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# References

UTHET-02-0101

An AdS/dS duality for a scalar particle111Research supported by the DoE under grant DE-FG05-91ER40627.

George Siopsis222gsiopsis@utk.edu
Department of Physics and Astronomy,

The University of Tennessee, Knoxville,

TN 37996 - 1200, USA.

Abstract

The motion of a scalar particle in $`(d+1)`$-dimensional AdS space may be described in terms of the Cartesian coordinates that span the $`(d+2)`$-dimensional space in which the AdS space is embedded. Upon quantization, the mass hyperboloid defined in terms of the conjugate momenta turns into the wave equation in AdS space. By interchanging the roles of coordinates and conjugate momenta in the $`(d+2)`$-dimensional space we arrive at a dual description. For massive modes, the dual description is equivalent to the conventional formulation, as required by holography. For tachyonic modes, this interchange of coordinates and momenta establishes a duality between Euclidean AdS and dS spaces. We discuss its implications on Green functions for the various vacua.

Although a lot of similarities exist between AdS and dS spaces, they differ in significant ways. Perhaps most importantly, dS spaces have not been understood in a string-theoretical framework, making it impossible to obtain their thermodynamic properties, such as entropy, microscopically. A significant step in this direction was the recent proposal by Strominger  of a dS/CFT correspondence where the CFT lies in the infinite past of dS space. Naturally, it attracted much attention .

The dS/CFT correspondence bears a striking formal resemblance to its AdS counterpart  suggesting that the former be derived from the latter by some kind of analytic continuation . As was pointed out in , one needs to exercise care in such extrapolations. If one analyzes the behavior of the respective Green functions carefully, one discovers that dS Green functions may not be obtained by a double analytic continuation of their AdS counterparts.

Here we discuss a different proposal of extrapolating from AdS to dS spaces. We establish a duality between the two spaces which interchanges the role of coordinates and momenta for a scalar field. We thus show that a massive mode in dS space is dual to a tachyonic mode in AdS space. This is based on the following basic observation. A $`(d+1)`$-dimensional AdS space (AdSd+1) is defined within a flat $`(d+2)`$-dimensional space as the hypersurface

$$X_0^2X_1^2\mathrm{}X_d^2+X_{d+1}^2=\mathrm{}^2$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{}^2>0`$. A particle of mass $`m`$ moving in this space has a trajectory on the mass-shell hypersurface in momentum space

$$P_0^2P_1^2\mathrm{}P_d^2+P_{d+1}^2=m^2$$
(2)
After an analytic continuation, $`X_{d+1}iX_{d+1}`$ (and correspondingly, $`P_{d+1}iP_{d+1}`$), one obtains the Euclidean AdS space (EAdS). The mass-shell condition then reads

$$P_0^2+P_1^2+\mathrm{}+P_d^2+P_{d+1}^2=m^2$$
(3)
The form of this constraint (3) is identical to the constraint (1) for massive modes ($`m^2>0`$). Thus, if we interchange the role of coordinates and momenta, we arrive at the same theory in (E)AdS space.

On the other hand, for tachyonic modes ($`m^2<0`$, eq. (3) is the defining equation of the dS hyperboloid. Thus, by interchanging the roles of momenta and coordinates in the $`(d+2)`$-dimensional space, we establish a duality between tachyonic modes in EAdS space and massive scalars in dS space. This is our main result, which we now proceed to discuss in some detail.

Let us start with the embedding $`(d+2)`$-dimensional space with flat metric given by

$$ds^2=dX_AdX^A=dX_0^2+dX_1^2+\mathrm{}+dX_d^2dX_{d+1}^2$$
(4)
and introduce the conjugate momenta $`P_A`$ ($`A=0,1,\mathrm{},d+1`$). A particle of mass $`m`$ moving in the embedding will obey the mass-shell condition (3). Upon restricting its motion to AdSd+1 space, which is the hypersurface (1), the mass-shell condition is given in terms of the Casimir

$$𝒞_2=\frac{1}{2}J_{AB}J^{AB}$$
(5)
where we introduced the angular momentum

$$J_{AB}=X_AP_BX_BP_A$$
(6)
To impose the restriction onto AdSd+1 space, we introduce the constraint

$$𝒟X^AP_A=0$$
(7)
where $`𝒟`$ is the generator of scale transformations in the embedding. Notice that the Casimir (5) is invariant under scale transformations and therefore its Poisson bracket with $`𝒟`$ vanishes. Upon imposing the constraint (7), the Casimir may be written as

$$𝒞_2=(X_AX^A)(P_BP^B)$$
(8)
The theory defined by (5) and (7) is a gauge theory and $`𝒟`$ is the generator of gauge transformations. To quantize the system, we need to fix the gauge. We shall do so by imposing the gauge-fixing condition

$$X_AX^A=\mathrm{}^2,\mathrm{}^2>0$$
(9)
which restricts motion onto the AdSd+1 space with parameter $`\mathrm{}`$. It should be emphasized that the choice of $`\mathrm{}`$ is arbitrary. Different choices are related by a gauge (scale) transformation and the theory is solely defined in terms of the value of the Casimir $`𝒞_2`$. The latter may be written as

$$𝒞_2=m^2\mathrm{}^2$$
(10)
where $`m`$ has the standard interpretation of mass ($`P_AP^A=m^2`$) on account of (8).

Next, we compute the Dirac brackets which will then be promoted to commutators. A simple calculation yields

$$\{X^A,P_B\}_D=\delta _B^A+\frac{1}{\mathrm{}^2}X^AX_B$$
(11)
This algebra is realized in terms of Poincaré coordinates

$`X_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{z}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{x^\mu x_\mu +\mathrm{}^2}{2z}}`$
$`X^i`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}}{z}}x^i(i=1,\mathrm{},d1),X_{d+1}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}}{z}}x_0`$
$`X^d`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{z}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{x^\mu x_\mu \mathrm{}^2}{2z}}`$ (12)
where $`x^\mu x_\mu =(x^0)^2+(x^1)^2+\mathrm{}+(x^{d1})^2`$, which cover half of AdS. The metric (4) restricted to the AdS hypersurface reads

$$ds_{\mathrm{AdS}}^2=\mathrm{}^2\frac{dz^2+dx^\mu dx_\mu }{z^2}$$
(13)
For future reference, we also express the invariant distance between points $`X^A`$ and $`X_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{A}`$ on the AdS hypersurface in terms of Poincaré coordinates:

$$P(X,X^{})=\frac{1}{\mathrm{}^2}(X^{}X)^2=\frac{(zz^{})^2+(xx^{})^\mu (xx^{})_\mu }{zz^{}}$$
(14)
The Casimir (5) may also be expressed in terms of the Poincaré coordinates $`(z,x^\mu )`$ (S0.Ex1) and the conjugate momenta $`(p_z,p_\mu )`$. Upon quantization, it turns into the Schrödinger (wave) equation

$$z^{d1}\frac{}{z}\left(z^{d+1}\frac{\mathrm{\Psi }}{z}\right)+_\mu ^\mu \mathrm{\Psi }=\frac{m^2\mathrm{}^2}{z^2}\mathrm{\Psi }$$
(15)
where we expressed the value of the Casimir as in (10). The inner product in the space of solutions is given by

$$(\mathrm{\Psi }_1,\mathrm{\Psi }_2)=i\pi _{\mathrm{\Sigma }_0}\frac{d^{d1}xdz}{z^{d1}}(\mathrm{\Psi }_1^{}_0\mathrm{\Psi }_2_0\mathrm{\Psi }_1^{}\mathrm{\Psi }_2)$$
(16)
where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_0`$ is the spacelike slice $`x^0=`$ const.. Assuming the wavefunction is a plane wave in the space spanned by $`x^\mu `$,

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_k(z,x^\mu )=e^{ik_\mu x^\mu }\mathrm{\Phi }_q(z)$$
(17)
where $`q^2=k_\mu k^\mu `$, we obtain

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_q^{\prime \prime }\frac{d1}{z}\mathrm{\Phi }_q^{}+q^2\mathrm{\Phi }_q=\frac{m^2\mathrm{}^2}{z^2}\mathrm{\Phi }_q$$
(18)
The solution to this equation is written in terms of Bessel functions

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_q^\pm (z)=z^{d/2}J_{\pm \nu }(qz),\nu =\sqrt{\frac{d^2}{4}+m^2\mathrm{}^2}$$
(19)
The inner product of two wavefunctions is

$$(\mathrm{\Psi }_k^\pm ,\mathrm{\Psi }_k^{}^\pm )=(2\pi )^d\delta ^{d1}(\stackrel{}{k}\stackrel{}{k}^{})\frac{k_0+k_0^{}}{2}_0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{dz}{z^{d1}}\mathrm{\Phi }_q^\pm (z)\mathrm{\Phi }_q^{}^\pm (z)$$
(20)
where $`\stackrel{}{k}=(k_1,\mathrm{},k_{d1})`$ and similarly for $`\stackrel{}{k}^{}`$. At the boundary ($`z0`$), the two solutions behave as

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_q^\pm z^{h_\pm },h_\pm =\frac{d}{2}\pm \nu $$
(21)
For $`m^2>0`$, the solution $`\mathrm{\Phi }_q^{}`$ is not normalizable, so it is discarded. The normalizable modes form an orthonormal set with respect to the inner product (16),

$$(\mathrm{\Psi }_k^+,\mathrm{\Psi }_k^{}^+)=(2\pi )^d\delta ^d(kk^{})$$
(22)
where we used the orthogonality property of Bessel functions,

$$_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑zzJ_\nu (qz)J_\nu (q^{}z)=\frac{1}{q}\delta (qq^{})$$
(23)
Next, we introduce the propagator

$$G(z,x^\mu ;z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })=\frac{d^dk}{(2\pi )^d}\mathrm{\Psi }_k^+(z,x^\mu )\mathrm{\Psi }_k^+(z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })$$
(24)
which obeys the wave equation (15). 333We replaced the integration variable $`q`$ with $`k_0`$ in order to arrive at a more convenient expression for the measure in (24). After some algebra involving Bessel and Hypergeometric function identities, we arrive at

$$G(z,x^\mu ;z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(h_+)}{2\pi ^{d/2}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu +1)}P^{h_+}F(h_+,\nu +\frac{1}{2};2\nu +1;4/P)$$
(25)
where the invariant distance $`P`$ is given by (14). The singularity is obtained by letting $`P0`$,

$$G(z,x^\mu ;z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }((d1)/2)}{4\pi ^{(d+1)/2}}P_ϵ^{(d1)/2}$$
(26)
where $`P_ϵ`$ includes the $`iϵ`$ prescription $`x^0x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}x^0x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}iϵ`$. The Feynman propagator is

$$G_F(z,x^\mu ;z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })=\theta (x^0x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0})G(z,x^\mu ;z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })+\theta (x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{0}x^0)G(z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu };z,x^\mu )$$
(27)
For completeness, we also derive the bulk-to-boundary propagator, which is obtained by letting one of the arguments approach the boundary. In the limit $`z^{}0`$, we have $`G(z,x^\mu ;z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })P^{h_+}`$, so

$$G(z,x^\mu ;z^{}x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })\frac{1}{2\nu }z_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{h_+}K(z,x^\mu ;x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })$$
(28)
where

$$K(z,x^\mu ;x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })=\pi ^{d/2}\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(h_+)}{\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )}\left(\frac{z}{z^2+(xx^{})^\mu (xx^{})_\mu }\right)^{h_+}$$
(29)
In the limit $`z0`$, this leads to a propagator of the form

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(x)(x^\mu x_\mu )^{h_+}$$
(30)
which is the two-point function (up to a constant) of the corresponding conformal field theory.

The above construction for massive modes carries over to the $`m^2<0`$ regime (negative Casimir, $`𝒞_2<0`$; see (10)). In this regime, both solutions $`\mathrm{\Phi }_q^\pm `$ (eq. (19)) may be acceptable leading to distinct theories and therefore different Green functions hinting at symmetry breaking. Boundary conditions select one of the possible propagators. From eq. (20) we deduce that the modes $`\mathrm{\Phi }_q^{}`$ become normalizable for $`\nu <1`$. If $`\nu `$ is real, this leads to two possible quantizations in the regime

$$\frac{d^2}{4}<m^2\mathrm{}^2<\frac{d^2}{4}+1$$
(31)
related to each other by a Legendre transform .

For $`m^2\mathrm{}^2<d^2/4`$, $`\nu `$ becomes imaginary and the unitarity bound on the corresponding conformal field theory is violated. However, both modes $`\mathrm{\Phi }_q^\pm `$ (19) are normalizable under the inner product (cf. (16))

$$(\mathrm{\Psi }_1^\pm ,\mathrm{\Psi }_2^\pm )=i\pi _{\mathrm{\Sigma }_0}\frac{d^{d1}xdz}{z^{d1}}(\mathrm{\Psi }_1^{}_0\mathrm{\Psi }_2^\pm _0\mathrm{\Psi }_1^{}\mathrm{\Psi }_2^\pm )$$
(32)
The two modes are related to each other by complex conjugation. Set

$$\nu =i\mu ,\mu =\sqrt{m^2\mathrm{}^2\frac{d^2}{4}}>0$$
(33)
Another set of modes of interest are the Euclidean modes

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_k^E=e^{ik_\mu x^\mu }\mathrm{\Phi }_q^E(z),\mathrm{\Phi }_q^E(z)=z^{d/2}H_\nu ^{(1)}(qz)$$
(34)
which are linear combinations of the $`\mathrm{\Phi }_q^\pm `$ modes. The propagator for the modes $`\mathrm{\Phi }_q^+`$ (cf. (24))

$$G^+(z,x^\mu ;z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })=\frac{d^dk}{(2\pi )^d}\mathrm{\Psi }_k^{}(z,x^\mu )\mathrm{\Psi }_k^+(z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })$$
(35)
is given by the continuation of (25) to imaginary $`\nu `$. The propagator for the $`\mathrm{\Phi }_q^{}`$ modes is then obtained by complex conjugation. The Euclidean propagator, which corresponds to the Euclidean modes (34), can be calculated after a Wick rotation $`x^0ix^0`$, which takes us to EAdS space. We obtain

$$G^E(z,x^\mu ;z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })=\frac{d^dk}{(2\pi )^d}e^{ik_\mu (xx^{})^\mu }z^{d/2}K_\nu (q_Ez)z_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{d/2}K_\nu (q_Ez^{})$$
(36)
where $`q_E^2=k_0^2+k_1^2+\mathrm{}+k_{d1}^2`$. After some algebra, this can be brought into the form

$$G^E(z,x^\mu ;z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }(h_+)\mathrm{\Gamma }(h_{})}{(2\sqrt{\pi })^{d+1}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\frac{d+1}{2})}F(h_+,h_{};\frac{d+1}{2};1P/4)$$
(37)
where $`P`$ is the invariant distance given by (14) after a Wick rotation on the time variable $`x^0`$. The singularity is obtained by letting $`P0`$, as before,

$$G^E(z,x^\mu ;z^{},x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }((d1)/2)}{4\pi ^{(d+1)/2}}P_ϵ^{(d1)/2}$$
(38)
in agreement with our earlier result for modes with $`m^2>0`$ (26), confirming the correct normalization of the Euclidean wavefunctions (34). It is also instructive to express the Green function (35) corresponding to the choice of modes $`\mathrm{\Phi }_q^+`$ (19) in terms of the Euclidean propagator. To this end, express $`\mathrm{\Phi }_q^+`$ (in EAdS) in terms of the Euclidean modes, 444making use of the Bessel function identity $`I_\nu (x)=\frac{i}{\pi }e^{i\pi \nu }(K_\nu (x)e^{i\pi \nu }K_\nu (x))`$.

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_q^+(z)=𝒩\left(\mathrm{\Phi }_q^E(z)e^{i\pi h_+}\mathrm{\Phi }_q^E(z)\right)$$
(39)
where the normalization constant is

$$𝒩=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\pi }}e^{\pi \mu /2}$$
(40)
Then the Green function (35) may be straightforwardly expressed in terms of the Euclidean Green function (37). Suppressing the (common) $`(x^\mu ,x_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{\mu })`$ dependence, we have

$$G^+(z;z^{})=𝒩^2\left(G^E(z;z^{})+e^{2i\pi \nu }G^E(z;z^{})e^{i\pi h_+}G^E(z;z^{})e^{i\pi h_{}}G^E(z;z^{})\right)$$
(41)
It is straightforward to deduce the expression (25) for $`G^+(z,z^{})`$ from (41) and (37). Notice that all Green functions in (41) share the same $`iϵ`$ prescription, unlike the dS case .

Next, we discuss a dual approach by interchanging the roles of coordinates and momenta. Thus, instead of imposing the gauge-fixing condition (9) on the coordinates $`X^A`$, we shall instead adopt the gauge

$$P_AP^A=P_0^2+P_1^2+\mathrm{}+P_d^2P_{d+1}^2=L^2$$
(42)
Eqs. (8) and (42) imply

$$X_AX^A=M^2$$
(43)
where $`𝒞_2=M^2L^2`$ (cf. eq. (10)). Note that this is identical to the condition (9) we imposed earlier if $`M^2>0`$.

The Dirac brackets in this gauge are

$$\{X^A,P_B\}_D=\delta _B^A+\frac{1}{L^2}P^AP_B$$
(44)
and this algebra may be realized by expressing the momenta in terms of coordinates similar to the Poincaré coordinates (S0.Ex1). Then the coordinates $`X^A`$ will be given in terms of derivatives (conjugate momenta) with respect to the Poincaré coordinates.

If the Casimir (5) is positive ($`𝒞_2>0`$), then this dual description leads to the same Scrödinger (wave) equation (15) as before. This is because $`L^2<0`$ in eq. (42), which makes it identical to its dual counterpart (9) with the choice $`\mathrm{}^2=L^2`$.

In the case of a negative Casimir, we have $`L^2>0`$ in eq. (42). Upon analytic continuation of $`P_{d+1}iP_{d+1}`$, eq. (42) becomes the definition of dSd+1 space, albeit in momentum space,

$$P_0^2+P_1^2+\mathrm{}+P_d^2+P_{d+1}^2=L^2$$
(45)
We may express $`P_A`$ in terms of coordinates $`(\stackrel{~}{x}^\mu ,\stackrel{~}{z})`$ parametrizing the dS hyperboloid as (cf. eq. (S0.Ex1))

$`P_0`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{z}}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{x}^\mu \stackrel{~}{x}_\mu +L^2}{2\stackrel{~}{z}}}`$
$`P^i`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{L}{\stackrel{~}{z}}}\stackrel{~}{x}^i(i=1,\mathrm{},d1),P_{d+1}={\displaystyle \frac{L}{\stackrel{~}{z}}}\stackrel{~}{x}_0`$
$`P^d`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{z}}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{x}^\mu \stackrel{~}{x}_\mu L^2}{2\stackrel{~}{z}}}`$ (46)
where $`\stackrel{~}{x}^\mu \stackrel{~}{x}_\mu =(\stackrel{~}{x}^0)^2+(\stackrel{~}{x}^1)^2+\mathrm{}+(\stackrel{~}{x}^{d1})^2`$, which cover half of dS. The metric on dS reads

$$ds_{\mathrm{dS}}^2=L^2\frac{d\stackrel{~}{z}^2+d\stackrel{~}{x}^\mu d\stackrel{~}{x}_\mu }{\stackrel{~}{z}^2}$$
(47)
It can also be expressed in the more commonly used form

$$ds_{\mathrm{dS}}^2=L^2(dt^2+e^{2t}d\stackrel{~}{x}^\mu d\stackrel{~}{x}_\mu )$$
(48)
by changing coordinates $`\stackrel{~}{z}=e^t`$. Then the boundary $`\stackrel{~}{z}0`$ may be thought of as the infinite past $`t\mathrm{}`$. The invariant distance between points $`P^A`$ and $`P_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{A}`$ ($`A=0,1,\mathrm{},d+1`$) on the dS hyperboloid is

$$\stackrel{~}{P}(P,P^{})=\frac{1}{L^2}(P^{}P)^2=\frac{(\stackrel{~}{z}\stackrel{~}{z}^{})^2+(\stackrel{~}{x}\stackrel{~}{x}^{})^\mu (\stackrel{~}{x}\stackrel{~}{x}^{})_\mu }{\stackrel{~}{z}\stackrel{~}{z}^{}}$$
(49)
Notice that the dS metric (47) differs from the metric on EAdS (eq. (13) with Euclidean signature for $`dx^\mu dx_\mu `$) in that $`\stackrel{~}{z}`$ in dS is a timelike coordinate. This does not affect the boundary behavior and the structure of the Green functions. It should also be emphasized that there is no direct connection between the EAdS coordinates $`(z,x^\mu )`$ and their dual counterparts $`(\stackrel{~}{z},\stackrel{~}{x}^\mu )`$, even though there is a formal connection through double analytic continuation , because the latter parametrize the mass-shell hyperboloid (42) in the embedding, whereas the former parametrize (E)AdS space.

The Casimir turns into the same wave equation as in EAdS (15), since $`𝒞_2=M^2L^2=m^2\mathrm{}^2`$ and $`_\mu ^\mu `$ is the laplacian in $`𝐑^d`$. The solutions are given by (17) in terms of the Bessel functions (19), where $`q^2=k_0^2+k_1^2+\mathrm{}+k_{d1}^2`$. Let us concentrate on the case of imaginary $`\nu `$ (i.e., $`ML>d/2`$; cf. eq. (33)). The inner product in the space of solutions is similarly defined by (16), except that the spacelike slice $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_0`$ should be defined as $`\stackrel{~}{z}=`$ const. The coordinates on the slice are $`\stackrel{~}{x}^\mu `$. For the eigenfunctions (17), the inner product reads

$$(\mathrm{\Psi }_1,\mathrm{\Psi }_2)=i\frac{d^d\stackrel{~}{x}}{\stackrel{~}{z}^{d1}}e^{i(k_1k_2)_\mu \stackrel{~}{x}^\mu }(\mathrm{\Phi }_1^{}(\stackrel{~}{z})\mathrm{\Phi }_2^{}(\stackrel{~}{z})\mathrm{\Phi }_{1}^{}{}_{}{}^{}(\stackrel{~}{z})\mathrm{\Phi }_2(\stackrel{~}{z}))$$
(50)
The apparent $`\stackrel{~}{z}`$-dependence disappears if we apply the wave equation (18). The integral over $`\stackrel{~}{x}^\mu `$ leads to a $`\delta `$-function, demonstrating the orthogonality of the wavefunctions. For an othronormal set, choose

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_q(\stackrel{~}{z})\mathrm{\Phi }_q^+(\stackrel{~}{z})=C^+\stackrel{~}{z}^{d/2}J_\nu (q\stackrel{~}{z})$$
(51)
Using the Wronskian $`J_\nu (x)J_\nu ^{}(x)J_\nu ^{}(x)J_\nu (x)=\frac{2i\mathrm{sinh}(\pi \mu )}{\pi x}`$ (recall $`\nu =i\mu `$), we obtain

$$(\mathrm{\Psi }_1,\mathrm{\Psi }_2)=(2\pi )^d\delta ^d(k_1k_2)|C^+|^2\frac{2\mathrm{sinh}(\pi \mu )}{\pi }$$
(52)
showing that the set (51) is orthonormal if

$$C^+=\sqrt{\frac{\nu }{2}}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )$$
(53)
For the choice

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_q(\stackrel{~}{z})\mathrm{\Phi }_q^E(\stackrel{~}{z})=C^E\stackrel{~}{z}^{d/2}H_\nu ^{(1)}(q\stackrel{~}{z})$$
(54)
using the Wronskian $`H_\nu ^{(1)}(x)H_{\nu }^{(2)}{}_{}{}^{}(x)H_{\nu }^{(1)}{}_{}{}^{}(x)H_\nu ^{(2)}(x)=\frac{4i}{\pi x}`$, we similarly find

$$C^E=\frac{\sqrt{\pi }}{2}e^{\pi \mu /2}$$
(55)
The two orthonormal sets are related to each other by

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_q^+(\stackrel{~}{z})=\stackrel{~}{𝒩}(\mathrm{\Phi }_q^E(\stackrel{~}{z})e^{i\pi h_+}\mathrm{\Phi }_q^E(\stackrel{~}{z})),\stackrel{~}{𝒩}=\frac{C^+}{2C^E}=\sqrt{\frac{\nu }{2\pi }}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )e^{i\pi \nu /2}$$
(56)
where we used $`J_\nu (x)=\frac{1}{2}(H_\nu ^{(1)}(x)e^{i\pi \nu }H_\nu ^{(1)}(x))`$. This is in agreement with its dual counterpart (39) up to an overall constant factor. Notice also that (56) differs from ref.  by a phase factor (note $`|𝒩|=(1e^{2\pi \mu })^{1/2}`$). The Euclidean Green function is given by the same expression (37) as before with $`P`$ replaced by $`\stackrel{~}{P}`$ (49). The Green function corresponding to the $`\mathrm{\Phi }_q^+`$ modes may then be expressed in terms of the Euclidean propagator. We obtain

$$G^+(z;z^{})=|𝒩|^2\left(G^E(z;z^{})+e^{2i\pi \nu }G^E(z;z^{})e^{i\pi h_+}G^E(z;z^{})e^{i\pi h_{}}G^E(z;z^{})\right)$$
(57)
which is of the same structure as the dual relation (41). The two normalization constants, $`\stackrel{~}{𝒩}`$ (56) and $`𝒩`$ (40) differ and this is essential for the correct behavior of the respective Green functions at the singularity. Unlike (41), the various Green functions entering (57) do not share the same $`iϵ`$ prescription . This is because $`\stackrel{~}{z}`$ is a timelike coordinate and the transformation $`\stackrel{~}{z}\stackrel{~}{z}`$ is time reversal. This precludes a simple relationship between $`z`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{z}`$ by analytic continuation. As we have argued above, there exists a duality transformation relating $`(z,x^\mu )`$ and $`(\stackrel{~}{z},\stackrel{~}{x}^\mu )`$ by an interchange of coordinates and momenta in the $`(d+2)`$-dimensional space in which (EA)dS space is embedded. The explicit form of this duality transformation for $`(z,x^\mu )(\stackrel{~}{z},\stackrel{~}{x}^\mu )`$ is rather involved and uninspiring.

In conclusion, we have established a duality between tachyonic modes in EAdS space and massive scalars in dS space in $`d+1`$ dimensions by interchanging the roles of coordinates and momenta in the $`(d+2)`$-dimensional flat space in which (EA)dS space is embedded. For massive modes in (E)AdS, this procedure leads to a self-duality. This duality explains why in dS space one obtains Green functions that are similar to their EAdS counterparts but for tachyonic modes, even though the two inner products are different, due to the different roles of the timelike direction. It would be interesting to extend the results to other modes and include spin. This is currently under investigation.


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# 1 t-evolutions of non-singlet structure functions 𝐹₂^{𝑁𝑆}(𝑥,𝑡)(solid lines) for the representative values of x given in the figures. Data points at lowest-𝑄² values in the figures are taken as input to test NLO t-evoluation of non-singlet structure functions 𝐹₂^{𝑁𝑆} from equation (8). In the same figures we also plot the results of t-evolutions of non-singlet structure functions 𝐹₂^{𝑁𝑆} (dashed lines) for LO from equation (9).

Complete solution of Altarelli-Parisi evolution equation in next-to-leading order and non-singlet structure function at low-x
R.Rajkhowa and J.K.Sarma111E-mail:jks@tezu.ernet.in
Physics Department, Tezpur University, Napaam,

Tezpur-784 028, Assam, India

## Abstract

We present complete solution of Altarelli-Parisi (AP) evolution equation in next-to-leading order (NLO) and obtain t-evolution of non-singlet structure function at low-x. Results are compared with HERA low-x and low-$`Q^2`$ data and also with those of complete solution in leading oder (LO) of AP evolution equation.
PACS No.: 12.38.Bx, 12.39.-x, 13.60.Hb
Keywords: Complete solution, Altarelli-Parisi equation, Structure function

1. Introduction:
The Altarelli-Parisi (AP) evolution equations \[1-4\] are fundamental tools to study the t(=ln$`(Q^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)`$) and x-evolutions of structure functions, where x and $`Q^2`$ are Bjorken scaling variable and four momenta transfer in a deep inelastic scattering (DIS) process  respectively and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the QCD cut-off parameter. Though numerical solutions are available in the literature , the explorations of the possibility of obtaining analytical solutions of AP evolution equations are always interesting. In this connection, complete solutions of AP evolution equations at low-x in leading order(LO) have been obtained . Its natural improvement will be the next-to-leading order (NLO) calculation.
In this paper, we present complete solution of AP evolution equation in NLO at low-x and obtain t-evolution of non-singlet structure function. Results are compared with the HERA low-x low-$`Q^2`$ data, and also with those of complete solution in LO. Here Section 1, Section 2 and Section 3 give the introduction, the necessary theory and the results and discussion respectively.

2. Theory:
The AP evolution equation for non-singlet structure function in NLO is

$$\frac{F_2^{NS}(x,t)}{t}\frac{\alpha _s(t)}{2\pi }\left[\frac{2}{3}\{3+4ln(1x)\}F_2^{NS}(x,t)\frac{4}{3}_x^1\frac{dw}{1w}\{(1+w^2)F_2^{NS}(\frac{x}{w},t)2F_2^{NS}(x,t)\}\right]$$

$`\left({\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s(t)}{2\pi }}\right)^2\left[(x1)F_2^{NS}(x,t){\displaystyle _0^1}f(w)𝑑w+{\displaystyle _x^1}f(w)F_2^{NS}({\displaystyle \frac{x}{w}},t)𝑑w\right]=0`$ (1)
where,

$$f(w)=\frac{16}{9}P_F(w)+2P_G(w)+\frac{2}{3}n_fP_{N_F}(w)+\frac{2}{9}P_A(w).$$

The explicit forms of higher order kernels are

$$P_F(w)=\frac{2(1+w^2)}{1w}lnwln(1w)\left(\frac{3}{1w}+2w\right)lnw\frac{1}{2}(1+w)ln^2w5(1w),$$

$$P_G(w)=\frac{1+w^2}{1w}\left(ln^2w+\frac{11}{3}lnw+\frac{67}{9}\frac{\pi ^2}{3}\right)+2(1+w)lnw+\frac{40}{3}(1w),$$

$$P_{N_F}(w)=\frac{2}{3}\left[\frac{1+w^2}{1w}\left(lnw\frac{5}{3}\right)2(1w)\right]$$

and

$$P_A(w)=\frac{2(1+w^2)}{1+w}_{w/(1+w)}^{1/(1+w)}\frac{dk}{k}ln\frac{1k}{k}+2(1+w)lnw+4(1w).$$

Running coupling constant in higher order has the form

$$\alpha _s(t)=\frac{4\pi }{\beta _ot}\left[1\frac{\beta _1lnt}{\beta _0^2t}\right]$$

for one loop with

$$\beta _o=\frac{332n_f}{3}\mathrm{and}\beta _1=\frac{30638n_f}{3},$$

$`n_f`$ being the number of flavours.

Using Taylor expansion method  and neglecting higher order terms as discussed in our earlier works , $`F_2^{NS}(x/w,t)`$ can be approximated for low-x as

$`F_2^{NS}({\displaystyle \frac{x}{w}},t)F_2^{NS}(x,t)+x{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}u^l{\displaystyle \frac{F_2^{NS}(x,t)}{x}}`$ (2)
where

$$x=1w\mathrm{and}\frac{x}{1u}=x\underset{l=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}u^l.$$

Putting equation (2) in equation (1) and performing u-integrations we get,

$$\frac{F_2^{NS}(x,t)}{t}\left[\frac{\alpha _s(t)}{2\pi }A(x)+\left(\frac{\alpha _s(t)}{2\pi }\right)^2B(x)\right]\frac{F_2^{NS}(x,t)}{x}$$

$`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s(t)}{2\pi }}C(x)+\left({\displaystyle \frac{\alpha _s(t)}{2\pi }}\right)^2D(x)\right]F_2^{NS}(x,t)=0`$ (3)
where,

$$A(x)=\frac{2}{3}\{2xlnx+x(1x^2)\},$$

$$B(x)=x_x^1\frac{1w}{w}f(w)𝑑w,$$

$$C(x)=\frac{2}{3}\{3+4ln(1x)+(x1)(x+3)\}$$

and

$$D(x)=_0^xf(w)𝑑w+x_0^1f(w)𝑑w.$$

For a possible solution, we assume that

$$\left(\frac{\alpha _s(t)}{2\pi }\right)^2=k\left(\frac{\alpha _s(t)}{2\pi }\right)$$

where, k is a numerical parameter to be obtained from the particular $`Q^2`$\- range under study. By a suitable choice of k we can reduce the error to a minimum. Now equation (3) can be recast as

$`{\displaystyle \frac{F_2^{NS}(x,t)}{t}}P(x,t){\displaystyle \frac{F_2^{NS}(x,t)}{x}}Q(x,t)F_2^{NS}(x,t)=0,`$ (4)
where,

$$P(x,t)=\frac{\alpha _s(t)}{2\pi }[A(x)+kB(x)]$$

and

$$Q(x,t)=\frac{\alpha _s(t)}{2\pi }[C(x)+kD(x)].$$

The general solution of equation (4) is

$$F(U,V)=0$$

where, F is an arbitrary function and

$$U(x,t,F_2^{NS})=C_1\mathrm{and}V(x,t,F_2^{NS})=C_2,$$

where $`C_1`$ and $`C_2`$ are constants, form a solution of equations

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dx}{P(x,t)}}={\displaystyle \frac{dt}{1}}={\displaystyle \frac{dF_2^{NS}(x,t)}{Q(x,t)}}.`$ (5)
Solving equation (5) we obtain,

$$U(x,t,F_2^{NS})=t^{(b/t+1)}exp\left[\frac{b}{t}+\frac{N(x)}{a}\right]$$

and

$$V(x,t,F_2^{NS})=F_2^{NS}(x,t)exp[M(x)]$$

where

$$a=\frac{2}{\beta _o},b=\frac{\beta _1}{\beta _o^2},$$

$$N(x)=\frac{dx}{A(x)+kB(x)}$$

and

$$M(x)=\frac{C(x)+kD(x)}{A(x)+kB(x)}𝑑x.$$

If U and V are two independent solutions of equation (4) and if $`\alpha `$ and$`\beta `$ are arbitrary constants, then

$$V=\alpha U+\beta $$

is called a complete solution of equation (4). Then the complete solution

$$F_2^{NS}(x,t)exp[M(x)]=\alpha \left[t^{(b/t+1)}exp\left(\frac{b}{t}+\frac{N(x)}{a}\right)\right]+\beta $$

is a two-parameter family of planes. The one parameter family determined by taking $`\beta =\alpha ^2`$ has equation

$`F_2^{NS}(x,t)exp[M(x)]=\alpha \left[t^{(b/t+1)}exp\left({\displaystyle \frac{b}{t}}+{\displaystyle \frac{N(x)}{a}}\right)\right]+\alpha ^2.`$ (6)
Differentiating equation (6) with respect to $`\alpha `$, we get

$$\alpha =\frac{1}{2}t^{(b/t+1)}exp\left[\frac{b}{t}+\frac{N(x)}{a}\right].$$

Putting the value of $`\alpha `$ again in equation (6), we obtain

$$F_2^{NS}(x,t)exp[M(x)]=\frac{1}{4}\left[t^{(b/t+1)}exp\left(\frac{b}{t}+\frac{N(x)}{a}\right)\right]^2.$$

Therefore,

$`F_2^{NS}(x,t)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}t^{2(b/t+1)}exp\left[{\displaystyle \frac{2b}{t}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2N(x)}{a}}M(x)\right].`$ (7)
Now, defining

$$F_2^{NS}(x,t_o)=\frac{1}{4}t_o^{2(b/t_o+1)}exp\left[\frac{2b}{t_o}+\frac{2N(x)}{a}M(x)\right].$$

at $`t=t_o`$, where $`t_o=ln(Q_o^2/\mathrm{\Lambda }^2)`$ at any lower value $`Q=Q_o`$, we get from equation (7)

$`F_2^{NS}(x,t)=F_2^{NS}(x,t_o)\left({\displaystyle \frac{t^{(b/t+1)}}{t_o^{(b/t_o+1)}}}\right)^2exp\left[2b\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{t}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{t_o}}\right)\right]`$ (8)
which gives the t-evolution of non-singlet structure function $`F_2^{NS}(x,t)`$ in NLO. In an earlier communication , we suggested that for low-x in LO

$`F_2^{NS}(x,t)=F_2^{NS}(x,t_o)\left({\displaystyle \frac{t}{t_o}}\right)^2.`$ (9)
We observe that if b tends to zero, then equation (8) tends to equation(9), i.e., solution of NLO equation goes to that of LO equation. Physically b tends to zero means number of flavours is high.
Again defining,

$$F_2^{NS}(x_o,t)=\frac{1}{4}t^{(b/t+1)}exp\left[\frac{2b}{t}+\frac{2N(x)}{a}M(x)\right]_{x=x_o},$$

we obtain from equation (7)

$`F_2^{NS}(x,t)=F_2^{NS}(x_o,t)exp{\displaystyle _{x_o}^x}[{\displaystyle \frac{2}{a}}.{\displaystyle \frac{1}{A(x)+kB(x)}}{\displaystyle \frac{C(x)+kD(x)}{A(x)+kB(x)}}]dx`$ (10)
which gives the x-evolution of non-singlet structure function $`F_2^{NS}(x,t)`$ in NLO.
Proton and neutron structure functions measured in deep inelastic electro-production can be written in terms of singlet and non-singlet quark distribution functions as

$$F_2^p(x,t)=\frac{5}{18}F_2^S(x,t)+\frac{3}{18}F_2^{NS}(x,t)$$

and

$$F_2^n(x,t)=\frac{5}{18}F_2^S(x,t)\frac{3}{18}F_2^{NS}(x,t).$$

These equations give

$$F_2^{NS}=3(F_2^pF_2^n)$$

from which we can calculate experimental values of $`F_2^{NS}`$ in t and x ranges given in $`F_2^p`$ and $`F_2^n`$.

3. Results and Discussion:
In the present paper, we compare our results of t-evolution of non-singlet structure functions from equation (8) with the HERA low-x and low-$`Q^2`$ data . Here proton and neutron structure functions are measured in the range $`2Q^250GeV^2`$. Moreover here $`P_T200MeV`$, where $`P_T`$ is the transverse momentum of the final state baryon. We consider number of flavours $`n_f`$=4.

In figures 1(a-c) we present our results of t-evolution of non-singlet structure functions $`F_2^{NS}`$ (solid lines) for the representative values of x given to test the evolution equation (8) in next-to-leading order. Agreement is found to be good. In the same figures we also plot the results of t-evolutions of non-singlet structure functions $`F_2^{NS}`$ (dashed lines) for the complete solutions from equation (9) in leading order. Data points at lowest-$`Q^2`$ values in the figures are taken as inputs. We observe that t-evolutions are slightly steeper in NLO calculations then those of LO. We can also calculate x-evolution of non-singlet structure functions at low-x from equation (10). But it involves complicated triple integrations and we keep it as our subsequent work.

In figure 2 we plot $`T(t)^2`$ and kT(t) against $`Q^2`$ in the $`Q^2`$ range $`2Q^250GeV^2`$ as required by our data used. Though the explicit value of k is not necessary in calculating t-evolution of $`F_2^{NS}`$, yet we observe that for k= 0.027, errors become minimum and varies from 17.68% to -13.68% in the $`Q^2`$ range $`2Q^250GeV^2`$.

Acknowledgement:
We are grateful to G. A. Ahmed of Department of Physics and N. Basumatary of Department of Information Technology of Tezpur University for the help in the computational part of this work. One of us (JKS) is grateful to UGC, New Delhi for the financial assistance to this work in the form of a major research project.

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text:
# Redshifts for a Sample of Radio-Selected Poor Clusters

## 1 Introduction

Some of the more spectacular extragalactic sources are the powerful radio galaxies, with L$`{}_{1.4GHz}{}^{}10^{23}`$ W Hz-1. Associated almost exclusively with massive ellipticals, these objects often exhibit radio emission extending far beyond the optical extent of the host galaxies. The more extreme examples span over 1 Mpc with the radio emission resembling jets or lobes. In order to explain these large sizes, models require an external medium to confine the radio plasma and associated magnetic fields, and consequently the cluster environment with its intracluster medium (ICM) of hot gas is an attractive candidate. Indeed, many powerful radio galaxies are found to lie in clusters. However, not all powerful radio galaxies reside in known clusters of galaxies. How can such sources be explained?

One possible explanation is that such radio galaxies do, in fact, reside in clusters of galaxies but that these clusters are simply too poor to have been included in classical catalogs. For example, the lowest richness clusters in the Abell catalog (Abell, 1958; Abell, Corwin, & Olowin, 1989) must contain at least 35 galaxies in the interval described by the cluster’s third brightest galaxy to a galaxy two magnitudes fainter than this galaxy. This arbitrary cutoff implies that systems which represent meaningful associations of galaxies could easily be missed, despite having environments nearly identical to those of the poorer clusters of the catalog.

Additionally, the connection between powerful radio galaxies and real galaxy overdensities might be exploited to identify samples of clusters and groups. The powerful radio galaxies would be nearly ideal signposts, as they are observable out to very high redshifts and are nearly always found in the centermost regions of clusters (Ledlow & Owen, 1995). In fact, studies including Allington-Smith et al. (1993) have taken advantage of this technique. However, the picture is likely more complicated. Specifically, there is evidence that different types of powerful radio sources inhabit different environments. For example, radio galaxies are often separated based on radio luminosity and morphology (and optical magnitude; see Owen & White, 1991; Ledlow & Owen, 1996) into FR I and FR II sources (Fanaroff & Riley, 1974). The FR I sources appear to be more frequently associated with cluster environments than FR II sources (e.g., Longair & Seldner, 1979; Miller et al., 1999), although this may only be true at lower redshift as at higher redshift their environments appear more similar (e.g., Prestage & Peacock, 1988). There may also be environmental differences among the more powerful radio galaxies (generally FR II), with some being fairly normal optically luminous ellipticals whereas others are clearly disturbed and apparent galaxy-galaxy merger systems (Heckman et al., 1986). Consequently, in order to use radio galaxies to identify samples of clusters and groups it appears to be important to consider the nature of the radio source.

In Miller et al. (1999, hereafter Paper 1) we explored these themes using a sample of nearby powerful radio galaxies which were not members of Abell clusters. The local environments of the radio galaxies were examined via analysis of X-ray data from the Rosat All-Sky Survey (RASS; see Voges, W., 1993) and statistical measures of clustering from optical images. The X-ray data confirmed that the majority of the radio sources were associated with X-ray emission. We also noted a probable difference between FR I and FR II environments, with the FR I sources more frequently associated with extended X-ray emission and optical overdensities of galaxies. Thus, the FR I sources did appear to be associated with poor clusters while the FR II sources were more isolated.

In this paper, we report on the use of multifiber spectroscopy to further investigate the environments of powerful nearby radio galaxies which are not members of classical Abell clusters. The optical analysis employed in Paper 1 included no velocity information, and was instead based on the two-point spatial correlation function, $`B_{gg}`$. Velocity measurements are therefore necessary to confirm the presence of poor clusters around FR I radio galaxies, and further explore the environments of radio galaxies which appear to reside in very sparse regions of galaxies. The velocities are used to evaluate velocity dispersions in the identified poor clusters and estimate system masses under the assumption of virial equilibrium. In some cases, the obtained velocities also allow an investigation of potential substructure within the identified clusters and the relationship of the radio sources to such substructure. The goals are to: 1) confirm the existence of poor clusters identified through the presence of powerful radio galaxies, and 2) better understand the relationship between the characteristics of the radio galaxies and their local environments.

The observations and reductions will be discussed briefly in Section 2, followed by the computation of quantities to characterize their environments (Section 3). A discussion of the results is presented in Section 4, followed by a brief summary of the conclusions. Throughout this paper, we have adopted $`H_o=75`$ km s-1 Mpc-1 and $`q_o=0.1`$ in all calculations which require such factors.

## 2 Data

### 2.1 The Sample

The complete sample is composed of 25 radio galaxies drawn from the 3CRR (Laing, Riley, & Longair, 1983) and Wall & Peacock (1985) catalogs, plus 24 additional radio galaxies drawn from the B2 catalog (Colla et al., 1970, 1972). The B2 sources are generally of lower radio luminosity, but were added as the declination range of that survey made them excellent targets for observation at Kitt Peak. The radio galaxies were required to be nearby ($`z<0.06`$ for the 3CRR and Wall & Peacock galaxies, $`z<0.04`$ for the B2 galaxies), and not members of Abell clusters. We report on a subset of 25 of these radio galaxies in this paper. The remainder were unobservable due to declination limits of the telescope (6 sources) and observing time lost due to weather. The full sample of radio galaxies and comments on their properties may be found in Table 1.

### 2.2 Observations and Reductions

Spectra were obtained using the MX Spectrometer on the Steward Observatory 2.3 meter Bok telescope. MX utilizes 2″ fibers on mechanical probes to obtain spectra of up to 32 targets at once, plus sky spectra from 30 fibers “piggy-backed” to target spectra probes. The field of view of the telescope with MX is 45′, which matches nicely with the angular sizes of the poor clusters being studied. In 18 of the 25 systems being studied this corresponds to a linear size of 1 Mpc or greater, while for the nearest system it is $`0.8`$ Mpc. The actual spectrograph is the Steward Observatory Boller & Chivens spectrograph, which rests on the dome floor. Using a 400 lines mm-1 grating, 3300Å coverage is obtained at a resolution of about 6Å. The wavelength center for the observations was typically around $`5400\text{Å}`$, which covered from \[OII\]$`\lambda 3727`$ to \[SII\]$`\lambda \lambda 6717+6731`$ for the small redshifts of the sample. Additional details on the MX instrument may be found in Hill & Lesser (1986, 1988).

Targets were selected from the Digitized Sky Survey plates, and corresponded to galaxies with magnitudes near that of the radio galaxy. In all but one case (B2 0120+33), the fields around the radio galaxies were sparse enough that all relatively bright galaxies could be observed through a single pointing of the telescope. The integration time for each pointing was one hour. Upon completion of each science exposure, comparison lamp arc spectra and continuum fiber flats (used to accurately locate the apertures corresponding to each fiber on the CCD) were obtained.

Data reduction was performed following the usual steps. On each night of observations, a sequence of 10 zero-second exposures and a sequence of 10 exposures of a quartz lamp (taken through a diffuser placed below the slit) were taken to create a master bias frame and flat field, respectively. The extracted spectra were wavelength calibrated using the arc lamp exposures, producing rms errors of under 0.2Å (determined from $`30`$ lines and confirmed via inspection of airglow lines). The 30 sky fibers from each pointing were combined to create a super-sky spectrum (after rejecting any fibers which chanced to lie upon stars or galaxies), which was iteratively subtracted from each spectrum until the \[OI\] night sky line at $`5577\text{Å}`$ was entirely removed.

### 2.3 Inspection of Spectra and Velocity Measurements

Each spectrum was carefully inpected in IRAF. Artifacts from cosmic rays and bad columns on the CCD were excised from the spectra, and velocity measurement then followed one of two procedures. First, some of the observed galaxies had spectra including emission lines such as the Balmer lines and forbidden oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur lines. When such lines were present, velocities and errors were obtained using known laboratory wavelengths of such species. In these calculations, all lines were assigned equal weight in the determination of a galaxy’s velocity and the estimate of the error in this quantity is simply the dispersion of the values obtained for individual lines. A minimum velocity error of 20 km s-1 was adopted as an upper limit, based on the uncertainty of our wavelength solutions. For the majority of the galaxies, emission lines were not present or were too weak to be useful in velocity characterization. Radial velocities for such galaxies were determined via fourier cross-correlation (Tonry & Davis, 1979) using known velocity standards. A set of templates including M31, M32, NGC 3379, NGC 7331, and the brightest galaxies from several nearby clusters were used as the velocity standards, with the cross correlations using wavelengths between 3700Å and 6750Å (minus small regions centered on the prominent night sky lines at 5577Å and 6300Å). Each galaxy spectrum was cross correlated against each template spectrum, and the resulting velocities were 3$`\sigma `$ clipped. Final velocities were assigned if at least $`60\%`$ of the templates produced a consistent velocity with an internal dispersion among the individual measurements that was less than 250 km s-1. In general, the proximity of the targets resulted in $`R8`$ (see Tonry & Davis). Velocity errors were assigned using the formula $`280(1+R)^1`$ (Tonry & Davis and Oegerle & Hill, 1998), again with a minimum of 20 km s-1. Finally, each galaxy velocity was confirmed via visual inspection through identification of major features such as the 4000Å break and prominent absorption features such as the G band, MgII, and NaD.

The relative proximity of the sample meant that velocities for some galaxies in the fields of the radio galaxies had already been measured. Consequently, we obtained velocities from the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) for galaxies within 1 Mpc of the radio galaxy positions. For galaxies in the field of 3C31 we have adopted the velocities of Ledlow et al. (1996), since these observations were made using the same telescope and detector.

Table 2 presents the results for all galaxies deemed to be associated with the radio galaxies (see Section 3). The same information for foreground and background galaxies may be found in Table 3. If emission lines were present in the spectrum, they are noted in the final column. When such lines were not used in the velocity calculation, they are offset by parentheses.

## 3 Analysis

### 3.1 Velocity Completeness

The primary goals of this study are to confirm the presence of poor clusters around the radio galaxies and better understand the connection of these galaxies to their local environments. For these purposes, the biases inherent in our sampling of galaxy velocities should not be too important. However, it is instructive to examine the completeness of our velocity data. Hence, we evaluate the fraction of galaxies with measured velocities as a function of optical magnitude and radial separation from the radio galaxies.

Galaxy identifications and magnitudes are available for 21 of the 25 radio galaxy fields in the Automated Plate Scanner (APS) catalogs (for a description of the scanner and procedure, see Pennington et al., 1993). The other fields are generally too close to the Galactic plane, causing difficulty in star/galaxy segregation. We have obtained identifications and magnitudes for all galaxies located within a projected separation of 1 Mpc of the radio galaxies and used them to evaluate the completeness of our velocity data. Table 4 presents the results, including the limiting magnitude ($`R_c`$, derived from the Palomar “E” plates) below which we have velocity data for all galaxies (including those not associated with the radio galaxies). Information is provided for all galaxies within 1 Mpc of the radio galaxies, in addition to those within 500 kpc and 250 kpc. Our velocity information is more complete in the central regions of the radio galaxy fields, as these were more likely to be the target of our spectroscopic observations. For galaxies within 1 Mpc of the radio galaxy, our average limiting magnitude is 15.3 (for comparison, the radio galaxies range from $`11.2m_R14.6`$). The fainter galaxies with spectra of high enough S/N to obtain accurate velocity measurements typically have $`m_R17`$. Within 250 kpc of the radio galaxies, the limiting magnitude has dropped to an average of 16.1. Therefore, we conclude that the spectroscopy in these fields adequately samples the velocity fields in the vicinity of the radio galaxies.

A related issue is the confirmation of the statistical results from Paper 1. In that study, counts of the brighter galaxies in the radio galaxy fields were used to evaluate $`B_{gg}`$. The velocity data confirm that for three of the six fields in common between these studies (3C 293, 3C 296, 1615+351; 3C 386 is too close to the Galactic plane to be included in the APS catalog) all of the galaxies used in the $`B_{gg}`$ calculations are cluster members. In a fourth (3C 31), nine out of ten are confirmed cluster members, a result consistent with the estimate of background galaxies in the $`B_{gg}`$ calculation. The remaining source (3C 305) had seven possible members in the $`B_{gg}`$ analysis, of which only three were cluster members. Thus, the statistical evidence for clustering in this radio galaxy field was misleading. However, 3C 305 was shown to not be associated with extended X-ray emission and was therefore a poor candidate for a true cluster system.

### 3.2 Derived Quantities: Systemic Velocities, Velocity Dispersions, and Virial Masses

The systemic velocities and velocity dispersions were calculated using 3$`\sigma `$ rejection (Yahil & Vidal, 1977). Due to the low number of velocities available, we have adopted the Biweight estimators of location and scale ($`C_{BI}`$ and $`S_{BI}`$, respectively) instead of the simple mean and standard deviation (Beers, Flynn, & Gebhardt, 1990). These estimators are less sensitive to the presence of outliers, and are consequently better suited to the identification of real systems. The 1$`\sigma `$ confidence intervals in the biweight scale and location were estimated using the jackknife method (Mosteller & Tukey, 1977). In all subsequent discussion, the terms systemic velocity and velocity dispersion will be used for $`C_{BI}`$ and $`S_{BI}`$. It should be noted that other algorithms exist; for example, the “DEDICA” method which uses the data to estimate the underlying probability density and thereby identify clusters and assign probabilities that individual galaxies are members (Pisani, 1993).

The results may be found in Table 5. Since the radio galaxies may exist in localized substructures within richer environments or the velocity dispersions might be artificially high should unassociated groups be evaluated together, all quantities have been determined for both a 1 Mpc radius and a 250 kpc radius centered on the radio galaxy. It should be noted that the values for the 250 kpc aperture have not had an additional 3$`\sigma `$ clipping performed, but were simply calculated using the culled lists derived from the 1 Mpc apertures. Figure 1 presents velocity histograms for all of the observed radio galaxy fields, using the 1 Mpc radius. In these figures, a range in velocity of $`\pm `$2000 km s-1 with a bin size of 200 km s-1 is shown. Verified cluster members are represented as the shaded portion of the histogram, with foreground and background galaxies unshaded. An overlaid Gaussian with center and dispersion corresponding to the systemic velocity and velocity dispersion of the system is also depicted for each field. Lastly, the arrows denote the locations of the radio galaxies.

In two cases, the 3$`\sigma `$ clipping placed the radio galaxy outside of its apparent system. Most notably, B2 1322+36 was clipped from a system at 5,625 km s-1. The overall system appears to consist of nine members, with six of the galaxies tightly grouped in velocity space. These six galaxies produce a velocity dispersion of only 30 km s-1, placing the radio galaxy velocity of 5,210 km s-1 outside of the identified group. Other methods would likely include all of these galaxies in the identified system; in fact, the system has also been noted in prior group studies (e.g., White et al., 1999) which included the radio galaxy among its members. Simple usage of the standard mean and deviation (including 3$`\sigma `$ clipping) produce a single nine galaxy system with $`cz=5614`$ km s-1 and $`\sigma =200`$ km s-1. We therefore conclude that this is likely a loose system dominated by a group of galaxies strongly clustered in velocity space. The other radio galaxy which was clipped from a nearby system was 3C 305. It lies near a pair of galaxies at approximately the same velocity.

The distributions and velocities of the galaxies were also used to estimate the masses of the potential clusters, under the assumption of virial equilibrium. The virial masses were calculated using the standard equation:

$$=\frac{3\pi }{G}\sigma ^2\frac{1}{r}^1$$
(1)
where the harmonic mean radius is defined as

$$\frac{1}{r}^1=D_LN_p\left(\underset{i<j}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{1}{\theta _{ij}}\right)^1$$
(2)
and $`N_p`$ is the number of galaxy pairs ($`N(N1)/2`$), $`\theta _{ij}`$ is the angular separation of each $`ij`$ pair, $`D_L`$ is the distance of the cluster, and $`\sigma `$ is the line of sight velocity dispersion. Errors in the velocity dispersions were propagated into the mass estimates. The resulting values were converted into units of solar masses and may be found in Table 5. We have not applied any “surface term correction” to the mass estimates (The & White, 1986) because this correction requires knowledge of the mass density profiles. The mass density profile would be obtained from some assumption of how well the galaxies trace the mass and how well the overall galaxy distribution is sampled. In addition, should substructure be present in the clusters (see Section 3.3) application of the virial theorem is obviously inaccurate. These factors tend to produce an overestimate of the true mass. Thus, the formal errors are larger than those quoted in Table 5. Given these caveats, the masses are generally typical of groups and poor clusters, ranging up to $`3\times 10^{14}`$ M.

### 3.3 Simple Dynamical Analysis

A potentially important factor in assessing the environment of the radio galaxies is their locations within any surrounding clusters. Specifically, with the velocity data in hand we may ask whether the radio galaxies appear to be at rest within the clusters or have some relative motion. Relative motion between the host galaxy and the intracluster medium is required in order to explain certain radio morphologies, such as the bending of tails. In particular, narrow-angle tail (NAT) morphologies require substantial relative motion. However, in general we might expect the radio galaxies to be nearly at rest as they are often associated with the most massive elliptical galaxies in their fields.

Using the systemic velocities and errors along with the velocities and errors for the radio galaxies, the significance at which the radio galaxy velocities differed from those of their host clusters was determined. Most of the radio galaxies were shown to lie at the velocity centers of their systems (15 of 25 within 1$`\sigma `$, including those systems with three or fewer velocities). Only three of the radio galaxies (B2 0222+36, B2 1321+31, and B2 1322+36) appear to have velocities which differ by more than 2$`\sigma `$ from the velocities of their assumed systems. The result is similar when assessing only those galaxies within 250 kpc of the radio sources (B2 0222+36, B2 1322+36, and 1615+351 had greater than 2$`\sigma `$ velocity offsets). It is perhaps not surprising that these three radio sources are the only ones in the sample which are not the brightest galaxies in their respective fields. However, the low number of velocities for most of the radio galaxy fields in the sample prevents any strong conclusions (see Table 5 for numbers of spectroscopically-identified velocities).

Several of the identified groups have fairly large numbers of measured velocities. Zabludoff & Mulchaey (1998b) investigated six poor groups with large numbers of measured velocites ($`N_{gal}30`$) to evaluate hierarchical evolution. Using the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ test (Dressler & Shectman, 1988) they confirmed that evidence for substructure was present in two of the poor groups, arguing that these systems evolve hierarchically in much the same way as richer systems such as Abell clusters. Because the presence of substructure has been shown to be linked to radio activity in tailed radio galaxies (Gómez et al., 1997; Bliton et al., 1998; Pinkney et al., 2000), we have applied substructure tests to those groups with more than 20 velocities: B2 0120+33 (65 velocities), B2 1621+38 (24 velocities), 3C31 (52 velocities), 3C296 (21 velocities), and 1615+351 (38 velocities).

A battery of statistical tests for substructure were performed (for a complete listing of the tests performed see Pinkney et al., 1996, PRBB96). These tests include a number of normality tests (i.e., comparison of the distribution of velocities with a normal distribution; see the “ROSTAT” routines of Beers, Flynn, & Gebhardt, 1990), tests for substructure in spatial distribution (right ascension and declination), and tests combining both velocity and spatial information. The significance of any detected substructure for the two- and three-dimensional tests was quantified by comparison against 1000 Monte Carlo shuffles of the actual data. Thus, each statistic calculated using the real data was compared to 1000 Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate how likely it occured relative to the null hypothesis of no substructure. For the two-dimensional tests, this null hypothesis is a smooth, azimuthally-symmetric distribution of galaxies. No correlation between galaxy position and velocity is the null hypothesis for the three-dimensional tests. The quoted significance level represents how often the test result for the actual data had more substructure than the Monte Carlo shuffles. We adopted a level of $`99\%`$ as significant (as per the conclusions of PRBB96), or fewer than 1 out of every 100 Monte Carlo simulations showing greater substructure than the real data.

For the most part, evidence for significant substructure was not found. For B2 0120+33, the 2D and 3D Lee tests (Lee, 1979; Fitchett, 1988, PRBB96) were each significant at about $`95\%`$, and the Angular Separation Test (West, Oemler, & Dekel, 1988) was significant at about $`98\%`$. In total, this represents marginal evidence for the presence of substructure in this cluster. Similarly, 3C 31 had a $`\beta `$ test (West, Oemler, & Dekel, 1988) that was significant at $`98\%`$ and B2 1621+38 had an Angular Separation Test signficant at $`99\%`$. No other tests were above $`90\%`$ significance, as was the case for all tests applied to 3C 296. The strongest evidence for substructure was found in 1615+351. Its galaxy distribution appears to be elongated, as the Fourier Elongation Test (PRBB96) was significant at well over $`99\%`$ confidence. Furthermore, its Lee 2D and 3D tests were also significant at about the $`99\%`$ level. While the Fourier test merely identifies an elongated distribution of galaxies which may or may not be caused by substructure and merging, the Lee tests are insensitive to such distributions. Hence, the combination of these tests argue for the presence of real substructure. The normality tests (based only on velocities) did not show evidence for substructure, although the velocity of the radio galaxy differed from that of the parent cluster by 1.9$`\sigma `$ (3.4$`\sigma `$ from the galaxies within 250 kpc).

## 4 Discussion

The majority of the radio galaxies appear to reside in poor clusters or groups. Nineteen of 25 examined fields consisted of at least five galaxies with velocities placing them in a system including the radio galaxy (twenty if we include B2 1322+36). In fact, over half of the fields (14 of 25) had in excess of 10 members, and five had more than 20 members. Two of the radio galaxies, B2 0120+33 and 3C 31, were shown to reside in very rich systems with 65 and 52 confirmed velocities, respectively.

The calculated velocity dispersions and virial masses further indicate that the radio galaxies tend to exist in groups and poor clusters. Figure 2 depicts histograms of the derived velocity dispersions for each the 250 kpc and 1 Mpc counting radii. About a third of the fields have dispersions around 200 km s-1, consistent with the values found for nearby groups (e.g., nearly 400 loose groups identified from the Las Campanas Redshift Survey have a median velocity dispersion of 164 km s-1 and a median mass of about $`2.5\times 10^{13}`$ M; Tucker et al., 2000). Most of the radio-selected groups in the present study have velocity dispersions and masses in excess of these values, and more consistent with the velocity dispersions found for groups and poor clusters (e.g., Ledlow et al., 1996; Zabludoff & Mulchaey, 1998a). The overall distribution of velocity dispersions is similar to that found by Ledlow et al., who found a median dispersion of $`295\pm 31`$ km s-1 for a set of optically-selected poor clusters. In the present sample, we find a median of $`452\pm 161`$ km s-1 (using only the 20 clusters with five or more velocities, to be consistent with Ledlow et al.). While these values indicate the presence of slightly richer environments around the radio galaxies, it must be noted that Ledlow et al. used a smaller 0.5 Mpc counting radius. The richer among the radio-selected groups have dispersions and masses in line with the poorer Abell clusters. The median velocity dispersion of the richness class 0 clusters reported in Zabludoff, Huchra, & Geller (1991) is around 500 km s-1, a value which is exceeded by seven of the radio groups in our sample. The median velocity dispersion for richness class 1 clusters in the same study is about 725 km s-1, which is in excess of any of the velocity dispersions for our radio galaxy fields. Thus, the radio galaxies generally reside in structures ranging from groups on up through the poorer Abell clusters.

Galaxy groups have received a great deal of attention in the literature as their high local densities and low velocity dispersions make them attractive sites for galaxy evolution. It is therefore not surprising that many of the radio galaxy fields have been associated with groups in prior studies. For example, eight of the 25 fields studied in this work are noted in White et al. (1999, “WBL” clusters), and a similar number are reported in Mahdavi et al. (2000, the “RASSCALS”). It is also interesting to note that the radio galaxy poor clusters are frequently associated with larger-scale structures. At least four are associated with the Pisces-Perseus supercluster and another two are associated with known groups at the periphery of Abell 2197 and 2199. Even with these prior identifications, a number of the radio-selected poor clusters appear to be new. Our data more than double the number of velocities for six of the fields which previously had five or fewer publicly-available velocities. The most striking example is 3C 296, to which we have added sixteen cluster velocities to the previously known five.

However, five of the fields produced three or fewer member velocities, indicating that these radio galaxies are almost certainly not in groups or poor clusters. How can these objects be explained? As noted previously, the nature of the radio source is an additional parameter of importance (refer to Table 1). Two of the five (B2 0207+38 and B2 1318+34) are powered by star formation and not an AGN. Optical images show them to be spirals, and their spectra (see Figure 3a and 3b) show strong emission of H$`\alpha `$. In fact, Poggianti & Wu (2000) discuss B2 0207+38 as a nearby example of a strong dust-extincted starburst and Condon et al. (1991) demonstrate that B2 1318+34 is a merger-induced starburst. The remaining three radio galaxies in very poor environments are all AGN, but differ from the more typical radio sources of the sample. Both 3C 293 and 3C 305 are galaxy-galaxy merger systems (Heckman et al., 1986; Evans et al., 1999), with strong dust features and signs of disturbance (Martel et al., 1999). Most of the radio emission from 3C 293 is contained within a bright central core and all of the radio emission from 3C 305 is contained within the optical extent of the galaxy, making the radio morphologies of these sources distinctly different from classical FR I galaxies. They also exhibit evidence for star formation, including large amounts of far-infrared emission, the presence of large amounts of molecular gas (Evans et al., 1999), and emission lines in their optical spectra (see Figure 3c). The remaining radio galaxy which appears to be fairly isolated is 3C 386. Although the arguments are weaker, it has some similarities with 3C 293 and 3C 305. Its radio morphology is that of a relaxed double, with a bright core surrounded by diffuse emission over a large area. Consequently, it is not a classical FR I type radio source.

An additional three of the radio galaxies have LINER spectra (B2 0222+36, B2 0258+35, and B2 1422+26). In general, these are also located in poorer environments than the classical FR I radio sources. Both B2 0258+35 and B2 1422+26 have only five confirmed members, and B2 0222+36 resides in a system with 14 confirmed members. However, the local environment of this latter source may be more complicated. It is not the brightest galaxy in its field, and appears to have a velocity which is offset from systemic velocity. The small number of velocities prohibits any statistical statements, but this system might be a pair of groups — one which includes the radio galaxy and another which includes the brighter galaxy.

The rest of the radio galaxies generally show classical FR I morphologies, including jets of radio emission which extend past the optical boundaries of the galaxies. Optically, they all have absorption-line spectra indicative of older stellar populations. With the exception of B2 1322+36, all of these galaxies have velocity dispersions in excess of 200 km s-1 indicating their presence in structures ranging from the size of groups on up through poor Abell clusters, with virial masses from about $`2\times 10^{13}`$ to $`3\times 10^{14}`$ M. This result is in agreement with the conclusions of Paper 1: the presence of an FR I radio source is an excellent indicator of an underlying group or poor cluster111As an aside we note that B2 1652+39, often classified as a BL Lac, resides in an environment consistent with the classical FR I sources of the sample. This is the expected result from FR I–BL Lac unification scenarios..

Two of the FR I radio sources (B2 1621+38 and 1615+351) have NAT morphologies. They are located in two of the richer environments of the sample, and each have associated diffuse X-ray emission (Feretti et al., 1995). Bliton et al. (1998) examined NAT sources drawn from a large sample of Abell clusters and noted that clusters with NATs were more likely to have substructure than radio-quiet clusters. Coalescence of substructures can produce the large relative motions between NAT host galaxies and the intracluster gas necessary to explain the radio morphologies of such sources. For B2 1621+38, there is only slight evidence for substructure, a result undoubtedly related to the somewhat limited number of velocites (24) in our study. The situation is improved for 1615+351, with its 38 velocities producing several significant results (see Section 3.3). In addition, the radio galaxy is the second brightest galaxy in the field, with the brightest being NGC 6107. This galaxy is also a radio source (Ekers et al., 1978), although it is weaker than 1615+351. Figure 4 plots the galaxy distribution for 1615+351. The elongation is evident, running from SW to NE (which is also consistent with the diffuse X-ray emission; Feretti et al., 1995). A clump of galaxies at lower velocities than the cluster center is seen to the NE. For reference, the radio emission points away from the galaxy toward the NW. In total, these results indicate that the NATs in our study appear to be found in clusters with substructure, consistent with the findings for NATs in Abell clusters.

In general, the stronger radio sources (i.e., after removing star forming galaxies) can be split into two idealized categories as initially suggested by Heckman et al. (1986). The first class includes the more powerful radio galaxies, with radio emission concentrated in a central core but often including diffuse emission on larger scales. These galaxies frequently have optical emission lines and reside in regions of low galaxy density. They often exhibit signs of disturbance related to recent galaxy-galaxy merging, presumably with at least one of the merger partners a disk galaxy which provides a reservoir of gas to fuel the AGN. The second class are FR I type sources, which appear more like typical large ellipticals and reside in regions of high galaxy density. Their radio emission extends well past the optical limits of the host galaxies in distinct jet-like structures. Of course, the situation is more complex as not all radio galaxies can easily be pigeon-holed into these two categories.

Unfortunately, our present sample includes no clear FR II galaxies with bright lobes of radio emission. The infrequency of such sources implies that there are very few within the redshift cutoffs we have applied. Such galaxies appear to reside in regions of lower galaxy density, at least for the low redshifts examined in this study. In the future, a comprehensive study of the environments of nearby FR II sources would do much to help understand the possible differences in the environments of FR I and FR II radio galaxies.

The placement of fibers on any galaxies within the fields of the radio galaxies also produced a number of velocities for apparent background groups and clusters. The presence of such systems may be inferred from Table 3. As an example, the observation of B2 1652+39 appears to have netted seven velocities for the cluster Abell 2235. The cluster is presumably located at $`\alpha =`$16:54:58 and $`\delta =`$40:01:16 (Abell, Corwin, & Olowin, 1989) which is under 22 minutes from the field center of our observations. Struble & Rood (1999) report that this cluster has a systemic velocity of 45,300 km s-1, determined from three published velocities. From our seven velocities, we find a systemic velocity of 44,454$`\pm `$120 km s-1 with a dispersion of 197$`{}_{85}{}^{}{}_{}{}^{+149}`$ km s-1. There is also extended X-ray emission associated with this cluster, as indicated by its presence in cluster list generated from the ROSAT All-Sky Survey (identified as RX J1652.6+4011; Bohringer et al., 2000).

## 5 Conclusions

In this paper, we have confirmed that powerful radio galaxies are excellent signposts to the presence of clusters of galaxies. Using a sample of 25 radio galaxies drawn from the 3CRR and B2 catalogs, our velocity measurements determined that $`80\%`$ (20/25) consisted of at least five galaxies. Over half of the fields (14/25) had in excess of 10 members, with some having as many as 50 members. The derived velocity dispersions are consistent with those derived for groups and poor clusters. In particular, we note that radio galaxies with classical FR I morphologies seem to reside exclusively in group and poor cluster environments. The few radio galaxies which exist in regions of particularly low galaxy density are either vigorous star-forming galaxies or complex galaxy-galaxy mergers. These results confirm our prior findings which were based on statistical measures of galaxy clustering and the presence of extended X-ray emission.

The small sample of radio galaxy fields examined here provides additional clues regarding the formation and evolution of powerful radio galaxies. When the radio galaxies powered by star formation are removed from the sample, there are two general types of radio sources. The first class, which consists of more classical FR I radio galaxies which exhibit clear jets of radio emission, are found in regions of increased galaxy density. These regions have intracluster gas, as inferred through X-ray observations, and this gas can confine the radio plasma emitted by the radio galaxy. The second class of radio galaxy resides in regions of low galaxy density. They often exhibit optical emission lines and evidence for recent merger activity. Thus, environment seems to play a key role in determining the class of the radio galaxy. This picture is clearly an oversimplification, but generally explains our results. One important further area of study is how more classical FR II sources, with large lobes of bright radio emission, fit into this picture.

The authors thank Dennis Means and Vic Hansen for their assistance during the observations, Jason Pinkney for providing the computer code used in the analysis of possible substructures, and an anonymous referee for comments which substantially improved the focus of the paper. NAM thanks the National Radio Astronomy Observatory for financial assistance in the form of a predoctoral scholarship. The Digitized Sky Survey was produced at the Space Telescope Science Institute under U.S. Government grant NAG W-2166. The images of these surveys are based on photographic data obtained using the Oschin Schmidt Telescope on Palomar Mountain and the UK Schmidt Telescope. The plates were processed into the present compressed digital form with the permission of these institutions. The Oschin Schmidt Telescope is operated by the California Institute of Technology and Palomar Observatory. The UK Schmidt Telescope was operated by the Royal Observatory Edinburgh, with funding from the UK Science and Engineering Research Council (later the UK Particle Physics and Astronomy Research Council), until 1988 June, and thereafter by the Anglo-Australian Observatory. The blue plates of the southern Sky Atlas and its Equatorial Extension (together known as the SERC-J), as well as the Equatorial Red (ER), and the Second Epoch \[red\] Survey (SES) were all taken with the UK Schmidt. This research has made use of the APS Catalog of POSS I, which is supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and and the University of Minnesota. The APS databases can be accessed at http://aps.umn.edu/. NED is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.