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# What can be learned from the schematic mode-coupling approach to experimental data ?

## I Introduction

Since the mode-coupling theory (MCT) of the liquid-glass transition has been proposed in the mid-eighties leu84pra ; bengotsjo84jpc , considerable work has been done in order to compare its predictions with experimental data and computer simulation results leshouchesgotsjo92rppgot99jpcm .

Most of these tests of the MCT are based on the use as fitting functions of the quasi-universal laws that are obtained from an asymptotic analysis of the family of non-linear equations to which the mode-coupling equations belong and that are valid only in the vicinity of the predicted so-called ideal glass transition singularity. For experimental data, this is essentially the only practicable approach, since typical glass-formers are molecular liquids for which a first-principle study is out of reach and since most experiments, like dynamic light-scattering spectroscopy cumlidupicdre96prelebdreguipiccum97zpb , probe complex mechanisms in which various types of dynamical processes are entangled. In the case of computer simulations, the situation appears more comfortable, since simple systems can be considered for which all the data needed for an extensive comparison with the theory can be directly obtained with high precision. However, it turns out that one still has to rely on asymptotic results of the theory at some point. Indeed, one finds that the MCT is not able to predict accurately the location of the putative ideal glass transition: it has thus to be determined from the simulation results, usually with a fit to an asymptotic law, in order to calibrate the comparison between theory and simulation naukob97pre .

Such a use of the asymptotic laws does not go without difficulties, originating in the fact that the ideal glass transition is never observed as such: it is usually argued to be avoided because of the existence of so-called “activated processes” not taken into account by the theory, whose effect is to restore the ergodicity of the system in the predicted ideal glassy state. Thus the transition is expected to be replaced by a smooth crossover between two dynamical regimes, one dominated by the mode-coupling mechanism and the other dominated by activated processes. A first problem with the occurrence of these additional processes is that it hinders a clear separation of time scales between the fast transient dynamics and the structural relaxation, with which MCT exclusively deals, and thus makes the domain where the asymptotic regime of MCT is expected more difficult to resolve. In addition, the study of the corrections to the asymptotic laws shows that these laws are valid only in a very small domain around the ideal glass transition frafucgotmaysin97pre ; fucgotmay98pre : it can thus be expected that the dynamics in this domain will be markedly affected by crossover effects. Finally, from a more pragmatic point of view, since the asymptotic laws of the theory apply to rather specific aspects of the dynamics (for instance, in the $`\alpha `$ relaxation regime, since the shape of the relaxation itself is non-universal, the main quantitative asymptotic prediction deals with the variation of the relaxation time with temperature), only selected parts of the available experimental information are usually involved in most experimental tests of the MCT on molecular glassformers, a situation which can be considered quite unsatisfactory. For these reasons, it appears desirable to have a means to test the MCT on experimental data which is not limited to the use of the critical predictions of the theory and which is able to give an overall account of the dynamics. This can precisely be achieved within the so-called schematic approach to experimental data.

Schematic mode-coupling models are simple sets of mode-coupling equations retaining the essential non-linear structure of the equations of the MCT in one or two equations and with only a few parameters. They played a major role in the development of the theory to investigate the universal properties of the general mode-coupling equations and to demonstrate the potentialities of the theory dergot86jpc ; gotsjo87jpc ; gothau88zpb ; gotsjo89ajpcm ; gotsjo89bjpcm . Recently, they have been found useful as quantitative models for numerical fits of experimental data covering a wide time or frequency range albkra95jcp ; albkrakramigrom96jrs ; kraalbkra97jcp ; fragotmaysin97pre ; sinligotfucfracum98jncs ; rufbeatouecolesmar98jncs ; tei96prl ; gotvoi00pre ; note1 . The basic idea behind this schematic approach to experimental data is that, since all equations of the mode-coupling type share distinctive universal properties, meaningful informations are likely to be obtained if a suitable minimal set of equations of this family is used as an effective mode-coupling model to describe experimental data. One interest of the method is then that the universal properties of the mode-coupling equations are used in a milder sense than in their usual direct applications: it is thus possible to numerically take into account corrections to the asymptotic laws that can be important if the system is too far from its putative ideal glass transition. In addition, one can tentatively describe the full dynamics, including the non-universal $`\alpha `$ relaxation and the fast transient dynamics (although through rather crude approximations), and thus possibly overcome the problem of insufficient separation of time scales. For these reasons, the schematic approach appears as a method of choice to critically investigate the validity of the previous tests of the theory based on the asymptotic laws.

Of course, the power of the method comes at a price: even a minimal schematic model (in a sense to be defined latter) will have numerous adjustable parameters. This makes the approach numerically extremely flexible, and one finds for instance that it is possible to give an account of the experimental dynamics with an ideal MCT schematic model even at low temperatures where ideal MCT is known inadequate. Thus one should not overestimate the physical meaning of the fitted parameters. However, as was found in previous works, by critically looking at the results of a schematic analysis, one can address from a renewed point of view the problem of testing the predictions of the MCT on experimental data.

In the present paper, the third of a series devoted to the schematic approach to experimental data albkra95jcp ; kraalbkra97jcp , we aim to address various issues that have been overlooked in previous works, in order to better settle and understand the principles and results of this approach. In the next section, we give an overview of the schematic studies proposed so far and of the models on which they were based. In Sec. III, a set of simple requirements that need to be fulfilled in order to define a suitable minimal schematic model is proposed. In Sec. IV, we examine the influence of the choice of the schematic model on the results of the analysis of a given set of experimental data, and Sec. V is devoted to a tentative validation of the method, by analyzing model spectra with well defined properties within the schematic approach. We finally present our conclusions and draw perspectives for the approach.

## II Models for schematic studies

In this section, we give an overview of the schematic studies proposed so far. This gives us the opportunity to settle a few definitions and notations to be used latter.

The first schematic study has been proposed by Alba-Simionesco and Krauzman albkra95jcp , where they analyzed low-frequency Raman scattering spectra of the fragile glassformer metatoluidine with various two-correlator schematic models. One of them, based on the so-called F12 model got84zpb ; note2 , is defined by the equations

$$\ddot{\varphi }_i(t)+\mathrm{\Gamma }_i\mathrm{\Omega }_i\dot{\varphi }_i(t)+\mathrm{\Omega }_i^2\varphi _i(t)+\mathrm{\Omega }_i^2_0^tm_i(t\tau )\dot{\varphi }_i(\tau )𝑑\tau =0,i=0,1$$
(1a)
$$m_0(t)=v_1\varphi _0(t)+v_2\varphi _0(t)^2,$$
(1b)
$$m_1(t)=rm_0(t),$$
(1c)
with initial conditions $`\varphi _i(0)=1`$, $`\dot{\varphi }_i(0)=0`$, $`i=0,1`$, and has subsequently been used in studies of Raman spectra of other glassformers albkrakramigrom96jrs  and, more importantly, of depolarized light-scattering spectra of salol and CKN \[$`\text{Ca}_{0.4}\text{K}_{0.6}(\text{NO}_3)_{1.4}`$\] covering a wide frequency range (more than four decades) kraalbkra97jcp . In all these works, where other choices for the memory-function $`m_0`$ have occasionally been considered albkra95jcp , the fitting function was defined, up to an amplitude factor, as the susceptibility associated with the effective correlator

$$\varphi _{\text{sch}}(t)=\gamma \varphi _0(t)^2+(1\gamma )\varphi _1(t)^2.$$
(2)
Another widely used model differs only from the preceding one through the choice

$$m_1(t)=v_s\varphi _0(t)\varphi _1(t),$$
(3)
an expression first proposed by Sjögren sjo86pra , and the use as the fitting function of the susceptibility associated to $`\varphi _1`$, with an adjustable amplitude factor. It has been used to study depolarized light-scattering spectra of glycerol fragotmaysin97pre  and orthoterphenyle (OTP) sinligotfucfracum98jncs , as well as coherent neutron-scattering and Brillouin spectra of $`\mathrm{Na}_{0.5}\mathrm{Li}_{0.5}\mathrm{PO}_3`$ rufbeatouecolesmar98jncs . An extended MCT version of this model has also been used recently to study depolarized light-scattering, dielectric-loss and incoherent neutron-scattering spectra of propylene carbonate gotvoi00pre .

Finally, self-intermediate scattering functions obtained by molecular dynamics simulations of a nickel-zirconium model have been analyzed by Teichler tei96prl  with a single-correlator model with $`m_0`$ defined as

$$m_0(t)=\gamma \left(e^{\mu \varphi _0(t)}1\right).$$
(4)
At variance with the works mentioned above, a retarded damping term involving four adjustable parameters has been used in the present case instead of the simple Markovian approximation made in Eq. (1a) involving the single parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$.

Looking at the equations, one sees that these models involve *a priori* a large number of fitting parameters. To reduce this number, simplifying assumptions are usually made: in Refs. albkra95jcp, , albkrakramigrom96jrs, , kraalbkra97jcp, , and fragotmaysin97pre, , the only temperature-dependent parameters are chosen to be $`v_1`$ and $`v_2`$, whereas in Ref. sinligotfucfracum98jncs, , these are $`v_2`$ and $`v_s`$, and in Ref. rufbeatouecolesmar98jncs, , $`v_1`$, $`v_2`$ and $`v_s`$ change with temperature, the latter depending also on the wave vector modulus.

## III Definition of a suitable minimal schematic model

In all schematic studies proposed so far, a certain degree of arbitrariness has often been involved in the choice of the details of the model to be used. The most serious case relates perhaps to the use of the memory function (1c) in our preceding works albkra95jcp ; albkrakramigrom96jrs ; kraalbkra97jcp , which, at variance with Sjögren’s modelsjo86pra , cannot be given any precise theoretical foundations. But other minor choices can also be questioned. There is indeed no physical reason to prefer using a simple correlator as the fitting function instead of a composite one like in Eq. (2), the apparent advantage of the former choice, which seems to make the relation between the fitting function and the dynamical variable probed by the experiment transparent, relying on a mere tautology. One can also wonder why, for similar experimental data and schematic equations, the effective vertex entering the second memory function ($`r`$ or $`v_s`$) has been held constant with temperature in Refs. kraalbkra97jcp,  and fragotmaysin97pre,  and not in Ref. sinligotfucfracum98jncs,  for instance, where it is $`v_1`$ which has been kept fixed. In most cases, these various choices have been only validated *a posteriori* by the success of the model to fit the data under study and/or the obtention of parameters whose variations match the expectations from the microscopic theory rufbeatouecolesmar98jncs ; gotvoi00pre .

There are nevertheless a few difficulties that could be expected, related to the possible existence of non-generic features of the chosen model. Indeed, as stated in the introduction, generic mode-coupling equations display remarkable universal properties leshouchesgotsjo92rppgot99jpcm , but, when a schematic model is considered, because it is very simple, one can experience severe limitations in the realization of these universal features: certain values of important parameters of the theory can be unattainable or *ad hoc* correlations between these parameters can be imposed. An example of the first situation is provided by the Fn models, $`n>2`$, for which $`1/2`$ is the only possible value of the exponent parameter $`\lambda `$, whereas it can take any value in the interval $`[1/2,1]`$ for the general mode-coupling equations. The second situation is realized with the F12 model, where the exponent parameter and the critical non-ergodicity parameter $`f_0^c`$ are always related through $`f_0^c=1\lambda `$.

For these reasons, it seems desirable to understand what are the minimal requirements that must be met by a schematic model in order to avoid such biases and possible consequent inconsistencies in the results of its application. We propose here a series of criteria based on a discussion of the asymptotic properties of the mode-coupling equations in the vicinity of the ideal glass transition. For this, we consider the case of an experiment probing the evolution of a normalized correlation function $`\varphi _A`$ associated to an unspecified dynamical process in a given glassforming liquid, when a thermodynamic parameter $`X`$ (temperature or density for instance) is varied. Note that the following discussion can easily be extended to situations where more than one observable are considered in a unified framework rufbeatouecolesmar98jncs ; gotvoi00pre , with exactly the same conclusions.

By looking at the asymptotic predictions of the theory leshouchesgotsjo92rppgot99jpcm , a few important parameters emerge. On the one hand, one finds parameters that characterize the liquid under study and the thermodynamic path along which the experiment is performed. These are $`X_c`$, the value of $`X`$ at the ideal glass transition, $`C_X`$, the proportionality constant relating the separation parameter $`\sigma `$ defined by the theory to $`X`$ through the relation

$$\sigma C_X\frac{XX_c}{X_c},$$
(5)
and $`\lambda `$, the exponent parameter governing numerous aspects of the critical dynamics. On the other hand, one finds parameters that are specific to the correlation function $`\varphi _A`$: $`f_A^c`$, the non-ergodicity parameter at the transition, and $`h_A`$, the so-called critical amplitude. Thus we identify five parameters that are expected to be of special relevance. The first three of them are involved in the description of the relative evolution of the two characteristic time scales of the dynamics in the ergodic phase, $`t_\sigma `$ and $`\tau _\sigma `$ characterizing the $`\beta `$ regime and the $`\alpha `$ relaxation respectively. This can be seen from the ratio

$$\frac{\tau _\sigma }{t_\sigma }=B^{1/b}|C_X|^{1/(2b)}\left|\frac{XX_c}{X_c}\right|^{1/(2b)},$$
(6)
where $`b`$ and $`B`$ are uniquely determined by $`\lambda `$ got90jpcm . In addition, $`\lambda `$ alone determines the shape of the dynamics in the $`\beta `$ regime. The two remaining parameters, $`f_A^c`$ and $`h_A`$, are related to the amplitudes of the $`\alpha `$ relaxation and of the $`\beta `$ process, as shown for instance by the scaling relation

$$\varphi _A(t)=f_A^c+h_A|C_X|^{1/2}\left|\frac{XX_c}{X_c}\right|^{1/2}g_\lambda (t/t_\sigma ),$$
(7)
describing the $`\beta `$ process and the onset of $`\alpha `$ relaxation in the ergodic phase close to the singularity.

But in fact, this parameter counting is only valid when the full mode-coupling equations describing the dynamics of the system are known. Two differences appear when the only available information is the function $`\varphi _A`$ at different $`X`$ values. First, it can be seen that $`h_A`$ never appears alone in the asymptotic laws, but always inside products $`h_A|C_X|^{1/2}`$. For this reason, the relevant parameter is rather the physical amplitude $`H_A=h_A\left|C_X/(1\lambda )\right|^{1/2}`$, which appears for instance in the relation between $`X`$ and the non-ergodicity parameter in the ideal glassy state,

$$f_A=f_A^c+H_A\left|\frac{XX_c}{X_c}\right|^{1/2}.$$
(8)
This remark would be irrelevant if it was possible to know $`C_X`$ from the data at hand, but this is not the case. Indeed, according to the theory, the shape of the $`\alpha `$ relaxation is non-universal. This means that there exists an undetermined proportionality constant relating $`\tau _\sigma `$, the value emerging from the theoretical calculation, to the phenomenological $`\alpha `$ relaxation time $`\tau _\alpha (X)`$, which can be defined for instance after $`\varphi _A(\tau _\alpha )=1/e`$ and which is the only type of value that can be accessed from the knowledge of $`\varphi _A`$ alone. Such a problem does not occur for the $`\beta `$ process which is universal, i.e. it depends only on $`\lambda `$. This means that the ratio (6) can only be known up to an undetermined factor and thus that the value of $`C_X`$ cannot be obtained. This is in fact an important result, since it shows that one can know the absolute distance (in terms of the separation parameter $`\sigma `$) of a system to its ideal glass transition only if the mode-coupling equations describing the full dynamics are known.

Moving now back to the schematic approach to experimental data, one finds thus that, in order to analyze the evolution of the correlation function $`\varphi _A`$ with an effective schematic correlator $`\varphi _{\text{sch}}`$, the model must be able to reproduce the values of $`\lambda `$, $`f_A^c`$ and $`H_A`$ characterizing the system and the observable under investigation. A point on the transition surface of the schematic model must exist where one will have

$$\lambda _{\text{sch}}=\lambda ,f_{\text{sch}}^c=f_A^c,H_{\text{sch}}=h_{\text{sch}}\left(\frac{|C_{X,\text{sch}}|}{1\lambda _{\text{sch}}}\right)^{1/2}=H_A.$$
(9)
The last equality is not a strong constraint since $`h_{\text{sch}}`$ and $`C_{X,\text{sch}}`$ relate to decoupled aspects of the description of the dynamics, the first one being defined at the transition point, whereas the second one describes the approach of this point. One can thus expect that the interplay of these two aspects will allow to compensate possible non-generic features relative to $`h_{\text{sch}}`$ (like in the case of the F12 model where $`h_{\text{sch}}=\lambda _{\text{sch}}`$). The first two constraints are on the contrary very strong and need to be taken into account. One has in particular to worry about the accessible domain for the values of $`\lambda _{\text{sch}}`$ and $`f_{\text{sch}}^c`$ and to avoid the introduction of arbitrary correlations between these parameters.

Eventually, one finds thus that a schematic model needs to have at least three adjustable coupling constants, at least one of them changing with temperature. Indeed, with a single coupling constant, only one pair ($`\lambda _{\text{sch}}`$,$`f_{\text{sch}}^c`$) is possible. With two coupling constants, a relation linking $`\lambda _{\text{sch}}`$ and $`f_{\text{sch}}^c`$ exists, and for a given value of $`\lambda _{\text{sch}}`$, only a finite number of $`f_{\text{sch}}^c`$ values will exist. One needs three coupling parameters to be able to decouple $`\lambda _{\text{sch}}`$ and $`f_{\text{sch}}^c`$.

We can now look at the schematic models introduced in the previous section at the light of these new results. It is easy to see that these conditions are matched by the model used in Ref. kraalbkra97jcp,  and defined by Eqs. (1) and (2), since it relies on four coupling parameters ($`v_1`$, $`v_2`$, $`r`$ and $`\gamma `$) to obtain the values of $`\lambda _{\text{sch}}`$, $`f_{\text{sch}}^c`$ and $`H_{\text{sch}}`$. This is not the case of the model used by Teichler tei96prl , which has only two coupling parameters $`\gamma `$ and $`\mu `$, and one indeed finds inconsistencies in the results: for instance, the exponent parameter $`\lambda `$ appears to change with the considered observable. It seems thus likely that the success of the calculation is essentially to be credited to the flexibility of the fitting procedure (in particular through the choice of a four-parameter retarded friction) and to the consideration of observables with high plateau values which probably turn out to be compatible with the value of the real exponent parameter. About the other studies, one finds in fact that the present discussion is inoperant, because only part of the dynamics is considered: the $`\alpha `$ relaxation is not present in Refs. albkra95jcp,  and albkrakramigrom96jrs, , and the fast transient dynamics is not included in Refs. fragotmaysin97pre, , sinligotfucfracum98jncs, , and rufbeatouecolesmar98jncs, , with the effect of releasing in both cases the constraint on the value of $`f_{\text{sch}}^c`$.

An interesting consequence of these constraints is that they restrain the possibility to give a precise physical meaning to the separate components of a schematic model. This is especially clear when a composite correlator like Eq. (2) is used. Indeed, the relations between the components of the fitting function are expected to be mainly imposed by the need to reproduce the values of $`\lambda `$, $`f_A^c`$ and $`H_A`$: it is then hardly conceivable that the value of the coupling constant $`\gamma `$ or the effect of the details of the expression for $`\varphi _{\text{sch}}`$ will reflect any physical reality, for instance in terms of the light scattering mechanism. This is of course less obvious when the fitting function is a pure correlator, because of the tautological relation between the fitting function and the dynamical variable probed by the experiment, but, for the previous reasons, we believe that in general a schematic model has to be considered in its globality as a minimal phenomenological model allowing to give an account of the dynamics of a system in terms of mode-coupling effects, and nothing more has to be expected from it.

To conclude this part, it is worth stressing that the present discussion refers only to the asymptotic predictions of the theory and that problems originating in pre-asymptotic corrections or the existence of activated processes have been ignored. Moreover, only a few numbers have been considered. In particular, the precise shape of the relaxation (particularly in the $`\alpha `$ relaxation domain) has not been taken into account, whereas it can make an *a priori* well-suited model totally inefficient for the schematic approach. For these reasons, the preceding remarks are only guidelines aimed at rationalizing and optimizing the use of schematic models, but they offer no guarantee of success.

## IV Schematic analysis of experimental spectra with different models

In the present section, we propose a study of depolarized light-scattering spectra of a fragile glassformer by means of a variety of schematic models. The aim of this work is twofold. First, in all previous schematic analysis, only one model has ever been used at a time for a given set of experiments and no systematic investigation of the influence of the choice of the model on the results has been proposed so far. Secondly, in the previous section, a few parameters have been isolated that are expected to play a special role in the description of the dynamics of a given observable. The use of different schematic models to analyze the same set of experimental data, depending of their ability to provide consistent estimates for these values, should thus allow us to confirm or infirm the corresponding discussion.

The data we have studied are the CKN depolarized light-scattering spectra measured by Cummins *et al.* liduchecumtao92pra  and already analyzed with a schematic model in Ref. kraalbkra97jcp, . The reason CKN has been chosen (and not salol for instance) for this study is the low intensity of its $`\alpha `$ peak, which is slightly smaller than the microscopic peak: this guarantees that, when the spectra are studied with a composite effective correlator like in Eq. (2), the amplitudes of the contributions of both terms will not be too different and thus this allows one to obtain a better contrast between the outcome of different schematic analysis. To limit the influence of the avoidance of the ideal glass transition, only rather high temperatures, between 383 and 468 K, have been considered. Compared to our previous work, the two lower temperatures (363 and 373 K) have been excluded, leading to small differences in the results (within the error bars of the method). Note that at the temperatures we have considered, one can expect the spectra to be free of the influence of the spurious experimental artifacts evidenced in Ref. surwienovrossok98prb, .

Only schematic models closely related to the one used in Ref. kraalbkra97jcp,  and with the same number of parameters have been considered. As in this previous work, they have been used to perform simultaneous fits of the experimental data at the nine selected temperatures: the whole dynamical scenario developing as temperature varies is thus encoded in the only temperature dependent parameters of the schematic models, which are the effective vertices entering in the expression of the memory function $`m_0`$.

We first stick to the two-correlator F12 model. There are two routes by which the model can be modified. On the one hand, different second memory functions can be chosen. We have considered two cases:

$`m_1(t)`$ $`=r(v_1\varphi _0(t)+v_2\varphi _0(t)^2),`$ (10a)
$`m_1(t)`$ $`=v_s\varphi _0(t)\varphi _1(t).`$ (10b)
On the other hand, one can vary the expression of the effective correlator as a function of $`\varphi _0`$ and $`\varphi _1`$. We have considered four possibilities:

$`\varphi _{\text{sch}}(t)`$ $`=\gamma \varphi _0(t)^2+(1\gamma )\varphi _1(t)^2,`$ (11a)
$`\varphi _{\text{sch}}(t)`$ $`=\gamma \varphi _0(t)^2+(1\gamma )\varphi _1(t),`$ (11b)
$`\varphi _{\text{sch}}(t)`$ $`=\gamma \varphi _0(t)+(1\gamma )\varphi _1(t)^2,`$ (11c)
$`\varphi _{\text{sch}}(t)`$ $`=\gamma \varphi _0(t)+(1\gamma )\varphi _1(t).`$ (11d)
In previous works albkra95jcp ; kraalbkra97jcp , the choice of a specific expression was originally motivated by assumptions on the light-scattering mechanism. However, from the discussion of the preceding section, it seems very unlikely that this question is of any relevance: indeed, since individually each correlator has no real physical meaning, the precise way it enters the calculation is clearly unimportant.

A total of six models (numbered from I to VI, see Table 1 for definition) obtained by various combinations of the previous expressions have been used. Model I, defined by Eqs. (10a) and (11a), was used in Ref. kraalbkra97jcp, , whereas Model VI, using Eqs. (10b) and (11d), is close to the one used in Refs. fragotmaysin97pre, , sinligotfucfracum98jncs, , and rufbeatouecolesmar98jncs, . The fits are always very good (see Fig. 1 for spectra and fits at two representative sample temperatures) and of equal quality for all models. The corresponding results for the various coupling constants and relevant mode-coupling parameters are reported in Table 1 and Fig. 2.

Each model provides its own series of effective vertices $`v_1`$ and $`v_2`$ and values of the coupling constants $`r`$ or $`v_s`$ and $`\gamma `$, distinct from those obtained with the other models. The description of the dynamics in terms of effective mode-coupling parameters is thus clearly non-unique, as expected from the non-universality of the $`\alpha `$ relaxation. For all models, a behavior similar to the one found in Ref. kraalbkra97jcp,  is recovered, interpreted as follows: at the highest temperatures the effective vertices are linear functions of temperature and show the progressive evolution of the system towards an ideal glass transition point, but, before this point is reached, this behavior breaks down, evidencing the phenomenon of avoidance of the transition and the inadequateness of the present ideal MCT approach at low temperature. The reader is referred to previous work for a discussion of the consequences of this observation kraalbkra97jcp .

Looking at the trajectories in the $`(v_1,v_2)`$ plane, one sees that the change in behavior of the effective vertices between the high and low temperature domains is less visible when Sjögren’s model, Eq. (10b), is used: in this case, the trajectories seem to behave rather regularly in the full temperature domain and to bend gently to follow the transition line, at variance with what is found from the use of Eq. (10a), where one can easily separate a domain where $`v_1`$ does not vary much from a domain where it decreases rather rapidly. We attribute this qualitative difference between the two models to the way the temperature dependence is entered in the schematic model at the level of the second memory function $`m_1`$. Indeed, at a given point $`(v_1,v_2)`$ of the ergodic domain, one can qualitatively quantify the strength of the mode-coupling term in Eq. (1a), $`i=1`$, by considering the value of $`m_1`$ for representative values $`f_0`$ and $`f_1`$ of the correlation functions $`\varphi _0`$ and $`\varphi _1`$, respectively note3 . When Eq. (10b) is used with constant $`v_s`$, the corresponding factor $`v_sf_0f_1`$ depends only implicitly on temperature through the variation of $`f_0`$ and $`f_1`$ with the position of the representative point of the system in the control parameter space $`(v_1,v_2)`$, whereas, when Eq. (10a) is used with constant $`r`$, the factor $`r(v_1f_0+v_2f_0{}_{}{}^{2})`$ shows an additional explicit temperature dependence, since $`m_1`$ is defined directly in terms of the coupling constants $`v_1`$ and $`v_2`$, and in fact this explicit dependence dominates the implicit one. If one now compares the evolution of these factors for both models when one explores the $`(v_1,v_2)`$ plane, one easily finds that, in order to have similar increases in the strength of the mode-coupling terms, one has to consider trajectories in the case of Sjögren’s model that lie above the corresponding trajectories for Eq. (10a) and that come rather close to the transition line, since in its vicinity only are found significant increases in $`f_0`$ and $`f_1`$, hence the difference in the results obtained with these two models: the catastrophic behavior of the vertices due to the avoidance of the transition is less visible in the case of Sjögren’s model, because it is by construction already constrained to follow rather closely the transition line.

Once this subtle non-generic feature has been recognized, one is able to rationalize the similarities and differences between the results of the various schematic analysis proposed so far. Since the light-scattering spectra of glycerol have been analyzed with the same parameterization of Sjögren’s model as the one used here for model V and VI, it is no surprise that the trajectory found by Franosch *et al.* fragotmaysin97pre  is similar to those obtained here with these two models. This is the case of the study of $`\mathrm{Na}_{0.5}\mathrm{Li}_{0.5}\mathrm{PO}_3`$ as well, despite the choice of a temperature-dependent $`v_s`$: above $`T_c`$, the numerical fits result in a slow increase of this parameter when temperature is decreased, which converts, as one would expect, to a trajectory in the $`(v_1,v_2)`$ plane that is not different from what is obtained when $`v_s`$ is taken constant rufbeatouecolesmar98jncs . The case of OTP provides another illustration of this point sinligotfucfracum98jncs . Indeed, in this work, the relative position of the vertex trajectory and the transition line is imposed from the start through the choice of a temperature-independent $`v_1`$, a constraint that is compatible with the results obtained above for models I to IV, and, as could be anticipated from the previous discussion, this coincides with a rapidly increasing $`v_s`$ when temperature is decreased, i.e. a strong explicit temperature-dependence of the second memory function. The same seems to hold for the extended mode-coupling analysis of Götze and Voigtmann gotvoi00pre , where a neat intersection of the ideal glass transition line by the trajectory in the parameter space of the schematic model is associated with values of $`v_s`$ increasing rapidly with decreasing temperature.

These observations appear at first sight rather anecdotic. They have nevertheless at least one important physical implication. Indeed, comparing the results for glycerol and $`\mathrm{Na}_{0.5}\mathrm{Li}_{0.5}\mathrm{PO}_3`$, two liquids with intermediate fragility, to those for salol, CKN, and OTP, that are all very fragile, it is tempting to propose a connection between the fragility of a glassformer and the shape of the effective vertex trajectory that describes its dynamics. The previous discussion rules out such a tentative connection and shows that the analogies and differences found between the various fluids simply originate in the details of the implementation of the schematic approach.

We now turn to the quantitative analysis of our results. For each schematic model, the values of the various parameters characterizing the ideal glass transition have been obtained by extrapolation of the linear dependence of the effective vertices with temperature at high temperature, which we have identified as the signature of the domain where the ideal MCT is adequate (in the next section, support will be given to this analysis that differs from the one used in Refs. fragotmaysin97pre,  and rufbeatouecolesmar98jncs, ). They are reported in Table 1. All six models provide consistent estimates for $`T_c`$, $`\lambda `$, $`f_{\text{sch}}^c`$ and $`H_{\text{sch}}`$. This consistency tends to validate the discussion proposed in the previous section about the relevant variables to describe a given observable in terms of mode-coupling parameters. This is clearly a non-trivial observation, since the values of the different parameters entering the calculation vary notably from one model to another (for instance, $`C_T`$ changes by a factor of two between model III and V).

In order to investigate stronger changes to the schematic model, we have considered other memory functions $`m_0`$, keeping $`m_1(t)=rm_0(t)`$ as in (10a). One of the most studied schematic models after F12 is F13 defined as gotsjo84jpc

$$m_0(t)=v_1\varphi _0(t)+v_3\varphi _0(t)^3.$$
(12)
We have studied two models based on this memory function. They will be denoted I and IV, since they are directly analogous to the preceding I and IV F12 models. We observe a clear deterioration of the quality of the fits compared to F12, but it remains nevertheless acceptable (see Fig. 1). In fact, the use of the F13 model is made difficult by one of its non-generic properties. Indeed, when a B-transition line has a termination point or when two transition lines meet, strong corrections to the generic asymptotic laws appear and noticeably affect the shape of the dynamics gothau88zpb ; gotsjo89bjpcm ; fucgothoflat91jpcm . These corrections can make it impossible to use a schematic model to fit experimental data if the description of the system under study requires to come close to such singularities. In the F12 model, a termination point is found at $`v_1=v_2=1`$, but here $`\lambda =1`$, which is quite far from the values characterizing the typical glassformers, of the order of 0.7. Thus no problem has to be expected *a priori*. But in the F13 model, one finds that the A- and B-transition lines meet when $`v_1=1`$, $`v_3=4`$, with $`\lambda =3/4`$. This is rather close to the values usually associated to experimental systems and one can thus anticipate difficulties with this model, which we actually see.

The results we have obtained with the F13 models are reported in Table 2 and in Fig. 3. The behavior of the effective vertices is the same as with F12, but slightly less regular. Critical parameters have been obtained from high temperatures as before. The agreement with the previous results for the values of $`T_c`$ and $`f_{\text{sch}}^c`$ is very good, but less good for the values of $`\lambda `$ and $`H_{\text{sch}}`$. However one can hardly conclude from these results, since these parameters characterize the $`\beta `$ process, in which the non-generic limitations of the F13 model precisely show up.

As it was stressed in the previous section, when using the schematic approach to experimental data, one has to avoid any arbitrary correlation between important parameters of the theory introduced in an *ad hoc* way by the choice of a specific schematic model. In all models studied so far, one can identify such a correlation in the fact that, along the B type transition line, an increase of $`f_0^c`$ is systematically associated to a decrease of $`\lambda `$. This could have introduced a bias in the schematic calculation that would have made the avoidance of the ideal glass transition line a purely numerical artifact of the method. Indeed, despite the absence of a true ergodicity breaking at $`T_c`$ in real systems, one expects that the increase of the non-ergodicity parameter below $`T_c`$ survives under the form of an increase of the $`\alpha `$ peak height of the susceptibility. The vertex drift found with the F12 model could thus be simply traced back to the need to give an account of this evolution, the obtained trajectories corresponding precisely to an increase of $`f_0^c`$ (and thus of $`f_{\text{sch}}^c`$) kraalbkra97jcp . It would then reflect a misconception and limitation of the schematic approach itself and not more generally a failure of the underlying ideal MCT as it was argued in Ref. 15.

To show that our calculations are indeed free of this artifact, we have investigated a model in which the variations of $`\lambda `$ and $`f_0^c`$ can be decoupled. We chose the F29 model, the transition line of which is made of two branches along which $`\lambda `$ varies between $`1/2`$ and 1: Between the points $`v_2^c=4`$, $`v_9^c=0`$ and $`v_2^c=27/7`$, $`v_9^c=3^9/(72^8)`$, $`\lambda `$ and $`f_0^c`$ grow simultaneously, whereas between the points $`v_2^c=27/7`$, $`v_9^c=3^9/(72^8)`$ and $`v_2^c=0`$, $`v_9^c=9^9/8^8`$, $`\lambda `$ decreases and $`f_0^c`$ increases. Clearly, we have chosen this somewhat far-fetched model only for its mathematical properties and one could hardly give any physical motivation for the specific F29 functional form. However, we stress that, from the point of view of the criteria of the preceding section, this model is *a priori* free from any non-generic features and thus a perfectly acceptable schematic model: first, it does not show any limitation on the accessible values of $`\lambda `$, at variance with all other Fpq different from F12 ; secondly, in the domain of $`\lambda `$ we are interested in (around 0.7), the influence of the higher-order A4 singularity from which its special mathematical features originate is expected to be negligible.

We have performed schematic analysis with this model in the vicinity of each branch of the transition line, in an attempt to find if the coupling of the evolutions of $`\lambda `$ and $`f_0^c`$ plays any role in our calculations. The corresponding fits are quite poor: They only give a qualitative account of the evolution of the dynamics and it would seem unreasonable to extract quantitative values for the critical parameters of the theory from the results. However, a clear pattern manifests itself: Close to both transition branches, the behavior of the effective vertices corresponds to a decrease of the exponent parameter, irrespective of the evolution of $`f_0^c`$. In fact, this could have been anticipated from the fact that, below the value of $`T_c`$ we have determined, the maximum of the $`\alpha `$ peak lies outside the available frequency window, and this eliminates the requirement to reproduce its amplitude at these low temperatures. However it is reassuring to show by an independent calculation that our results are free from this potential bias, that should certainly be taken into account if data where available on a wider frequency range.

To summarize, we have shown in this section that different schematic models applied to a same set of experimental data provide qualitatively similar results. We have found that they are in good quantitative agreement for the determination of the values of the parameters that have been distinguished in the previous section, provided no non-generic features, the importance of which has been emphasized for the F13 model, interfere with their determination.

## V Schematic analysis of model spectra

In the previous section, we have tried to validate the schematic approach and its results showing that different models provide consistent results when applied to a same set of experimental data. However, on various aspects, this study is not quite satisfactory. Indeed, despite favorable indications gained from the use of the F29 model, the meaningfulness of the anomalous behavior of the effective vertices at low temperature remains to be assessed. In our previous work kraalbkra97jcp , it has been attributed to the existence of relaxation processes that are not taken into account in the ideal MCT and that make it impossible to describe consistently the dynamics of the studied systems with a schematic model based on this theory. To strengthen this point of view, it would be necessary to show that the schematic approach is actually able to give an account of a complex purely mode-coupling dynamics with smoothly varying fitting parameters, despite of the extreme simplicity of the schematic equations compared to the complexity of the equations of the original problem. Moreover, it would be interesting to analyze data for which the values of the essential parameters $`\lambda `$, $`f_A^c`$ et $`H_A`$ are known in advance, in order to check to what extent the schematic approach is able to provide quantitative estimates for them.

A possibility to perform such a test is to calculate series of curves from mode-coupling equations known in advance and to analyze them as one would do for any set of experimental data. It remains then to compare the results obtained within the schematic approach with the properties that can be directly determined from the starting equations. We report the results of such a test in the present section.

Recently, Franosch *et al.* have proposed a detailed study of the MCT predictions for the collective dynamics of a simple liquid, with special emphasis on the asymptotic laws valid in the vicinity of the ideal glass transition and their corrections frafucgotmaysin97pre . Because their model has been very well and extensively characterized, it appears clearly as the model of choice to be the basis of the present evaluation of the schematic approach. Besides it has already been used in a similar spirit for a critical study of the method consisting of the use of numerical fits of the $`\beta `$ correlator for experimental tests of the MCT scitar99jpcm .

The model is based on the mode-coupling equations for the Brownian dynamics of the hard-sphere fluid with particle diameter $`d`$, the thermodynamic state of which is determined by a single parameter, the compacity $`\eta `$, related to the number density $`\rho `$ through the relation $`\eta =\pi \rho d^3/6`$. One starts with the generalized Langevin equations for the time evolution of the Fourier components of the normalized density-density correlation functions $`\varphi _q`$,

$$\tau _q\dot{\varphi }_q+\varphi _q+_0^t𝑑\tau m_q(t\tau )\dot{\varphi }_q(\tau )=0,$$
(13a)
with the initial condition à $`\varphi _q(0)=1`$. $`\tau _q`$ is chosen equal to $`t_{\text{mic}}S_q/(qd)^2`$, where $`t_{\text{mic}}`$ is some arbitrary molecular time scale and $`S_q`$ is the structure factor of the fluid. The mode-coupling memory kernel, defined as a double integral in Fourier space (thus a six-dimensional integral), is approximated after moving to bipolar coordinates, by the Riemann sum of the resulting two-dimensional integral on a grid of $`M`$ equidistant values of the wave vector modulus, with a grid step $`h`$ such that the $`qd`$ values vary between $`h/2`$ and $`(2M1)h/2`$. One obtains
$$m_q(t)=\frac{\rho h^3S_q}{32d^3\pi ^2\widehat{q}^5}\underset{\widehat{k}=1}{\overset{M}{}}\underset{\widehat{p}=|\widehat{q}\widehat{k}|+1}{\overset{\mathrm{min}(M,\widehat{q}+\widehat{k}1)}{}}\widehat{k}\widehat{p}S_pS_k\left[(\widehat{k}^2+\widehat{q}^2\widehat{p}^2)c_k+(\widehat{p}^2+\widehat{q}^2\widehat{k}^2)c_p\right]^2\varphi _k(t)\varphi _p(t),$$
(13b)
with $`qd=\widehat{q}h`$, $`kd=\widehat{k}h`$, $`pd=\widehat{p}h`$ and $`\widehat{q}`$, $`\widehat{k}`$, $`\widehat{p}\{1/2,3/2,\mathrm{},(2M1)/2\}`$. $`c_q`$ is the direct correlation function related to the structure factor through the Ornstein-Zernike relation $`\rho c_q=11/S_q`$. As in previous worksfrafucgotmaysin97pre , the static quantities have been computed within the Percus-Yevick approximation, $`M=100`$ and $`h=0.4`$ have been used, and the length and time units have been chosen such that $`d=1`$ and $`t_{\text{mic}}=160`$. One finds then that the ideal glass transition of the model occurs at a compacity $`\eta _c`$ comprised between $`0.51591213`$ and $`0.51591214`$.

This model aims to represent the dynamics of a hard-sphere colloidal suspension and has been shown to compare very favorably at a quantitative level with the experimental data of van Megen *et al* megund93prl .

The equations (13) have been solved following the algorithm described in Ref. fucgothoflat91jpcm, , then the associated susceptibilities have been computed by Fourier transform using Filon’s algorithm. We concentrate on the susceptibilities, for which it has been shown that the range of validity of the asymptotic laws is usually smaller than for the corresponding correlation functions frafucgotmaysin97pre , in order to be as close as possible to the situations in which the schematic approach is usually applied to experimental data.

Five values of the compacity such that the distances to the ideal glass transition are $`\epsilon _n=(\eta _c\eta _n)/\eta _c=10^{n/3},n=4,5,6,7,8`$ have been considered. Larger $`n`$ values have been excluded, since they would correspond to spectra covering a much wider frequency range compared to the experimental situation. We have analyzed spectra for three values of the wave vector modulus: $`q_1=7.0`$, corresponding to the main peak of the structure factor, $`q_2=10.2`$, corresponding to the first minimum after the main peak, and $`q_3=14.6`$, where certain pre-asymptotic corrections seem to be rather small.

Having now our reference spectra to be used as input like experimental data would be, each series of curves at a given $`q`$ value has been fitted with the two correlator F12 model referred to as model IV in the previous section. For compatibility reasons, no inertial term is included, i.e. one has

$$\tau _i\dot{\varphi }_i+\varphi _i+_0^t𝑑\tau m_i(t\tau )\dot{\varphi }_i(\tau )=0,i=0,1.$$
(14)
Note that an inertial term would be required both in the microscopic theory and in a schematic model to study a molecular glassformer, the dynamics of which is Newtonian, and to reproduce its oscillatory dynamics in the Raman band or in the boson-peak region. However, for the goal we wish to achieve here, i.e. an assessment of the shape of the vertex trajectory and the calculation of the critical parameters of the theory from model theoretical spectra, the fact that it has been consistently omitted in the original model and in the schematic equations is irrelevant. No amplitude factor is needed, since the data are already normalized (to check this point, a few calculations have been done with such a factor, showing that it remains equal to 1). As above, only the effective vertices $`v_1`$ and $`v_2`$ are allowed to vary with $`\varphi `$. This means in particular that constant values of $`\tau _0`$ and $`\tau _1`$ are imposed, despite the fact that the $`\tau _q`$ values of the original equations actually change with compacity through $`S_q`$.

The quality of the fits is good, comparable to what is obtained when experimental light-scattering spectra are analyzed, as illustrated in Fig. 4. Values obtained for the various adjustable mode-coupling parameters are reported in Table 3 and in Fig. 5.

As usual, the effective vertices are the important parameters of the calculation. To each series of curves corresponds a different set of effective vertices, stressing the fact that the study of a single observable is not enough to give an unequivocal account of the dynamics of the system. Here again, this is a consequence of the non-universality of the $`\alpha `$ relaxation as described in the MCT framework. The important observation is that the behavior of the effective vertices is perfectly regular: $`v_1`$ and $`v_2`$ are approximately linear with $`\epsilon `$ (and thus $`v_1`$ is linear with $`v_2`$). Nothing similar to what has been found with experimental data close to the transition line shows up in the results. This tends to confirm the assumption that the anomalous behavior found from experiments and attributed to the avoidance of the ideal glass transition is not connected to a technical limitation of the schematic approach, but actually, at a more fundamental level, to the inadequateness of ideal MCT in a temperature domain starting noticeably above the extrapolated ideal glass transition point.

We can now determine the critical parameter values by extrapolating the linear behavior we have found and compare the results with those obtained directly from the original equations, in order to see if the procedure we have used previously is meaningful and if the corresponding results are quantitative. The values are reported in Table 3. Of the three parameters whose importance has been stressed in Section III, $`f_q^c`$ is clearly the one for which the agreement between the original value and the schematic calculation is the best. The determination of $`H_q`$ is less precise but remains satisfactory. On the contrary, a notable disagreement on the value of the crucial exponent parameter $`\lambda `$ is found. The difference we find is significant and shows unambiguously that the schematic approach does not allow *a priori* to obtain the exact value of the exponent parameter, at least when the studied dynamics only covers a frequency range of the order of four or five decades. From this point of view, the schematic approach suffers from the same difficulties as the use of the $`\beta `$ correlator, which has been shown not to be able to give the value of $`\lambda `$ in the same conditions scitar99jpcm . It has however to be stressed that, even if it is not perfect, the schematic approach turns out to perform much better than the latter approach. Surprisingly, it is found that the three series of curves do not provide values scattered around the exact value $`\lambda =0.735`$, but instead, the same underestimated value is consistently found at all three wave numbers. It seems thus very likely that no improvement would be obtained if the three observables were analyzed in a unified framework, in the spirit of the most recent schematic calculations rufbeatouecolesmar98jncs ; gotvoi00pre .

The origin of the present problem is strictly connected to the existence in the analyzed data of corrections to the asymptotic behavior predicted by the theory and not to a deficiency of the schematic approach. Indeed, when spectra corresponding to larger values of $`n`$ (i.e. corresponding to compacity values closer to the critical one) are analyzed, a slight change in the behavior of the effective vertices occurs around $`n=10`$ and the trajectory described in the $`(v_1,v_2)`$ plane bends to indicate the point of the transition line corresponding to the correct value of $`\lambda `$. We stress, to avoid any ambiguity, that this change of behavior has nothing to do with the one found from experimental data: its amplitude is very small and it occurs in a domain where the points representative of the system in the $`(v_1,v_2)`$ plane are extremely close to the ideal glass transition line, meaning that the dynamics spreads over more than eight decades in frequency and corresponding for a real glassformer like CKN to a regime where the behavior of the effective vertices is already strongly affected by the existence of activated processes.

## VI Conclusion and perspectives

In this Paper we have proposed a detailed study of the schematic mode-coupling approach to experimental data. Our aim was twofold.

First, we wanted to settle the whole approach on firmer theoretical grounds, through a better understanding of the parameterization it involves and a clarification of the nature of the results it can provide. Indeed, the schematic approach involves a certain degree of arbitrariness in the choice of the models to be used and the introduction of numerous adjustable parameters, which are never considered as good things when it comes to testing a theory. Thus in order to credibilize the whole approach, one has to address these a priori problematic issues and show that they are actually harmless. Hence this investigation, whose outcome is the formulation of simple rules that need to be taken into account in order to define minimal schematic models suitable for use in this context and the isolation of a few parameters which are particularly relevant for the description of the dynamics and for which the schematic approach should provide estimates. Following these criteria, it turns out that most previous schematic studies albkra95jcp ; albkrakramigrom96jrs ; kraalbkra97jcp ; fragotmaysin97pre ; sinligotfucfracum98jncs ; rufbeatouecolesmar98jncs  are based on well designed schematic models and use parameterizations which are close to the minimal one, in particular by letting only effective vertices vary with temperature.

Secondly, our goal was a validation of the approach, through the investigation of its robustness and of its potential quantitative character by a variety of numerical tests. The results are rather satisfactory. Indeed, we have been able to validate the results obtained in Ref. kraalbkra97jcp,  and the way they were analyzed. We have shown that they have a limited, if any, dependency in the schematic model we use and we have been able to identify and rule out many potential biases that could have affected our results. Most properties of the dynamics whose relevance have been emphasized in the theoretical discussion of the approach appear to be quantitatively evaluated, with the notable exception of the exponent parameter $`\lambda `$, for which the method is not too bad, but still far from perfect. It has thus to be stressed that the precise and unambiguous determination of this parameter, which actually plays a very important role in the theory, remains elusive, by any of the methods that are available so far: all calculations indeed seem to be too sensitive to the presence of significant pre-asymptotic corrections (as is shown here or, in the case of the use of the $`\beta `$ correlator, by Ref. scitar99jpcm, ) and very probably to the existence of crossover effects due to the non-ideal behavior of real and simulated glassformers koband94prl .

In conclusion, we believe that the present work paves the way to new applications of the schematic approach. Indeed, the interest of the method to analyze experimental data has been emphasized in all previous works and we think its relevance has been further strengthened here. However, at this level, it was only a kind of simple phenomenological mode-coupling approach and the main issue was its ability to consistently describe a set of experimental data with a simple model. Now, from our results, it seems possible to go one step further and to use this approach as an effective means to obtain precise estimates of transition temperatures, non-ergodicity parameters and critical amplitudes to be used for instance in quantitative tests of the MCT on simple systems that are amenable to a full first-principle treatment.

###### Acknowledgements.

The authors are indebted to Prof. W. Götze and Dr. M. Fuchs for providing them the codes for some parts of the calculations. We are also grateful to Prof. H.Z. Cummins and Dr. G. Li for the use of their experimental data. Dr. G. Tarjus is acknowledged for fruitful discussions.


text:
# Electron density stratification in two-dimensional structures tuned by electric field

## Abstract

A new kinetic instability which results in formation of charge density waves is proposed. A spatial period of arising space-charge and field configuration is inversely proportional to electric field and can be tuned by applied voltage. The instability has no interpretation in the framework of traditional hydrodynamic approach, since it arises from modulation of an electron distribution function both in coordinate and energy spaces. The phenomenon can be observed in thin 2D nanostructures at relatively low electron density.

Recent progress in microelectronics is related to great success in controlled fabrication of low-dimensional semiconductor systems. That is why transport properties of semiconductor nanostructures, both of classical and quantum nature, lately attract wide attention. In this paper we discuss a new type of purely classical instability, which can be observed in 2D nanostructures. The instability results in a formation of charge density waves (CDW). The main feature of the phenomenon is its kinetic nature. In contrast to usual current and density instabilities in semiconductors konuel ; gant ; kerner , the electron dynamics in the kinetic instability can not be described on the basis of the local hydrodynamic parameters, such as electronic density, drift velocity, and temperature. Remarkably, the kinetic instability can develop even in the Ohmic regime, when the stationary value of electric current is proportional to applied voltage.

Closely related phenomena of the striations formation are widely known in the gas discharge physics. The striated discharge has been observed since M. Faraday and is regarded as one of the most typical discharge forms raizer ; kniga ; oleson ; nedosp ; pekar . In spite of this, a consistent theory of striation is up to now absent. In the last decades it was realized that for description of typical striated discharges the fluid approach fails. It was shown that the hydrodynamic description is valid only for very high electron densities when the collisions between electrons are frequent enough for the maxwellization of electron distribution function (EDF) tsenHD ; wijacz . At lower electron densities, occurring in typical gas discharges, the phenomenon is of essentially kinetic nature. In this case, the EDF perturbation in the striations is varying both in space, and along the energy axis tsendin ; muller ; ruzh1 ; rayment ; ohe2 ; golub1 , and it is impossible to parameterize it in terms of perturbations of electron density and temperature. The kinetic striations mechanism was analyzed first in tsendin ; muller ; ruzh1 . In tsendin  it was argued, that the necessary conditions for kinetic stratification are: a) The momentum relaxation is much faster than the energy relaxation; b) The energy relaxation is mostly controlled by the energy gain in the external field $`F_0`$ and strong inelastic collisions with a large fixed energy transfer $`W_0`$; c) There should exist a mechanism of a weak continuous energy loss. In a spatially modulated potential $`U(z)=F_0z+\delta U(z),\delta U(z)=\delta U(z+L)`$, these conditions provide tsendin ; muller ; ruzh1  for the resonant EDF response at $`L=L_0/m,`$ where $`L_0=W_0/F_0,m=1,2,..`$. This ”resonant” behavior corresponds to the widely known empirical Novak’s rule oleson ; nedosp ; pekar ; novak . An idea was put forward tsendin  that under the conditions a)-c) the instability develops which results in the formation of CDW with the same periods $`L_0/m`$. In tsendin ; muller ; ruzh1 , the electron kinetics was analyzed only in a given fixed electric potential profile $`U(z)`$. However, a complete analysis of instability requires self-consistent calculation of the potential perturbation $`\delta U(z,t)`$ in terms of the carrier densities perturbations. Since the discharge field depends crucially on the ion motion and on the complex ion generation processes, even a linear instability problem for the gas discharge plasma is still lacking a self-consistent solution.

In this paper we will demonstrate that, in principle, the kinetic stratification is also observable in low-dimensional semiconductor structures hydro . Moreover, it turns out that for the semiconductors a relatively simple self-consistent analytical solution can be found. The main simplification follows from the fact, that, in contrast to the gas discharge, a compensating positive charge is fixed and homogeneous. The stratification conditions a), b), and c) can be easily achieved in semiconductors. The momentum relaxation is usually fast compared to energy relaxation. The requirements b) and c) are also usually satisfied, the scattering by optical phonons with energy $`W_0`$ and scattering by acoustic phonons working as strong inelastic and weak quasielastic energy relaxation mechanisms. We will show that effect can be observed in 2D quantum wells with small thickness. Spatial periods of arising CDW equal to $`L_0/m`$ and can be tuned by applied voltage. We assume that lattice temperature $`T_0,`$ as well as Fermi energy, are small compared to $`W_0`$ (in what follows for simplicity we put $`T_0=0`$). The condition b) requires that electrons be ”hot”, and their energies be of the order of $`W_0,`$ i.e. the electron gas in this case is nondegenerate. We also assume that electron concentration is small and neglect electron-electron collisions.

Let us consider the motion of an electron in an external field $`F_0`$ assuming for a moment that the only scattering mechanism is elastic scattering. This leads to a diffusion in coordinate space. As far as energy relaxation processes are ”turned off”, the electron is infinitely heated by the field $`F_0`$ diffusing over the kinetic energy $`W.`$ Evidently, this diffusion is strictly correlated with the diffusion in the coordinate space, since the full electron energy $`E=WF_0z`$ is conserved. In fact, an electron diffuses in $`(z,W)`$ space along the line $`E=const.`$ Now, if we take into account sufficiently intensive optical phonon emission, the electron motion will be restricted by a shell $`0<W<W_0.`$ In the process of diffusion with a constant total energy $`E,`$ the kinetic energy increases. Reaching the point $`W=W_0,`$ electron loses the energy $`W_0`$ and starts a diffusive motion with a lower total energy $`EW_0.`$ A trajectory of the electron in the space $`(E,z)`$ is shown on Fig. 1a.

The interaction with acoustic phonons plays a role of a friction force leading to the continuous loss of the electron energy with the rate $`\kappa `$ due to spontaneous emission (since we have assumed that $`T_0=0`$). Later we will show that for a 2D system the rate of energy loss $`\kappa `$ does not depend on the kinetic energy. There are three different time scales in our problem: a transport scattering time $`\tau ,`$ a characteristic time of electron heating by the electric field $`\tau _0L_0^2/D_0`$ (here $`L_0=W_0/F_0,D_0=W_0\tau /M`$ and $`M`$ is the electron effective mass), and a time $`W_0/\kappa `$ which characterizes a rate of energy loss due to the emission of acoustic phonons. We will assume that

$$\tau \tau _0\frac{W_0}{\kappa }.$$
(1)
Inequality (1) provides that the acoustic phonon scattering may be considered as a small perturbation. Due to this scattering the ”staircase” diffusive trajectories move slowly down (along axis $`E`$) with velocity $`\kappa .`$ This means at the same time that the trajectories slowly drift with the velocity $`s_0=\kappa /F_0`$ along axis $`z`$ (see Fig. 1a). Since $`s_0`$ is inversely proportional to the applied field one can say that the motion of trajectories demonstrates a negative differential mobility. It is well known that the negative differential mobility should lead to the current instability konuel ; gant . However, our case is more complicated than the usual Gann instability, because one has to follow the motion of diffusive trajectories instead of the motion of individual electrons. As for latter ones, their average drift velocity obeys the usual Ohm’s law $`v=F_0\tau /M`$ and is much larger than $`s_0`$ (since the inequalities (1) may be rewritten as $`s_0v\sqrt{W_0/M}`$). The fact that the instability can be observed in the Ohmic regime indicates that the effect is purely kinetic and can not be described in terms of hydrodynamic parameters.

As far as the elastic collisions are dominant (see Eq.(1)), the EDF is almost isotropic denis , $`f(z,W,\phi ,t)f_i(z,W,t)+f_a(z,W,t)\mathrm{cos}(\phi ).`$ Here $`f_i`$ is an isotropic part of EDF, $`f_a\mathrm{cos}(\phi )`$ is a small anisotropic correction, and $`\phi `$ is an angle between electron velocity and applied field. Denote $`J(z,W,t)=\sqrt{W/4M}f_a.`$ The equations for $`f_i`$ and $`J`$ can be written as follows konuel ; gant ; denis

$$J=D(W)\left(\frac{f_i}{z}+F\frac{f_i}{W}\right),$$
(2)
$$\frac{f_i}{t}+\frac{J}{z}+F\frac{J}{W}=\kappa \frac{f_i}{W},$$
(3)
where $`D(W)=W\tau /M`$ is an energy dependent diffusion coefficient. For simplicity we assume that $`\tau `$ is energy independent and, consequently, $`D(W)`$ is proportional to $`W.`$ The boundary conditions for Eqs. (2), (3) read

$$f_i|_{W=W_0}=0,(FJ\kappa f_i)|_{W=0}=FJ|_{W=W_0}.$$
(4)
Here $`F(z,t)=U(z,t)/z,`$ and $`U(z,t)`$ is a potential energy, which includes both the self-consistent potential created by electrons and the external potential $`U_0(z)=F_0z.`$ Condition $`f_i|_{W=W_0}=0`$ corresponds to the limit of a very strong interaction with optical phonons (”black wall” condition). The second boundary condition is related to the conservation of the number of particles in inelastic collisions standard . Eqs. (2), (3), and (4) at $`\kappa =0`$ have a homogeneous stationary solution

$$J=J_0=\frac{n_0v}{W_0},f_i=f_{i0}=\frac{n_0}{W_0}\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{W_0}{W}\right),$$
(5)
where $`n_0`$ is the stationary electron concentration (we assume the following normalization $`_0^{W_0}f_{i0}𝑑W=n_0`$). Since $`_0^{W_0}J_0𝑑W=n_0v`$, solution (5) corresponds to the Ohmic regime. According to tsendin  we rewrite Eqs. (2), (3) in variables $`(E,z,t),`$ where $`E=W+U(z,t)`$ is a full energy of a particle. The result is given by

$$J=D(EU)\frac{f_i}{z},$$
(6)
$$\frac{f_i}{t}+\frac{J}{z}=(\kappa \frac{U}{t})\frac{f_i}{E}.$$
(7)
The motion of a particle in the space of new variables is restricted by the curves $`E=E_1(z,t)=U(z,t),E=E_2(z,t)=W_0+U(z,t)`$ (See Fig. 1b). The boundary conditions (4) can be rewritten as

$`f_i|_{E=E_2(z,t)}=0,`$
$`(FJ\kappa f_i)|_{E=E_1(z,t)}=FJ|_{E=E_2(z,t)}.`$ (8)
Since the total energy of an electron changes slowly (with the characteristic time $`W_0/\kappa `$), it will be useful to introduce an electron density distribution over the $`E`$ axis

$$N(E,t)=_{z_1(E,t)}^{z_2(E,t)}𝑑zf_i,$$
(9)
where $`z_1(E,t),z_2(E,t)`$ are the inverse functions of $`E_1(z,t),E_2(z,t),`$ correspondingly, and the value $`NdE`$ represents the number of electrons on ”staircase” trajectories restricted by $`E`$ and $`E+dE`$ (see Fig. 1b). The stationary value of $`N`$ is given by $`N_0=n_0/F_0.`$ Introducing the notation $`I_E(t)=J(z_2,E,t)`$ (the stationary of $`I_E`$ being equal to $`J_0`$ ) we find from Eq. (7)

$$J(z_1,E,t)=I_E(t)+_{z_1}^{z_2}𝑑z\left(\frac{f_i}{t}(\kappa \frac{U}{t})\frac{f_i}{E}\right).$$
(10)
Taking into account that $`z_1/E=1/F(z_1,t)`$,
$`z_1/t=(U/t)/F(z_1,t)`$ and using Eqs. (8), (10) we obtain the continuity-like equation that governs the electron motion over the axis of total energy

$$\frac{N}{t}\frac{}{E}\left(N\left[\kappa \frac{U}{t}\right]\right)=I_{E+W_0}(t)I_E(t).$$
(11)
Here the angle brackets mean averaging over $`z`$

$$\frac{U}{t}=\frac{1}{N}_{z_1}^{z_2}𝑑z\frac{U}{t}f_i(z,E).$$
(12)
Next we consider the deviations from the stationary solution in the linear approximation. A small periodic over coordinate modulation of the potential $`UU_0=\delta U_q\mathrm{exp}(i\omega t+iqz)`$ induces the energy dependence of quantities $`I_E,N`$ in forms $`I_EJ_0=\delta I_q\mathrm{exp}(i\omega tiqE/F_0)`$, $`NN_0=\delta N_q\mathrm{exp}(i\omega tiqE/F_0)`$. We will demonstrate that for $`qq_m=\pm 2\pi m/L_0`$ (where $`m=1,2,..`$) the imaginary part of $`\omega `$ is positive which implies that a stationary solution (5) is unstable. For $`q=q_m`$ the solution is periodic function of energy with a period $`W_0/m`$ and $`I_{E+W_0}(t)=I_E(t)`$. Then linearization of Eq. (11) yields

$$\omega _m=\frac{\kappa }{F_0+\mathrm{\Delta }F_m}q_m,$$
(13)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }F_m=iq_mN_0\delta U_m/\delta N_m.`$ We see that the physics of the problem is governed by the only parameter $`\delta U_m/\delta N_m`$ (the subscript $`m`$ implies that all quantities are taken at $`q=q_m`$). This parameter has a transparent physical meaning of a response of the averaged potential with respect to a small variation of electron density in energy space $`\delta N_m.`$ The instability ($`\mathrm{Im}(\omega _m)>0`$) occurs, when $`Re\delta U_m/\delta N_m>0`$. In order to find this parameter one should go beyond the averaged kinetic equation (11) and solve Eqs. (6), (7) together with Poisson equation. As long as Eq. (13) is already proportional to a small parameter $`\kappa ,`$ one can simplify the solution of Eqs. (6), (7) assuming that $`\kappa =0`$, and neglecting $`f_i/t`$ and $`U/t`$ (since Eq. (13) provides that $`\omega \kappa `$). Then Eq. (7) reduces to $`J/z=0,`$ which implies that $`J(z,E,t)=I_E(t).`$ As a result, Eq. (6) yields

$$f_i(z,E,t)=I_E(t)_z^{z_2}\frac{dz^{}}{D(EU(z^{},t))}.$$
(14)
The small variation of the distribution function $`\delta f_i`$ can be found by linearization of this equation with respect to $`\delta I_m,\delta U_m,`$ the functions $`z_1`$ and $`z_2`$ being also linearized. The Poisson equation gives us a proportionality between $`\delta U_m`$ and the Fourier transform $`\delta n_m`$ of the variation of electron concentration

$$\delta n(z,t)=\delta _{E_1}^{E_2}𝑑Ef_i.$$
(15)
Here the variation includes the variation of $`\delta f_i`$ as well as variation of the integration limits $`E_1(z,t)`$ and $`E_2(z,t).`$ In this paper we restrict ourselves to the case of 2D semiconductor quantum well, assuming that the dielectric constant $`ϵ`$ is the same both inside and outside the quantum well. For such structure

$$\delta U_m=\frac{2\pi e^2}{ϵ|q_m|}\delta n_m.$$
(16)
Using Eqs. (15), (16) and linearized Eqs. (9), (14) one can find the relation between $`\delta N_m`$ and $`\delta U_m.`$ To calculate the parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }F_m,`$ one should also average the variation of potential $`\delta U_m\mathrm{exp}(iq_mz)`$ with the stationary distribution function $`f_{i0}(E,z)`$ (since we solve the problem in a linear approximation). After cumbersome but rather straightforward calculations finally we get

$$\omega _m=s_0q_m+i\frac{\kappa }{W_0}\frac{\lambda _m|\alpha _m|^2}{1+\lambda _m\alpha _m},$$
(17)
where $`\alpha _m=_0^{L_0}𝑑y(1\mathrm{exp}(iq_my))/y,\lambda _m=e^2n_0/mϵF_0.`$ It is easy to check that for any $`m`$, $`\mathrm{Im}(\omega _m)>0.`$ Thus, for $`q=q_m`$ a stationary solution is unstable. For a weak field, $`\lambda _m1,`$ the increment is field independent, $`\mathrm{Im}(\omega _m)\kappa /W_0.`$ One can show that for $`qq_m`$ the spectrum reads

$$\omega (q)=\omega _m+(qq_m)vi\frac{D^{}}{4}(qq_m)^2,$$
(18)
where $`D^{}=D_0\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{\lambda _m\alpha _m^{}}{1+\lambda _m\alpha _m}}{\displaystyle \frac{2}{iq_mL_0}}\right)`$ (we neglected small corrections of the order of $`\kappa `$ to $`v`$ and $`D^{}`$). This implies that instability exists only in a small vicinity of $`q_m`$ (see Fig. 2).

This instability should lead to the formation of CDW with the periods $`L_0/m.`$

Next we discuss a possibility of observation of the effect. The instability increment is proportional to the rate of energy loss $`\kappa ,`$ which can be calculated for electrons in 2D quantum well in full analogy with the 3D case gant . For the case of infinitely deep rectangular quantum well of width $`a`$, calculations yield

$$\kappa =\frac{C_0^2\pi ^2M}{\rho a^3\mathrm{}}.$$
(19)
Here $`C_0`$ is a deformation potential constant, $`\rho `$ is density of the crystal. This result justifies our assumption that $`\kappa `$ does not depend on electron kinetic energy. Also we see that $`\kappa `$ rapidly increases with decreasing $`a`$. The law $`\kappa a^3`$ can be understood from simple estimates. The momentum transfer from electron to phonon in the direction perpendicular to the quantum well is of the order of $`\mathrm{}/a.`$ Emission of such a phonon leads to the energy loss $`\mathrm{}S/a,`$ where $`S`$ is the sound velocity. The energy loss rate by the emission of longitudinal phonons may be neglected due to a small factor $`k_{||}a,`$ where $`k_{||}`$ is the in-plane wave vector of 2D electron. We find that $`\kappa `$ is proportional to the integral over $`dq_z`$ of the product of energy loss $`\mathrm{}S/a`$ by the squared matrix element $`V_q^2q1/a.`$ The upper limit of the integral is of the same order, of $`1/a,`$ yielding $`\kappa a^3.`$ This implies that the instability is more likely to be observed in thin 2D structures. On the other hand, the instability is suppressed by the electron-electron collisions, which lead to maxwellization of the EDF. Thus, the instability condition is given by $`\mathrm{Im}(\omega _m)>1/\tau _{ee},`$ where $`\tau _{ee}`$ is the characteristic time of the electron-electron scattering. Crude estimate of $`\tau _{ee}`$ for hot electrons with characteristic energy $`W_0`$ gives $`\tau _{ee}^1e^4n_0/ϵ^2\mathrm{}W_0.`$ Having in mind Eqs. (1), (17), one can see that for low electron densities $`e^4n_0/ϵ^2\mathrm{}<\kappa ,`$ a certain field interval exists, in which the instability can be observed. Simple estimates for GaAs and GaN show that for thin quantum wells, $`a30A^\mathrm{o},`$ the electron concentration is restricted by small but quite reasonable value $`10^{10}sm^2.`$

In conclusion, we have presented a self-consistent theory of kinetic stratification. We have shown that the spatial periods of strata equal to $`W_0/F_0m`$ and can be tuned by applied voltage.

The work was supported by RFBR and INTAS.


text:
# Nuclear shadowing and in-medium properties of the 𝜌⁰ 11footnote 1Work supported by DFG and BMBF.

## Abstract

We explain the early onset of shadowing in nuclear photoabsorption within a multiple scattering approach and discuss its relation to in-medium modifications of the $`\rho ^0`$.

The nuclear photoabsorption cross section is known to be shadowed at large energies, i.e. $`\sigma _{\gamma A}<A\sigma _{\gamma N}`$. This was at first interpreted as a confirmation of the vector meson dominance (VMD) model, which assumes that the photon might fluctuate into vector meson states with a probability of order $`\alpha _{em}`$. To give rise to shadowing, these hadronic fluctuations must travel at least a distance $`l_V`$ that is larger than their mean free path inside the nucleus. This so called coherence length $`l_V`$ can be estimated from the uncertainty principle

$$l_V\left|k_\gamma k_V\right|^1=\left|k_\gamma \sqrt{k_\gamma ^2m_V^2}\right|^1$$
(1)
where $`k_\gamma `$ and $`k_V`$ denote the momentum of the photon and the vector meson respectively and $`m_V`$ is the vector meson mass.

Recent photoabsorption data indicate an early onset of shadowing at $`E_\gamma `$1 GeV. From (1) one sees that the lightest vector meson, e.g. the $`\rho ^0`$, has the largest coherence length and therefore its properties determine the onset of the shadowing effect. This lead to the interpretation of the low energy onset of shadowing as a signature of a decreasing $`\rho ^0`$ mass in medium since a decrease of $`m_\rho `$ increases the coherence length $`l_\rho `$.

A quantitative description of the shadowing effect is possible within the Glauber model. The nuclear photoabsorption cross section can be related via the optical theorem to the nuclear forward scattering amplitude. In order $`\alpha _{em}`$ one finds the two contributions shown in Fig. 1. The left amplitude stems from forward scattering of the photon from one nucleon inside the nucleus. Summing over all nucleons this amplitude alone leads to the unshadowed cross section $`\sigma _{\gamma A}=A\sigma _{\gamma N}`$. Shadowing arises from the interference with the second amplitude in order $`\alpha _{em}`$. Here the photon produces some hadron $`X_1`$ on one nucleon inside the nucleus. This hadron then scatters through the nucleus and finally into the outgoing photon which has the same momentum and energy as the incoming photon. Since we are dealing with the forward scattering amplitude and the nucleus has to be in its ground state after the last scattering event one usually assumes that it stays in its ground state during the whole multiple scattering process (multiple scattering approximation). One sees that, in principle, shadowing can be explained without the usage of VMD.

In the simple Glauber model one makes use of the eikonal approximation, assuming that all scattering events at high energies go predominantly into the forward direction. This limits the intermediate states $`X_i`$ to hadrons which have the quantum numbers of the photon, e.g. the vector mesons. Neglecting off-diagonal scattering ($`VNV^{}N`$ with $`VV^{}`$) and neglecting the widths of the vector mesons one gets for the total photon nucleus cross section

$`\sigma _{\gamma A}`$ $`=`$ $`A\sigma _{\gamma N}+{\displaystyle \underset{V=\rho ,\omega ,\varphi }{}}{\displaystyle \frac{8\pi ^2}{kk_V}}\text{Re}\{f_{\gamma V}f_{V\gamma }{\displaystyle }d^2b{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}dz_1{\displaystyle _{z_1}^{\mathrm{}}}dz_2n(\stackrel{}{b},z_1)n(\stackrel{}{b},z_2)`$ (2)
$`\times e^{iq_V(z_1z_2)}\mathrm{exp}[{\displaystyle \frac{2\pi }{k_V}}f_V{\displaystyle _{z_1}^{z_2}}dz^{}n(\stackrel{}{b},z^{})]\}.`$
Here $`n(\stackrel{}{r})`$ denotes the nucleon number density and $`f_{\gamma V}`$ and $`f_V`$ are the vector meson photoproduction and $`VN`$ forward scattering amplitudes respectively. In our calculation we also account for two-body correlations between the nucleons. In the derivation of (2) one has made an error of order $`A^1`$ by summing up infinitely many multiple scattering terms for the intermediate vector meson. This is equivalent to the propagation of the vector meson in an optical potential, giving rise to an effective in-medium mass and width. The momentum transfer $`q_V=kk_V`$ in the phase factor arises from putting the vector meson on its mass shell. A large momentum transfer $`q_V`$ causes a rapidly oscillating term in the integrand of (2) and reduces the shadowing effect. Note that $`q_V`$ is just the inverse of the coherence length $`l_V`$ as can be seen from (1). We now relate the amplitudes $`f_{\gamma V}`$ and $`f_V`$ using VMD:

$$f_{\gamma V}=f_{V\gamma }=\frac{e}{g_V}f_V.$$
(3)
The $`\rho N`$ forward scattering amplitude $`f_\rho `$ is taken from dispersion theoretical analyses. In the energy region that we are considering the real part of $`f_\rho `$ is negative and of the same order of magnitude as the imaginary part, leading to an increase of the effective $`\rho ^0`$ mass in medium. Within VMD the negative real part also enters the photoproduction amplitude via (3). This enhances the shadowing effect and compensates the suppression due to the larger in-medium mass. In total one gets an increase of shadowing even with a positive mass shift of the $`\rho ^0`$ in medium. This can be seen from the left side of Fig. 2 where we show our results for the ratio $`\sigma _{\gamma A}/A\sigma _{\gamma N}`$. The calculation that includes the negative real part (solid lines) is in perfect agreement with the data. When the real part of $`f_V`$ is neglected, as done in most other calculations, one gets the result represented by the dotted curves and clearly underestimates the shadowing effect for all nuclei. One even gets anti-shadowing below 2 GeV for Pb and 1 GeV for C.

In an improved model, we explicitly sum over multiple scattering amplitudes where 1, 2, … $`A`$ nucleons participate in the scattering process. This avoids the error of order $`A^1`$ that occurs in the large $`A`$ limit as described above. We also take the widths of the vector mesons into account and find that the main contribution to shadowing at low energies stem from light $`\rho ^0`$ mesons with masses well below the pole mass. These are favored by the nuclear formfactor because their production is connected with a small momentum transfer. This is in agreement with our qualitative understanding of shadowing, since light fluctuations have a larger coherence length. We also do not hold on to the eikonal approximation any longer. Dropping this restriction leads to a new contribution to the shadowing effect due to $`\pi ^0`$ mesons as intermediate states. Since these cannot be produced in the forward direction without excitation of the nucleus they do not contribute to shadowing at high energies. In the shadowing onset region, however, they give rise to 30% of the total shadowing effect in the case of C and 10% in the case of Pb as can be seen from the solid lines on the right side of Fig. 2. The dashed lines show the contribution from intermediate $`\rho `$, $`\omega `$ and $`\varphi `$ mesons. In total one again gets a good description of the shadowing effect.

We have presented a theoretical explanation for the early onset of shadowing as observed in nuclear photoabsorption. It can be explained by taking the negative real part of the $`\rho N`$ forward scattering amplitude into account. This corresponds to an increase of the effective $`\rho ^0`$ mass in nuclear medium, in agreement with dispersion theoretical analyses. The major contribution to shadowing stems from light $`\rho ^0`$ with masses much smaller than the pole mass. In addition we find contributions from intermediate $`\pi ^0`$ to shadowing in the onset region.