
For instance,

$$\begin{array}{c}𝔖^1=\{1\}\{12\}\{123,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}213},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}132}\}\{1234,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2134},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1324},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1243},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3124},\hfill \\ \hfill 2314,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2143},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1423},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1342},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3214},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3142},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2413},\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1432}\}\mathrm{}\end{array}$$

Let $`(𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚})^k`$ be the vector subspace of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ spanned by $`\{_uu𝔖^k\}`$.

###### Theorem 3.1.

The decomposition $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}=_{k0}(𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚})^k`$ is a coalgebra grading. Moreover, endowed with this grading, $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ is a cofree graded coalgebra.

The coradical $`C^{(0)}`$ of a graded connected coalgebra $`C`$ is the 1-dimensional component in degree 0 (identified with the base field via the counit). The primitive elements are

$$\text{Prim}(C):=\{xC\mathrm{\Delta }(x)=x\text{ }1+1\text{ }x\}.$$

Set $`C^{(1)}:=C^{(0)}\text{Prim}(C)`$, the first level of the coradical filtration. More generally, the $`k`$-th level of the coradical filtration is

$$C^{(k)}:=\left(\mathrm{\Delta }^{(k)}\right)^1(\underset{i+j=k}{}C^{\text{ }i}\text{ }C^{(0)}\text{ }C^{\text{ }j}).$$

We have $`C^{(0)}C^{(1)}C^{(2)}\mathrm{}C=_{k0}C^{(k)}`$, and

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(C^{(k)})\underset{i+j=k}{}C^{(i)}\text{ }C^{(j)}.$$

Thus, the coradical filtration measures the complexity of iterated coproducts.

For a cofree graded coalgebra $`Q(V)`$, the coradical filtration is easy to describe. The space of primitive elements is just $`V`$, and the $`k`$-th level of the coradical filtration is $`_{i=0}^kV^{\text{ }i}`$. These are immediate from the definition of the deconcatenation coproduct.

Define

$$𝔖_n^{(k)}:=\underset{i=0}{\overset{k}{}}𝔖_n^k\text{ and }𝔖^{(k)}:=\underset{i=0}{\overset{k}{}}𝔖^k.$$

In other words, $`𝔖^{(0)}=𝔖_0`$ and for $`k1`$,

$$𝔖_n^{(k)}=\{u𝔖_nu\text{ has at most }k1\text{ global descents}\}.$$

Proposition 1.2 asserts that $`\mathrm{GDes}:𝔖_n𝒬_n`$ is order-preserving. Since $`𝒬_n`$ is ranked by the cardinality of a subset, it follows that $`𝔖_n^{(k)}`$ is a lower order ideal of $`𝔖_n`$, with $`𝔖_n^{(k)}𝔖_n^{(k+1)}`$. The coradical filtration corresponds precisely to this filtration of the symmetric groups by lower ideals.

###### Corollary 3.2.

A linear basis for the $`k`$-th level of the coradical filtration of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ is

$$\{_uu𝔖^{(k)}\}.$$

In particular, a linear basis for the space of primitive elements is

$$\{_uu\text{ has no global descents}\}.$$

### 3.2. The descent map to quasi-symmetric functions

We study the effect of the morphism of Hopf algebras (1.11)

$$𝒟:𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚},\text{ defined by }_uF_{\mathrm{Des}(u)}$$

on the monomial basis. Here, we use subsets $`𝖲`$ of $`[n1]`$ to index monomial quasi-symmetric functions of degree $`n`$.

###### Definition 3.3.

A permutation $`u𝔖_n`$ is closed if we have $`u=Z(𝖳)`$ for some $`𝖳𝒬_n`$. Equivalently, $`u`$ is closed if and only if $`\mathrm{Des}(u)=\mathrm{GDes}(u)`$.

###### Theorem 3.4.

Let $`u𝔖_n`$. Then

$$𝒟(_u)=\{\begin{array}{cc}M_{\mathrm{GDes}(u)}\hfill & \text{if }u\text{ is closed,}\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{if not.}\hfill \end{array}$$

### 3.3. $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ as a crossed product over $`𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$

We describe the algebra structure of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ as a crossed product over the Hopf algebra $`𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$. See \[18, §7\] for a review of this construction in the general Hopf algebraic setting. Let us only say that the crossed product of a Hopf algebra $`K`$ with an algebra $`A`$ with respect to a Hopf cocycle $`\sigma :K\text{ }KA`$ is a certain algebra structure on the space $`AK`$, denoted by $`A\mathrm{\#}_\sigma K`$.

###### Proposition 3.5.

The map $`M_𝖲_{Z(𝖲)}`$ induces a morphism of coalgebras $`𝒵:𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ that is a right inverse to the morphism of Hopf algebras $`𝒟:𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$.

In this situation, an important theorem of Blattner, Cohen and Montgomery  applies. Namely, suppose $`\pi :HK`$ is a morphism of Hopf algebras that admits a coalgebra splitting $`\gamma :KH`$. Then there is a *crossed product* decomposition

$$HA\mathrm{\#}_\sigma K$$

where $`A`$ is the *left Hopf kernel* of $`\pi `$:

$$A=\{hHh_1\text{ }\pi (h_2)=h\text{ }1\}$$

and the *Hopf cocycle* $`\sigma :K\text{ }KA`$ is

$$\sigma (k,k^{})=\gamma (k_1)\gamma (k_1^{})S\gamma (k_2k_2^{}).$$

Note that if $`\pi `$ and $`\gamma `$ preserve gradings, then so does the rest of the structure.

Let $`A`$ be the left Hopf kernel of $`𝒟:𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}𝒬\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ and $`A_n`$ its $`n`$-th homogeneous component. Once again the monomial basis of $`𝔖\mathrm{𝑆𝑦𝑚}`$ proves useful in describing $`A`$.

###### Proposition 3.6.

A basis for $`A_n`$ is the set $`\{_u\}`$ where $`u`$ runs over all permutations of $`n`$ that are not of the form

$$\mathrm{}12\mathrm{}nk$$

for any $`k=0,\mathrm{},n1`$. In particular,

$$dimA_n=n!\underset{k=0}{\overset{n1}{}}k!.$$


text:
# An anisotropic cosmological model with isotropic background radiation

## Abstract

Abstract. We present an exact solution of Einstein equations that describes a Bianchi type III spacetime with conformal expansion. The matter content is given by an anisotropic scalar field and two perfect fluids representing dust and isotropic radiation. Based on this solution, we construct a cosmological model that respects the evolution of the scale factor predicted in standard cosmology.

A crucial question in cosmology is whether the observed isotropy of the cosmic microwave background (CMB), together with the apparent homogeneity and isotropy of clustering matter, suffices to guarantee the Cosmological Principle. An affirmative answer is strongly supported by a theorem proved by Ehlers, Geren and Sachs . The EGS theorem ensures that a spacetime region satisfying Einstein equations and containing only dust and radiation has a Friedmann-Robertson-Walker (FRW) geometry provided that the dust velocity field $`u^\mu `$ is (geodesic and) expanding, and that the distribution function of the photons is a solution to the Liouville equation which is isotropic with respect to $`u^\mu `$. In fact, the result that the geometry is FRW depends critically on the hypotheses of the theorem, and there exist counterexamples in which all but one of the assumptions are satisfied . The theorem admits generalizations for matter consisting in a generic (barotropic) perfect fluid , and for an almost isotropic CMB , case in which the geometry is approximately of the FRW form.

We will concentrate our discussion on the validity of the EGS theorem when one relaxes the assumption about the kind of matter content. This is important in modern cosmology because, in order to explain the observed acceleration detected with type Ia supernovae, scalar fields are often introduced to generate a quintessence component. It was recently shown that the conclusions of the EGS theorem remain valid in the presence of a quitessence field unless the gradient of the field is orthogonal to the dust congruence . This alternative to the FRW geometry has been neglected so far because it is believed to lead to unphysical situations. We will show, nevertheless, that it is possible to find physically acceptable systems in which the commented alternative allows one to circumvent the Cosmological Principle.

The most general line-element and Einstein tensor compatible with an isotropic radiation can be found in . The aim of the present work is to explicitly construct a feasible solution to the Einstein equations respecting this isotropy of the CMB. This task includes determining not only the metric, but also the matter content. Furthermore, we want such a content to be of cosmological and physical interest, in the sense that it must be composed of dust, radiation, and a scalar field, and that none of the energy conditions (weak, strong or dominant) is violated. In addition, we will accept that both the perfect fluid components and the spatial sections of the spacetime are homogeneous.

Our ansatz for the metric is

$$ds^2=a^2(\eta )\left[d\eta ^2+dx^2+e^{2x}dy^2+dz^2\right].$$
(1)
This is a Bianchi type III metric, with Killing vectors given by $`_xy_y`$, $`_y`$, and $`_z`$. It can be considered as the vanishing-rotation member of a family of line-elements with application in rotating cosmology  that are expanding versions of a class of Gödel-like metrics . The spatial topology is the direct product of a pseudosphere and a real line . The velocity field $`u^\mu =\delta _\eta ^\mu /a`$ is geodesic, shear-free and vorticity-free. Its expansion is $`3a^{}/a^2`$, where the prime stands for the derivative with respect to the conformal time $`\eta `$. Besides, metric (1) possesses a conformal Killing vector (CKV) $`\xi ^\mu =a(\eta )u^\mu `$. Actually, the existence of this CKV proportional to the velocity $`u^\mu `$ suffices to guarantee the isotropy of the CMB (for comoving radiation), as well as the absence of parallax effects .

The Einstein equations for this metric are

$$Ea^4=3(a^{})^2a^2,P_xa^4=P_ya^4=P_za^41=(a^{})^22aa^{\prime \prime },$$
(2)
where $`ET_\eta ^\eta `$ is the energy density and $`P_iT_i^i`$ ($`i=x,y`$, or $`z`$) are the principal pressures. As for the matter content, let us start by introducing a massless, minimally coupled scalar field $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ with vanishing self-interaction potential. The dynamical equation for such a field is $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{;\mu \nu }g^{\mu \nu }=0`$, with $`g^{\mu \nu }`$ being the inverse of the metric and the semicolon denoting the covariant derivative. A solution is $`\mathrm{\Phi }=Cz`$, where $`C`$ is any constant number. It is worth remarking that, on this solution, the gradient of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is actually orthogonal to the four-velocity $`u^\mu `$. Besides, the energy-momentum tensor of the scalar field $`T_\nu ^\mu =\mathrm{\Phi }_{,\nu }\mathrm{\Phi }^{,\mu }\mathrm{\Phi }_{,\sigma }\mathrm{\Phi }^{,\sigma }\delta _\nu ^\mu /2`$ becomes diagonal, with $`E^{(\mathrm{\Phi })}=P_z^{(\mathrm{\Phi })}=P_x^{(\mathrm{\Phi })}=P_y^{(\mathrm{\Phi })}=C^2/(2a^2)`$. It is straightforward to check that all of the energy conditions are then satisfied, so that the solution is physically viable. Moreover, choosing $`C=1`$ (or $`C=1`$ with a flip of sign in $`z`$), one can in fact absorb in the contribution of the scalar field all the anisotropic pressures appearing in (2).

Therefore, accepting the solution $`\mathrm{\Phi }=z`$ and denoting by $`\varrho =EE^{(\mathrm{\Phi })}`$ and $`p=P_iP_i^{(\mathrm{\Phi })}`$ the energy density and (isotropic) pressure of the remaining matter components, we conclude that this additional matter must satisfy the Einstein equations

$$\varrho a^4=3(a^{})^2\frac{3}{2}a^2,pa^4=(a^{})^22aa^{\prime \prime }+\frac{a^2}{2},$$
(3)
which are precisely those corresponding to a perfect fluid in open FRW cosmology, except for changes of scale by factors of order unity:

$$\eta =\sqrt{2}\eta _F,\sqrt{2}a\left(\eta =\sqrt{2}\eta _F\right)=a_F(\eta _F).$$
(4)
Here, $`\eta _F`$ and $`a_F`$ are the conformal time and scale factor of the standard open FRW model.

We are now in an adequate position to obtain the solution that we were seeking. We assume that the remaining matter consists of dust and radiation, which form a two-component perfect fluid with four-velocity $`u^\mu `$. The energy density and pressure are thus given by $`\varrho =A^2/a^4+D/a^3`$ and $`p=A^2/(3a^4)`$, where $`A`$ and $`D`$ are two positive constants. One then arrives at the following solution of (3):

$$a=\frac{D}{3}\left[\mathrm{cosh}\left(\frac{\eta }{\sqrt{2}}\right)1\right]+\sqrt{\frac{2}{3}}A\mathrm{sinh}\left(\frac{\eta }{\sqrt{2}}\right).$$
(5)
Inverting this formula and integrating $`dt=ad\eta `$, one gets the time expressions

$`\eta `$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{2}\mathrm{ln}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{3a+D+\sqrt{9a^2+6Da+6A^2}}{D+\sqrt{6}A}}\right],`$ (6)
$`t`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{D}{3}}\left[\eta +\sqrt{2}\mathrm{sinh}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\eta }{\sqrt{2}}}\right)\right]+{\displaystyle \frac{2A}{\sqrt{3}}}\left[\mathrm{cosh}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\eta }{\sqrt{2}}}\right)1\right].`$ (7)
Clearly, this solution leads to a cosmological model that coincides in most of its predictions with those of an open FRW scenario. In particular, the thermal history and the cosmological parameters that depend only on the evolution of the scale factor are essentially the same as in standard (open) FRW cosmology. For instance, for the Hubble parameter $`H`$ and the deceleration parameter $`q`$ one obtains

$$H=\frac{a^{}}{a^2}=\sqrt{\frac{3a^2+2Da+2A^2}{6a^4}},q=1\frac{aa^{\prime \prime }}{(a^{})^2}=\frac{Da+2A^2}{3a^2+2Da+2A^2}>0.$$
(8)
Note that the expansion is not accelerated, so that (at least in this sense) the model cannot be considered fully realistic. Nonetheless, this problem can be overcome as in FRW cosmology, i.e., with the introduction of a cosmological constant or an additional scalar field with accelerating properties.

In spite of the similarities of the model with an open FRW universe, there exist some differences between the two cosmological scenarios. For instance, the standard epochs of radiation and dust domination are now followed by a scalar-field dominated era. During these eras, the scale factor ranges in $`0<aA^2/D`$ (radiation), $`A^2/Da2D`$ (dust), and $`2Da`$ (scalar field). We suppose that $`AD`$, so that there exists a large epoch dominated by clustering matter. A more relevant discrepancy arises in the relative energy density. In our case, this density includes also the contribution of the scalar field. Using (8), we get

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\frac{E}{3H^2}=\frac{a^2+2Da+2A^2}{3a^2+2Da+2A^2}.$$
(9)
One can check that $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ decreases with the expansion. At the big-bang, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ equals the unity, like in FRW cosmology. However, when the scale factor expands to infinity, $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ does not vanish, but tends to one third. Therefore, the contribution of the scalar field ensures that the energy density is of the order of the critical one during the whole evolution of the universe, leading to a quasi-flat cosmology.

To estimate the constants $`A`$ and $`D`$ that appear in our model, the parameters $`q`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, and the current values of $`a`$ and $`t`$, we can proceed as follows. From (8),

$$a_0=\frac{1}{H_0}\sqrt{\frac{1+z_{\mathrm{eq}}}{2\left(1\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{(\mathrm{d})}\right)(1+z_{\mathrm{eq}})2\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{(\mathrm{d})}}},$$
(10)
where the subscript $`0`$ stands for evaluation at present and $`z_{\mathrm{eq}}=1+\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{(\mathrm{d})}/\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{(\mathrm{r})}`$ is the redshift at equilibrium between the contributions to $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ of dust and radiation, denoted by $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{(\mathrm{d})}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }^{(\mathrm{r})}`$. In addition, $`D=3H_0^2a_0^3\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{(\mathrm{d})}`$ and $`A^2=Da_0/(1+z_{\mathrm{eq}})`$. Using the values $`H_0=65`$ km/(sMp), $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{(\mathrm{d})}=0.35`$, and $`z_{\mathrm{eq}}=5000`$, we get $`A=1.6\times 10^{24}\mathrm{m}`$, $`D=1.0\times 10^{26}\mathrm{m}`$, $`a_0=1.2\times 10^{26}\mathrm{m}`$, $`t_0=12`$ Gyr, $`q_0=0.18`$, and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0.57`$. Note that $`A`$ is really much smaller than $`D`$, as we had assumed. Since $`a_0`$ is smaller but close to $`2D`$, the universe would be at the end of the dust-dominated era. In addition, we notice that the age of the universe $`t_0`$, although very close, is still beyond the lower bounds obtained from observation.

Finally, it is worth commenting that, though the redshift of the radiation emitted by dust particles depends only on the emission and reception times, the fact that the metric is anisotropic implies that the distance to astrophysical objects with identical redshift varies with the direction of observation. However, it is possible to show that these anisotropies in the measurements of distances are not large enough to conflict with observational data . Actually, one can prove that these anisotropies increase with the redshift and that, with the values estimated above for the parameters of our model, the maximum variation in the angular diameter distance of a source at unit redshift is less than five per cent, which is not currently detectable .

In conclusion, we have shown that, introducing a scalar field, one can find anisotropic solutions of the Einstein equations that are compatible with the expansion of the universe, the isotropy of the CMB, and the homogeneity and isotropy of clustering matter which follows geodesics. We have proved this fact by explicitly constructing a solution with the required properties. Such a solution leads to a cosmological model that possesses most of the desirable features of a standard FRW scenario.