text:
# A Variational Principle for Actions on Symmetric Symplectic Spaces

## 1. Introduction

The concepts of momentum and position set together on an equal footing define what is known today as phase space , geometrically a differentiable manifold $`M`$ endowed with a symplectic form $`\omega `$ (nondegeneracy could be relaxed , but here we keep to the symplectic case). This generalizes Hamilton’s formalism, as presented in standard textbooks . Usually, however, the phase space is first treated as an euclidean $`2n`$-space, or even a cotangent bundle, with canonical coordinates $`\left\{(p_i,q_i)\right\}`$. While Hamilton’s equation can be generically written down for each real differentiable function on any symplectic manifold, other important and familiar features of the canonical formalism do not always extend in an obvious fashion. Furthermore, although Darboux’s theorem allows for a local canonical coordinatization of general symplectic manifolds, this is not always the most convenient one to use. It is therefore desirable to have a formalism which takes into account the specific geometry of the phase space, explicitly, as a further step of the “geometrical revenge” in dynamics .

Actually, the importance of considering nontrivial geometries can be seen from many different perspectives. Although the law of inertia sets euclidean geometry in a priviledged status, once a system is subject to nontrivial constraints its proper phase space geometry ceases to be trivial, generically . Similarly, for a system which is invariant under a group of symmetries, it is often possible to eliminate redundant degrees of freedom and the reduced phase space is also generally nontrivial . Alternatively, not to mention relativistic contexts, one may be interested in the classical limit of quantum systems, which are non-euclidean, as spin systems . Equivalently, it is convenient to have formalisms of classical dynamics intimately connected to some important representations used in quantum mechanics. For instance, coherent states  or, more pertinent to this work at hand, the “center representation” of operators (cartesian Weyl symbols) . Again, it is desirable to have these “semiclassical” formulations in nontrivial geometries, but this requires previously well defined classical formalisms.

Particularly, we need well defined generating functions for finite canonical transformations. When $`M`$ is the cotangent bundle over a configuration space $`Q`$, these functions naturally take their values on $`Q\times Q`$. When $`M`$ is a Kähler manifold , whose metric and symplectic form are related via its complex structure, one can define generating functions which are bi-holomorphic on $`M_𝐂\times \overline{M}_𝐂`$, in which case the trajectories are complex. Despite the utility of the complex and the configuration space actions in treating a variety of problems, we can greatly benefit from a formalism leading to actions which are real differentiable functions on nontrivial symplectic manifolds, in relationship to the real hamiltonian flows obtained from a real variational principle.

Here we present such a formalism. This work is a generalization on concepts developed for euclidean spaces , or for linearized neighborhoods of general symplectic manifolds , dating back to the original work of Poincaré . The generating functions are real functions on $`M`$ itself and not on a pair of local lagrangian coordinates. An argument of one such function, $`mM`$, can be viewed as the “center” of the canonical transformation $`m_{}m_+`$ which the function generates implicitly. The corresponding variational principle states that, for an appropriate family of paths $`\nu :[0,t]M`$ whose endpoints are “centered” on $`m`$, the action

$$\left\{_\nu h(m^{}\left(t^{}\right),t^{})𝑑t^{}+𝒮/_\nu \omega \right\}(m,t)$$

is stationary for a classical trajectory. Here, $`\left\{𝒮/_\nu \omega \right\}(m,t)`$ is the symplectic area between the curve $`\nu `$ and the geodesic arc, centered on $`m`$, returning from $`\nu \left(t\right)`$ to $`\nu \left(0\right)`$.

The restriction on the full foregoing theory is that $`M`$ be a symmetric symplectic space . This means that $`M`$ admits of a complete affine connection such that every point $`mM`$ is the isolated fixed point of an involutive symplectomorphism which coincides with geodesic inversion at $`m`$. Accordingly, the above formulation of the variational principle is invariant at least with respect to general transformations on $`M`$ preserving the affine connection and the symplectic form.

The generalization from flat to nonflat symmetric symplectic spaces starts with the notion of double phase space, $`DM`$ . While in the flat case we define the reflection-translation group, from which the flat theory develops ($`\mathrm{\S }`$ 2), the equivalent construction for nonflat spaces is not enough and we must use the fact that $`DM`$ is a symplectic groupoid . Then, via a “symmetric exponential map”, we view all structures of $`DM`$ in (a subset of) the tangent bundle over $`M`$, $`TM`$. There we define the notion of central groupoid ($`\mathrm{\S }`$ 3) . The properties of the pullback symplectic form allows us to see the graphs of canonical transformations as lagrangian submanifolds $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ of (subsets of) $`TM`$ and define, in $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 4, (local) generating functions for finite canonical transformations (more generally, relations), which are real functions on $`M`$. Such functions generate well defined canonical relations only when $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is a graph over the zero section of $`TM`$. For canonical transformations, there is a further graphical condition. These considerations are discussed in $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 5.

The composition of two canonical transformations $`\alpha _i:MM`$ , as generated by such “central actions”, is treated in $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 6. Here, again we find that despite their abstract nature, the rule for composing them is very simple. If $`f_{\alpha _i}`$ is the central action for $`\alpha _i`$, the composed central action for $`\alpha _2\left(\alpha _1\right)`$ is

$$f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2}\left(m\right)=Stat_{(m_1,m_2)}\left\{f_{\alpha _1}\left(m_1\right)+f_{\alpha _2}\left(m_2\right)+\mathrm{\Delta }(m,m_1,m_2)\right\}$$

where $`\mathrm{\Delta }(m,m_1,m_2)`$ is the symplectic area of the geodesic triangle with given midpoints. On general symmetric symplectic spaces, the importance of this function was first realized in the context of star product quantization , whose euclidean version has long been well established using the idea of centers and chords . On the other hand, the above rule naturally generalizes the result previously obtained on $`IR^{2n}`$ . By iterating these compositions, in $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 7, we arrive at the central variational principle by taking the limit of an infinite number of infinitesimal canonical transformations ($`\mathrm{\S }`$ 8). Finally we discuss the temporal evolution of such “finite-time extensions” of hamiltonians describing, in $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 9, a central version of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation and, more generally, their time derivative with respect to any hamiltonian flow, mixing Hamilton-Jacobi with Poisson brackets.

While presenting these concepts we often make use of particular spaces to illustrate the text. We have focused on the simplest two dimensional cases: the euclidean plane $`IR^2`$, the torus $`𝒯^2`$, the sphere $`S^2`$ and the noncompact hyperbolic plane $`H^2`$. Of course, extending these examples to their cartesian products $`M=IR^{2n}`$, $`S^2\times \mathrm{}\times S^2`$, $`H^2\times 𝒯^2`$, etc… is reasonably straightforward and has not been considered here. We emphasize, however, that the theory in principle applies to generic symmetric symplectic spaces of arbitrary (even) dimensions.

## 2. Central Coordinates on Flat Spaces

Consider the euclidean plane $`IR^2`$, representing the very simplest phase space of a single degree of freedom. $`IR^2`$ is a group, under vector addition, and we can also identify the group product as a free transitive action of $`IR^2`$ on itself, the translations: $`T_\stackrel{}{\xi }\left(\stackrel{}{x}\right)=\stackrel{}{x}+\stackrel{}{\xi }`$. Further, $`IR^2`$ admits a natural involution $`_0\left(\stackrel{}{x}\right)=\stackrel{}{x}`$, which represents a reflection, or rotation by $`\pi `$, through the origin. Together with the identity transformation this gives an action of $`ZZ_2`$ on $`IR^2`$. We can form the semidirect product: $`RT:=ZZ_2IR^2`$, which is called the reflection-translation group and can also be seen as a normal subgroup of the inhomogeneous symplectic group. Then, $`_\stackrel{}{x}=\left(T_\stackrel{}{x}_0T_\stackrel{}{x}\right)=T_{2\stackrel{}{x}}_0=_0T_{2\stackrel{}{x}}`$ is the element of $`RT`$ which acts as reflection through the point $`\stackrel{}{x}`$: $`_\stackrel{}{x}\left(\stackrel{}{x}^{}\right)=2\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{x}^{}`$. $`\{T_\stackrel{}{\xi },_\stackrel{}{x}\}`$ satisfy:

$$T_\stackrel{}{\xi }T_\stackrel{}{\xi }^{}=T_{\left(\stackrel{}{\xi }+\stackrel{}{\xi }^{}\right)},T_\stackrel{}{\xi }_\stackrel{}{x}=_{\left(\stackrel{}{x}+\stackrel{}{\xi }/2\right)},_\stackrel{}{x}T_\stackrel{}{\xi }=_{\left(\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{\xi }/2\right)},_\stackrel{}{x}_\stackrel{}{x}^{}=T_{2\left(\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{x}^{}\right)}\left(2.1\right)$$

Now, let $`(\stackrel{}{x}_{},\stackrel{}{x}_+)IR^2\times IR^2`$ be such that $`\stackrel{}{x}_+=_\stackrel{}{x}\left(\stackrel{}{x}_{}\right)\stackrel{}{x}_{}=_\stackrel{}{x}\left(\stackrel{}{x}_+\right)`$. Then, $`\stackrel{}{x}IR^2`$ is called the center of the pair $`(\stackrel{}{x}_{},\stackrel{}{x}_+)`$. Actually, $`\stackrel{}{x}=\frac{1}{2}\left(\stackrel{}{x}_{}+\stackrel{}{x}_+\right)`$, coinciding, for the euclidean metric, with the midpoint of the geodesic arc joining $`\stackrel{}{x}_{}`$ to $`\stackrel{}{x}_+`$. Identifying $`\stackrel{}{\xi }=\stackrel{}{x}_+\stackrel{}{x}_{}`$, the transformation $`(\stackrel{}{x}_{},\stackrel{}{x}_+)(\stackrel{}{x},\stackrel{}{\xi })`$ is a bijection.

Finally, we see how the group of translations on $`IR^2`$ can be interpreted as a composition of pairs: Let $`\stackrel{}{x}_+=T_\stackrel{}{\xi }^{}\left(\stackrel{}{x}_\lambda \right)`$, $`\stackrel{}{x}_{}=T_{\stackrel{}{\xi }^{\prime \prime }}\left(\stackrel{}{x}_\lambda \right)`$. Then $`\stackrel{}{x}_+=T_\stackrel{}{\xi }^{}T_{\stackrel{}{\xi }^{\prime \prime }}\left(\stackrel{}{x}_{}\right)=T_{\left(\stackrel{}{\xi }^{}+\stackrel{}{\xi }^{\prime \prime }\right)}\left(\stackrel{}{x}_{}\right)`$. But noticing that the action $`\stackrel{}{x}_+=T_\stackrel{}{\xi }\left(\stackrel{}{x}_{}\right)=\stackrel{}{x}_{}+\stackrel{}{\xi }`$ can be identified by any of the sets $`\{\stackrel{}{x}_{},\stackrel{}{\xi }\},\{\stackrel{}{x}_+,\stackrel{}{\xi }\},\{\stackrel{}{x}_{},\stackrel{}{x}_+\}`$ uniquely, we can rewrite the composition of translations as:

$$(\stackrel{}{x}_{},\stackrel{}{x}_\lambda )(\stackrel{}{x}_\lambda ,\stackrel{}{x}_+)=(\stackrel{}{x}_{},\stackrel{}{x}_+)\left(2.2\right)$$

Although (2.2) was derived from the group product on $`IR^2`$ it can be generalized for spaces which are not groups. In other words, we can turn the argument around and identify (2.2) as the fundamental algebraic structure on $`M\times M`$. This introduces the concept of groupoid.

## 3. Central Groupoids

Definition 3.1 Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma },M`$ be spaces. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is called a groupoid over $`M`$, denoted $`\mathrm{\Gamma }M`$, if :
Gd.0) $``$ two maps $`P_{},P_+:\mathrm{\Gamma }M`$, called the source and target maps, respectively.
Gd.1) Let $`(\mathrm{\Gamma }\times \mathrm{\Gamma })\mathrm{\Gamma }_2:=\left\{(\gamma ^{},\gamma ^{\prime \prime })\right|P_+(\gamma ^{})=P_{}(\gamma ^{\prime \prime })\}`$. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ is called the set of composable elements. Then, $``$ an associative map $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}`$”: $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, $`(\gamma ^{},\gamma ^{\prime \prime })\gamma ^{}\gamma ^{\prime \prime }`$, called groupoid composition, or product, satisfying $`P_{}(\gamma ^{}\gamma ^{\prime \prime })=P_{}(\gamma ^{}),P_+(\gamma ^{}\gamma ^{\prime \prime })=P_+(\gamma ^{\prime \prime })`$
Gd.2) $``$ an involution $`i:\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, called inversion, s.t. $`\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }`$, its unique inverse $`\overline{\gamma }i(\gamma )`$ satisfies: $`\overline{\gamma }(\gamma \gamma ^{})=\gamma ^{}`$ if $`(\gamma ,\gamma ^{})\mathrm{\Gamma }_2,(\gamma ^{}\gamma )\overline{\gamma }=\gamma ^{}`$ if $`(\gamma ^{},\gamma )\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$

$`M`$ can be identified with the set of identities in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_e:=\{\gamma \overline{\gamma }`$, or $`\overline{\gamma }\gamma |\gamma \mathrm{\Gamma }\}`$. Every $`\gamma _e\mathrm{\Gamma }_e`$ satisfies $`P_{}(\gamma _e)=P_+(\gamma _e)`$, but the converse is not necessarily true.

Examples: The simplest examples of groupoids are:

i) $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is a group $`G`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_e\left\{e\right\}M,\mathrm{\Gamma }_2G\times G`$

ii) The pair groupoid $`\mathrm{\Gamma }M\times M`$, $`P_{}`$ and $`P_+`$ being the first and second projections. In this case, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_eM`$ is the diagonal, inversion is permutation and the compositon is

$$(m_{},m_\lambda )(m_\lambda ,m_+)=(m_{},m_+)\left(3.1\right)$$

which generalizes (2.2). These two examples are complementary in the sense that they have, respectively, the minimal and the maximal identity spaces possible.

We now focus on those groupoids $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ which are also symplectic manifolds and for which groupoid composition respects its symplectic structure .

Definition 3.2 A groupoid $`\mathrm{\Gamma }M`$ is symplectic if $`(\mathrm{\Gamma },\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma })`$ is a symplectic manifold and :
LGd) $`M\mathrm{\Gamma }_e`$ is a submanifold of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, $`P_\pm `$ are submersions and $`i:\mathrm{\Gamma }\mathrm{\Gamma },:\mathrm{\Gamma }_2\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ are smooth. In this case $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is called a Lie Groupoid  .
SGd) The graph of $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}`$” is a lagrangian submanifold of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\times \mathrm{\Gamma }\times \overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$, where $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ is an antisymplectic isomorphism: $`(\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }},\omega _{\overline{\mathrm{\Gamma }}})(\mathrm{\Gamma },\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma })`$. In shorthand notation, we write this as an “additive” property : $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }(\gamma _1\gamma _2)\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }(\gamma _1)+\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }(\gamma _2)`$ .

As consequences, $`M\mathrm{\Gamma }_e`$ is a lagrangian submanifold of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and inversion is anti-symplectic, i.e. the graph of $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}i`$” is a lagrangian submanifold of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\times \mathrm{\Gamma }`$ , $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }(\overline{\gamma })\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }(\gamma )`$  .

Example: let $`M`$ be a sympletic manifold, $`\omega `$ its symplectic structure. Then, the pair groupoid $`\overline{M}\times M`$, with sympletic structure $`\omega _\mathrm{\Gamma }=\delta \omega `$, where

$$\delta \omega :=P_+^{}\left(\omega \right)P_{}^{}\left(\omega \right)\omega _+\omega _{},\left(3.2\right)$$

is a symplectic groupoid, called the product or double phase space  and denoted $`DM`$. That is $`DM\left(\overline{M}\times M\right)M`$. Notice that while $`DM`$ satisfies SGd, the cartesian product $`M\times M`$, with the usual symplectic form $`\omega \omega `$, does not.

In order to define the notion of “center” precisely, we need to consider phase spaces which are symplectic, but also have the property of being symmetric :

Definition 3.3 A differentiable manifold $`M`$ endowed with a symplectic form $`\omega `$ shall be called a symmetric symplectic space if $`(M,\omega )`$ admits of a complete affine connection $``$ which is symplectic, ie. $`\omega =0`$, such that $`mM,m`$ is the isolated fixed point of an involutive symplectomorphism $`_m:MM`$ which coincides with the inversion, at $`m`$, of the geodesic flow, for all geodesics through $`m`$. Accordingly, $`_m`$ satisfies $`_m_m^{}_m=_{_m(m^{})}`$ , $`\{_m_m^{}\}`$ is the group of displacements on $`M`$ and $``$ is the corresponding canonical connection with null torsion and parallel curvature.

This generalizes the reflection-translation structure on euclidean space. An important particular case is when $``$ is the Levi-Civitta connection associated to a complete riemannian metric $`\eta `$. In this case, $`_m^{}(\eta ,\omega )=(\eta ,\omega )`$ and one can show  that $`(M,\omega ,\eta )`$ is a hermitian symmetric space, that is, $`M`$ is a Kähler manifold  whose complex structure $`J`$ satisfies $`J=0`$ and $`\eta (JX,Y)\omega (X,Y),X,Y𝒳\left(M\right)`$ , and for which the involution $`_m`$ is holomorphic. More generally, part of the following theory, namely the local definition of central generating functions ($`\mathrm{\S }`$ 4), can be developed on general symplectic manifolds . However, the geometrical law of composition ($`\mathrm{\S }`$ 6) and its consequences need the full setting of a symmetric symplectic space. As simplest examples of these, we shall consider the flat euclidean plane $`IR^2`$ and torus $`𝒯^2`$, both being also groups, and as simplest nonflat examples, the sphere $`S^2`$ and the noncompact hyperbolic plane $`H^2`$, both being hermitian symmetric spaces.

When $`M`$ is a symmetric symplectic space, let us denote the exponential map by  Exp$`{}_{m}{}^{}:T_mMM`$ , $`\stackrel{}{v}\rho _\tau \left(1\right)`$ , where $`\rho _\tau \left(t\right)`$ is the geodesic in $`M`$ defined by $`\rho _\tau \left(0\right)=m`$ , $`\dot{\rho }_\tau \left(0\right)=\stackrel{}{v}`$ .We can define a (restricted) groupoid structure directly on (a subset of) its tangent bundle $`TM`$, associated to $`DM`$ via the symmetric exponential map :

$$\mathrm{\Phi }:TMDM,\tau =(m,\stackrel{}{v})\gamma =(\text{Exp}_m\left(\stackrel{}{v}\right),\text{Exp}_m\left(\stackrel{}{v}\right)).$$

Here, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is “symmetric” in the sense that $`\left(_m\mathrm{\Phi }\right)(m,\stackrel{}{v})=\mathrm{\Phi }(m,\stackrel{}{v})`$ and thus $`\gamma \overline{\gamma }i\left(\gamma \right)`$. Denoting $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\mathrm{\Phi }^{}\left(\delta \omega \right)`$, $`\delta \omega `$ defined in (3.2), we have that $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is a closed 2-form on $`TM`$ since $`\delta \omega `$ is a symplectic form on $`DM`$. If $`M`$ has no closed geodesics, as for a hermitian symmetric space of noncompact type (or $`IR^{2n}`$), then $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is a bijection and $`(TM,\mathrm{\Omega })`$ is a sympletic manifold. But otherwise, $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is not globally invertible. Consider then the set $`\left(TM\right)_0TM,\left(TM\right)_0`$ being the maximal subset, connected to the zero section $`T^0M\left\{(m,\stackrel{}{0})\right\}`$ $`TM`$, on which $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is invertible. Denote $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0:=\mathrm{\Phi }|_{\left(TM\right)_0}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0:=\mathrm{\Omega }|_{\left(TM\right)_0}\mathrm{\Phi }_0^{}\left(\delta \omega \right)`$. Then $`(\left(TM\right)_0,\mathrm{\Omega }_0)`$ is a symplectic manifold. Now, it is known that for complete riemannian manifolds, only the stratum of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_1TM`$ has maximal dimension, where $`\sigma _i\left(m\right)=\mathrm{\Sigma }_iT_mM`$ is the subset of $`T_mM`$ defined by $`I\left(v\right)=i`$ , $`i=1,2,\mathrm{}`$ , with $`I\left(v\right)=`$ number of geodesics of length $`v`$ which connect $`m`$ and $`Exp_m\left(v\right)`$ , see . Thus, if $`M`$ is a hermitian symmetric space of compact type (or the torus), although $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0:\left(TM\right)_0DM`$ is not onto, it only leaves out a set of measure zero with respect to the Liouville form on $`DM`$ obtained from $`\delta \omega `$. We conjecture that this may be true for other symmetric symplectic spaces with closed geodesics, as well. These facts motivate a slight modification in the concept of symplectic groupoids, suitable to our purposes:

Definition 3.4 Let $`M`$ be a symmetric symplectic space. $`((TM)_0,\mathrm{\Omega }_0)`$ shall be called the standard central groupoid over $`M`$, denoted $`(TM)_0M`$, satisfying  :
CG.O) $``$ three maps $`P_0,P_{},P_+`$ : $`(TM)_0M`$, called the central, source and target maps, respectively, where $`P_0(m,\stackrel{}{v})=m`$ is the natural projection and $`P_\pm (m,\stackrel{}{v})=\text{Exp}_m(\pm \stackrel{}{v})`$  .
CG.1) On the restricted set of composable elements $`((TM)_0\times (TM)_0)(TM)_0^2:=\{(\tau ^{},\tau ^{\prime \prime })|`$ $`P_+(\tau ^{})=P_{}(\tau ^{\prime \prime })and(P_{}(\tau ^{}),P_+(\tau ^{\prime \prime }))Image(\mathrm{\Phi }_0)DM\}`$, the composition $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}`$”: $`(TM)_0^2(TM)_0`$, satisfying (Gd.1), is defined by $`\tau ^{}\tau ^{\prime \prime }\mathrm{\Phi }_0^1(P_{}(\tau ^{}),P_+(\tau ^{\prime \prime }))`$ .
CG.2) $``$ an involution $`i:(TM)_0(TM)_0`$, called inversion, satisfying all properties in (Gd.2) plus $`P_0\left(i(\tau )\right)=P_0(\tau )`$, $`\tau (TM)_0`$. Specifically, if $`\tau =(m,\stackrel{}{v})`$ then $`\overline{\tau }i(\tau )=(m,\stackrel{}{v})`$ .
CG.3) The identiy space is the zero section and inversion is smooth. However, $`P_\pm `$ are only locally submersions and $``$ is locally smooth. $`(TM)_0`$ is a local Lie groupoid  .
CG.4) The graph of $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}`$” is the union of lagrangian submanifolds of $`(TM)_0\times (TM)_0\times (\overline{TM})_0`$. The graph of $`\mathrm{`}\mathrm{`}i`$” is a lagrangian submanifold of $`(TM)_0\times (TM)_0`$, the zero section being lagrangian in $`(TM)_0`$. We may call $`((TM)_0,\mathrm{\Omega }_0)`$ a local symplectic groupoid  .

When $`M`$ has no closed geodesics, $`\left(TM\right)_0TM`$, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0\mathrm{\Phi }`$, $`TM`$ is diffeomorphic to $`DM`$. In this case, the words “restricted” and “local” do not apply and the central groupoid is a bonafide symplectic groupoid with the extra structure of a central map.

Examples: $`\left(TIR^2\right)_0TIR^2`$, $`\left(TH^2\right)_0TH^2`$, the trivial cases since both $`IR^2`$ and $`H^2`$ have no closed geodesics. For $`𝒯^2`$ we have the following: Let $`AS^1`$ denote the set of antipodals in $`S^1\times S^1`$, i.e. $`\left\{(\phi ,\phi \pm \pi )\right\}`$, under the usual representation $`S^1e^{i\phi },\phi [0,2\pi ]`$. The subset $`T𝒯^2\left(T𝒯^2\right)_0:=\left\{\tau =(p,q;v_p,v_q)\right|\left|v_p\right|,\left|v_q\right|<\pi /2\}`$ is s.t. $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0:\left(T𝒯^2\right)_0D𝒯^2\backslash \left(AS^1\times AS^1\right)`$ is bijective. Clearly $`AS^1\times AS^1`$ is a set of measure zero in $`𝒯^2\times 𝒯^2`$. For $`S^2`$ the situation is very similar: Let $`AS^2`$ denote the set of antipodals in $`DS^2`$. Taking the subset $`TS^2\left(TS^2\right)_0:=\left\{\tau =(m,\stackrel{}{v})\right|\left|\stackrel{}{v}\right|<\pi /2\},`$ then $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0:\left(TS^2\right)_0DS^2\backslash AS^2`$ is bijective. Again, $`AS^2`$ has measure zero in $`DS^2`$.

However, when $`M`$ has closed geodesics, the standard central groupoid is not the only central groupoid possible. To see that, consider another subset $`\left(TM\right)_1TM`$ which satisfies: $`\left(TM\right)_1\left(TM\right)_0=Ø\text{and}\mathrm{\Phi }\left(\left(TM\right)_1\right)=\mathrm{\Phi }\left(\left(TM\right)_0\right)\left(DM\right)_0DM.`$ Furthermore, denoting the map restriction by $`\mathrm{\Phi }_1\mathrm{\Phi }|_{\left(TM\right)_1}`$, we limit attention to those subsets on which $`\mathrm{\Phi }_1`$ is almost everywhere injective. In other words, the set $`N\left(DM\right)_0`$ on which $`\mathrm{\Phi }_1^1`$ is multiple valued has measure zero with respect to the Liouville form on $`DM`$ obtained from $`\delta \omega `$. Then, defining an equivalence relation among different pre-images in $`\left(TM\right)_1`$ of the same point in $`\left(DM\right)_0`$, we have another bijection $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1:\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_1\left(DM\right)_0`$, where $`\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_1\left(TM\right)_1/_1`$ with the equivalence relation $`\tau _1\tau ^{}`$ iff $`\mathrm{\Phi }_1\left(\tau \right)=\mathrm{\Phi }_1\left(\tau ^{}\right)`$. Accordingly, we denote such points in $`\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_1`$ by $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }=\left[\tau \right]_1`$, where $`\left[\tau \right]_1=\left\{\tau ^{}\left(TM\right)_1\right|\tau ^{}_1\tau \}`$. If $`M\left(DM\right)_0`$ is the diagonal, its pre-image $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1^1\left(M\right)=:\stackrel{~}{T^1M}`$ is a global cross section of $`\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_1`$ setting a fibration $`P_1:\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_1\stackrel{~}{T^1M}`$ s.t., if $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }^1\stackrel{~}{T^1M}`$ then $`P_1\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }\right)=\stackrel{~}{\tau }^1`$ iff $`P_0\left(\tau \right)=P_0\left(\tau ^1\right)`$. In other words, the central map $`P_1`$ is essentialy $`P_0:TMM`$ itself. We denote $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1^{}\left(\delta \omega \right)`$.

Definition 3.5 We call $`((\stackrel{~}{TM})_1,\mathrm{\Omega }_1)\stackrel{P_1}{}(\stackrel{~}{T^1M},\omega )`$ a nonstandard central groupoid. On $`((\stackrel{~}{TM})_1\times (\stackrel{~}{TM})_1)(\stackrel{~}{TM})_1^2`$ $`:=\{(\stackrel{~}{\tau },\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{})|`$ $`\stackrel{~}{P}_+(\stackrel{~}{\tau })=\stackrel{~}{P}_{}(\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{})`$ and $`(\stackrel{~}{P}_{}(\stackrel{~}{\tau }),\stackrel{~}{P}_+(\tau ^{}))(DM)_0\}`$, where $`\stackrel{~}{P}_\pm (\stackrel{~}{\tau })P_\pm (\tau ),\tau \stackrel{~}{\tau }`$, the restricted groupoid product $`:(\stackrel{~}{TM})_1^2(\stackrel{~}{TM})_1`$ is given by $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{}\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1^1(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1(\stackrel{~}{\tau })\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1(\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{}))`$, and inversion by $`i(\stackrel{~}{\tau })\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1^1(i(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1(\stackrel{~}{\tau })))`$. If $`(\stackrel{~}{TM})_2\stackrel{P_2}{}\stackrel{~}{T^2M}`$ is another central groupoid, it is strongly equivalent to $`(\stackrel{~}{TM})_1`$ if, for every $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }(\stackrel{~}{TM})_1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{}(\stackrel{~}{TM})_2`$ s.t. $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1(\stackrel{~}{\tau })=\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_2(\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{})`$, it follows $`P_1(\stackrel{~}{\tau })=P_2(\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{})`$. If $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1(\stackrel{~}{\tau })=\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_2(\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{})`$ but $`P_1(\stackrel{~}{\tau })P_2(\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{})`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{}`$ is weakly equivalent to $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }`$.

Examples: When $`M=𝒯^2`$, there are infinite central groupoids, but only 4 strongly inequivalent ones: $`\left(T𝒯^2\right)_{01}\left\{\tau =(p,q,v_p,v_q)\right|\left|v_p\right|<\pi /2,\left|v_q\pi \right|<\pi /2\}`$, similarly for $`\left(T𝒯^2\right)_{10}`$, where $`\left|v_p\pi \right|<\pi /2,\left|v_q\right|<\pi /2`$, and $`\left(T𝒯^2\right)_{11}`$, where $`\left|v_p\pi \right|,\left|v_q\pi \right|<\pi /2,`$ together with the standard one $`\left(T𝒯^2\right)_0\left(T𝒯^2\right)_{00}`$. In this case, all the nonstandard central groupoids are simple subsets of $`TM`$, i.e. no equivalence relations had to be considered since each $`\mathrm{\Phi }_{ij}\mathrm{\Phi }|_{\left(T𝒯^2\right)_{ij}}`$ is already injective. Each point in $`\left(D𝒯^2\right)_0`$ has 4 strongly inequivalent pre-images: $`(p,q,v_q,v_q),(p\pm \pi ,q,v_p\pm \pi ,v_q),(p,q\pm \pi ,v_p,v_q\pm \pi )`$ and $`(p\pm \pi ,q\pm \pi ,v_p\pm \pi ,v_q\pm \pi )`$. In the case of $`S^2`$, there are only 2 strongly inequivalent central groupoids. The standard one and a nonstandard central groupoid: $`\left(\stackrel{~}{TS^2}\right)_1\left(TS^2\right)_1/_1`$, where $`\left(TS^2\right)_1\left\{(m,\stackrel{}{v})\right|\left|\stackrel{}{v}\right|(\pi /2,\pi ]\}`$. The equivalence relation is nontrivial only when $`\left|\stackrel{}{v}\right|=\pi `$, coinciding with the definition of the nonstandard pre-image of the diagonal, $`\stackrel{~}{T^1S^2}:=\{\left[\tau ^1\right]_1`$ , where $`\tau ^1=(m,\stackrel{}{v}_1)\left(TS^2\right)_1`$ is s.t $`\left|\stackrel{}{v}_1\right|=\pi `$ and $`(m,\stackrel{}{v}_1)_1(m^{},\stackrel{}{v}_1^{})`$ iff $`m=m^{}\}`$. Thus, each point on $`\left(DS^2\right)_0`$ has two strongly inequivalent pre-images. If we denote $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0^1(m_{},m_+)=(m,\stackrel{}{v})(\theta ,\phi ;v,\beta )`$, see below for definition of the fiber coordinates $`(v,\beta )`$, then $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1^1(m_{},m_+)=(\pi \theta ,\phi \pi ;\pi v,\beta \pi )`$.

The reason for considering such nonstandard pre-images in $`TM`$ is, of course, that when $`M`$ has closed geodesics, the geodesic arc connecting two points in $`M`$ is not unique. Accordingly, the standard central groupoid refers to the shortest of such geodesic arcs and the $`k`$-nonstandard central groupoid refers to the $`k`$-fold ones. Here, a $`k`$-fold geodesic from $`m^{}`$ to $`m^{\prime \prime }`$ is defined as the geodesic $`\left(m^{}m\right)L_k\left(m\right)\left(mm^{\prime \prime }\right)`$, where $`L_k\left(m\right)`$ is a $`k`$-fold geodesic loop based at $`m`$, the midpoint of the short geodesic, and $``$ denotes free product. (If $`k0`$, $`L_0id`$ is the trivial loop and $`\left(m^{}m^{\prime \prime }\right)`$ is the short geodesic). For instances of nontrivial geodesic loops, on $`𝒯^2`$, $`L_kL_{(a,b)}L_p^aL_q^b`$, where $`L_p`$, $`L_q`$ are the single irreducible circuits, while on $`S^2`$, $`L_k`$ is a $`\left|k\right|`$-repetition of a geodesic meridian and it is easy to see that in this case we only need to consider strongly inequivalent geodesics. We also consider :

Definition 3.6 Let $`(\stackrel{~}{TM})_{ij}^2:=\{(\stackrel{~}{\tau },\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{})(\stackrel{~}{TM})_i\times (\stackrel{~}{TM})_j|\stackrel{~}{P}_+(\stackrel{~}{\tau })=\stackrel{~}{P}_{}(\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{})`$ and $`(\stackrel{~}{P}_{}(\stackrel{~}{\tau }),\stackrel{~}{P}_+(\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{}))`$ $`(DM)_0\}`$. We define generalized, or mixed compositions (which are still restricted in the original sense) as $`c_{ij}^k:(\stackrel{~}{TM})_{ij}^2(\stackrel{~}{TM})_k`$ , by $`c_{ij}^k(\stackrel{~}{\tau },\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{})\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_k^1(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_i(\stackrel{~}{\tau })\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_j(\stackrel{~}{\tau }^{}))`$. If $`M`$ is not simply connected, we may want to consider only mixed compositions whose geodesic triangles of composition are reducible circuits, in which case the triple $`(i,j;k)`$ is called reducible. When $`M`$ is simply connected, it is enough to consider mixed compositions within the set of strongly inequivalent central groupoids.

Now, the application of central groupoids in classical dynamics rests on the following :

Definition 3.7 Let $`N`$ be a symplectic space. A polarization on $`N`$ is an intergrable foliation of $`N`$ by lagrangian leaves  .

Lemma 3.1 $`P_0`$ sets a polarization on $`((TM)_0,\mathrm{\Omega }_0)`$, called the vertical or central polarization .

Proof: First, every fibration is an integrable foliation. Second, since each fiber is (an open subset of) the tangent space at each point in $`M`$, the fiber dimension is half the total dimension of $`\left(TM\right)_0`$. To prove isotropy with respect to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=\mathrm{\Phi }_0^{}\left(\delta \omega \right)`$, note that inversion is anti-symplectic in $`\left(TM\right)_0`$, i.e. $`i^{}\left(\mathrm{\Omega }_0\right)=\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$. But, denoting the fiber restriction by $`\left(T_mM\right)_0`$, we have that $`i_m:=i|_{\left(T_mM\right)_0}\mathrm{\Phi }_0^1_m\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$. Since $`\omega `$ is $`_m`$ invariant, i.e. $`_m^{}\left(\omega \right)=\omega `$, it follows that $`i_m^{}\left(\left(\mathrm{\Omega }_0\right)_m\right)=\left(\mathrm{\Omega }_0\right)_m`$, where $`\left(\mathrm{\Omega }_0\right)_m\mathrm{\Omega }_0|_{\left(T_mM\right)_0}`$. Thus, $`\left(\mathrm{\Omega }_0\right)_m0`$ . $`\mathrm{}`$

Further : we realize that Lemma 3.1 applies to every $`P_i:(\stackrel{~}{TM})_i\stackrel{~}{T^iM}`$, as well .

Thus, in what follows we should consider all possible central groupoids similarly. However, we shall mostly deal with the standard central groupoid, both to simplify the treatment and because we’ll often focus on the limit $`\left|\stackrel{}{v}\right|0`$, which can only take place in $`\left(TM\right)_0`$. Accordingly, we often drop the denomination “standard” in following definitions and discussions.

Finally, we should compare the central groupoids with the local isomorphism $`DMT^{}M`$, in a neighborhood of the diagonal in $`DM`$, for any symplectic manifold $`M`$ . The differences lie in the scope and properties of the symplectic structure. While $`(\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_i,\mathrm{\Omega }_i)`$ contains explicit information on the affine geometry (geodesic structure) of $`M`$, the canonical symplectic form on $`T^{}M`$ does not.

Formulae: To base the abstract concepts of this paper, we’ll often illustrate them in the simplest spaces $`M=IR^2,𝒯^2,S^2,H^2`$. We now provide some useful local formulae for their standard central groupoids. Start with the flat spaces, locally identical. Take coordinates on $`IR^2`$ as canonical pairs, with usual metric and symplectic form. The tangent bundle is also a linear space : $`TIR^2\stackrel{}{\tau }=(\stackrel{}{x};\stackrel{}{v})=(p,q;v_p,v_q)`$, and the symmetric exponential map is :

$$\mathrm{\Phi }\left(\stackrel{}{\tau }\right)\mathrm{\Phi }(\stackrel{}{x};\stackrel{}{v})=(\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{v};\stackrel{}{x}+\stackrel{}{v})(\stackrel{}{x}_{},\stackrel{}{x}_+)\left(3.3\right)$$

with pull-back symplectic form given by

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=2d\mathrm{\Sigma },\mathrm{\Sigma }=v_pdqv_qdp.\left(3.4\right)$$

For the sphere, take local polar coordinates: $`S^2m=(\theta ,\phi ),\theta [0,\pi ],\phi [0,2\pi ]`$ . We shall be using the following abbreviations:

$$S_\alpha sin\left(\alpha \right),C_\alpha cos\left(\alpha \right),T_\alpha tan\left(\alpha \right),\text{with}S^1\left(f\right),C^1\left(f\right),T^1\left(f\right)$$

denoting their respective inverses. With usual metric and symplectic form, the natural coordinates on the tangent bundle are $`TS^2\tau =(\theta ,\phi ;\dot{\theta },\dot{\phi })`$, but it is more convenient to introduce polar coordinates on the fibers as well, $`\tau =(\theta ,\phi ;v,\beta )`$ where: $`v=\left|\stackrel{}{v}\right|=\sqrt{\dot{\theta }^2+S_\theta ^2\dot{\phi }^2},vC_\beta =\dot{\theta },vS_\beta =S_\theta \dot{\phi }`$ . With these local coordinates we write the symmetric exponential map as

$$\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{\Phi }_0(\theta ,\phi ;v,\beta )=(\theta _{},\phi _{};\theta _+,\phi _+),\theta _\pm =C^1\left(C_\theta C_vS_\theta S_vC_\beta \right),\hfill \\ \phi _\pm =\phi \pm T^1\left(S_vS_\beta /g_\pm \right)+\left(1Sign\left(g_\pm \right)\right)\pi /2,g_\pm =S_\theta C_v\pm C_\theta S_vC_\beta \hfill \end{array}\}\left(3.5\right)$$

and the pull-back symplectic form $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0\mathrm{\Phi }_0^{}\left(\delta \omega \right)`$ is given by

$$\mathrm{\Omega }_0=2d\mathrm{\Sigma },\mathrm{\Sigma }=S_v(C_\beta S_\theta d\phi S_\beta d\theta ).\left(3.6\right)$$

On $`H^2`$, we adapt the local spherical formulas by letting

$$\theta i\rho ,vi\mu \left(3.7\right)$$

where $`i=\sqrt{1}`$. Thus, $`S_\theta i\stackrel{~}{S}_\rho ,C_\theta \stackrel{~}{C}_\rho ,S_vi\stackrel{~}{S}_\mu ,C_v\stackrel{~}{C}_\mu `$ , with

$$\stackrel{~}{S}_\alpha sinh\left(\alpha \right),\stackrel{~}{C}_\alpha cosh\left(\alpha \right),\stackrel{~}{T}_\alpha tanh\left(\alpha \right),\text{and}\stackrel{~}{S}^1\left(f\right),\stackrel{~}{C}^1\left(f\right),\stackrel{~}{T}^1\left(f\right)$$

the respective inverses. Then, from (3.5) and (3.6) we get $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ for $`H^2`$.

We can see explicitly from (3.4), (3.6) and (3.7) that the vertical spaces are isotropic in these examples. The same holding for the zero section $`T^0MM`$. Notice also that the pull-back symplectic form is the exact derivative of a symplectic potential without any vertical differential components. This fact shall be thoroughly exploited in what follows.

## 4. The Central Equation

We started by emphasizing the algebraic structure on double phase spaces, or on central groupoids. Historically, the symplectic structure was predominant, however, for it introduced the very useful concept of action, or generating function of a canonical transformation on the original, or simple phase space $`(M,\omega )`$. Let $`\alpha `$ be such a symplectomorphism $`MM`$, $`\alpha ^{}\left(w\right)=w`$. Its graph $`_\alpha `$ in the double phase space, $`DM_\alpha :=\left\{(m_{},m_+)\right|m_+=\alpha \left(m_{}\right)\}`$, is a lagrangian submanifold for the symplectic form $`\delta \omega `$, i.e. $`\delta \omega |_\alpha 0`$. Similarly, if $`_\alpha \text{Image}\left(\mathrm{\Phi }_0\right)\left(DM\right)_0DM`$, then its pre-image $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha :=\mathrm{\Phi }_0^1\left(_\alpha \right)`$ is lagrangian in the central groupoid $`(\left(TM\right)_0,\mathrm{\Omega }_0)`$. Conversely, every lagrangian submanifold $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha :=\mathrm{\Phi }_0^1\left(_\alpha \right)`$ defines a symplectic or canonical relation on $`M`$ , which is a canonical transformation when $`_\alpha `$ is a graph over $`M_{}DM`$. Generically, we consider those subsets $`_\alpha ^{\left(r\right)}_\alpha `$, satisfying $`_\alpha ^{\left(r\right)}\text{Image}\left(\mathrm{\Phi }_0\right)`$, and their corresponding pre-images $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha ^{\left(r\right)}`$ in $`\left(TM\right)_0`$.

Now, the definition of local generating functions for lagrangian submanifolds depends on the choice of a local symplectic potential (a local 1-form whose derivative is the symplectic form) suitable to a polarization which is, at least locally, a fibration over a referential lagrangian submanifold containing the supports of those generating functions . For the central groupoid over $`M`$, we take $`M`$ itself, also seen as the zero section, as the referential lagrangian submanifold corresponding to the central polarization. The suitable symplectic potential is given by :

Definition 4.1 Let $`((TM)_0,\mathrm{\Omega }_0)`$ be the standard central groupoid over $`(M,\omega )`$. A symplectic potential $`Z_0`$, for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$, shall be called a standard central potential if it satisfies

$$XZ_0=P_0^{}\left(X\right)Z_0,X𝒳\left(\left(TM\right)_0\right).\left(4.1\right)$$

Here, $`P_0^{}`$ is the differential of $`P_0`$ and $`\stackrel{}{x}\alpha `$ denotes the vector-form contraction.

Of course, any $`Z=Z_0+dQ`$, $`Q𝒞_{IR}^k\left(\left(TM\right)_0\right)`$, is another potential, but not generally central. Condition (4.1) tells us that central potentials have no vertical differential components, so we can identify these potentials explicitly in our examples as $`Z_0=2\mathrm{\Sigma }`$, from equations (3.4), (3.6) and (3.7).

In these particular examples, $`Z_0`$ is a global potential on $`\left(TM\right)_0`$ i.e., $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0dZ_0`$ is exact. We argue that the general case follow these known examples. First, notice that such a potential always exists in a small neighborhood of the zero section $`T^0M`$. For, take the exact 2-form $`\dot{\omega }`$ on $`TM`$ defined by $`\dot{\omega }(m,\stackrel{}{v}):=d(\stackrel{}{v}\omega )`$, $`\stackrel{}{v}𝒳\left(M\right)`$. Then, $`\dot{\omega }L_\stackrel{}{v}\left(w\right)`$, the Lie derivative of $`\omega `$, since $`\omega `$ is closed. On the other hand, when $`\left|\stackrel{}{v}\right|t\stackrel{}{}0`$ , $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0(m,\stackrel{}{v})\stackrel{}{}2lim_{\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{}{t0\{\frac{1}{t}}}_0^tL_\stackrel{}{v}\left(\omega \right)dt^{}\}2L_\stackrel{}{v}(\omega )`$. That is $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0\stackrel{}{}2\dot{\omega }=2d(\stackrel{}{v}\omega )`$. Thus, in a neighborhood of $`T^0M`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0\stackrel{}{}2d\dot{\zeta }`$, where $`\dot{\zeta }(m,\stackrel{}{v}):=\stackrel{}{v}\omega \left(m\right)`$ clearly satisfies (4.1). (on the flat examples, $`Z_02\dot{\zeta }`$ globally, but generally $`2\dot{\zeta }`$ only approximates the central potential in a small neighborhood of $`T^0M`$ ). Finally, $`T^0M`$ is lagrangian for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ and each vertical fiber is also lagrangian, as well as contractible. Thus, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0dZ_0`$ is exact.

Recalling that $`\frac{1}{2}Z_0(m,\stackrel{}{v})\stackrel{}{}\dot{\zeta }(m,\stackrel{}{v})\stackrel{}{v}\omega `$, as $`\left|\stackrel{}{v}\right|0`$, we may refer to the 1-form $`\dot{\zeta }`$ as Hamilton’s potential, since it is intimately connected to Hamilton’s equation. To see this, remember that we can write the latter as a map $`\dot{z}\left[h\right]:MTM`$, $`h𝒞_{IR}^k\left(M\right)`$, by $`m\tau _h`$, where $`\tau _h=(m,\stackrel{}{v}_h)`$ and $`\stackrel{}{v}_h`$ is given by $`(dh+\stackrel{}{v}_h\omega \left)\right(m)=0`$, or equivalently, $`\dot{\zeta }\left(\tau _h\right)=dh\left(m\right)`$, $`mM`$. Or still, by denoting $`TM\dot{\mathrm{\Lambda }}_h:=\text{graph}`$ of $`\dot{z}\left[h\right]`$, hamilton’s equation becomes $`\dot{\zeta }|_{\dot{\mathrm{\Lambda }}h}=dh`$, implicitly defining $`\dot{z}\left[h\right]`$.

Similarly, the existence of a central potential for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ allows for a “finite time” extension of Hamilton’s formalism , now in the context of generating functions. Thus, suppose that a lagrangian submanifold $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha \left(TM\right)_0`$ is locally a graph over $`T^0MM`$, that is:

$$\text{Rank}\left(P_0^{}|T_\tau \mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha \right)=2n=dim\left(M\right),\tau \mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha s.t.P_0\left(\tau \right)=mUM\left(4.2\right)$$

then, since $`dZ_0|\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha =0`$, from (4.1) we obtain:

Proposition 4.1 For every lagrangian submanifold $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha (TM)_0`$ satisfying (4.2) there exists a standard central generating function $`f_\alpha 𝒞_{IR}^k(M)`$, satisfying the standard central equation

$$Z_0|_{\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha }=df_\alpha ,\text{on}\left(TU\right)_0\left(TM\right)_0.\left(4.3\right)$$

Conversely, for a given $`f_\alpha `$, the above equation defines $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha `$ implicitly, i.e. it provides a standard section $`z[f_\alpha ]F_\alpha :U(TU)_0`$ which is well defined when condition (4.2) is satisfied and as long as $`f_\alpha `$ satisfies appropriate standard consistency conditions  .

We shall see examples of such consistency conditions shortly. Now, the map $`F_\alpha `$ can be multiple valued if $`\left(T_mM\right)_0\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha `$ is not unique, in which case we should break $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha `$ into branches $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha ^{\left(r\right)}`$, each one uniquely given by a map $`F_\alpha ^{\left(r\right)}`$ in a subset of $`M`$ via $`Z_0|_{\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha ^{\left(r\right)}}=df_\alpha ^{\left(r\right)}`$, for each $`f_\alpha ^{\left(r\right)}`$, except for $`\left\{\tau _k\right\}\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha `$ where Rank $`\left(P_0^{}|T_{\tau _k}\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha \right)<2n`$. Then, via the symmetric exponential map, (4.3) locally generates a lagrangian submanifold $`_\alpha DM`$, a canonical relation on $`M`$.

The similarity between Hamilton’s equation and the central equation is striking . However, the former provides infinitesimal transformations while the latter generates finite relations. For this reason, not every canonical relation can be generated by a real function on $`M`$ via the central equation, everywhere. Generically, the presence of central catastrophes, $`\left\{\tau _k\right\}\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha `$ s.t. Rank $`\left(P_0^{}|T_{\tau _k}\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha \right)<2n`$, is unavoidable. Their projections, $`\left\{m_k\right\}\left\{P_0\left(\tau _k\right)\right\}M`$, are called central caustics. To circumvent this problem, new sets of “complementary” generating functions are needed . Alternatively, we can let the functions depend on extra parameters and look for their stationary points .

On the other hand, by introducing a real parameter $`\lambda =t/2`$ (a scale) in the map $`\dot{z}\left[h\right]`$, for instance, by multiplying every hamiltonian $`h`$ by $`t/2`$, we can see Hamilton’s equation as a map from $`M`$ into a small neighborhood of the zero section in $`TM`$, if $`t`$ is sufficiently small. Since in such a neighborhood $`\frac{1}{2}Z_0`$ and $`\dot{\zeta }`$ are approximately equal, $`f_\alpha =th`$ is a central generating function for the infinitesimal canonical transformation generated by $`h`$ via Hamilton’s equation. Since these are always well defined, every infinitesimal canonical transformation can be generated by a central function. This is obvious if we notice that such transformations are small deformations of the identity, associated to lagrangian submanifolds in $`\left(TM\right)_0`$ which are small deformations of the zero section, thus satisfying (4.2).

Furthermore, the map $`F_\alpha =tH:M\left(TM\right)_0`$ , obtained via the central equation from function $`f_\alpha =th`$, where $`h`$ is the hamiltonian, is given by $`m(m,\frac{\epsilon }{2}\stackrel{}{v}_h\left(m\right))`$, for sufficiently short times $`t\epsilon `$. Since $`\frac{\epsilon }{2}\stackrel{}{v}_h0`$ , as $`\epsilon 0`$ , for very short times $`t\epsilon 0`$, the implicit canonical transformation $`(m_{},m_+)`$ obtained via the symmetric exponential map coincides with the linearized version $`(\stackrel{}{x}\frac{\epsilon }{2}\stackrel{}{v}_h,\stackrel{}{x}+\frac{\epsilon }{2}\stackrel{}{v}_h)`$, for any choice of local linear coordinates on $`UM`$, s.t. $`m\stackrel{}{x}`$, regardless of the specific affine geometry of $`M`$. Thus, for very short time motion, the geodesic segment centered on $`m`$ converges onto the hamiltonian orbit that propagates from $`m`$ forwards and backwards in time.

Now, the pertinent remark should be made that the concept of generating function is traditionally defined on the double phase space $`DM`$, but this usually requires us to previously take polarizations on $`M`$ itself. For general cotangent bundles, with vertical polarization, the generating functions naturally take their values from pairs of base space points, $`ff(q_{},q_+)`$. For general Kähler manifolds, with complex polarizations, the natural generating functions are bi-holomorphic functions $`ff(z_{},z_+)`$, $`z_\pm `$ complex. The present approach allows us to consider real generating functions on a general symmetric symplectic space $`M`$ itself, defined via a real polarization on the central groupoid. These functions can sometimes be pictured as “finite time hamiltonians” . More generally, such central generating functions can locally be defined on any symplectic manifold  by considering a local polarization of $`DM`$ which is transversal to the diagonal $`MDM`$. If linear coordinates are chosen on a neighborhood of a point in $`M`$, these functions can be mapped to Poincaré’s generating functions . However, the full geometrical properties of the central generating functions need the symmetric symplectic setting.

Also, we must point out that other versions of the central equation are available :

Proposition 4.1’ When $`M`$ has closed geodesics, we can choose nonstandard central potentials $`Z_i`$ s.t.

$$dZ_i=\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_i^{}\left(\delta \omega \right)\text{and}XZ_i=P_i^{}\left(X\right)Z_i,X𝒳\left(\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_i\right).\left(4.1^{}\right)$$

Each lagrangian submanifold $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha ^i=\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_i^1(_\alpha )(\stackrel{~}{TM})_i`$, satisfying

$$Rank\left(P_i^{}|T_{\stackrel{~}{\tau }}\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha ^i\right)=2n,overUM\stackrel{~}{T^iM},\left(4.2^{}\right)$$

is generated by a nonstandard central function $`f_\alpha ^i`$ via a nonstandard central equation :

$$Z_i|_{\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha ^i}=df_\alpha ^i,\text{on}\left(\stackrel{~}{TU}\right)_i\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_i,\left(4.3^{}\right)$$

which provides a nonstandard section $`F_\alpha ^i:U(\stackrel{~}{TU})_i`$ defining $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha ^i`$. When no distinction is made, or by means of generalization, we refer to (4.3) or (4.3’) simply as the central equation .

Notice that we have abbreviated the standard notation: $`f_\alpha ^0f_\alpha `$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha ^0\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha `$, $`F_\alpha ^0F_\alpha `$, in previous definitions. Also, the index “$`i`$” in (4.3’) is not the same as the index $`\left(r\right)`$ defined earlier, referring to different branches of a single pre-image of the set $`\left\{_\alpha ^{\left(r\right)}\right\}_\alpha \left(DM\right)_0`$. Thus, a generic central generating function can carry up to two indices $`\{i,\left(r\right)\}`$, in order to be fully identified.

Finally, since central potentials are defined modulo exact differentials on $`M`$, it is important to emphasize that each nonstandard central equation, with its appropriate nonstandard consistency conditions, is defined with respect to a choice of the corresponding nonstandard central potential. We may fix the standard one by setting $`Z_0|_{T^0M}0`$ , but similar choices for the nonstandard ones are not necessarily the best. In $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 6 , Proposition 6.1’ , we describe a consistent choice for all $`Z_i`$’s which is suitable for the mixed composition of central generating functions . Such compositions, as we shall see, exhibit very neatly the full symplectic and affine geometry of $`M`$ itself, a fact having some interesting bearings on the problems of quantization and semiclassical analysis.

Examples: Standard cases only. We show the explicit map $`z\left[f_\alpha \right]F_\alpha :M\left(TM\right)_0`$, given by each generating function $`f_\alpha `$, and the canonical relation $`(m_{},m_+)DM`$. To get rid of factors of 2, we often rescale and identify $`f_\alpha 2f`$. On $`IR^2`$, using (3.4) and (4.3), $`F`$ is written as

$$v_p=f/q,v_q=f/p,\text{or}\stackrel{}{\xi }_\alpha =2\stackrel{}{v}=J[f_\alpha /\stackrel{}{x}].\left(4.4\right)$$

where $`J`$ is the symplectic matrix on $`IR^2`$. Composing with (3.3), we have the canonical relation as :

$$\stackrel{}{x}_\pm =\stackrel{}{x}J\left[f/\stackrel{}{x}\right]=\stackrel{}{x}\frac{1}{2}J\left[f_\alpha /\stackrel{}{x}\right]\left(4.5\right)$$

See . On the torus, (4.4)-(4.5) are valid, but we impose a standard consistency condition which ammounts to constraining the map (4.4) onto $`\left(T𝒯^2\right)_0`$ only :

$$|f/q|,|f/p|<\pi /2,\text{on}U𝒯^2.\left(4.6\right)$$

On $`S^2`$, by (3.6) and (4.3), $`F:S^2\left(TS^2\right)_0`$ is written in polar coordinates as :

$$v=S^1\left(S^0\left(f\right)\right),\beta =T^1\left\{\frac{S_\theta f/\theta }{f/\phi }\right\}+\left(1Sign\left(f/\phi \right)\right)\pi /2\left(4.7\right)$$

where, using the contravariant metric on $`S^2`$, we define the symbols

$$S^0\left(f\right):=df\sqrt{\left(f/\theta \right)^2+\left(\left(1/S_\theta \right)\left(f/\phi \right)\right)^2},C^0\left(f\right):=\sqrt{1\left(S^0\left(f\right)\right)^2}.$$

Notice that (4.7) has real solutions only if $`f`$ satisfies the consistency condition

$$S^0\left(f\right)df<1,\text{on }US^2.\left(4.8\right)$$

Composing with the symmetric exponential map (3.5), we obtain

$$\begin{array}{c}\theta _\pm =C^1\left(C_\theta C^0\left(f\right)f/\phi \right)\hfill \\ \phi _\pm =\phi T^1\left\{S_\theta \left(f/\theta \right)/\alpha _\pm \right\}+\left(1Sign\left(\alpha _\pm \right)\right)\pi /2,\hfill \end{array}\}\left(4.9\right)$$

where $`\alpha _\pm =S_\theta ^2C^0\left(f\right)\pm C_\theta \left(f/\phi \right)`$ , as the local expression for the canonical relation $`(m_{},m_+)`$ which is generated by $`f_\alpha 2f𝒞_{IR}^k\left(S^2\right)`$ , satisfying condition (4.8). Similarly on $`H^2`$, by (3.6), (3.7) and the central equation, the map $`F:H^2TH^2`$ is given in local polar coordinates as :

$$\mu =\stackrel{~}{S}^1\left(\stackrel{~}{S}^0\left(f\right)\right),\beta =T^1\left\{\frac{\stackrel{~}{S}_\rho \left(f/\rho \right)}{f/\phi }\right\}+\left(1Sign\left(f/\phi \right)\right)\pi /2\left(4.10\right)$$

which now requires no consistency condition. Once more, we have defined

$$\stackrel{~}{S}^0\left(f\right):=df\sqrt{\left(f/\rho \right)^2+\left(\left(1/\stackrel{~}{S}_\rho \right)\left(f/\phi \right)\right)^2},\stackrel{~}{C}^0\left(f\right):=\sqrt{1+\left(\stackrel{~}{S}^0\left(f\right)\right)^2}.$$

Finally, composing with the symmetric exponential map we have the local expression

$$\begin{array}{c}\rho _\pm =\stackrel{~}{C}^1\left(\stackrel{~}{C}_\rho \stackrel{~}{C}^0\left(f\right)\pm f/\phi \right)\hfill \\ \phi _\pm =\phi T^1\left\{\stackrel{~}{S}_\rho \left(f/\rho \right)/\gamma _\pm \right\}+\left(1Sign\left(\gamma _\pm \right)\right)\pi /2,\hfill \end{array}\}\left(4.11\right)$$

where $`\gamma _\pm =\stackrel{~}{S}_\rho ^2\stackrel{~}{C}^0\left(f\right)\pm \stackrel{~}{C}_\rho \left(f/\phi \right)`$ , for the corresponding canonical relation on $`H^2`$.

## 5. Central Actions and Relations

We saw in the last paragraph that a function $`f_\alpha ^i𝒞_{IR}^k\left(M\right)`$ can locally be taken as central generating function of a canonical relation $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha ^i\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_i`$, provided (4.2’) holds. This is a “graphical” condition over $`UM\stackrel{~}{T^iM}\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_i`$ and is therefore written with respect to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha ^i`$. But generically, it is precisely this submanifold that needs to be found given $`f_\alpha ^i`$. Furthermore, it is important to distinguish which of the various lagrangian submanifolds in $`\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_i`$ do correspond to canonical transformations on $`M`$, i.e. which are pre-images, under the symmetric exponential map, of graphs over $`M_{}DM`$. Again, since we usually start with the central generating function, from a practical point of view we need such a distinction, as well as an alternative to condition (4.2’), written directly in terms of $`f_\alpha ^i`$. We now proceed in this direction, in the standard case. First we obtain :

Lemma 5.1 A function $`f\frac{1}{2}f_\alpha 𝒞_{IR}^k(M)`$, $`k2`$, can locally be the standard central generating function of a canonical relation, via central equation, only if it satisfies all consistency conditions required for the definition of the map $`F:MU(TU)_0`$, $`\stackrel{}{F}:m\stackrel{}{v}(T_mM)_0`$, and

$$\left|det\left[F^i/m^j\right]\right|<\mathrm{},mUM,\left(5.1\right)$$

for any choice of local coordinates $`\{m^i\}`$ on $`U`$, $`\{v^i\}`$ on $`(T_mM)_0`$, with $`\{F^i(m)=v^i(\tau )\}`$.

Proof: Let $`\tau _\alpha \mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha \left(TM\right)_0`$, $`P_0\left(\tau _\alpha \right)=m_\alpha M`$, and take local coordinates $`\{x^1,\mathrm{},x^{2n}\}`$ on a neighborhood $`X\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha `$ of the point $`\tau __\alpha `$, $`\{m^1,\mathrm{},m^{2n}\}`$ on a neighborhood $`UM`$ of the point $`m_\alpha `$ and $`\{v^1,\mathrm{},v^{2n}\}`$ on a neighborhood $`V\left(T_{m_\alpha }M\right)_0`$ of the point $`\stackrel{}{v}__\alpha =P_v\left(\tau _\alpha \right)`$, $`P_v:NV`$ , $`N=\left(U\times V\right)\left(TM\right)_0`$ . Then, any point $`\tau XN`$ is locally written as $`\tau \left\{x^i\left(\tau \right)\right\}\left\{x^i\right\}`$, $`\tau \{m^i\left(P_0\left(\tau \right)\right)`$, $`v^i\left(P_v\left(\tau \right)\right)\}`$, or $`\tau \{m^i\left(P_0\left(\left\{x^j\right\}\right)\right)`$, $`v^i\left(P_v\left(\left\{x^j\right\}\right)\right)\}`$. Now, the graphical condition (4.2) is simply $`\left[dm^i\right]=A_0\left[dx^j\right],\left[A_0^{ij}\right]=\left[m^i/x^j\right],\text{satisfying}0<\left|det\left(A_0\right)\right|<\mathrm{},\text{on}\tau `$, that is $`\left[dx^i\right]=A_0^1\left[dm^j\right],0<\left|det\left(A_0^1\right)\right|<\mathrm{},`$ and the failure of (4.2) is written as $`\left|det\left(A_0\right)\right|=0\left|det\left(A_0^1\right)\right|=\mathrm{}.`$ But since no graphical condition over $`V`$ is assumed, we have only $`\left[dv^i\right]=A_v\left[dx^i\right],\left[A_v^{ij}\right]=\left[dv^i/x^j\right],\text{satisfying}\left|det\left(A_v\right)\right|<\mathrm{},\text{on}\tau `$, and the same cannot be said of $`A_v^1`$ because $`\left|det\left(A_v\right)\right|=0`$ is a real possibility. Thus, $`\left|det\left(A_vA_0^1\right)\right|\left|det\left[v^i/m^j\right]\right|<\mathrm{}`$ is a necessary condition for the existence of central generating functions. Now, if such exist, then they satisfy (4.3) and we can write the map $`F`$ generated by $`f𝒞_{IR}^k\left(U\right)`$ as $`\left\{v^i\left(\tau \right)=F^i\left(m\right)\right\}`$, provided $`f`$ satisfies any required central consistency condition. $`\mathrm{}`$

Examples: On $`IR^2`$, (5.1) becomes $`\left|det\left[^2f\right]\right|\left|det\left[^2f/x^ix^j\right]\right|<\mathrm{}`$ . On $`S^2`$ we get the condition $`\left|det\left[^2f\right]+\left(C_\theta /S_\theta \right)\left(f/\phi \right)\left(^2f/\theta \phi \right)\right|<\mathrm{}`$ , on $`US^2`$ , where $`det\left[^2f\right]=\left(^2f/\theta ^2\right)\left(^2f/\phi ^2\right)\left(^2f/\theta \phi \right)^2`$ , provided $`\left(\theta =0,\pi \right)U`$, and $`f`$ satisfies $`0<df<1`$. The restriction on $`\theta `$ is easily removable by choosing a new origin for the polar coordinates on $`S^2`$, but a new local analysis is needed when $`df\left(m_0\right)=0`$. Since $`df0`$ implies $`\left|\stackrel{}{v}\right|0`$, we know these points correpond to fixed points of any canonical transformation which can be generated by $`f`$. Thus, a (local) alternative consists of expanding $`f`$ around $`m_0`$ in linear coordinates and applying the previous flat equation, on a small neighborhood of $`m_0`$. Similarly, we can use that $`S_vv`$ to get $`\left|det\left[^2f\right]+\left(C_\theta /S_\theta \right)\left\{\left(f/\phi \right)\left(^2f/\theta \phi \right)\left(f/\theta \right)\left(^2f/\phi ^2\right)\right\}\right|<\mathrm{},`$ as the local form of (5.1) on a smaller neighborhood $`U^{}`$ of a point $`m_0U`$ for which $`df\left(m_0\right)=0`$ . Similarly, on $`UH^2`$, $`\left(\rho =0\right)U`$, we write (5.1) locally as $`\left|det\left[^2f\right]+\left(\stackrel{~}{C}_\rho /\stackrel{~}{S}_\rho \right)\left(f/\phi \right)\left(^2f/\rho \phi \right)\right|\left(\stackrel{~}{S}_\rho \stackrel{~}{S}^0\left(f\right)\stackrel{~}{C}^0\left(f\right)\right)^1<\mathrm{}`$, if $`df>0`$, and $`\left|det\left[^2f\right]+\left(\stackrel{~}{C}_\rho /\stackrel{~}{S}_\rho \right)\left\{\left(f/\phi \right)\left(^2f/\rho \phi \right)\left(f/\rho \right)\left(^2f/\phi ^2\right)\right\}\right|\left(\stackrel{~}{S}_\rho \right)^2<\mathrm{}`$ on a smaller neighborhood of the point $`m_0`$ for which $`df\left(m_0\right)=0`$. Or we can expand $`f`$ around $`m_0`$ in linear coordinates and use the flat equation.

Lemma 5.1 provides a necessary, but not sufficient condition for the existence of central generating functions, generically. In other words, when $`\mathrm{\Lambda }\left(TM\right)_0`$ is a generic canonical relation, it is possible that $`\left|det\left(A_0\right)\right|=\left|det\left(A_v\right)\right|=0`$, on $`\tau X\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. That is, we don’t necessarily have a graph over either $`M`$ or $`T_mM`$, on $`\tau =(m,\stackrel{}{v})\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, generically. Even when restricting to canonical transformations on $`M`$, it is possible that $`det\left(A_0\right)=det\left(A_v\right)=0`$, if $`dim\left(M\right)4`$. To see this, consider the simple example: $`M=IR^2\times IR^2`$, $`\omega =\omega _{\left(1\right)}\omega _{\left(2\right)}`$, $`\alpha =_0^{\left(1\right)}id^{\left(2\right)}`$. Furthemore, (5.1) does not distinguish between canonical relations and transformations. In this respect, we extend Lemma 5.1 to

Lemma 5.2 A function $`f\frac{1}{2}f_\alpha 𝒞_{IR}^k(M)`$, $`k2`$, can locally be the standard central generating function of a canonical transformation on $`M`$ only if it satisfies condition (5.1), besides any central consistency condition required for the definition of the map $`F:MU(TU)_0`$, $`m\stackrel{}{F}(m)(T_mM)_0`$, via the central equation, and

$$0<|det[(Exp_m(\stackrel{}{F}\left(m\right))^i/m^j]|<\mathrm{},mUM,\left(5.2\right)$$

for any choice of local coordinates on $`M`$ .

Proof: Consider $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha =\mathrm{\Phi }_0^1\left(_\alpha \right)`$, where $`_\alpha `$ is a lagrangian graph over $`M_{}DM`$. Let $`\gamma =\mathrm{\Phi }_0\left(\tau \right)YL_\alpha `$, $`Y`$ a neighborhood of $`\gamma _\alpha =\mathrm{\Phi }_0\left(\tau _\alpha \right)`$ and consider local coordinates $`\{y^1,\mathrm{}y^{2n}\}`$ on $`Y`$. Similarly, take $`\{m_{}^1,\mathrm{}m_{}^{2n}\}`$ as local coordinates on a neighborhood $`U_{}M_{}`$ of the point $`m_{}^\alpha =P_{}\left(\tau _\alpha \right)=P_{}\left(\gamma _\alpha \right)`$. Then $`_\alpha `$ is locally a graph over $`M_{}\text{iff}\left[dm_{}^i\right]=B_{}\left[dy^i\right]`$, where $`\left[B_{}^{ij}\right]=\left[m_{}^i/dy^j\right]\text{satisfies}0<\left|det\left(B_{}\right)\right|<\mathrm{}.`$ Otherwise, if $`_\alpha `$ is not a graph over $`M_{}`$, then from the definition of $`B_{}`$ , $`det\left(B_{}\right)=0`$. But since $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$ is a diffeomorphism, we can rewrite above condition as $`0<\left|det\left(A_{}\right)\right|<\mathrm{},\text{where}\left[A_{}^{ij}\right]=\left[m_{}^i/x^i\right],`$ since $`A_{}=B_{}d\mathrm{\Phi }_0`$. On the other hand, if $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha `$ is a graph over $`MT^0M`$, this can be further rewritten as $`0<\left|det\left(A_{}^0\right)\right|<\mathrm{},\text{where}\left[\left(A_{}^0\right)^{ij}\right]=\left[m_{}^i/m^j\right],`$ since $`A_{}^0=A_{}A_0^1`$ and $`\left|det\left(A_0^1\right)\right|<\mathrm{}`$. But since $`m_{}=P_{}\left(\tau \right)=Exp_m\left(\stackrel{}{v}\right)`$, we get (5.2), provided $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha `$ satisfies (4.2) and $`\tau `$ is given by the central map $`\stackrel{}{F}\left(m\right)=\stackrel{}{v}`$, generated by $`f`$ via the central equation. $`\mathrm{}`$

Example: On $`IR^2`$, from (3.3) and (4.4), (5.2) becomes $`0<\left|1+det\left[^2f\right]\right|<\mathrm{}`$, but since (5.1) must already be satisfied, we single out the new condition as $`det\left[^2f\right]1`$ , $`\stackrel{}{x}UIR^2.`$ However, already on $`S^2`$ or $`H^2`$, the explicit form of (5.2) in local coordinates, for generic $`f`$, becomes rather long and it is much simpler to check it directly, for each specific $`f`$, using the specific expressions for $`m_{}\left(m\right)`$ obtained from (4.9) or (4.11).

Conditions similar to (5.1) and (5.2) apply to nonstandard functions, as well. It is important to emphasize, once again, that any function satisfying the conditions of Lemma 5.2 does not necessarily generate a canonical transformation on $`M`$, since these conditions do not comprise a sufficient set, generically. A more complete analysis is needed for such characterization, which lies outside the scope of this work. Ultimately, though, we can check explicitly the consistency of the implicit map $`m_+\left(m_{}\right)`$ obtained from any function $`f`$ on $`UM`$, via the central equation and the symmetric exponential map. These functions shall be singled out :

Definition 5.1 A function $`f\frac{1}{2}f_\alpha 𝒞_{IR}^k(M)`$, $`k2`$, which is (locally, on $`UM`$) the central generating function of a canonical transformation on $`M`$ is henceforth referred to simply as a (local) central action on $`M`$. The set of all such functions is denoted $`𝒜_c(U)`$. Specifically, $`𝒜_c^0(U)`$ for standard actions. More generally, a function which locally generates a canonical relation on $`M`$, via the central equation, shall be called a (local) central relation on $`M`$, whose set is denoted $`el_c(U)`$ .

Of course, $`𝒜_c\left(U_1\right)𝒜_c\left(U_2\right)`$ if $`U_1U_2`$. Thus, $`UM`$, $`𝒜_c\left(U\right)𝒜_c\left(M\right)`$ the space of central actions on $`M`$, clearly non-empty since every function $`f_\alpha =th`$, $`h𝒞_{IR}^k\left(M\right)`$, is a central action, for $`t`$ sufficiently small. On the other hand, since central relations must satisfy (5.1), but not necessarily (5.2), $`𝒜_c\left(U\right)el_c\left(U\right)`$. More generally, one might still wish to be free from constraints imposed by central caustics. For functions on $`M`$, this is generically impossible. On the other hand, inspired by some works in symplectic topology , we could allow the generating functions to be defined on $`M\times IR^d`$, instead, using the extra variables to analyse the behaviour at those critical points. But the study of their general definitions and properties is not to be found here. In an independent context, a very important and particular case of such “extended” functions shall be seen in $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 8,9, where $`d=1`$. Back to functions on $`M`$, our main interest, in what follows, is concerned with their compositions. For central actions we need only worry about the presence of caustics, but for canonical relations we must also worry about the possibility of their compositions being well defined (clean products) . Thus, for simplicity, we shall not pursue on this broader context here, focusing instead on the compositions of central actions properly, from now on. But we emphasize that, whenever well defined, the following rules of composition apply for central relations as well.

Illustrations: The simplest examples of central actions are those which generate uniform translations on flat space. Let $`\alpha T_\stackrel{}{\xi }:IR^2IR^2`$, by $`\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{x}+\stackrel{}{\xi }`$, which corresponds to the lagrangian plane $`\stackrel{}{v}=\stackrel{}{\xi }/2`$, a constant, in $`TIR^2`$. From (4.5) one has $`\stackrel{}{\xi }=J\left(f_\alpha /\stackrel{}{x}\right)`$, integrated as $`f_\alpha \left(\stackrel{}{x}\right)=\left(J\stackrel{}{\xi }\right)\stackrel{}{x}`$ , modulo constants, rewritten as a skew-product $`f_\alpha \left(\stackrel{}{x}\right)=\stackrel{}{\xi }\stackrel{}{x}`$ . In particular (when $`\stackrel{}{\xi }=0`$) the null action (or any constant) generates the identity, a fact valid for every $`M`$. The next simplest examples, still on flat spaces, are the homogeneous quadratic functions $`f_\alpha \left(\stackrel{}{x}\right)=\stackrel{}{x}^TB\stackrel{}{x}`$, where $`B`$ is a symmetric matrix, or equivalently $`f_\alpha \left(\stackrel{}{x}\right)=\beta p^2+\beta ^{}q^2+2\gamma pq`$, where $`\beta ,\beta ^{},\gamma IR`$. When $`\gamma =0`$, $`\beta =\beta ^{}=\mathrm{tan}\left(\lambda /2\right),f_\alpha `$ generates a rotation by an angle $`\lambda `$ through the origin. Notice that $`f_\alpha `$, as well as (5.1), diverges everywhere when $`\lambda =\pm \pi `$. This is a reflection at the origin, $`_0`$, and the corresponding lagrangian submanifold in $`TIR^2`$ is $`\mathrm{\Lambda }__0T_0IR^2`$ which is not a graph over $`T^0IR^2`$ anywhere. When $`\beta =\beta ^{}=0`$, $`\gamma =\mathrm{tanh}\left(\lambda /2\right)`$, $`f_\alpha `$ generates a pure hyperbolic transformation with stable/unstable submanifold coinciding with the $`p/q`$ axis. Now (5.1) is always satisfied, but (5.2) fails asymptotically as $`\left|\lambda \right|\mathrm{}`$. It is not hard to see that every quadratic central action generates an element of the homogeneous symplectic group on $`IR^2`$ and, conversely, every such element which can be centrally generated, is done by a quadratic central action (Cayley transform). This is not a property of the more familiar generating funtions of mechanics on $`IR^2`$, e.g. $`f(q_{},q_+)`$, for which generic translations on $`M`$ are also generated by quadratic functions. Adding the former two examples, $`f_\alpha \left(\stackrel{}{x}\right)=\stackrel{}{\xi }\stackrel{}{x}+\stackrel{}{x}^TB\stackrel{}{x}`$ generate elements of the inhomogeneous symplectic group. On $`S^2`$, the simplest examples are the central actions for rotations. Here, standard case only. Let $`\alpha \alpha (p,2\gamma )`$ be an element of the group of rotations $`SO\left(3\right)`$ acting on $`S^2`$, whose pole (fixed point) is $`p`$ and whose angle of rotation is $`2\gamma `$. Taking polar coordinates for $`m(\theta ,\phi )`$ and $`p(\chi ,\epsilon )`$, and $`\gamma [\pi /2,\pi /2]`$, the central action is written as

$$f_\alpha \left(m\right)=2S^1\left\{S_\gamma [C_\chi C_\theta +S_\chi S_\theta C_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}]\right\}.\left(5.3\right)$$

Although it looks complicated in local coordinates, $`f\frac{1}{2}f_\alpha `$ has the simple geometrical interpretation shown in Fig.5.1(a). If we notice that $`C_\chi C_\theta +S_\chi S_\theta C_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}=C_y`$, $`y=distance(m,p)`$, the map $`F_\alpha :S^2\left(TS^2\right)_0`$ is given by (4.7) as

$$\begin{array}{c}v=C^1\left\{C_\gamma /\sqrt{1\left(S_\gamma C_y\right)^2}\right\}C^1\left\{C_\gamma /C_f\right\}\hfill \\ \beta =T^1\{[S_\chi C_\theta C_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}C_\chi S_\theta ]/S_\chi S_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}\}+(1Sign\left((\phi \epsilon )\right)\pi /2\hfill \end{array}\}\left(5.4\right)$$

and the implicit transformation $`m_+\left(m_{}\right)`$ generated by $`f_\alpha `$ is given by (4.9) as

$$\begin{array}{c}\theta _\pm =C^1\left\{\left[C_\gamma C_\theta \pm S_\gamma S_\theta S_\chi S_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}\right]/\sqrt{1\left(S_\gamma C_y\right)^2}\right\}\hfill \\ \phi _\pm =\phi \pm T^1\left\{S_\gamma \left[C_\chi S_\theta S_\chi C_\theta C_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}\right]/\lambda _\pm \right\}+\left(1Sign\left(\lambda _\pm \right)\right)\pi /2,\hfill \end{array}\}\left(5.5\right)$$

where $`\lambda _\pm =C_\gamma S_\theta \pm S_\gamma C_\theta S_\chi S_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}`$ . Notice that when $`mp`$ or $`\overline{p}`$, $`v0`$ and $`m`$ is a fixed point of the transformation (5.5), as expected, $`\gamma [0,\pi /2`$). However, when $`\gamma =\pi /2`$ the transformation (5.5) is not well defined. Again, in this case $`\alpha (p,2\gamma )=\alpha (p,\pi )=_p:S^2S^2`$, and the corresponding lagrangian submanifold in $`\left(TS^2\right)_0`$ is $`\mathrm{\Lambda }__p\left(T_pS^2\right)_0`$, which is not a graph over $`T^0S^2`$ anywhere. We can also see this singularity using (5.1), when $`\gamma =\pi /2`$. To see that $`mp`$ is not a caustic singularity, for $`\gamma \pi /2`$, one can check directly in (5.1). Similarly, expanding $`f`$ around $`m`$ in linear coordinates $`(p,q)`$, gives $`f_\alpha \left(m\right)=\text{constant}+\left(T_\gamma \right)y^2+o\left(y^4\right)\left(T_\gamma \right)y^2`$, with $`y^2=p^2+q^2`$, which is the central action for rotations on the plane.

Fig. 5.1 – Full lines represent geodesics

On $`H^2`$, we now consider the central actions for some elements $`\alpha SO(2,1)`$. A subclass of such elements is characterized by those $`\alpha =\alpha (p,2\gamma )`$, which are real rotations on $`H^2`$ around the real pole $`pH^2`$, through an angle $`2\gamma `$ , $`\gamma [\pi /2,\pi /2]`$. The corresponding central actions and canonical transformations are analogous to the spherical ones. But, in opposition to the real hyperbolic rotations, stand the ideal hyperbolic rotations. These can be characterized in two ways. We may consider $`\alpha =\alpha (\stackrel{~}{p},2\gamma ),\gamma [\pi /2,\pi /2]`$, $`\stackrel{~}{p}`$ an ideal fixed point (a point in $`IR^3`$ satisfying $`x^2+y^2z^2=1`$, while a real point in $`H^2IR^3`$ satisfies $`z^2(x^2+y^2)=1)`$. Alternativelly, we take $`\alpha =\stackrel{~}{\alpha }(\nu ,\epsilon ,z)`$ where $`\nu [0,\mathrm{}),z(\mathrm{},\mathrm{}),\epsilon [0,2\pi ];(\nu ,\epsilon )`$ being the coordinates of a real axis in $`H^2`$, i.e. a geodesic in $`H^2`$ s.t. $`\nu `$ is its distance to the origin and $`\epsilon `$ is the angle this minimal geodesic arc makes at the origin, as shown in Fig.5.1(b). We interpret $`\left|z\right|<\mathrm{}`$ as a geodesic segment along this axis, its sign determining a particular orientation for it . The corresponding central action is given by

$$f_{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }}\left(m\right)=2S^1\left\{\stackrel{~}{S}_z\left[\stackrel{~}{C}_\nu \stackrel{~}{S}_\rho C_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}\stackrel{~}{S}_\nu \stackrel{~}{C}_\rho \right]\right\},\left(5.6\right)$$

where $`\stackrel{~}{C}_\nu \stackrel{~}{S}_\rho C_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}\stackrel{~}{S}_\nu \stackrel{~}{C}_\rho =\stackrel{~}{S}_x`$ , $`x=distance(m,axis)`$. From (5.6) $`f_{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }}`$ exists only when

$$\left|\stackrel{~}{S}_z\stackrel{~}{S}_x\right|10x\stackrel{~}{S}^1(1/|\stackrel{~}{S}_z\left|\right),\left(5.7\right)$$

but in this neighborhood of the axis, it is a well defined real function whose simple geometric interpretation is shown in Fig.5.1(b). From (4.10), the map $`F_{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }}:H^2TH^2`$ is given by

$$\begin{array}{c}\mu =\stackrel{~}{C}^1\left\{\stackrel{~}{C}_z/\sqrt{1\left(\stackrel{~}{S}_z\stackrel{~}{S}_x\right)^2}\right\}\stackrel{~}{C}^1\left\{\stackrel{~}{C}_z/C_f\right\}\hfill \\ \beta =T^1\left\{\left[\stackrel{~}{C}_\nu \stackrel{~}{C}_\rho C_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}\stackrel{~}{S}_\nu \stackrel{~}{S}_\rho \right]/\stackrel{~}{C}_\nu S_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}\right\}+\left(1+Sign\left(\phi \epsilon \right)\right)\pi /2\hfill \end{array}\}\left(5.8\right)$$

and the $`f_{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }}`$-generated intrisic transformation $`m_+\left(m_{}\right)`$ is given by (4.11) as

$$\begin{array}{c}\rho _\pm =\stackrel{~}{C}^1\left\{\left[\stackrel{~}{C}_z\stackrel{~}{C}_\rho \pm \stackrel{~}{S}_z\stackrel{~}{S}_\rho \stackrel{~}{C}_\nu S_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}\right]/\sqrt{1\left(\stackrel{~}{S}_z\stackrel{~}{S}_x\right)^2}\right\}\hfill \\ \phi _\pm =\phi \pm T^1\left\{\stackrel{~}{S}_z\left[\stackrel{~}{C}_\nu \stackrel{~}{C}_\rho C_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}\stackrel{~}{S}_\nu \stackrel{~}{S}_\rho \right]/\xi _\pm \right\}+\left(1+Sign\left(\xi _\pm \right)\right)\pi /2,\hfill \end{array}\}\left(5.9\right)$$

where $`\xi _\pm =\stackrel{~}{C}_z\stackrel{~}{S}_\rho \pm \stackrel{~}{S}_z\stackrel{~}{C}_\rho \stackrel{~}{C}_\nu S_{\left(\phi \epsilon \right)}`$ . The transformation (5.9) describes finite motions along lines equidistant to the axis $`(\nu ,\epsilon )`$, as shown in Fig.5.1(b). We see that (5.9) has no real fixed point and is also free of central caustics, i.e. it is well defined everywhere on the same neighborhood of the axis $`(\nu ,\epsilon )`$ on which $`f_{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }}`$ is well defined. In other words, the lagrangian submanifold $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }}TH^2`$ is a graph over this neighborhood; one can check explicitly that (5.1) does not diverge anywhere. Notice that, as $`x0,m,m_+`$ and $`m_{}`$ all lie on the axis, with $`z=`$ distance $`(m,m_+)`$. However, as $`\left|z\right|\mathrm{}`$, (5.2) fails asymptotically, in agreement with (5.7), which implies $`x=0`$, when $`\left|z\right|=\mathrm{}`$.

## 6. Composition of Central Actions

Having explored the symplectic structure on central groupoids, we now add their algebraic structure in order to answer the following question: Let $`f_{\alpha _1},f_{\alpha _2}𝒞_{IR}^k\left(M\right)`$ locally be the central actions for two canonical transformations, respectively, $`\alpha _1,\alpha _2:MM,m\alpha _i\left(m\right)`$. Since $`\alpha =\alpha _2\left(\alpha _1\right)`$ is another canonical transformations on $`M`$, what is, locally, its central action? In other words: How do central actions compose? We start by considering :

Definition 6.1 Let $`\zeta `$ be a (local) symplectic potential for $`\omega `$ on $`U_\zeta M`$. Then, on $`DU_\zeta DM`$, $`\delta \zeta :=P_+^{}(\zeta )P_{}^{}(\zeta )`$ is a local symplectic potential for $`\delta \omega `$ and $`Z_\zeta :=\mathrm{\Phi }_0^{}(\delta \zeta )`$ is locally a symplectic potential for $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ on $`W_\zeta (TM)_0,\mathrm{\Phi }_0(W_\zeta )DU_\zeta `$, to be called an additive potential  .

The reason for this name is obvious once we realize that

$$Z_\zeta (\tau _1\tau _2)Z_\zeta \left(\tau _1\right)+Z_\zeta \left(\tau _2\right).\left(6.1\right)$$

Here, as in Def. 3.2, this is a shorthand notation for the fact that the local $`1`$-form $`Z_\zeta Z_\zeta Z_\zeta `$ vanishes on the graph of the groupoid composition. Such additive potentials do not coincide with the central potentials, i.e. $`Z_\zeta `$ does not satisfy property (4.1), even locally, and we cannot use it to define central generating functions directly. On the other hand, the central potentials are not additive, as in (6.1), but in order to compose central actions, we now realize that, on $`W_\zeta `$ ,

$$Z_\zeta =Z_0+dQ_\zeta ,Q_\zeta Q_\zeta ^0𝒞_{IR}^k\left(W_\zeta \right).\left(6.2\right)$$

Therefore, if $`\tau _i\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _i}`$, with $`P_0\left(\tau _i\right)=m_iU`$, is locally generated by the standard central action $`f_{\alpha _i}𝒞_{IR}^k\left(M\right)`$, then on $`\left(TU\right)_0W_\zeta `$: $`Z_\zeta \left(\tau _i\right)=df_{\alpha _i}\left(m_i\right)+dQ_\zeta \left(\tau _i\right)`$, combining (4.3) and (6.2). Hence, if $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha `$ satisfies (4.2) on $`\left(TU\right)_0`$, for $`\alpha =\alpha _2\left(\alpha _1\right)`$, and $`\tau =\tau _1\tau _2\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha `$, with $`P_0\left(\tau \right)=mU`$, is locally generated by the standard cental action $`f_\alpha 𝒞_{IR}^k\left(M\right)`$, then, on $`W_\zeta \left(TU\right)_0`$ , from (6.1),

$$df_\alpha \left(m\right)df_{\alpha _1}\left(m_1\right)+df_{\alpha _2}\left(m_2\right)+d\chi _\zeta (\tau _1,\tau _2),\left(6.3\right)$$

where we define the standard phase function $`\chi _\zeta \chi _\zeta ^0:\left(TU\right)_0^2IR`$, locally by

$$\chi _\zeta (\tau _1,\tau _2)=Q_\zeta \left(\tau _1\right)+Q_\zeta \left(\tau _2\right)Q_\zeta (\tau _1\tau _2).\left(6.4\right)$$

Now, we apply the following crucial result:

Proposition 6.1 The function $`\chi _\zeta `$ defined above (6.4) is well defined on the whole $`(TM)_0^2`$ and independs on choices of local symplectic potentials on $`M`$. Actually it coincides, modulo constants, with the symplectic area of a standard geodesic triangle on $`M`$ , i.e. which can be defined by elements in $`(TM)_0^2`$ , determined by its midpoints $`m,m_1`$ and $`m_2`$. This area shall be denoted by $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0(m,m_1,m_2)`$.

Proof: Here we rely on a mathematical construction  which consists of building an $`S^1`$-principal fiber bundle over a symplectic manifold $`(M,\omega )`$ with connection $`\alpha `$ whose curvature is $`\omega /\lambda `$. We denote this as $`S^1(SM,\alpha )\stackrel{\pi }{}(M,\omega /\lambda )`$, $`d\alpha =\pi ^{}\left(\omega /\lambda \right)`$. Such bundle is well defined only if $`\frac{1}{2\pi \lambda }_{}\omega =pZZ`$, where $``$ is any oriented, closed two-surface without boundary on $`M`$. Here, $`\lambda `$ is an auxiliary constant which can be set to zero in the end. To extend this construction to the double phase space , we identify $`SDM\left(\overline{SM}_{}\times \overline{SM}_+\right)/S^1`$, $`(\overline{SM}_\pm ,\alpha )`$ being the same principal bundles over $`M`$, but for opposite connections, and the quotient is taken with respect to the diagonal action of $`S^1𝒯^2`$ on $`\overline{SM}_{}\times \overline{SM}_+`$. Actually, we have chosen the connection whose curvature is $`\delta \omega /\lambda `$, so we should perhaps denote this bundle by $`\overline{SDM}`$, but to simplify the notation we keep to $`SDM`$. Thus, $`S^1(SDM,\left[\delta \alpha \right])\stackrel{\left[\pi \right]}{}(DM,\delta \omega /\lambda )`$, $`d\left[\delta \alpha \right]=\left[\pi \right]^{}\left(\delta \omega /\lambda \right)`$, whose elements are denoted by $`[\sigma ,\sigma ^{}]`$, where $`(\sigma ,\sigma ^{})\overline{SM}_{}\times \overline{SM}_+`$. Then, choosing identity elements of the form $`[\sigma ,\sigma ]`$, we extend  the groupoid composition from $`DM`$ to $`SDM`$ by $`[\sigma ,\sigma ^{}][\sigma ^{},\sigma ^{\prime \prime }]=[\sigma ,\sigma ^{\prime \prime }]`$. Now, we pull back $`SDM`$ using the (restricted) symmetric exponential map to get a (trivial) bundle over $`\left(TM\right)_0`$, denoted $`\left(STM\right)_0\mathrm{\Phi }_0^{}\left(SDM\right)\stackrel{\pi _0\times \rho _0}{}\left(TM\right)_0\times SDM`$. Next, consider sections $`\left(TM\right)_0\left(STM\right)_0`$ which are obtained via the parallel transport along the $`P_0`$-fibers of identity elements in $`\left(STM\right)_0`$, the latter being fixed by the above choice on $`SDM`$. These polarized sections $`\epsilon _0:\left(TM\right)_0\left(STM\right)_0`$ are such that $`\rho _0\left(\epsilon _0\left(\tau \right)\right)=[\sigma ^{},\sigma ^{\prime \prime }]`$, where $`(\sigma ^{},\sigma ^{\prime \prime })`$ are the endpoints of a horizontal lift in $`SM`$ of the short geodesic from $`m^{}`$ to $`m^{\prime \prime }`$, centered on $`m=P_0\left(\tau \right)`$, for $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0\left(\tau \right)=(m^{},m^{\prime \prime })`$. Hence, if $`(\tau _1,\tau _2)\left(TM\right)_0^2`$, then $`\epsilon _0\left(\tau _1\right)\epsilon _0\left(\tau _2\right)=\epsilon _0\left(\tau _1\tau _2\right)K_0(\tau _1,\tau _2)`$, where $`K_0:\left(TM\right)_0^2S^1`$ is the holonomy in $`SM`$ over the triangle of composition on $`M`$. In other words, its symplectic area $`A_0(\tau _1,\tau _2)`$, where the standard triangular area function $`A`$ is a well defined continuous function on $`\left(TM\right)_0^2`$. This means that $`K_0(\tau _1,\tau _2)=Exp\left\{\frac{\sqrt{1}}{\lambda }A_0(\tau _1,\tau _2)\right\}`$ is well defined on the whole $`\left(TM\right)_0^2`$ , as well as being completely independent of local expressions for the connection $`\left[\delta \alpha \right]`$ and its pull-back $`\overline{\alpha }_0`$ . But the pull-back connection $`\overline{\alpha }_0`$ can locally be written as $`\overline{\alpha }_0d\theta \frac{1}{\lambda }Z_\zeta `$, where $`\theta `$ is the fiber coordinate, for a local choice of symplectic potential $`\omega d\zeta `$. Over the $`P_0`$-fibers, these can locally be rewritten as $`\overline{\alpha }_0|_m\left(d\theta \frac{1}{\lambda }\left(Z_\zeta Z_0\right)\right)|_m\left(d\theta \frac{1}{\lambda }dQ_\zeta \right)|_m`$, thus, provided $`Q_\zeta |_{T^0M}0`$ and for a local representation of identity elements as $`(m,\stackrel{}{0};0)`$, the trivializing sections $`\epsilon _0`$ can locally be written as $`\epsilon _0\left(\tau \right)(\tau ;Exp\left\{\frac{\sqrt{1}}{\lambda }Q_\zeta \left(\tau \right)\right\})`$ and therefore the holonomy phase $`A_0(\tau _1,\tau _2)`$ is locally identified as $`\chi _\zeta (\tau _1,\tau _2)=Q_\zeta \left(\tau _1\right)+Q_\zeta \left(\tau _2\right)Q_\zeta \left(\tau _1\tau _2\right)`$. On the other hand, denoting a point in $`\left(TM\right)_0^2`$ by $`(m_1,v_1;m_2,v_2)`$, with $`\tau _1\tau _2=\tau _3=(m_3,v_3)`$, we can almost everywhere eliminate the three vectors by $`Exp_{m_1}\left(v_1\right)=Exp_{m_3}\left(v_3\right)=a`$, $`Exp_{m_1}\left(v_1\right)=Exp_{m_2}\left(v_2\right)=b`$, $`Exp_{m_2}\left(v_2\right)=Exp_{m_3}\left(v_3\right)=c`$, and $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0(m_1,v_1)=\left(a,_{m_2}_{m_3}\left(a\right)=b\right)`$, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0(m_2,v_2)=\left(b,_{m_3}_{m_1}\left(b\right)=c\right)`$, $`\mathrm{\Phi }_0(m_3,v_3)=\left(a,_{m_2}_{m_1}\left(a\right)=c\right)`$, the exception being those midpoint triplets $`\mu _{123}=(m_1,m_2,m_3)`$ for which the fixed point set of $`_{m_1}_{m_2}_{m_3}`$ has nontrivial dimension. But for the set of such singular midpoint triplets, we can assume based on the lower dimensional examples, that the codimension of the set of singular midpoint triplets is always greater than $`1`$. In other words, the map $`\mathrm{\Psi }_0:\left(TM\right)_0^2\left(M\times M\times M\right)_{midpoints}`$ is invertible on its immage set, except for a subset of codimension greater than $`1`$. Hence, if $`\mu _{123}`$ is a regular midpoint triplet, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0\left(\mu _{123}\right)=\mathrm{\Delta }_0(m_1,m_2,m_3)=A_0\left(\mathrm{\Psi }_0^1\left(\mu _{123}\right)\right)`$. Otherwise, if $`\mu _{123}`$ is a singular midpoint triplet, consider any continuous family of regular midpoint triplets $`\mu _{123}^{}\left(ϵ\right)`$, $`ϵ>0`$ s.t. $`\mu _{123}^{}\left(0\right)=\mu _{123}`$. These families always exist and, for any $`ϵ0`$, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_0^1`$ is well defined and continuous, so that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0\left(\mu _{123}^{}\left(ϵ\right)\right)`$ is a continuous function of $`ϵ`$. It follows that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0\left(\mu _{123}\right)=\mathrm{\Delta }_0(m_1,m_2,m_3)=lim_{ϵ0}\left\{\mathrm{\Delta }_0\left(\mu _{123}^{}\left(ϵ\right)\right)\right\}`$, for any family $`\mu _{123}^{}\left(ϵ\right)\mu _{123}`$ . Therefore, the holonomy can be identified with $`Exp\left\{\frac{\sqrt{1}}{\lambda }\mathrm{\Delta }_0(m,m_1,m_2)\right\}`$, for $`m_i=P_0\left(\tau _i\right)`$, $`m=P_0\left(\tau _1\tau _2\right)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0(m,m_1,m_2)`$ stands for the symplectic area, modulo $`2\pi \lambda `$, of a standard geodesic triangle with given midpoints, for which $`\chi _\zeta (\tau _1,\tau _2)`$ is thus a local expression. $`\mathrm{}`$

Let us remark that in the simplest case of $`IR^{2n}`$, the midpoint triangular area $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a unique well defined function on the whole $`IR^{2n}\times IR^{2n}\times IR^{2n}`$. Generically, however, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ is well defined only on a subset $`UM\times M\times M`$, as exemplified below for the torus, the sphere and the hyperbolic plane.

In every case, though, for any triplet of points for which $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ is well defined, modulo constants, we get from propositions 4.1 and 6.1, via (6.3), the main result:

Theorem 6.1 Let $`f_{\alpha _1},f_{\alpha _2}`$ locally be standard central actions for $`\alpha _1`$, $`\alpha _2:MM`$, respectively. If $`f_\alpha `$ is locally the standard central action for $`\alpha =\alpha _2(\alpha _1)`$, then

$$f_\alpha \left(m\right)f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2}\left(m\right)=Stat_{(m_1,m_2)}\left\{f_{\alpha _1}\left(m_1\right)+f_{\alpha _2}\left(m_2\right)+\mathrm{\Delta }_0(m,m_1,m_2)\right\}\left(6.5\right)$$

defining the standard composition of central actions on $`M`$, if $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0(m,m_1,m_2)`$ is well defined, up to constants, i.e. if $`(m,m_1,m_2)`$ stand as midpoints of a standard geodesic triangle.

Seen as a product on $`𝒜_c^0\left(U\right)`$, $`f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2}`$ may not exist or if so, it may not be unique, for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_\alpha \left(TM\right)_0`$ may not satisfy (4.2) over $`UM`$, or else it may be composed of many sheets in $`\left(TU\right)_0`$.

Furthermore, the composition rule (6.5) is not unique when considering nonstandard central actions as well, if $`M`$ has closed geodesics. In this case, repeating the steps that led to (6.3), for reducible triples $`(i,j;k)`$, using (4.3’) we get the generalized version :

$$df_\alpha ^k\left(m\right)df_{\alpha _1}^i\left(m_1\right)+df_{\alpha _2}^j\left(m_2\right)+d\left[\chi _\zeta \right]_{ij}^k(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1,\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2),\left(6.3^{}\right)$$

where $`\left[\chi _\zeta \right]_{ij}^k`$ is a local representation for a general phase function $`\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_{ij}^2IR`$, given by

$$\left[\chi _\zeta \right]_{ij}^k(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1,\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2)=Q_\zeta ^i\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1\right)+Q_\zeta ^j\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2\right)Q_\zeta ^k\left(c_{ij}^k(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1,\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2)\right),\left(6.4^{}\right)$$

with each $`Q_\zeta ^i`$ being a function defined as $`dQ_\zeta ^i=Z_\zeta ^iZ_i`$, on appropriate subsets $`W_\zeta ^i\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_i`$. As in the standard case, we identify this function by :

Proposition 6.1’ For $`(i,j;k)`$ reducible, and for appropriate choices of $`Z_i,Z_j`$, and $`Z_k`$ , the function $`[\chi _\zeta ]_{ij}^k`$ is well defined on the whole $`(\stackrel{~}{TM})_{ij}^2`$, independs on local choices of $`\zeta `$ and coincides, modulo constants, with the symplectic area of a reducible geodesic triangles on $`M`$ which can be defined by elements in $`(\stackrel{~}{TM})_{ij}^2\times (\stackrel{~}{TM})_k`$ and determined by its midpoints $`(m_1,m_2;m)`$, in other words, geodesic triangles with given midpoints and sides which are (i,j;k)-fold geodesics. Such area shall be denoted by $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^k(m;m_1,m_2)`$ or generically by $`\mathrm{\Delta }(m,m_1,m_2)`$.

Proof: This is an elaboration on the proof of Prop. 6.1 . Here, we must argue that there is a consistent choice for the $`Z_j`$’s, such that each $`Q_\zeta ^j|_{\stackrel{~}{T^jM}}\gamma ^j:MIR`$ is given by $`\mathrm{exp}\left\{\frac{\sqrt{1}}{\lambda }\gamma ^j\left(m\right)\right\}=\eta _j^{}\left(m\right)`$, where $`\eta _j^{}\left(m\right)`$ is the horizontal transport over $`M\stackrel{~}{T^jM}`$ of the $`L_j\left(m_0\right)`$ loop holonomy, given a reference point $`m_0`$. Explicitly, if $`\mathrm{exp}\left\{\sqrt{1}\beta _j\right\}`$ denotes the $`L_j\left(m_0\right)`$ holonomy in $`SM`$ (its homology class, if irreducible), then $`\gamma ^j\left(m\right)=_{\mathrm{\Sigma }L_j^{}\left(m\right)}w`$, modulo $`2\pi \lambda `$ and the constant $`\beta _j`$ , where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }L_j^{}\left(m\right)=L_j^{}\left(m\right)=L_j(m_0,m)`$ is the reducible loop in $`M`$ given as $`\left(m_0m\right)L_j\left(m\right)\left(mm_0\right)L_j^1\left(m_0\right)`$, with $`L_j\left(m\right)`$ denoting the $`j`$-fold geodesic loop based at $`m`$. Now, each $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_j:\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_jDM`$ provides a pull back (trivial) bundle $`\left(S\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_j\stackrel{\rho _j}{}SDM`$. Taking local trivializing sections $`\stackrel{~}{\epsilon }_j:\stackrel{~}{T^jM}\left(S\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_j`$ of the form $`\stackrel{~}{\epsilon }_j=\rho _i^1\left([\sigma ,\sigma _j^{}]\right)`$, where $`\sigma _j^{}=\sigma \eta _j^{}\left(m\right)`$, for $`\pi \left(\sigma \right)=\pi \left(\sigma ^{}\right)=m`$, which can locally be represented as $`\stackrel{~}{\epsilon }_j\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }^j\right)(m,\left[\stackrel{}{v}_j\right];exp\left\{\frac{\sqrt{1}}{\lambda }\gamma ^j\left(m\right)\right\})`$, then, from a similiar analysis to the standard case, the trivializing sections $`\epsilon _j:\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_j\left(S\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_j`$ which are obtained from $`\stackrel{~}{\epsilon }_j`$ via parallel transport along the $`P_j`$-fibers are such that $`\rho _j\left(\epsilon _j\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }\right)\right)=[\sigma ^{},\sigma ^{\prime \prime }]`$, where $`(\sigma ^{},\sigma ^{\prime \prime })`$ are the endpoints of a horizontal lift in $`SM`$ of the $`j`$-fold geodesic from $`m^{}`$ to $`m^{\prime \prime }`$, centered on $`m=P_j\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }\right)`$, for $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_j\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }\right)=(m^{},m^{\prime \prime })`$. Hence, if $`(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1,\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2)\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_{ij}^2`$, then $`C_{ij}^k(\epsilon _i\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1\right),\epsilon _j\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2\right))=\epsilon _k\left(c_{ij}^k(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1,\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2)\right)K_{ij}^k(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1,\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2)`$, where $`C_{ij}^k:\left(S\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_{ij}^2\left(S\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_k`$ is the “extension” of the mixed composition $`c_{ij}^k`$, defined as $`C_{ij}^k(z_1,z_2):=\rho _k^1\left(\rho _i\left(z_1\right)\rho _j\left(z_2\right)\right)`$, $`z_i\left(S\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_i`$, etc… and $`K_{ij}^k(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1,\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2)S^1`$ is the holonomy in $`SM`$ over the $`(i,j;k)`$-triangle of composition, which, if $`(i,j;k)`$ is reducible, corresponds to the symplectic area of this triangle. Since any reducible $`(i,j;k)`$-geodesic triangle stands in a bijective correspondence with a standard one, it follows that, as in the standard case, the $`(i,j;k)`$-triangular area is a well defined function $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^k`$ of the midpoints. Therefore, the holonomy can be identified as $`Exp\left\{\frac{\sqrt{1}}{\lambda }\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^k(m;m_1,m_2)\right\}`$, for $`m_1=P_i\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1\right)`$, $`m_2=P_j\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2\right)`$ and $`m=P_k\left(c_{ij}^k(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1,\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2)\right)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^k(m;m_1,m_2)`$ stands for the symplectic area, modulo $`2\pi \lambda `$, of the reducible geodesic triangle with given midpoints and sides which are ($`k`$; $`i`$, $`j`$)-fold geodesics. This also means that $`K_{ij}^k(\stackrel{~}{\tau }_1,\stackrel{~}{\tau }_2)=Exp\left\{\frac{\sqrt{1}}{\lambda }\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^k(m;m_1,m_2)\right\}`$ is well defined on the whole $`\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_{ij}^2`$ and independs on local expressions for the connection $`\left[\delta \alpha \right]`$ and its pull-backs $`\overline{\alpha }_j`$. But, from the form of such pull-back connections and for $`Q_\zeta ^j|_{\stackrel{~}{T^jM}}\gamma ^j`$ and $`\epsilon _j|_{\stackrel{~}{T^jM}}\stackrel{~}{\epsilon }_j`$, as above, it follows that the trivializing sections $`\epsilon _j`$ can locally be written as $`\epsilon _j\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }\right)(\stackrel{~}{\tau };exp\left\{\frac{\sqrt{1}}{\lambda }Q_\zeta ^j\left(\stackrel{~}{\tau }\right)\right\})`$ and therefore $`\left[\chi _\zeta \right]_{ij}^k`$ is a local representation for $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^k(m;m_1,m_2)`$, modulo $`2\pi \lambda `$. $`\mathrm{}`$

The appropriate choices of central potentials referred to in the statement are explained in its proof. Loosely speaking, each $`Z_j`$ is chosen as the pull-back of a single $`1`$-form $`Z`$ on $`TM`$, for each immersion $`\left(\stackrel{~}{TM}\right)_jTM`$ . Using (6.3’) we get:

Theorem 6.1’ Let $`f_{\alpha _1}^i`$, $`f_{\alpha _2}^j`$ locally be central actions for $`\alpha _1,\alpha _2:MM`$, respectively. If $`(i,j;k)`$ is reducible and $`f_\alpha ^k`$ is locally a central action for $`\alpha =\alpha _2(\alpha _1)`$, then it is given by

$$f_\alpha ^k\left(m\right)f_{\alpha _1}^i\mathrm{}^kf_{\alpha _2}^j=Stat_{(m_1,m_2)}\left\{f_{\alpha _1}^i\left(m_1\right)+f_{\alpha _2}^j\left(m_2\right)+\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^k(m;m_1,m_2)\right\}\left(6.5^{}\right)$$

defining the $`(i,j;k)`$-composition of local central actions on $`M`$, provided $`(m_1,m_2;m)`$ can stand as midpoints for a reducible $`(i,j;k)`$-geodesic triangle and each action is defined with respect to the choices of central potentials referred to and explained above .

Clearly, (6.5) is a particular case of (6.5’), with $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{00}^0\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$. However, by restricting to the standard composition we have obtained a uniquely defined rule. In extending to generic central actions this rule ceased to be unique, even though each instance is well defined. Thus, for simplicity, when considering multiple compositions, in $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 7, we keep to the standard case. Finally we remind that, whenever meaningful (clean product ), (6.5’) applies for the composition of central relations on $`M`$.

Examples: Standard cases, only. In the simplest spaces, we provide the expressions for $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and analyse the specific nontrivial restrictions which apply, in each case. First :

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(\stackrel{}{x},\stackrel{}{x}_1,\stackrel{}{x}_2)=2\left\{\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{x}_1+\stackrel{}{x}_1\stackrel{}{x}_2+\stackrel{}{x}_2\stackrel{}{x}\right\}\left(6.6\right)$$

is the midpoint triangular area on $`IR^2`$ defining, via (6.5), the composition of two central actions on $`IR^2`$. On $`𝒯^2`$, we add the restriction on the lengths of the triangles, in terms of midpoints :

$$|q_iq|,|p_ip|,|q_1q_2|,|p_1p_2|<\pi /2,i=1,2.\left(6.7\right)$$

On the $`2`$-sphere, we have (see Appendix ) :

$$\mathrm{\Delta }=2\text{Arg}\left\{\sigma \sqrt{1D^2}+iD\right\}\left(6.8\right)$$

where $`\sigma \sigma (m,m_1,m_2)\{1,0,1\}`$ has the same sign as any of the scalar products $`\left(\widehat{m}\widehat{m}_1\right)`$, $`\left(\widehat{m}\widehat{m}_2\right)`$, $`\left(\widehat{m}_1\widehat{m}_2\right)`$, and $`DD(m,m_1,m_2)=det[\widehat{m},\widehat{m}_1,\widehat{m}_2]`$. Here, $`\widehat{m}S^2IR^3`$. For small triangles, i.e. $`\left|\mathrm{\Delta }\right|<\pi `$, (6.8) simplifies to $`\mathrm{\Delta }(m,m_1,m_2)=2S^1\left(det[\widehat{m},\widehat{m}_1,\widehat{m}_2]\right)`$. This explicit form for $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ must be placed in (6.5), provided the triplet $`(m,m_1,m_2)`$ stand as midpoints of a spherical triangle with all sides shorter than $`\pi `$. This nontrivial restriction :

$$sign\left(\left(\widehat{m}\widehat{m}_1\right)\right)=sign\left(\left(\widehat{m}_1\widehat{m}_2\right)\right)=sign\left(\left(\widehat{m}_2\widehat{m}\right)\right)\left(6.9\right)$$

is the constraint that must be imposed on (6.5) and (6.8) to define the standard composition of two central actions on the sphere. Constraints analogous to (6.9) or (6.7) apply to each mixed composition, for every space with closed geodesics. The noncompact hyperbolic plane, though similar to the sphere, presents one subtle distinction. Here we have, for $`m\stackrel{}{m}H^2IR^3`$ ,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }(m,m_1,m_2)=2S^1\left(\text{det}[\stackrel{}{m},\stackrel{}{m}_1,\stackrel{}{m}_2]\right).\left(6.10\right)$$

But now we notice that (6.10) only makes sense on the subset of $`H^2\times H^2\times H^2`$ determined by :

$$\left|\text{det}[\stackrel{}{m},\stackrel{}{m}_1,\stackrel{}{m}_2]\right|<1,\left(6.11\right)$$

The compostion of two central actions on $`H^2`$ is given by (6.5) and (6.10), subject to constraint (6.11). Actually, (6.11) is a necessary and sufficient condition any triplet of points on $`H^2`$ must satisfy in order to be the set of midpoints of a hyperbolic triangle. As in the case of the sphere, there is a nontrivial constraint in the composition of two central actions, but in the hyperbolic case, (6.11) comes naturally from the definition of the area function (6.10), being intrinsic to the hyperbolic geometry. Its interpretation is that the three midpoints can never be too far apart, as can be pictured by drawing a geodesic triangle on the Poincaré disc. For the sphere, on the other hand, (6.9) is a consequence of the restricted groupoid $`\left(TS^2\right)_0`$. In other words, there do exist spherical triangles whose midpoints do not satisfy (6.9), but they cannot be used in the definition of the standard composition of central actions (they can be used for mixed compositions), contrary to the hyperbolic case where, for every triangle, (6.11) holds. Also note that, when defining triangles by their triplets of vertices, instead of midpoints, no non-trivial restriction exists (except for sets of measure zero), which is a consequence of the fact that the map $`\left\{vertices\right\}\left\{midpoints\right\}`$ is generally less trivial than one would guess by looking only at the euclidean plane. See also Appendix and .

## 7. Multiple Compositions

So far we have seen how two central actions may compose into a new one via (6.5’). Now, we want to generalize it for the composition of an arbitrary number of standard central actions, whenever possible. This should be done with some care, so we first get :

Lemma 7.1 Let $`f_{\alpha _i}`$ locally be standard central actions for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _i}(TU)_0`$. If $`f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2}`$ and $`f_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _3}`$ are unique standard central actions on $`U`$, as well as $`(f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2})\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _3}`$ and $`f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}(f_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _3})`$, then $`(f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2})\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _3}=f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}(f_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _3})`$ is given by

$$f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _3}\left(m\right)=Stat_{(m_1,m_2,m_3)}\left\{\underset{i}{}f_{\alpha _i}\left(m_i\right)+P_4(m,m_1,m_2,m_3)\right\},\left(7.1\right)$$

$`P_4`$ being the smallest symplectic area of any (oriented) quadrilateral decomposable in triangles defined by elements in $`(TM)_0^2`$ only and determined by the midpoints $`(m,m_1,m_2,m_3)`$, up to constants.

Proof: Suppose $`f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2}`$, given by (6.5), is a unique standard central action on $`UM`$, just as $`f_{\alpha _3}`$. Applying (6.5) again: $`(f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2})\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _3}\left(m\right)`$ = $`Stat_{(m^{},m_3)}\{f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2}\left(m^{}\right)+f_{\alpha _3}\left(m_3\right)+`$ $`\mathrm{\Delta }(m,m^{},m_3)\}=Stat_{(m^{},m_3)}\{Stat_{(m_1,m_2)}\{f_{\alpha _1}\left(m_1\right)+f_{\alpha _2}\left(m_2\right)+\mathrm{\Delta }(m^{},m_1,m_2)\}+f_{\alpha _3}\left(m_3\right)+\mathrm{\Delta }(m^{},m_3,m)\}`$. If a unique solution exists, this rewrites as: $`Stat_{(m_1,m_2,m_3)}\{f_{\alpha _1}\left(m_1\right)+f_{\alpha _2}\left(m_2\right)+f_{\alpha _3}\left(m_3\right)+Stat_{\left(m^{}\right)}\{\mathrm{\Delta }(m^{},m_1,m_2)`$ $`+\mathrm{\Delta }(m^{},m_3,m)\}\}`$. But, with $`\left\{m_i\right\}`$ constrained by the overall stationary condition then, via the central equation (4.3), $`\mathrm{\Delta }(m^{},m_1,m_2)=:g_1\left(m^{}\right)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }(m^{},m_3,m)=:g_2\left(m^{}\right)`$ provide well defined maps $`\stackrel{}{G}_1`$, $`\stackrel{}{G}_2:m^{}\stackrel{}{v}_1,\stackrel{}{v}_2\left(T_m^{}M\right)_0`$, supposing that both $`g_1`$ and $`g_2`$ , as well as $`f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2}`$ and $`(f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2})\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _3}`$ are well defined unique central actions, i.e. both partial and complete unique solutions to the stationary conditions exist. From the form of the central equation and the involutive character of the central potential: $`Z_0\left(\tau \right)=Z_0\left(\overline{\tau }\right)`$, the $`m^{}`$ stationary condition implies $`\stackrel{}{G}_1\left(m^{}\right)=\stackrel{}{G}_2\left(m^{}\right)`$. Using the symmetric exponential map, we see that the two triangles composed form a single quadrilateral, i.e. their sides centered at $`m^{}`$ are precisely opposite to each other. In other words, we have that

$$Stat_{\left(m^{}\right)}\left\{\mathrm{\Delta }(m^{},m_1,m_2)+\mathrm{\Delta }(m^{},m_3,m)\right\}P_4(m_1,m_2,m_3,m)\left(7.2\right)$$

where $`P_4(m_1,m_2,m_3,m)`$ is the symplectic area of a standard quadrilateral whose midpoints are $`(m_1,m_2,m_3,m)`$. Generically, the four midpoints do not determine the quadrilateral uniquely. However, if all of its triangular decompositions yield triangles which are defined by elements in $`\left(TM\right)_0^2`$ only, then by Proposition 6.1 and (7.2), $`P_4`$ is the symplectic area of any such quadrilateral, up to constants : any degeneracy in its specific geometry, which is a continuous function of $`m^{}`$, does not alter the symplectic area, and any other “$`\left(TM\right)_0`$-quadrilateral”, in the above sense, will have the same symplectic area up to constants. $`\mathrm{}`$

The existence and uniqueness requirements are quite difficult to assure beforehand, in general. Of course, if any $`f_{\alpha _i}`$ or intermediary composition is not a central action, the triple composition is void. On the other hand, if an intermediary composition is not unique, say $`f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2}=\{g_1,g_2\}`$, then we could proceed to $`\{g_1\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _3},g_2\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _3}\}`$ in just the same manner, but the final composition $`(f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2})\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _3}`$ is not guaranteed to be associative, in principle. However, if all $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _i},\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _i\alpha _j,\mathrm{}}`$ are composed of sheets whose one of them can be consistently singled out, for some particular reason, as well as their corresponding central actions, then we can apply Lemma 7.1 exclusively to this particular set. Carefully reiterating all steps to (7.1) gives :

Corollary 7.1 Let $`f_{\alpha _i}`$ locally be standard central actions for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _i}(TU)_0`$. If all intermediary, ordered compositions $`f_{\alpha _i}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _{i+1}}`$, $`f_{\alpha _i}\mathrm{}(f_{\alpha _{i+1}}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _{i+2}}),((f_{\alpha _i}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _{i+1}})\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _{i+2}})\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _{i+3}}`$, etc… are unique standard central actions on $`U`$, then any $`n`$-string of ordered compositions which is a unique standard central action equals any other such $`n`$-string and is given by:

$$f_{\alpha _1}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _2}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _n}\left(m\right)=Stat_{\left(\left\{m_i\right\}\right)}\left\{\underset{i}{}f_{\alpha _i}\left(m_i\right)+P_{n+1}(m,\left\{m_i\right\})\right\}\left(7.3\right)$$

$`P_{n+1}(m,\left\{m_i\right\})`$ being the smallest symplectic area of any (oriented) $`(n+1)`$-polygon which can be triangulated by elements defined in $`(TM)_0^2`$ only and determined by the midpoints $`(m,\{m_i\})`$.

Again, if uniqueness fails, but a unique set of central actions can be consistently singled out, then we can use corollary 7.1 for these particular standard central actions exclusively (see $`\mathrm{\S }`$8). We should note that, with greater care, the above rules can be generalized to multiple mixed compositions of central actions and, even more generally, central relations whenever meaningful.

Corollary 7.1 generalizes a previous result on $`IR^{2n}`$ . We remark that some of the above discussion regarding composition of midpoint triangles, in more general symmetric symplectic spaces, has been approached independently from the point of view of associativity for star products .

Examples: For the composition of three actions, the euclidean plane presents an interesting feature. From (6.6) and (7.2), we get $`P_4/2=\text{Stat}_{\left(\stackrel{}{x}^{}\right)}\left\{\stackrel{}{x}_1\stackrel{}{x}_2+\stackrel{}{x}_3\stackrel{}{x}+\stackrel{}{x}^{}\left(\stackrel{}{x}_1\stackrel{}{x}_2+\stackrel{}{x}_3\stackrel{}{x}\right)\right\}`$, which implies: $`\stackrel{}{x}_1\stackrel{}{x}_2+\stackrel{}{x}_3\stackrel{}{x}=0`$ . This means that $`(\stackrel{}{x},\left\{\stackrel{}{x}_i\right\})`$ are the vertices of a parallelogram with diagonals $`\stackrel{}{x}_3\stackrel{}{x}_1`$, $`\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{x}_2`$. But this is true for any quadrilateral in $`IR^2`$, i.e. their midpoints are vertices of a parallelogram. Conversely, given any parallelogram on $`IR^2`$, there exists a continuous family of circumscribed quadrilaterals whose midpoints are the vertices of the given parallelogram. Such a family can be parametrized by one of the vertices of each circumscribed quadrilateral or, equivalently, by the midpoint of one of its diagonals, as $`\stackrel{}{x}^{}`$ above. In accordance with (7.2), the symplectic area independs on $`\stackrel{}{x}^{}`$, being uniquely given as twice the area of the inscribed parallelogram: $`P_4(\stackrel{}{x},\stackrel{}{x}_1,\stackrel{}{x}_2,\stackrel{}{x}_3)=2\left(\stackrel{}{x}_1\stackrel{}{x}_2+\stackrel{}{x}_3\stackrel{}{x}=\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{x}_1+\stackrel{}{x}_2\stackrel{}{x}_3\right)`$, which, inserted in (7.1), defines the composition of three central actions on $`IR^2`$, with $`(\stackrel{}{x},\left\{\stackrel{}{x}_i\right\})`$ subject to the parallelogram relation and under the necessary existence and uniqueness conditions presented in Lemma 7.1. On the torus, the same analysis and results apply, but now subject to the extra (standard groupoid) constraint: $`\left|qq_i\right|,\left|q_iq_j\right|,\left|pp_i\right|,\left|p_ip_j\right|<\pi /2,i,j=1,2,3.`$ In the spherical case, on the other hand, the above quadrilateral ambiguity is an exception, when considering only those quadrilaterals defined by composing elements in $`\left(TS^2\right)_0`$. Then, as with spherical triangles, a near-bijection between the sets of vertices and midpoints allows for a unique definition of the quadrilateral geometry either way, i.e. each quadrilateral is uniquely determined by its vertices or its midpoints (with a few exceptions) and the only restrictions on the latter derive from the restricted groupoid $`\left(TS^2\right)_0`$. Denoting $`C_{ij}=\widehat{m}_i\widehat{m}_jcosine\left(distance(m_i,m_j)\right)`$, we can write the midpoint area of convex quadrilaterals which are decomposable in small triangles, i.e. $`\left|\mathrm{\Delta }\right|<\pi `$, as $`P_4(m_1,m_2,m_3,m_4)=2\sigma _{1234}C^1\left\{C_{12}C_{34}+C_{23}C_{41}C_{13}C_{24}\right\}`$, where $`\sigma _{1234}=\pm 1`$ is the orientation of $`(m_1,m_2,m_3,m_4)`$ and the standard groupoid restrictions on the midpoints of these simplest quadrilaterals now become: $`D_{123},D_{234},D_{341},D_{412}>0`$ , where $`D_{ijk}det[\widehat{m}_i,\widehat{m}_j,\widehat{m}_k]`$, which, together with (7.1), define this simplest composition of three central actions on $`S^2`$, under the existence and uniqueness assumptions of Lemma 7.1. On $`H^2`$, the midpoint area function for a convex quadrilateral is given similarly by $`P_4(m_1,m_2,m_3,m_4)=2\sigma _{1234}C^1\left\{\stackrel{~}{C}_{12}\stackrel{~}{C}_{34}+\stackrel{~}{C}_{23}\stackrel{~}{C}_{41}\stackrel{~}{C}_{13}\stackrel{~}{C}_{24}\right\}`$ , where $`\stackrel{~}{C}_{ij}=cosh\left(distance(m_i,m_j)\right)`$. Again, the restrictions are intrinsic to the hyperbolic geometry and can be obtained directly from the area function, i.e. the convex set $`(m_1,m_2,m_3,m_4)`$ must satisfy $`\left|\stackrel{~}{C}_{12}\stackrel{~}{C}_{34}+\stackrel{~}{C}_{23}\stackrel{~}{C}_{41}\stackrel{~}{C}_{13}\stackrel{~}{C}_{24}\right|<1`$ and each quadruplet of midpoints satisfying this constraint determines a unique convex hyperbolic quadrilateral and vice-versa (with a few exceptions, see below). Using Lemma 7.1, we obtain this simplest composition of three central actions on $`H^2`$. See Appendix for a more detailed analysis on these quadrilateral geometries.

Besides providing explicit equations for compositions of three central actions, the previous discussions further illustrate some kinds of constraints which the midpoints, or centers (the arguments of the composing actions) are subject to. In this respect, the euclidean plane presents the feature that, when the number of composing actions is even, no restrictions apply, but when the number is odd, there is a degeneracy in the determination of the $`2\mathrm{}`$-polygon from its midpoints, corresponding to a linear functional restriction $`g(\stackrel{}{x},\stackrel{}{x}_1,\mathrm{}\stackrel{}{x}_{2\mathrm{}1})=0`$ on the arguments of the composing central actions. For the torus, one must further add the groupoid restrictions. On the other hand, in the nonflat cases studied, such a degeneracy is an exception and its corresponding extra constraint is not present. When considering only those polygons which can be obtained by iterated (standard) central groupoid compositions, there is a near-bijection between the sets of midpoints and vertices. On $`H^2`$, intrinsic restrictions on the midpoints exist, though, which show explicitly in the midpoint area function, whatever the number of composing actions. On $`S^2`$, only the (standard) central groupoid restrictions apply, in every case.

Another way to view degeneracies and extra constraints is the following: Let $`(m,\left\{m_i\right\}_n)`$ be a candidate for the set of midpoints for an $`\left(n+1\right)`$-polygon on $`M`$. Also, for each $`m_i`$, let $`_{m_i}:MM`$ be the corresponding involution whose fixed point is $`m_i`$. Then, the existence of a circumscribed $`\left(n+1\right)`$-polygon to the midpoints $`(m,\left\{m_i\right\}_n)`$ is equivalent to the existence of a fixed point for the symplectomorphism $`𝒫_{n+1}_{m_1}_{m_2}\mathrm{}_{m_n}_m:MM`$. Now, on $`IR^2`$, when $`n`$ is odd $`𝒫_{n+1}`$ is a translation, see (2.1). Fixed points exist only when this translation is the identity, in which case every point is fixed. For the sphere, on the other hand, $`𝒫_{n+1}SO\left(3\right)`$, $`nIN`$, and there is always a fixed point (actually two). However, for $`H^2`$, $`𝒫_{n+1}SO(2,1)`$ and there may or may not exist a fixed point on $`H^2`$, $`n2`$, but when there exists, it is unique. The exception, in both cases, is when $`𝒫_{n+1}1`$ and for these sets of points the corresponding circumscribed polygon is not uniquely defined by the midpoints, but so is its area.

We shall not present here an explicit characterization of multiple compositions, for generic $`n`$, in every example. The reader is referred to , for the euclidean case. Instead, in the next paragraph we study a particular limit for (7.3), as $`n\mathrm{}`$.

## 8. The Central Variational Principle

We now focus on the relationship between finite and infinitesimal canonical transformations in the central description, i.e., on the relation between finite and infinitesimal central actions. To this end, consider $`\left(\alpha \right)_T\left\{\alpha _y^{\left(x\right)}\right\}_T`$, a continuous sequence of canonical transformations on $`M`$ for which the following properties hold: $`x,y,z,t[0,T]`$ s.t. $`x+y+z=t`$ , $`\alpha _y^{\left(x\right)}:MM`$ satisfies $`\left(\alpha _y^{\left(x\right)}\right)^{}\omega =\omega `$, $`\alpha _t\alpha _t^{\left(0\right)}=\alpha _z^{\left(x+y\right)}\left(\alpha _y^{\left(x\right)}\alpha _x^{\left(0\right)}\right)=\alpha _z^{\left(x+y\right)}\alpha _{x+y}^{\left(0\right)}=\left(\alpha _z^{\left(x+y\right)}\alpha _y^{\left(x\right)}\right)\alpha _x^{\left(0\right)}=\alpha _{y+z}^{\left(x\right)}\alpha _x^{\left(0\right)}`$ and also $`\alpha _{t+\epsilon }=\alpha _\epsilon ^{\left(t\right)}\alpha _t=\alpha _t+o\left(\epsilon \right)`$, as $`\epsilon 0`$, with $`\alpha _\epsilon ^{\left(t\right)}id:MM`$, where $`\alpha _\epsilon ^{\left(t\right)}`$ is the infinitesimal canonical transformation defined by the hamiltonian function $`h\left(t\right)`$, via Hamilton’s equation or, equivalently, by the infinitesimal central action $`f_{\alpha _\epsilon ^{\left(t\right)}}=\epsilon h\left(t\right)`$, via the central equation (4.3). We assume that $`h\left(t\right)`$ is a continuous function of $`t`$, but $`h\left(t\right)h\left(t^{}\right)`$, in general. In other words, $`h`$ is a nonautonomous hamiltonian, i.e. a continuous function on $`M\times [0,T]`$. Accordingly, we denote $`h\left(0\right)h`$ and, if $`h\left(t\right)=h`$, $`t[0,T]`$, we say that $`h`$ is autonomous. In this particular case, $`h\left(t\right)h`$, we have that, for $`t[T,T]`$, $`\left(\alpha _t\right)^1\alpha _t`$. But generally, i.e. $`h\left(t\right)h\left(t^{}\right)`$, such simplest inversibility relation only applies for very short intervals of time, i.e. $`\left(\alpha _\epsilon ^{\left(t\right)}\right)^1=\alpha _\epsilon ^{\left(t\right)}`$ only in the limit $`\epsilon 0`$. In other words, the flow of $`\left\{\alpha _t\right\}_T`$ is locally hamiltonian (autonomous), but not globally. Now, we will seek local central actions for $`\alpha _t`$ given in terms of $`h\left(t\right)`$. To achieve this goal we shall use the results from the previous paragraph, but, in doing so, we should certify that $`f_{\alpha _t}`$ exists and is unique, $`t^{}[0,t)`$, in principle. Actually, both conditions can be relaxed in this particular case, as is shown below. Then, we obtain:

Theorem 8.1 Let $`(\alpha )_T`$ be a continuous sequence of canonical transformations on $`M`$, as above, where as $`\epsilon 0`$, $`\alpha _\epsilon ^{(t)}`$ is the infinitesimal canonical transformation generated by the hamiltonian $`h(t)h(m,t)`$ continuous in $`t`$. Then, wherever the central action for $`\alpha _t\alpha _t^{(0)}`$ exists, $`f_{\alpha _t}(m)\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t(m)\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)`$, it satisfies the Central Variational Principle:

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)=Stat_{\left(\nu \right)}\left\{_\nu h(m^{}\left(t^{}\right),t^{})𝑑t^{}+𝒮/_\nu \omega \right\}(m,t),\left(8.1\right)$$

for a family of continuous paths $`\nu :[0,t]M`$ geodesically centered on $`m`$, where, by definition $`\{𝒮/_\nu \omega \}(m,t)[𝒮/_\nu \omega ]^t(m)`$ is the symplectic area between the curve $`\nu `$ and the geodesic from $`\nu (t)`$ to $`\nu (0)`$ centered on $`m`$. This area function is well defined, up to constants, provided the geodesic is such that the full closed circuit reducible. Furthermore, the stationary paths $`\nu `$ solving (8.1) coincide with the classical trajectories on phase space describing the continuous evolution from $`\nu (0)`$ to $`\nu (t)`$ .

Fig. 8.1 – Central symplectic area of a curve

Proof: We start by considering those central actions which are continuously deformed from the hamiltonian, i.e. $`f_{\alpha _t}\epsilon h`$, as $`t\epsilon 0`$, continuously on $`UM`$. Thus, let $`\left\{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _t}\right\}`$ be a continuous set of lagrangian submanifolds in $`(\left(TM\right)_0,\mathrm{\Omega }_0)`$, evolving from the zero section $`T^0M\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _0}M`$, s.t. $`\tau \mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _t}`$, $`\mathrm{\Phi }\left(\tau \right)=(m_{},m_+)`$ satisfies $`m_+=\alpha _t\left(m_{}\right)`$. Suppose that over $`\overline{U}M`$ there are $`\mathrm{}`$ branches of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_n\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _n}`$, where $`\alpha _n\alpha _t`$ for $`t=t_n(0,T]`$, generated by $`\mathrm{}`$ central actions $`f_{\alpha _n}^j,j=1\mathrm{},\mathrm{}`$. Generically, $`\overline{U}`$ is an open neighborhood bounded by the sets of central caustics $`\left\{m_n\right\}^j,j=1,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}1`$. Further, let $`t_k(0,t_n)`$ be the time when a central catastrophe first appear for $`\left\{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _t}\right\}`$, i.e. $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _t}`$ satisfies (4.2) everywhere on $`M`$, for $`t<t_k`$ only. Denote $`\left\{m_k\right\}`$ the set of central caustics for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_k`$, then we can find neighborhoods in $`M`$ divided by $`\left\{m_k\right\}`$. This is not so clear when codim$`\left(\left\{m_k\right\}\right)>1`$, but following the evolution of these caustics we can find appropriate subdivisions in $`M`$. Let’s denote by $`U_k^1`$ one of such neighborhoods, containing $`\overline{U}`$. Then $`𝒜_c^0\left(\overline{U}\right)𝒜_c^0\left(U_k^1\right)`$. Let $`f_{\alpha _k}^1𝒜_c^0\left(\overline{U}\right)`$ be the central action for $`\alpha _k`$ on $`\overline{U}U_k^1M`$. Now, of all the branches of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_n`$, over $`\overline{U}`$, only one is a continuous deformation from $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_k`$, over $`\overline{U}`$, therefore, of all the central actions for $`\alpha _n`$ on $`\overline{U}`$, only one is a continuous deformation from $`f_{\alpha _k}^1`$ on $`\overline{U}`$. And since $`f_{\alpha _k}^1`$ is continuously deformed from $`\epsilon h`$, even though there are more than one central actions for $`\alpha _n`$ on $`\overline{U}`$, there is a unique central action for $`\alpha _n`$ on $`\overline{U}`$, denoted $`f_{\alpha _n}^1`$, which is continuously deformed from $`f_{\alpha _\epsilon }=\epsilon h`$, $`t\epsilon 0`$. This result clearly independs on the number of subsets of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_n`$ over $`\overline{U}`$, or equivalently, on the number of central actions for $`\alpha _n`$ on $`\overline{U}`$. Also, the other sets of central catastrophes for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_n`$, $`\left\{\tau _n\right\}^j,j=2,\mathrm{}\mathrm{}1`$, are not connected to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_n^1`$, so $`f_{\alpha _n}^1`$ is actually a continuously deformed central action on the larger neighborhood $`U_n^1\overline{U}`$, $`U_n^1U_k^1M`$ being limited only by the set of central caustics $`\left\{m_t^{}\right\}^1`$, $`t^{}(0,t_n)`$. This also means that, for such values of $`t^{},f_{\alpha _t^{}}^1`$ exists, besides being continuously deformed from the hamiltonian, on $`U_n^1M`$. We are now ready to apply corollary 7.1 to $`f_{\alpha _t}^1=f_{\alpha _{t/r}^{\left(r1\right)}}^1\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _{t/r}^{\left(r2\right)}}^1\mathrm{}\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _{t/r}^{\left(1\right)}}^1\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _{t/r}^{\left(0\right)}}^1`$, $`r`$ times. That is, the continuity of $`f_{\alpha _t}^1`$ has substituted for uniqueness. From the involutive character of the central potential $`Z_0`$, via the central equation we have that $`f_{\left(\alpha _\epsilon \right)^1}=f_{\alpha _\epsilon }=f_{\alpha _\epsilon }`$, which implies that $`f_{\alpha _\epsilon }=+\epsilon h+o\left(\epsilon ^3\right)`$. Also for $`f_{\alpha _\epsilon ^{\left(t^{}\right)}}=\epsilon h\left(t^{}\right)+o\left(\epsilon ^3\right)`$. Then, letting $`r\mathrm{}`$, we can safely make the approximation $`f_{\alpha _{t/r}^{\left(i\right)}}^1=\frac{t}{r}h\left(t_i^{}\right)+o\left(\left(t/r\right)^3\right)\stackrel{}{}\frac{t}{r}h\left(t_i^{}\right)`$, to get on $`U_t^1M`$ :

$$f_{\alpha _t}^1\left(m\right)=\underset{r\mathrm{}}{lim}\left[\text{Stat}_{\left(\left\{m_i^{}\right\}_r\right)}\left\{\underset{i=1}{\overset{r}{}}\left(\frac{t}{r}\right)h(m_i^{},t_i^{})+P_{r+1}(m,\left\{m_i^{}\right\}_r)\right\}\right],\left(8.2\right)$$

where $`m_i^{}=m^{}\left(t_i^{}\right)`$, $`t_i^{}<t_{i+1}^{}[0,t]`$. Now we realize that (8.2) takes on the form (8.1) as we identify $`\nu lim_r\mathrm{}\left(\left\{m^{}\left(t_i^{}\right)\right\}_r\right):[0,t]U_t^1M`$ as a continuous curve satisfying $`P_0\left(\mathrm{\Phi }_0^1(\nu \left(0\right),\nu \left(t\right))\right)=m`$. In passing from (8.2) to (8.1), this area is integrated via a limit $`\left(r\mathrm{}\right)`$ of the area of $`\left(r+1\right)`$-polygons whose midpoints are $`(m,\left\{m_i^{}\right\}_r)`$, as $`r`$ of the sides tend to length zero while the other tends to the geodesic from $`m_r^{}`$ to $`m_1^{}`$ centered on $`m`$. In order to see that the stationary path is the classical trajectory with endpoints geodesically centered on $`m`$, we notice that each small side of the $`\left(r+1\right)`$-polygon is a geodesic which, in the limit of very short time intervals, i.e. of very small sides, coincides with the local hamiltonian flow of $`h(m_i^{},t_i^{})`$, which is centered on $`m_i^{}`$, as discussed in $`\mathrm{\S }`$ 4. Thus, taking the limit $`r\mathrm{}`$ of $`\left\{m^{}\left(t_i^{}\right)\right\}_r`$, we obtain a path that is everywhere tangent to the locally hamiltonian flow, in other words, that converges onto the classical trajectory. At first, (8.1)-(8.2) would apply only to those central actions that can be continuously deformed from the hamiltonian $`h`$, on $`U_t^1M`$. However, if $`f_{\alpha _t}`$ is not of this type, it is always possible to decompose it in the form $`f_{\alpha _t}=f_{\alpha _{tt^{}}^{\left(t^{}\right)}}^1\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _t^{}^{\left(0\right)}}^1\text{or}f_{\alpha _{tt^{}t^{\prime \prime }}^{\left(t^{}+t^{\prime \prime }\right)}}^1\mathrm{}^j\left(f_{\alpha _{t^{\prime \prime }}^{\left(t^{}\right)}}^1\mathrm{}f_{\alpha _t^{}^{\left(0\right)}}^1\right),\text{etc…}`$ where each “smaller” component is continuously deformed from the appropriate $`h\left(t^{}\right)`$, on each appropriate neighborhood. Thus, they can be written as solutions to (8.1), with each $`\nu ^{}:[t^{},tt^{}]M`$, etc… However, the laws for compositions of central actions (6.5’), plus the fact that we are composing central actions for the continuous sequence $`\left(\alpha \right)_T`$, imply that the trajectories $`\nu ^{},\nu ^{\prime \prime }`$ compose into a single continuous trajectory $`\nu =\nu ^{\prime \prime }\nu ^{}`$, for appropriate choices of $`f_{\alpha _t^{}}^1,f_{\alpha _{t^{\prime \prime }}^{\left(t^{}\right)}}^1`$, with the corresponding areas $`𝒮/_\nu ^{}w`$ and $`𝒮/_{\nu ^{\prime \prime }}w`$ summing up to $`𝒮/_\nu w`$. To see this, we notice that the stationary condition on $`m^{}`$ in (6.5’) implies, via central equation, that $`\left[𝒮/_\nu w\right]^t^{}\left(m^{}\right)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }(m^{},m^{\prime \prime },m)`$ provide maps from $`m^{}`$ into reciprocally inverse elements in $`T_m^{}M`$, which, via the symmetric exponential map, tells us that they compose into a single geometric figure. Repeating the analysis with $`m^{\prime \prime }`$, we have that $`\left[𝒮/_\nu w\right]^t^{}\left(m^{}\right)`$, $`\left[𝒮/_\nu w\right]^{t^{\prime \prime }}\left(m^{\prime \prime }\right)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }(m,m^{},m^{\prime \prime })`$ compose into $`\left[𝒮/_\nu w\right]^t\left(m\right)`$ $`\left\{𝒮/_\nu w\right\}(m,t)`$, for $`t=t^{}+t^{\prime \prime }`$, using the fact that $`\nu =\nu ^{\prime \prime }\nu ^{}`$, provided the composition is reducible, i.e. provided the triangle of composition $`\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Delta }_{ij}^k`$ is a reducible circuit, which means that the geodesic from $`\nu \left(t\right)`$ to $`\nu \left(0\right)`$ centered on $`m`$ is such that it closes the trajectory $`\nu `$ into a reducible circuit. And so on… it follows that $`f_{\alpha _t}`$ can also be written as a solution to (8.1), even when it is not continuously deformed from the hamiltonian, meaning that, for some $`(m^{},t^{})M\times [0,t)`$, $`f_{\alpha _t^{}}\left(m^{}\right)`$ does not exist, i.e. $`m^{}`$ is a central caustic singularity for $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\alpha _t^{}}`$, $`t^{}<t`$. So, even though generically $`f_{\alpha _t^{}}`$ does not exist everywhere on $`M`$ , for $`t^{}<t`$, and $`f_{\alpha _t}`$ is not everywhere deformed from the hamiltonian function $`h`$ continuously, wherever $`f_{\alpha _t}`$ exists it can be written as a solution to (8.1), with $`\nu `$ being a continuous trajectory, $`\nu :[0,t]M`$, and $`m`$ being the center of the (short or long) geodesic from $`\nu \left(t\right)`$ to $`\nu \left(0\right)`$ closing the trajectory into a reducible circuit. $`\mathrm{}`$

Theorem 8.1 generalizes to nonflat symmetric symplectic spaces the previous result on euclidean space . It is a real variational principle which is invariant at least under general transformations on $`M`$ preserving the affine connection and the symplectic form. Besides, it does not require any local decomposition of the phase space $`M`$ into lagrangian subsets. That is, it is fully adapted to the nontrivial geometry of $`M`$. Furthermore, in opposition to the complex conterparts, this real variational principle has only real classical trajectories as stationary solutions. The novel feature is that such trajectories are constrained on their geodesic centers instead of the more familiar (local) lagrangian coordinates of their endpoints. Therefore, in solving for the paths $`\nu `$ which are stationary in (8.1), only the time $`t`$ and the center $`m`$ are held fixed. Finally, the central action $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)`$ itself provides, via the central equation, the finite transformation $`\nu \left(0\right)\nu \left(t\right)`$ and, given its explicit relationship to the infinitesimal generators $`h(m,t)`$, plus the fact that it is a real function on $`M\times [0,T]`$, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h`$ can be seen as a finite time extension of the hamiltonian function.

## 9. Temporal Evolution of Central Actions

We have just seen how the central variational principle provides, not only for the classical trajectories obtained by the stationary condition, but also for the central actions which generate finite canonical transformations and can thus be seen as finite time extensions of the hamiltonian functions. Now, we shall investigate the temporal evolution of such central actions. This can be done in two ways. First, we can examine the temporal evolution of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)`$, for fixed $`m`$. The total variation of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)`$ with respect to $`t`$ depends on the direction of $`\stackrel{}{\dot{m}}`$. We have :

$$\epsilon _t\left(\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)\right)\epsilon \{\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)/t+\stackrel{}{\dot{m}}d\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t\left(m\right)\},(9.1)$$

denoting $`\delta t=\epsilon `$ . On the other hand, by (8.1),

$$\epsilon _t\left(\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t\left(m\right)\right)=\epsilon h(\nu \left(t\right),t)+\epsilon \{\stackrel{}{\dot{m}}d\left[𝒮/_\nu w\right]^t\left(m\right)\}+o(\epsilon ^2),(9.2)$$

since $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t\left(m\right)`$ is stationary in $`\nu `$ and only terms in $`\left(\delta \nu \right)^2`$ contribute, where $`o\left(\left(\delta \nu \right)^2\right)o\left(\epsilon ^2\right)`$. In equation (9.2) we are thus approximating the new path $`\nu _{t+\epsilon }^{}`$ by the old one $`\nu _t`$ , i.e. we consider only infinitesimal variations in the endpoint $`\nu \left(t\right)`$ along the same classical trajectory $`\nu :(0,t+\epsilon )M`$. Via the central equation, we have $`d\mathrm{\Psi }_h^tdf_{\alpha _t}:m\stackrel{~}{\tau }_{\alpha _t}`$, while $`d\left[𝒮/_\nu w\right]^t:m\stackrel{~}{\tau }_\nu `$. But, by construction, $`\stackrel{~}{\tau }_{\alpha _t}=\stackrel{~}{\tau }_\nu =\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_i^1(\nu \left(0\right),\nu \left(t\right))`$ and therefore $`d\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t\left(m\right)=d\left[𝒮/_\nu w\right]^t\left(m\right)`$, where now we identify $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t\left(m\right)\mathrm{\Psi }_h^i(m,t)`$ as a generic central action. From this and (9.1)-(9.2), we identify:

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)/t=h(m_+,t)\left(9.3\right)$$

But since $`m_+=Exp_m\left(+\stackrel{}{F}_{\alpha _t}^i\left(m\right)\right)`$ , $`\stackrel{}{F}_{\alpha _t}^i\left(m\right)\left(\stackrel{~}{T_mM}\right)_i`$ defined by $`df_{\alpha _t}^id\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t`$ via central equation,

$$IH\left[\mathrm{\Psi }_h^i(m,t)\right]:=h(Exp_m\left(+\stackrel{}{F}_{\alpha _t}^i\left(m\right)\right),t)\left(9.4\right)$$

defines the functional $`IH`$ on $`𝒜_c\left(U\right)`$. Then, (9.3) can be rewritten as:

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)/t+IH\left[\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)\right]=0,\left(9.5\right)$$

which is the central version of the Hamilton-Jacobi equation  .

Examples: On $`IR^2`$ (9.5) becomes $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h(\stackrel{}{x},t)/t+h(\stackrel{}{x}\frac{1}{2}J\left(\mathrm{\Psi }_h(\stackrel{}{x},t)/\stackrel{}{x}\right),t)=0`$, see . On $`S^2`$ and $`H^2`$, however, its explicit generic form in local coordinates is quite complicated and it is rather simpler to use (4.9) or (4.11) to write $`IH\left[\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t\left(m\right)\right]`$, for each specific $`h`$. As simplest example, consider on $`S^2`$ the hamiltonian function $`h=C_\theta `$, generator of infinitesimal rotations around the south/north axis, or poles. Using the convention $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h^tf_{\alpha _t}2f_t`$, by (4.9) we rewrite the standard version of (9.5) as $`f(\theta ,t)/t\frac{1}{2}C_\theta \sqrt{1\left(f(\theta ,t)/\theta \right)^2}=0,`$ where we denoted $`f_t(\theta ,\phi )f(\theta ,t)`$, exploiting the $`\phi `$-invariance of the action; and remembering that, by rescaling $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h^tf_{\alpha _t}`$, we must also rescale $`h`$, and hence $`IH`$ by the same factor. Check explicitly that the central action given by (5.3), with $`\chi =0`$ and $`t=2\gamma `$, satisfies the previous equation. Similarly for generic examples.

Finally, we notice that we could rewrite equation (9.1) as: $`_t^g\left(\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t\left(m\right)\right):=\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t\left(m\right)/t+\stackrel{}{v}_gd\mathrm{\Psi }^t_h\left(m\right)`$, for $`\stackrel{}{\dot{m}}\stackrel{}{v}_g`$ defined by $`\stackrel{}{v}_gw=dg`$, $`g𝒞_{IR}^k\left(M\right)`$. Using (9.5), we get:

Proposition 9.1 Let $`g,h𝒞_{IR}^k(M\times [0,T])`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t𝒜_c(U)`$, $`UM`$, where $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t\mathrm{\Psi }_h(t)`$ is related to $`h`$ via the central variational principle (8.1), for a given time $`t[0,T]`$. The time derivative of $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t`$ “along $`g`$”, i.e. in the direction of the local hamiltonian flow of $`g`$, denoted $`_t^g(\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t)`$, is given by

$$_t^g\left(\mathrm{\Psi }_h\left(t\right)\right)=\{\mathrm{\Psi }_h\left(t\right),g\left(t\right)\}IH\left[\mathrm{\Psi }_h\left(t\right)\right],\left(9.6\right)$$

where $`\{,\}`$ denotes the Poisson bracket and the functional $`IH`$ is defined by (9.4) via the central equation.

The r.h.s. of (9.6) involves partial derivatives in $`M`$ only. Particularly interesting is the case where $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t`$ is known to be invariant in a given direction $`\stackrel{}{v}_g`$ ,

$$_t^g\left(\mathrm{\Psi }_h\left(t\right)\right)=0,\text{giving}\{\mathrm{\Psi }_h\left(t\right),g\left(t\right)\}=IH\left[\mathrm{\Psi }_h\left(t\right)\right]\left(9.7\right)$$

as a direct relationship between the functional $`IH`$ and the Poisson bracket with $`g`$. Conversely, any function $`g`$ satisfying the second part of (9.7) defines curves $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_g:[0,T]UM`$, along which $`\mathrm{\Psi }_h^t`$ is constant. The other particularly interesting case is when $`\{\mathrm{\Psi }_h\left(t\right),g\left(t\right)\}=0`$, for which $`_t^g\left(\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)\right)=\mathrm{\Psi }_h(m,t)/t`$, computable by the Hamilton-Jacobi equation.

## 10. Conclusion

We presented a general formalism for describing hamiltonian systems defined on symmetric symplectic spaces, where the local generating functions are real functions on phase space. We saw how the central actions (relations) are defined, generating finite canonical transformations (relations) via the central equation and the symmetric exponential map, and how they compose via a neat formula involving the midpoint triangular (polygonal) area. Then we saw how the “extended hamiltonians” satisfy a geometrically simple real variational principle, which determines the classical trajectories, and obey a Hamilton-Jacobi equation, mixed with Poisson brackets.

The authors’ main motivation into this central formalism lies in its application to problems in quantization and semiclassical analysis, more specifically in connection to “Weyl quantization” and “star products”, which attempt to understand the classical-quantum relationship within the phase space formalism. In this respect, and specially for oscillatory phenomena, it turns into a definite advantage the definition of real phase space generating functions, which can be connected to hamiltonians in such geometrical fashion, with their neat triangular law of composition (see ).

A possible extra application refers to implementing new symplectic integrators (see  for a review). Here, the polygonal law of composition (7.3) could be applied in the discretization process, making use of the fact that each local action for a finite small interval of time is a small, in principle controlled, deformation of the hamiltonian. Also, for autonomous hamiltonians the formalism is symmetric with respect to trajectories in both temporal directions.

On its own, however, such geometrically simple law of composition presents new routes of investigation on symplectic dynamical systems. For, as hamiltonian functions correspond to generators of infinitesimal canonical transformations, the actions correspond to elements in the Lie group. Therefore, their homogeneous presentation, which naturally extends to relations, sheds new light on the canonical formalism on symmetric symplectic spaces.

Acknowledgements: This is an edited english translation of the first author’s PhD thesis (2000). PdMR thanks Jair Koiller for incentive and generous help, Mauricio Peixoto for an interesting remark, Gijs Tuynman for collaboration on various subjects related to this work, and Alan Weinstein for invaluable criticism, comments and suggestions. We thank CNPq for support.

## Appendix

Triangular computations : In the spherical case, recall  that if $`\lambda _i`$ are the angles of a geodesic triangle on $`S^2`$, whose opposite sides are $`\mathrm{}_i<\pi `$, respectively, then the following trigonometric equalities hold: $`S_\mathrm{}_i/S_{\lambda _i}=constant,C_\mathrm{}_k=C_\mathrm{}_iC_\mathrm{}_j+S_\mathrm{}_iS_\mathrm{}_jC_{\lambda _k},C_{\lambda _k}=S_{\lambda _i}S_{\lambda _j}C_\mathrm{}_kC_{\lambda _i}C_{\lambda _j}`$. Also, the area of a spherical triangle is its excess angle . Now, for any spherical triangle with sides $`\mathrm{}_i<\pi `$, a simple computation shows that $`T_{\lambda _i}=K/\left(C_\mathrm{}_iC_\mathrm{}_jC_\mathrm{}_k\right)`$ where $`\lambda _i`$ is the angle opposite to $`\mathrm{}_i`$ and $`K`$ is a constant for this triangle, $`K^21C_\mathrm{}_1^2C_\mathrm{}_2^2C_\mathrm{}_3^2+2C_\mathrm{}_1C_\mathrm{}_2C_\mathrm{}_3Det^2[\widehat{\alpha }_1,\widehat{\alpha }_2,\widehat{\alpha }_3]`$, where $`\alpha _i`$ are the vertices of the triangle. By correctly fixing the orientations, we can take the $`+`$sign in the square root. Then, let’s denote $`\mathrm{}_i=2y_i`$ and $`x_idistance(m_j,m_k)`$, where $`m_i`$ is the midpoint of the $`\mathrm{}_i`$ side. We have that $`\widehat{m}_i=\frac{1}{2C_{y_i}}\left(\widehat{\alpha }_j+\widehat{\alpha }_k\right)`$, from which, since $`C_{x_i}=\widehat{m}_j\widehat{m}_k`$, we get that $`C_{x_i}=\frac{1}{2C_{y_k}}\left(C_{y_j}+C_{z_j}\right)=\frac{1}{2C_{y_i}}\left(C_{y_k}+C_{z_k}\right)`$, where $`z_jdistance(m_j,\alpha _j)`$. From this we get: $`C_{x_1}/C_{y_1}=C_{x_2}/C_{y_2}=C_{x_3}/C_{y_3}=\mathrm{\Gamma },\text{a constant}.`$ This is a generalization of the plane trigonometric relation $`x_i/y_i=1`$. Now, in order to compute $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, we substitute the previous equation in the trigonometric equalities, to obtain: $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^2=C_{x_1}^2+C_{x_2}^2+C_{x_3}^22C_{x_1}C_{x_2}C_{x_3}1Det^2[\widehat{m}_1,\widehat{m}_2,\widehat{m}_3]`$. Using the previous equations for $`T_{\lambda _i}`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }^2`$, we finally get $`T_{\lambda _i}=\mathrm{\Gamma }\sqrt{1\mathrm{\Gamma }^2}/\left(\mathrm{\Gamma }^2C_{x_j}C_{x_k}/C_{x_i}\right)\text{and}T_{\left(\lambda _1+\lambda _2+\lambda _3\right)}T_\mathrm{\Delta }=\mathrm{\Gamma }\sqrt{1\mathrm{\Gamma }^2}/\left(\mathrm{\Gamma }^21/2\right)`$. Identifying $`\mathrm{\Gamma }C_\gamma `$, we have $`T_\mathrm{\Delta }=T_{2\gamma }`$, that is $`C_{\mathrm{\Delta }/2}=\pm \sqrt{C_{x_1}^2+C_{x_2}^2+C_{x_3}^22C_{x_1}C_{x_2}C_{x_3}}\mathrm{\Gamma },S_{\mathrm{\Delta }/2}=Det[\widehat{m}_1,\widehat{m}_2,\widehat{m}_3]`$. The sign choice for $`S_{\mathrm{\Delta }/2}`$ is fixed by the orientation. We still have to determine the sign of the square root in $`C_{\mathrm{\Delta }/2}`$. Obviously, if $`\left|\mathrm{\Delta }\right|<\pi `$, we must choose the $`+`$sign. These triangular areas are continuously deformed from infinitesimal triangles, for which $`C_{x_i}>0`$, $`i`$. Since we are considering only short triangles, i.e. $`y_i<\pi /2`$, $`i`$, from $`C_{x_i}/C_{y_i}=\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, we get $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>0`$. On the other hand, let $`\left|\mathrm{\Delta }\right|=2\pi `$, i.e. consider $`m_1,m_2,m_3`$ to be collinear, same for $`\alpha _1`$, $`\alpha _2`$, $`\alpha _3`$, such that the “triangle” coincides with a geodesic meridian. Again, if $`y_i<\pi /2`$, $`i`$, it is clear that in this case $`C_{x_i}<0`$, $`i`$, from $`C_{x_i}/C_{y_i}=\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, since $`C_{\mathrm{\Delta }/2}\mathrm{\Gamma }<0`$. And so on for triangular areas continuously deformed from this “big triangle”. Finally, when $`\left|\mathrm{\Delta }\right|=\pi `$, $`C_{\mathrm{\Delta }/2}=0`$ and we have that, $`i`$, $`C_{x_i}=0`$. In this case, $`C_{y_i}`$ is completely undetermined and so is the triangle, although the area of all such triangles is uniquely given by their common midpoints. It follows that the sign of the square root is the same as the sign of the $`C_{x_i}`$, or in other words $`\widehat{m}_j\widehat{m}_k`$, $`i,j,k`$, if all sides are short. Hence, we’ve got (6.8). As for the restrictions on the midpoints, we have already obtained these. If $`C_{y_i}>0`$, $`i`$, then either $`C_{x_i}>0`$, $`i`$, or $`C_{x_i}=0`$, $`i`$ or else $`C_{x_i}<0`$, $`i`$. In all cases, $`sign\left(C_{x_i}\right)=sign\left(C_{x_j}\right)`$, $`i,j`$, which is condition (6.9). With some care, these analysis and results can be extended and modified for general spherical triangles. Again, this previous analysis can be adapted to $`H^2`$, with care (refer to  for hyperbolic geometry and trigonometry). On $`H^2`$ we don’t have problems of antipodals or sign choices, since $`\left|\mathrm{\Delta }\right|<\pi `$, always. On the other hand, the analogous to (6.8), namely (6.10), is well defined only when (6.11) is satisfied. But once $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=C_{\mathrm{\Delta }/2}=\stackrel{~}{C}_{x_1}+\stackrel{~}{C}_{x_2}+\stackrel{~}{C}_{x_3}2\stackrel{~}{C}_{x_1}\stackrel{~}{C}_{x_2}\stackrel{~}{C}_{x_3}`$ is well defined, we go through the argument backwards from $`\stackrel{~}{C}_{x_1}/\stackrel{~}{C}_{y_1}=\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, to see that the triangle is also well defined. See  for alternative discussion.

Quadrilateral computations : Again we proceed in the spherical case and later adapt the hyperbolic formulas. Consider a short quadrilateral with vertices $`\alpha _i`$ and midpoints $`m_imid(\alpha _i,\alpha _{i+1})`$, s.t. $`distance(\alpha _i,\alpha _j)<\pi `$ , $`i,j\{1,\mathrm{}4\}`$. This means that not only the sides, but also the diagonals are short. Now, denote by $`m_0`$ the midpoint of the diagonal $`(\alpha _1,\alpha _3)`$ and by $`y_0`$ its half length. Similarly, denote by $`y_i=\frac{1}{2}distance(\alpha _i,\alpha _{i+1})`$. Then, each of the triangles $`(\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)`$ and $`(\alpha _3,\alpha _4,\alpha _1)`$ are uniquely determined by their midpoints $`(m_0,m_1,m_2)`$ and $`(m_0,m_3,m_4)`$, which shall be denoted by $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{34}`$, respectively, with the same notation referring to their respective areas. Further, we denote $`x_{ij}=distance(m_i,m_j)`$. From the triangular analysis, we know that $`C_{x_{12}}/C_{y_0}=C_{\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}/2}`$, $`C_{x_{34}}/C_{y_0}=C_{\mathrm{\Delta }_{34}/2}`$. Similarly for the other partition, $`C_{x_{23}}/C_{y_0^{}}=C_{\mathrm{\Delta }_{23}/2}`$, $`C_{x_{41}}/C_{y_o^{}}=C_{\mathrm{\Delta }_{41}/2}`$, where $`y_0^{}=\frac{1}{2}`$ distance $`(\alpha _2,\alpha _4)`$, $`m_0^{}`$ being its midpoint, and so on. Therefore, $`C_{x_{12}}/C_{x_{34}}=C_{\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}/2}/C_{\mathrm{\Delta }_{34}/2},C_{x_{23}}/C_{x_{41}}=C_{\mathrm{\Delta }_{23}/2}/C_{\mathrm{\Delta }_{41}/2}.`$ These equations generalize the parallelogram relation on the plane, $`x_{12}/x_{34}=1=x_{23}/x_{41}`$, but contrary to the plane, they impose no constraint on the midpoints. To compensate for this fact, in the spherical case the 4 midpoints uniquely determine the area as well as the specific geometry of the short quadrilateral. In other words $`m_0=m_0\left(\left\{m_i\right\}\right)`$ and similarly for $`m_0^{}`$. To see this, let’s denote $`\tau _0=\mathrm{\Phi }_0^1(\alpha _1,\alpha _3)`$. Ie. $`\tau _0=(m_0,\stackrel{}{v}_0)`$, $`\left|\stackrel{}{v}_0\right|=y_0`$. Also, we denote by $`_m`$ the involution through $`m`$ and consider the element of $`SO\left(3\right)`$ defined as $`\sigma _{12}^2:=_{m_1}_{m_2}`$. Similarly, $`\sigma _{34}^2:=_{m_3}_{m_4}`$. Now, for any element $`\sigma SO\left(3\right)`$, consider the vector field $`X_\sigma TS^2`$ defined by $`\tau X_\sigma `$ iff $`\mathrm{\Phi }\left(\tau \right)=(m_{},m_+)`$ s.t. $`m_+=\sigma ^2\left(m_{}\right)`$. Then, the condition which guarantees that triangles $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{34}`$ compose into a quadrilateral $`\mathrm{}_{1234}`$ can be written as $`\tau _0X_{\sigma _{12}}X_{\sigma _{34}^1}`$. But, $`\tau _0X_{\sigma _{12}}`$ only if the pole $`p_{12}`$ of $`\sigma _{12}`$ lies in the polar line of $`\tau _0`$, which is defined as the orthogonal geodesic to $`\stackrel{}{v}_0`$, at $`m_0`$. Thus, the first condition obtained is that $`m_0,p_{12}`$ and $`p_{34}`$ be collinear. That is, $`Det[\widehat{m}_0,\widehat{p}_{12},\widehat{p}_{34}]=0`$. In fact, we have more: $`\widehat{p}_{12}=\frac{1}{S_{x_{12}}}\widehat{m}_1\times \widehat{m}_2`$, $`\widehat{p}_{34}=\frac{1}{S_{x_{34}}}\widehat{m}_3\times \widehat{m}_4`$. Therefore $`Det[\widehat{m}_0,\widehat{m}_1\times \widehat{m}_2,\widehat{m}_3\times \widehat{m}_4]=0`$. We can thus write $`\widehat{m}_0=\stackrel{}{z}/\left|\stackrel{}{z}\right|,\text{where}\stackrel{}{z}=z_{12}\left(\widehat{m}_1\times \widehat{m}_2\right)+z_{34}\left(\widehat{m}_3\times \widehat{m}_4\right)`$. Further: denoting $`\mu _{12}=`$distance $`(m_0,p_{12})`$ and $`\mu _{34}=`$distance $`(m_0,p_{34})`$, we have $`\left|S_{\mu _{12}}T_{x_{12}}\right|=\left|T_{y_0}\right|=\left|S_{\mu _{34}}T_{x_{34}}\right|`$, but since $`\left|S_{\mu _{12}}S_{x_{12}}\right|=\left|\widehat{m}_0\times \left(\widehat{m}_1\times \widehat{m}_2\right)\right|`$ and $`\left|S_{\mu _{34}}S_{x_{34}}\right|=\left|\widehat{m}_0\times \left(\widehat{m}_3\times \widehat{m}_4\right)\right|`$, it follows that $`\left|\widehat{m}_0\times \left(\widehat{m}_1\times \widehat{m}_2\right)\right|\left|\widehat{m}_3\widehat{m}_4\right|=\left|\widehat{m}_0\times \left(\widehat{m}_3\times \widehat{m}_4\right)\right|\left|\widehat{m}_1\widehat{m}_2\right|`$. Then, we get: $`\widehat{m}_0=\stackrel{}{z}/\left|\stackrel{}{z}\right|,\text{where}\stackrel{}{z}=\alpha C_{x_{12}}\left(\widehat{m}_3\times \widehat{m}_4\right)+\beta C_{x_{34}}\left(\widehat{m}_1\times \widehat{m}_2\right),\alpha ,\beta \{1,1\}`$. The sign choices must be made with care, but for small convex quadrilaterals we take the $`+`$ choice twice. In this case, with $`R=C_{x_{12}}C_{x_{34}}+C_{x_{23}}C_{x_{41}}C_{x_{13}}C_{x_{24}}`$, we have that $`\left|\stackrel{}{z}\right|^2z^2=C_{x_{12}}^2+C_{x_{34}}^22C_{x_{12}}C_{x_{34}}R`$. Analogous equations hold for $`\widehat{m}_o^{}`$. We have fixed the geometry of the small convex quadrilateral uniquely from the midpoints $`\{m_1,\mathrm{},m_4\}`$, as mentioned earlier. The exception is when $`_1_2_3_4=1`$ , but now, contrary to the euclidean plane, this is really the exception, not the rule. As for the area, from (6.8) we have $`S_{\mathrm{\Delta }_{12}/2}=\frac{1}{z}\left\{C_{x_{34}}RC_{x_{12}}\right\},S_{\mathrm{\Delta }_{34}/2}=\frac{1}{z}\left\{C_{x_{12}}RC_{x_{34}}\right\}`$. Then, in this simpler case, denoting the quadrilateral area by $`P_4`$, we get $`C_{P_4/2}=R`$ , $`P_4=2\sigma _{1234}C^1\left\{C_{x_{12}}C_{x_{34}}+C_{x_{23}}C_{x_{41}}C_{x_{13}}C_{x_{24}}\right\}.`$ Here we have restricted to convex quadrilaterals decomposed in small triangles (area $`<\pi `$). Greater care is needed for the sign choices in the expression of $`\widehat{m}_0`$, otherwise. As for the restrictions, in this simpler case, by imposing $`\widehat{m}_0\widehat{m}_i>0`$, we get $`D_{123}>0`$, and cyclic . Again, in transposing to the hyperbolic plane, we don’t have as many worries about sign choices, however in this case the analogous area function, $`P_4=2\sigma _{1234}C^1\left(\stackrel{~}{R}\right)`$, where $`\stackrel{~}{R}=\stackrel{~}{C}_{12}\stackrel{~}{C}_{34}+\stackrel{~}{C}_{23}\stackrel{~}{C}_{41}\stackrel{~}{C}_{13}\stackrel{~}{C}_{24}`$, is well defined only when $`\left|\stackrel{~}{R}\right|<1`$ and, as in the triangular analysis, once this holds the convex quadrilateral exists. And so on for the general case.