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# Cocycle Knot Invariants, Quandle Extensions, and Alexander Matrices

## 1 Introduction

The first half of this paper is a survey of the rapidly growing area of knot invariants and knotted surface invariants that are defined via quandles and their cocycles. Several key examples are closely examined from the viewpoint of these recent developments. In particular, dynamical cocycles are used to color knotted surfaces that are obtained from classical knots by twist-spinning, and relations between cocycle invariants and Alexander matrices are demonstrated. A quandle is a set with a self-distributive binary operation (defined below) whose definition was partially motivated from knot theory. A (co)homology theory was defined in  for quandles, which is a modification of rack (co)homology defined in . The cohomology theory has found applications to the classification of Nichols algebras . State-sum invariants, called the quandle cocycle invariants, using quandle cocycles as weights are defined  and computed for important families of classical knots and knotted surfaces . Other survey articles on this subject are available .

In this paper, first we give a short overview of the subject in Sections 2, 3, 4, and 5. New extensions called extensions by dynamical cocycles defined in  are studied in relation to colorings of twist-spun knots in Section 6. Then, we define a generalized cocycle invariant in the form of a family of vectors, which encorporates the refined version given in , with detailed computations for a few examples in Section 7. Relations of these cocycle invariants and Alexander matrices are given in Section 8.

## 2 Quandles and Quandle Colorings

In this section we define quandles and quandle colorings.

A quandle, $`X`$, is a set with a binary operation $`(a,b)ab`$ such that

(I) For any $`aX`$, $`aa=a`$.

(II) For any $`a,bX`$, there is a unique $`cX`$ such that $`a=cb`$.

(III) For any $`a,b,cX`$, we have $`(ab)c=(ac)(bc).`$

A rack is a set with a binary operation that satisfies (II) and (III).

Racks and quandles have been studied in, for example, . The axioms for a quandle correspond respectively to the Reidemeister moves of type I, II, and III (see Fig. 1 and , for example). Quandle structures have been found in areas other than knot theory, see  and  for example. Recently, it was pointed out in  that simple curves on a surface have a quandle structure via an action by Dehn twists.

A function $`f:XY`$ between quandles or racks is a homomorphism if $`f(ab)=f(a)f(b)`$ for any $`a,bX`$. The following are typical examples of quandles.

1. A group $`X=G`$ with $`n`$-fold conjugation as the quandle operation: $`ab=b^nab^n`$.
2. Any subset of $`G`$ that is closed under conjugation.
3. Let $`n`$ be a positive integer. For elements $`i,j\{0,1,\mathrm{},n1\}`$, define $`ij2ji(modn)`$. Then $``$ defines a quandle structure called the dihedral quandle, $`R_n`$. This set can be identified with the set of reflections of a regular $`n`$-gon with conjugation as the quandle operation.
4. Any $`\mathrm{\Lambda }(=[T,T^1])`$-module $`M`$ is a quandle with $`ab=Ta+(1T)b`$, $`a,bM`$, called an Alexander quandle. Furthermore for a positive integer $`n`$, a mod-$`n`$ Alexander quandle $`_n[T,T^1]/(h(T))`$ is a quandle for a Laurent polynomial $`h(T)`$. It is finite if the coefficients of the highest and lowest degree terms of $`h`$ are units in $`_n`$. The dihedral quandle $`R_n`$ can be identified with $`_n[T,T^1]/(T+1)`$.

Let $`X`$ be a fixed quandle. Let $`K`$ be a given oriented classical knot or link diagram, and let $``$ be the set of (over-)arcs. The normals are given in such a way that (tangent, normal) matches the orientation of the plane, see Fig. 2. A (quandle) coloring $`𝒞`$ is a map $`𝒞:X`$ such that at every crossing, the relation depicted in Fig. 2 holds. More specifically, let $`\beta `$ be the over-arc at a crossing, and $`\alpha `$, $`\gamma `$ be under-arcs such that the normal of the over-arc points from $`\alpha `$ to $`\gamma `$. Then it is required that $`𝒞(\gamma )=𝒞(\alpha )𝒞(\beta )`$. The color $`𝒞(\gamma )`$ depends only on the choice of orientation of the over-arc; therefore this rule defines the coloring at both positive and negative crossings.

For example, Fox’s $`n`$-coloring  is a quandle coloring by the dihedral quandle $`R_n`$. The classical result that a knot is non-trivially Fox $`n`$-colorable (for $`n`$ prime) if $`n|\mathrm{\Delta }(1)`$ (where $`\mathrm{\Delta }(T)`$ denotes the Alexander polynomial) has been generalized by Inoue  to the following:

Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }_K^{(i)}(T)`$ denote the greatest common divisor of all $`(ni1)`$ minor determinants of the presentation matrix for the knot module obtained via the Fox calculus.

###### Theorem 2.1

 Let $`p`$ be a prime number, $`J`$ an ideal of the ring $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_p=_p[T,T^1]`$. For each $`i0`$, put $`e_i(T)=\mathrm{\Delta }_K^{(i)}(T)/\mathrm{\Delta }_K^{(i+1)}(T).`$ Then the number of colorings by the Alexander quandle $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_p/J`$ is equal to the cardinality of the module $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_p/J_{i=0}^{n2}\{\mathrm{\Lambda }_p/(e_i(T),J)\}`$.

Alternatively, a coloring can be described as a quandle homomorphism as follows. Classical knots have fundamental quandles that are defined via generators and relations. The theory of quandle presentations is given a complete treatment in . The quandle relation $`ab=c`$ holds where $`a`$ is the generator that corresponds to the under-arc away from which the normal to the over-arc points, $`b`$ is the generator that corresponds to the over-arc and $`c`$ corresponds to the under-arc towards which the transversal’s normal points, see Fig. 2. A coloring of a classical knot diagram by a quandle $`X`$ gives rise to a quandle homomorphism from the fundamental quandle to the quandle $`X`$.

Using Waldhausen’s theorem Joyce shows:

###### Theorem 2.2

 If two knots in $`^3`$ have isomorphic fundamental quandles, then the knots are equivalent up to orientations of $`^3`$ and the knots.

This fundamental fact was generalized:

###### Theorem 2.3

 The fundamental augmented rack is a complete invariant for irreducible semi-framed links in closed connected $`3`$-manifolds.

See  for a full account of the notation and terminology. Using an interpretation of cocycle knot invariants in terms of the canonical class $`c(L)`$ of a link $`L`$, the above theorem was further generalized to:

###### Theorem 2.4

 If $`L,M`$ are two links in $`S^3`$ such that there is an isomorphism $`\varphi `$ of fundamental racks with $`\varphi _{}(c(L))=c(M)`$, then $`L`$ and $`M`$ are isotopic.

## 3 Quandle Homology and Cohomology Theories

In this section, we present the ordinary quandle homology theory. Originally, rack homology and homotopy theory were defined and studied in , and a modification to quandle homology theory was given in  to define a knot invariant in a state-sum form. Then they were generalized to a twisted theory in . The most general form of the quandle homology known to date is given in . Computations are found in  and also in  by other authors.

Let $`C_n^\mathrm{R}(X)`$ be the free abelian group generated by $`n`$-tuples $`(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)`$ of elements of a quandle $`X`$. Define a homomorphism $`_n:C_n^\mathrm{R}(X)C_{n1}^\mathrm{R}(X)`$ by

$`_n(x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_n)`$ (1)
$`={\displaystyle \underset{i=2}{\overset{n}{}}}(1)^i[(x_1,x_2,\mathrm{},x_{i1},x_{i+1},\mathrm{},x_n)`$
$`(x_1x_i,x_2x_i,\mathrm{},x_{i1}x_i,x_{i+1},\mathrm{},x_n)]`$
for $`n2`$ and $`_n=0`$ for $`n1`$. Then $`C_{}^\mathrm{R}(X)=\{C_n^\mathrm{R}(X),_n\}`$ is a chain complex.

Let $`C_n^\mathrm{D}(X)`$ be the subset of $`C_n^\mathrm{R}(X)`$ generated by $`n`$-tuples $`(x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)`$ with $`x_i=x_{i+1}`$ for some $`i\{1,\mathrm{},n1\}`$ if $`n2`$; otherwise let $`C_n^\mathrm{D}(X)=0`$. If $`X`$ is a quandle, then $`_n(C_n^\mathrm{D}(X))C_{n1}^\mathrm{D}(X)`$ and $`C_{}^\mathrm{D}(X)=\{C_n^\mathrm{D}(X),_n\}`$ is a sub-complex of $`C_{}^\mathrm{R}(X)`$. Put $`C_n^\mathrm{Q}(X)=C_n^\mathrm{R}(X)/C_n^\mathrm{D}(X)`$ and $`C_{}^\mathrm{Q}(X)=\{C_n^\mathrm{Q}(X),_n^{}\}`$, where $`_n^{}`$ is the induced homomorphism. Henceforth, all boundary maps will be denoted by $`_n`$.

For an abelian group $`G`$, define the chain and cochain complexes

$`C_{}^\mathrm{W}(X;G)=C_{}^\mathrm{W}(X)G,`$ $`=\mathrm{id};`$ (2)
$`C_\mathrm{W}^{}(X;G)=\mathrm{Hom}(C_{}^\mathrm{W}(X),G),`$ $`\delta =\mathrm{Hom}(,\mathrm{id})`$ (3)
in the usual way, where $`\mathrm{W}`$ $`=\mathrm{D}`$, $`\mathrm{R}`$, $`\mathrm{Q}`$.

The groups of cycles and boundaries are denoted respectively by $`\text{ker}()=Z_n^\mathrm{W}(X;G)C_n^\mathrm{W}(X;G)`$ and $`\text{Im}()=B_n^\mathrm{W}(X;G)C_n^\mathrm{W}(X;G)`$ while the cocycles and coboundaries are denoted respectively by $`\text{ker}(\delta )=Z_\mathrm{W}^n(X;G)C_\mathrm{W}^n(X;G)`$ and $`\text{Im}()=B_\mathrm{W}^n(X;G)C_\mathrm{W}^n(X;G).`$ In particular, a quandle $`2`$-cocycle is an element $`\varphi Z_\mathrm{Q}^2(X;G)`$, and the equalities

$`\varphi (x,z)+\varphi (xz,yz)`$ $`=`$ $`\varphi (xy,z)+\varphi (x,y)`$
$`\text{and}\varphi (x,x)`$ $`=`$ $`0`$
are satisfied for all $`x,y,zX`$.

The $`n`$th quandle homology group and the $`n`$th quandle cohomology group  of a quandle $`X`$ with coefficient group $`G`$ are

$`H_n^\mathrm{Q}(X;G)`$ $`=`$ $`H_n(C_{}^\mathrm{Q}(X;G))=Z_n^\mathrm{Q}(X;G)/B_n^\mathrm{Q}(X;G),`$
$`H_\mathrm{Q}^n(X;G)`$ $`=`$ $`H^n(C_\mathrm{Q}^{}(X;G))=Z_\mathrm{Q}^n(X;G)/B_\mathrm{Q}^n(X;G).`$ (4)
The following developments have been made recently.

* The conjecture made in  on the long exact homology sequence was proved by Litherland and Nelson in : the long exact sequence of quandle homology

$$\mathrm{}H_n^\mathrm{D}(X;A)H_n^\mathrm{R}(X;A)H_n^\mathrm{Q}(X;A)H_{n1}^\mathrm{D}(X;A)\mathrm{}$$

splits into short exact sequences

$$0H_n^\mathrm{D}(X;A)H_n^\mathrm{R}(X;A)H_n^\mathrm{Q}(X;A)0.$$
* Mochizuki has computed several key cohomology groups. We highlight some of his results. First,

$$H_\mathrm{Q}^3(R_p;_p)_p,$$

and he gives an explicit expression for a generating cocycle. He gives explicit $`2`$-cocycles for Alexander quandles over a field $`K`$ thereby computing $`H_\mathrm{Q}^2(K[T,T^1]/(T\omega );K)`$ for $`\omega 0,1.`$ He shows that dihedral quandles of odd order have vanishing rational cohomology in all dimensions. This was shown independently in .
* Etingof and Graña  have computed the rational cohomology of any finite quandle in all dimensions. In particular, they show that the bounds on the rank of the betti numbers given in  are equalities. Furthermore, they relate the $`2`$-dimensional quandle homology to group cohomology. Let $`X`$ be a quandle and $`G_X`$ be its enveloping group: $`G_X=xX:y^1xy=xy.`$ If $`A`$ is a trivial $`G_X`$-module (as is the case with ordinary quandle homology), then

$$H_\mathrm{Q}^2(X;A)H^1(G_X;\text{Fun}(X,A))$$

where $`\text{Fun}(X,A)`$ denotes the set of functions.
* Andruskiewitsch and Graña  have developed the theory of quandle and rack cohomology further. They have developed a cohomology theory that encompasses those in  and Ohtsuki’s theory . Furthermore, their primary interest is in the classification of certain pointed Hopf algebras called Nichols algebras. The quandle cohomology plays a central role here.
* Using dynamical cocycles, Graña  classified indecomposable racks of order $`p^2`$ for any prime $`p`$. Another classification theorem was proved by Nelson  who described isomorphism classes of Alexander quandles by the submodules $`\text{Im}(1T)`$.

## 4 Cocycle Knot Invariants

### Cocycle knot invariants of classical and virtual knots

Let $`K`$ be a classical knot or link diagram. Let a finite quandle $`X`$, and an (untwisted) quandle $`2`$-cocycle $`\varphi Z_\mathrm{Q}^2(X;A)`$ be given. A (Boltzmann) weight, $`B(\tau ,𝒞)`$ (that depends on $`\varphi `$), at a crossing $`\tau `$ is defined as follows. Let $`𝒞`$ denote a coloring $`𝒞:X`$. Let $`\beta `$ be the over-arc at $`\tau `$, and $`\alpha `$, $`\gamma `$ be under-arcs such that the normal to $`\beta `$ points from $`\alpha `$ to $`\gamma `$, see Fig. 2. Let $`x=𝒞(\alpha )`$ and $`y=𝒞(\beta )`$. Then define $`B(\tau ,𝒞)=\varphi (x,y)^{ϵ(\tau )}`$, where $`ϵ(\tau )=1`$ or $`1`$, if (the sign of) the crossing $`\tau `$ is positive or negative, respectively. By convention, the crossing in Fig. 2 is positive if the orientation of the under-arc points downward.

The (quandle) cocycle knot invariant is defined by the state-sum expression

$$\mathrm{\Phi }(K)=\underset{𝒞}{}\underset{\tau }{}B(\tau ,𝒞).$$

The product is taken over all crossings of the given diagram $`K`$, and the sum is taken over all possible colorings. The values of the partition function are taken to be in the group ring $`[A]`$ where $`A`$ is the coefficient group written multiplicatively. The state-sum depends on the choice of $`2`$-cocycle $`\varphi `$. This is proved in  to be a knot invariant. Figure 3 shows the invariance of the state-sum under the Reidemeister type III move. The sums of cocycles, equated before and after the move, is the $`2`$-cocycle condition.

Relations to braid group representations and quantum invariants are studied in , see also  for a viewpoint from the bracket state-sum form and Dijkgraaf-Witten invariants.

### Cocycle Invariants for Knotted Surfaces

The state-sum invariant is defined in an analogous way for oriented knotted surfaces in $`4`$-space using their projections and diagrams in $`3`$-space. Specifically, the above steps can be repeated as follows, for a fixed finite quandle $`X`$ and a knotted surface diagram $`K`$.

* The diagrams consist of double curves and isolated branch and triple points . Along the double curves, the coloring rule is defined using normals in the same way as classical case, as depicted in the left of Fig. 4.
* The sign $`ϵ(\tau )`$ of a triple point $`\tau `$ is defined  in such a way that it is positive if and only if the normals to top, middle, bottom sheets, in this order, match the orientation of $`3`$-space.
* For a coloring $`𝒞`$, the Boltzman weight at a triple point $`\tau `$ is defined by $`B(\tau ,𝒞)=`$ $`\theta (x,y,z)^{ϵ(\tau )}`$, where $`\theta `$ is a $`3`$-cocycle, $`\theta Z_\mathrm{Q}^3(X;A)`$. In the right of Fig. 4, the triple point $`\tau `$ is positive, so that $`B(\tau ,𝒞)=\theta (p,q,r)`$.
* The state-sum is defined by $`\mathrm{\Phi }(K)=_𝒞_\tau B(\tau ,𝒞).`$

Recall that a function $`\theta :X\times X\times XA`$ is a quandle $`3`$-cocycle if

$`\theta (p,r,s)+\theta (pr,qr,s)+\theta (p,q,r)`$ $`=`$ $`\theta (pq,r,s)+\theta (p,q,s)+\theta (ps,qs,rs)`$
$`\theta (p,p,q)`$ $`=`$ $`0`$
$`\theta (p,q,q)`$ $`=`$ $`0`$
By checking the analogues of Reidemeister moves for knotted surface diagrams, called Roseman moves, it was shown in  that $`\mathrm{\Phi }(K)`$ is an invariant, called the (quandle) cocycle invariant of knotted surfaces.

The value of the state-sum invariant depends only on the cohomology class represented by the defining cocycle. In particular, a coboundary will simply count the number of colorings of a knot or knotted surface by the quandle $`X`$.

### Applications

Important topological applications have been obtained using the cocycle invariants for knotted surfaces.

* The $`2`$-twist spun trefoil $`K`$ and its orientation-reversed counterpart $`K`$ have shown to have distinct cocycle invariants using a cocycle in $`Z_Q^3(R_3;_3)`$, providing a proof that $`K`$ is non-invertible . The higher genus surfaces obtained from $`K`$ by adding arbitrary number of trivial $`1`$-handles are also non-invertible, since such handle additions do not alter the cocycle invariant. This result in higher genus cases is not immediately obtained from , although higher genus generalizations of the Farber-Levine pairing  can be used.
* Cocycle invariants for twist spun $`(2,n)`$-torus knots were computed using Maple  for some quandles. Computer-free calculations and general formulas were obtained later in  using explicit formulas of $`3`$-cocycles provided in  for dihedral quandles. Mochizuki’s formulas were also used for the following geometric application.
* The projection of the $`2`$-twist spun trefoil was shown to have at least four triple points .
* The projection of the $`3`$-twist spun trefoil was shown to have at least six triple points . The cocycle employed here appeared in . Satoh and Shima gave a set of linear equations among numbers of colored triple points to give algebraic lower bounds on the number of triple points. They have developed a computer program to compute these bounds.

Colorings of knotted surfaces in relation to dynamical cocycles are discussed in Section 6, that would provide the first step towards extending their results.

## 5  Extension theory of quandles

Let $`X`$ be a quandle, and for a given abelian coefficient group $`A`$, take a $`2`$-cocycle $`\varphi Z_\mathrm{Q}^2(X;A)`$. Let $`E=A\times X`$ and define a binary operation by $`(a_1,x_1)(a_2,x_2)=(a_1+\varphi (x_1,x_2),x_1x_2)`$. It was shown in  that $`(E,)`$ defines a quandle, called an abelian (or central) extension, and is denoted by $`E=E(X,A,\varphi )`$. (This is in parallel to central extension of groups, see Chapter IV of .) The following examples were given in .

* For any positive integer $`q`$ and $`m`$, the quandle $`E=W_{m+1}=_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^{m+1}`$ is an abelian extension of $`X=W_m=_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m`$ over $`_q`$: $`E=E(X,_q,\varphi )`$, for some $`\varphi Z_\mathrm{Q}^2(X;_q)`$.
* For any positive integers $`q`$ and $`m`$, $`E=U_{m+1}=_{q^{m+1}}[T,T^1]/(T1+q)`$ is an abelian extension $`E=E(_{q^m}[T,T^1]/(T1+q),_q,\varphi )`$ of $`X=U_m=_{q^m}[T,T^1]/(T1+q)`$ for some cocycle $`\varphi Z_\mathrm{Q}^2(X;_q)`$.

For these quandles, explicit formulas were obtained in  using extensions as follows.

* Represent elements of $`E=W_{m+1}`$ by $`A=A_m(1T)^m+\mathrm{}+A_1(1T)+A_0`$, where $`A_j_q`$, $`j=0,\mathrm{},m`$. Define $`f:E=W_{m+1}_q\times X(=W_m)`$ by

$$f(A)=(A_m(\text{mod}q),\overline{A}(\text{mod}(1T)^{m1})),$$

where $`\overline{A}=_{j=0}^{m1}A_j(1T)^j.`$ Then for $`A,BE`$, the quandle operation is computed by

$`AB`$ $`=`$ $`TA+(1T)B`$
$`=`$ $`(A_mA_{m1}+B_{m1})(1T)^m+{\displaystyle \underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}}(A_jA_{j1}+B_{j1})(1T)^j,`$
where $`A_1,B_1`$ are understood to be zeros in the last summation, and the coefficients are in $`_q`$. In $`_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m`$, and we have $`f(AB)=(\varphi (\overline{A},\overline{B}),\overline{A}\overline{B})`$ where $`\varphi (\overline{A},\overline{B})=B_{m1}A_{m1}`$. Hence $`f`$ yields an isomorphism.
* The cocycle $`\varphi `$ has a description using a section. Let

$$s:_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^{m+1}$$

be a set-theoretic section defined by

$$s\left(\underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}A_j(1T)^j\right)=\underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}A_j(1T)^j\text{mod}(1T)^{m+1}.$$

Then we have $`\overline{s(X)}\overline{s(Y)}=\overline{s(XY)}`$ for any $`X,Y_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m`$, so that $`[s(X)s(Y)s(XY)]`$ is divisible by $`(1T)^m`$, and we have

$$\varphi (\overline{A},\overline{B})=[s(A)s(B)s(AB)]/(1T)^m_q.$$
* For $`E=U_{m+1}`$, represent elements of $`_{q^{m+1}}`$ by $`\{0,1,\mathrm{},q^{m+1}1\}`$ and express them in their $`q^{m+1}`$-ary expansion:

$$A=A_mq^m+\mathrm{}+A_1q+A_0_{q^{m+1}},$$

where $`0A_j<q`$, $`j=0,\mathrm{},m`$. Then $`E=U_{m+1}`$ and $`X=U_m`$ have a similar description as above.

An extension theory of quandles for “twisted” cohomology cocycles was developed in , and it provided more general extension theories. In the twisted case, the coefficient group is taken to be a $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-module, thus has an Alexander quandle structure, and the extension $`AE(X,A,\varphi )=(A\times X,)`$ is defined by $`(a_1,x_1)(a_2,x_2)=(a_1a_2+\varphi (x_1,x_2),x_1x_2)`$ for $`\varphi Z_{\mathrm{TQ}}^2(X;A)`$, and is called an Alexander extension of $`X`$ by $`(A,\varphi )`$, where the subscript TQ represents the twisted theory. For example, $`R_{p^m}`$ is an Alexander extension of $`R_{p^{m1}}`$ by $`R_p`$: $`R_{p^m}=AE(R_{p^{m1}},R_p,\varphi )`$, for some $`\varphi Z_{\mathrm{TQ}}^2(R_{p^{m1}};R_p)`$.

Ohtsuki  defined a new cohomology theory for quandles and an extension theory, together with a list of problems in the subject. Further generalizations of extensions by dynamical cocycles as defined in  will be discussed and used for coloring twist spun knots in the next section.

## 6 Extensions of quandles and colorings of twist-spun knots

### Extensions by dynamical cocycles

This subsection is a brief summary of a quandle extension theory by Andruskiewitch and Graña . The notation has been changed below from that given in  to match our conventions in this paper. Let $`X`$ be a quandle and $`S`$ be a non-empty set. Let $`\alpha :X\times X\text{Fun}(S\times S,S)=S^{S\times S}`$ be a function, so that for $`\sigma ,\tau X`$ and $`a,bS`$ we have $`\alpha _{\sigma ,\tau }(s,t)S`$.

Then it is checked by computations that $`S\times X`$ is a quandle by the operation $`(a,\sigma )(b,\tau )=(\alpha _{\sigma ,\tau }(a,b),\sigma \tau )`$, where $`\sigma \tau `$ denotes the quandle operation in $`X`$, if and only if $`\alpha `$ satisfies the following conditions:

1. $`\alpha _{\sigma ,\sigma }(a,a)=a`$ for all $`\sigma X`$ and $`aS`$;
2. $`\alpha _{\sigma ,\tau }(,b):SS`$ is a bijection for all $`\sigma ,\tau X`$ and for all $`bS`$;
3. $`\alpha _{\sigma \tau ,\eta }(\alpha _{\sigma ,\tau }(a,b),c)=\alpha _{\sigma \eta ,\tau \eta }(\alpha _{\sigma ,\eta }(a,c),\alpha _{\tau ,\eta }(b,c))`$ for all $`\sigma ,\tau ,\eta X`$ and $`a,b,cS`$.

Such a function $`\alpha `$ is called a dynamical quandle cocycle. The quandle constructed above is denoted by $`S\times _\alpha X`$, and is called the extension of $`X`$ by a dynamical cocycle $`\alpha `$. The construction is general, as they show:

###### Lemma 6.1

 Let $`p:YX`$ be a surjective quandle homomorphism such that the cardinality of $`p^1(x)`$ is a constant for all $`xX`$. Then $`Y`$ is isomorphic to an extension $`S\times _\alpha X`$ of $`X`$ by some dynamical cocycle on a set $`S`$.

### Quandle extensions in wreath products

Let

$$0N\stackrel{i}{}G\stackrel{\pi }{}H1$$

be a split short exact sequence of groups that expresses the finite group $`G`$ as a semi-direct product $`G=NH`$, so that we have a homomorphism $`s:HG`$ with $`\pi s=1_H`$. The elements of $`G`$ can be written as pairs $`(x,\sigma )`$ where $`xN`$ and $`\sigma H`$. The multiplication rule in $`G`$ is given by $`(x,\sigma )(y,\tau )=(x\sigma (y),\sigma \tau ),`$ where $`\sigma (y)`$ denotes the action of $`H`$ on $`N`$ that gives $`G`$ the structure of a semi-direct product.

Let $`Q`$ denote a subquandle of $`\text{Conj}(H)`$ (the group $`H`$ with the quandle structure given by conjugation). Thus $`Q`$ is a subset of $`H`$ that is closed under conjugation. Let $`\stackrel{~}{Q}=\{(x,\sigma ):\sigma Q\}`$, then $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$ is a quandle by conjugation in $`G`$. The group homomorphism $`\pi :GH`$ induces the quandle homomorphism (denoted by the same letter) $`\pi :\stackrel{~}{Q}Q`$. Lemma 6.1 implies

###### Lemma 6.2

Suppose the cardinality $`|\pi ^1(\sigma )|`$ is independent of $`\sigma Q`$. Then $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$ is an extension $`Q`$ by a dynamical cocycle $`\alpha :Q\times QS^{S\times S}`$ where $`S`$ is a set with cardinality $`|\pi ^1(\sigma )|`$.

Now we specialize to the case that $`Q`$ is a subquandle of $`\text{Conj}(\mathrm{\Sigma }_n)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_n`$ denotes the symmetric group on $`n`$ letters, and $`N=(_v)^n`$ for some $`v\{0,1,\mathrm{}\}`$. (In case $`v=0`$, then $`N`$ is the direct product of the integers, and when $`v=1`$ then $`N`$ is trivial.) The action of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_n`$ is given by permutation of the factors $`\sigma (x_1,\mathrm{},x_n)=\sigma (\stackrel{}{x})=(x_{\sigma (1)},\mathrm{},x_{\sigma (n)})`$, for $`\sigma \mathrm{\Sigma }_n`$ and $`\stackrel{}{x}=(x_j)_{j=1}^n(_v)^n`$. In this situation, $`G=(_v)^n\mathrm{\Sigma }_n`$ is also called a wreath product and denoted by $`G=(_v)\mathrm{\Sigma }_n`$. Hence the group operation in $`G`$ is written by

$$(\stackrel{}{x},\sigma )(\stackrel{}{y},\tau )=(\stackrel{}{x}\sigma (\stackrel{}{y}),\sigma \tau )$$

where $`\sigma (\stackrel{}{y})=(y_{\sigma (1)},\mathrm{},y_{\sigma (n)}).`$

It is well known that elements of $`G`$ can be represented by matrices with entries in $`\{x^j\}`$ as follows. First, we represent the cyclic group $`(_v)`$ multiplicatively as $`x|x^v=1`$, and represent $`\stackrel{}{x}(_v)^n`$ by $`(x^{i_1},\mathrm{},x^{i_n}).`$ Represent $`\sigma \mathrm{\Sigma }_n`$ by an $`(n\times n)`$-matrix $`M(\sigma )`$ acting on vectors of $`n`$ letters from the left. It is a matrix with exactly one nonzero entry in each row and column, and each non-zero entry is $`1`$. The pair $`(\stackrel{}{x},\sigma )`$ is represented as a matrix $`M(\stackrel{}{x},\sigma )`$ obtained from $`M(\sigma )`$ by replacing the non-zero entry in the $`j`$th row by $`x^{i_j}`$. The group composition in $`G`$ is matrix multiplication of $`M(\stackrel{}{x},\sigma )`$s where $`0x^i=0`$ and $`x^ix^j=x^{i+j}`$. For example, we write

$$((x^i,x^j,x^k),(12))=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& x^i& 0\\ x^j& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& x^k\end{array}\right),$$

and

$$((x^{\mathrm{}},x^m,x^p),(123))=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 0& x^{\mathrm{}}\\ x^m& 0& 0\\ 0& x^p& 0\end{array}\right).$$

The matrix product evaluates as

$$\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& x^i& 0\\ x^j& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& x^k\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 0& x^{\mathrm{}}\\ x^m& 0& 0\\ 0& x^p& 0\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}x^{i+m}& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& x^{\mathrm{}+j}\\ 0& x^{k+p}& 0\end{array}\right)$$

which corresponds to $`((x^{i+m},x^{\mathrm{}+j},x^{k+p}),(23)).`$ Meanwhile, the product

$$((x^{\mathrm{}},x^m,x^p),(123))((x^i,x^j,x^k),(12))=((x^{\mathrm{}+k},x^{m+i},x^{p+j}),(13))$$

is represented by the matrix

$$\left(\begin{array}{ccc}0& 0& x^{\mathrm{}+k}\\ 0& x^{m+i}& 0\\ x^{p+j}& 0& 0\end{array}\right).$$

Note that the cycles of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_n`$ act on $`n`$-letters from the left in this convention.

We take our subquandle $`Q`$ to be, for example, the dihedral quandle, $`R_n`$, or a subset of a given conjugacy class that is itself closed under conjugation, such as $`QS_4=\{(123),(142),(134),(243)\}\mathrm{\Sigma }_4`$. We are interested in applications to knots herein, so we assume that $`n`$ is odd. Then for both of $`Q=R_n`$ or $`QS_4`$, an element $`\sigma Q`$ has a fixed point in $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$, and the matrix representation $`M(\sigma ,\stackrel{}{x})`$ of $`(\sigma ,\stackrel{}{x})`$ has exactly one element along the diagonal. It is easy to see that the exponent of the diagonal element is fixed under the conjugation action, so we restrict our attention to the subquandle $`Q(v)`$ of $`\stackrel{~}{Q}`$ in which the non-zero diagonal element is $`1`$. By Lemma 6.1, we see that $`Q(v)`$ is also an extension of $`Q`$ by a dynamical cocycle.

In the case of the dihedral quandle $`Q=R_n`$ for $`n`$ odd, we simplify the notation further. Consider a regular $`n`$-gon whose vertices labeled with $`\{1,\mathrm{},n\}`$ in this order, on which $`R_n`$ acts as reflections. For $`i=1,\mathrm{},n`$, let $`\sigma _i`$ denote the reflection of a regular $`n`$-gon which fixes the vertex labeled $`i`$. Then $`\sigma _i\sigma _j=\sigma _{2ji}`$. Denote the element $`(\stackrel{}{x},\sigma _j)G`$ where $`\stackrel{}{x}=(x^{i_1},\mathrm{},x^{i_{j1}},1,x^{i_{j+1}},\mathrm{},x^{i_n})`$, by $`\sigma _j(i_1,\mathrm{},\widehat{ı}_j,\mathrm{},i_n)`$ where $`\widehat{ı_j}`$ indicates that the $`j`$th element in this list is missing. For example, set $`a=\sigma _1`$, $`b=\sigma _2`$, and $`c=\sigma _3`$ in $`R_3`$ and the elements of $`R_3(v)`$ are denoted by $`a_{j,k}`$, $`b_{i,k}`$, and $`c_{i,j}`$, where $`i,j,k/v`$. For convenience we summarize the multiplication table for $`R_3(v)`$ as follows, where $`rc`$ indicates that the table represents (row)$``$(column).

| $`rc`$ | $`a_{n,p}`$ | $`b_{m,p}`$ | $`c_{m,n}`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`a_{j,k}`$ | $`a_{k+np,jn+p}`$ | $`c_{kp,j+p}`$ | $`b_{jn,k+n}`$ |
| $`b_{i,k}`$ | $`c_{i+p,kp}`$ | $`b_{k+mp,im+p}`$ | $`a_{im,k+m}`$ |
| $`c_{i,j}`$ | $`b_{i+n,jn}`$ | $`a_{j+m,im}`$ | $`c_{j+mn,im+n}`$ |

### Coloring twist-spun knots by extended quandles

Now we use the above extensions of quandles to color twist-spun knots.

###### Example 6.3

1. The $`2v`$-twist spun trefoil is non-trivially colorable by the quandle $`R_3(v)`$.
2. The $`3u`$-twist spun trefoil is non-trivially colorable by the quandle $`QS_4(u).`$
3. The $`2v`$-twist spun figure 8 knot is non-trivially colorable by $`R_5(v)`$.

Proof. The schematic diagram indicated in Fig. 5 illustrates Satoh’s method  for obtaining the twist spun knot from a $`(11)`$-tangle $`F`$ whose closure is a given classical knot $`K`$.

From left to right in the diagram, a movie of one full twist of a tangle is depicted. After repeating $`k`$ full twists, the tangle is identified with the original one to form the $`k`$-twist spun knot of $`K`$. Reidemeister moves performed in the course of the isotopy correspond to critical or singular points on the projection, see , for example, for details. In particular, triple points on the projection correspond to type III moves, and they appear when the tangle $`F`$ goes over and under the arc of axis, in steps between (1) and (2), (3) and (4) in the figure. The quandle colors assigned to $`F`$ changes when $`F`$ goes under the axis, between (3) and (4), and every quandle element $`b`$ assigned to an arc in $`F`$ changes to the quandle element $`ba`$ if the arc of axis is colored by $`a`$.

First we consider even twist spun trefoils. If we color the arcs of the trefoil as in the top left of Fig. 6 with color $`a_{j,k}`$ on the main arc of the axis of rotation, and color $`b_{m,p}`$ on the right, then such a coloring extends to the entire trefoil if $`j+k=m+p`$. After each pair of twists the indices $`a`$, $`b`$, and $`c`$ return to the arcs of the diagram, but the subscripts $`m,p,kp`$ and $`j+p`$ are incremented to $`k+j+m`$, $`pkj`$, $`k+m`$, and $`pk`$ respectively. After $`2v`$ full twists, the colors on the $`b`$-arc and the $`c`$-arc become $`b_{m+v(j+k),pv(k+j)}`$ and $`c_{(kp)+v(k+j),(p+j)v(p+m)}`$ as indicated in the figure. (The subscripts in the figure are subjected to the identity $`j+k=m+p`$ to obtain this result.) Thus the extension colors the $`2v`$-twist spun trefoil if $`v0`$.

Next we consider a coloring of the trefoil by $`QS_4`$. We label the elements of $`(QS)_4(u)`$ as follows:

$$[0,j,k,\mathrm{}]=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& x^j& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& x^k\\ 0& x^{\mathrm{}}& 0& 0\end{array}\right),[i,0,k,\mathrm{}]=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& 0& x^i\\ 0& 1& 0& 0\\ x^k& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& x^{\mathrm{}}& 0\end{array}\right)$$

$$[i,j,0,\mathrm{}]=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& x^i& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& x^j\\ 0& 0& 1& 0\\ x^{\mathrm{}}& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),[i,j,k,0]=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}0& 0& x^i& 0\\ x^j& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& x^k& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1\end{array}\right)$$

In the illustration of Fig. 7, an extension to a coloring by $`(QS)_4(u)`$ is indicated. The main arc is colored $`[0,j,k,\mathrm{}]`$ and the right hand arc is colored $`[m,0,n,p].`$ These colors induce the color $`[kn+p,j+n,\mathrm{}p,0]`$ on the remaining arc of the diagram. A sufficient condition for this to be a coloring of trefoil is that $`j+k+\mathrm{}=m+n+p=2(k+p).`$

We follow the coloring of the right hand arc (colored $`[m,0,n,p]`$) for 6 twists.

$`[m,0,n,p]`$ $`\stackrel{[0,j,k,\mathrm{}]}{}`$ $`[\mathrm{}+m,k\mathrm{}+p,0,nk]`$
$`\stackrel{[0,j,k,\mathrm{}]}{}`$ $`[j+\mathrm{}+m,nk\mathrm{},k+pj,0]`$
$`\stackrel{[0,j,k,\mathrm{}]}{}`$ $`[j+k+\mathrm{}+m,0,jk\mathrm{}+n,p]`$
$`\stackrel{[0,j,k,\mathrm{}]}{}`$ $`[j+k+2\mathrm{}+m,k\mathrm{}+p,0,nj2k\mathrm{}]`$
$`\stackrel{[0,j,k,\mathrm{}]}{}`$ $`[2j+k+2\mathrm{}+m,j2k2\mathrm{}+n,j+k+p,0]`$
$`\stackrel{[0,j,k,\mathrm{}]}{}`$ $`[2(j+k+l)+m,0,n2(j+k+\mathrm{}),p]`$
Observe that the 3-twist spun trefoil colors non-trivially with $`QS_4(2)`$, since $`2(k+p)=0=(j+k+\mathrm{})`$ in this case. The result follows by induction.

A similar calculation applies to the figure $`8`$ knot and $`R_5`$. We leave the details to the reader.

## 7 Variations of cocycle knot invariants

The following variations of cocycle knot invariants for classical knots have been considered.

* For a link $`L=K_1\mathrm{}K_n`$, let $`𝒯_i`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},n`$, be the set of crossings at which the under-arcs belong to the component $`K_i`$. Then it was observed  that $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Phi }}(K)=(_𝒞_{\tau 𝒯_i}B(\tau ,𝒞))_{i=1}^n`$ is a link invariant, strictly stronger than the single state-sum.
* Lopes  observed that the family $`\{_\tau B(\tau ,𝒞)\}_{𝒞\text{Col}}`$ is a knot invariant, without taking summation. Here, Col denotes the set of colorings. In particular, infinite quandles can be used for coloring in this case. He also defined for links $`L=K_1\mathrm{}K_n`$ the vector version $`(\{_{\tau 𝒯_i}B(\tau ,𝒞)\}_{𝒞\text{Col}})_{i=1}^n`$.

Now we combine these variations to define the following generalized cocycle invariant.

###### Definition 7.1

Let $`X`$ be a quandle, $`\varphi _\mathrm{Q}^2(X;A)`$, where $`A`$ is an abelian group, $`𝒞`$ a coloring of $`L`$ by $`X`$, and $`B(\tau ,𝒞)`$ the Boltzmann weight at a crossing $`\tau `$ for a coloring $`𝒞`$. Let $`L=K_1\mathrm{}K_r`$ be a link and $`𝒯_i`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},r`$, be the set of crossings of $`L`$ such that the under-arcs belong to $`K_i`$. Define

$$\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)=\left\{(\underset{\tau 𝒯_1}{}B(\tau ,𝒞),\mathrm{},\underset{\tau 𝒯_r}{}B(\tau ,𝒞))\right\}_{𝒞\text{Col}}.$$

This version of a family of vectors is potentially stronger than Lopes’s version of a vector of families. For example, the two distinct families of vectors $`\{(1,t),(t,1)\}`$ and $`\{(1,1),(t,t)\}`$ give rise to the same vector of families $`(\{1,t\},\{1,t\})`$. As examples, we evaluate the invariants for Whitehead link and Borromean rings, using extension cocycles constructed in Section 5. We use the coefficient group $`A=_q=\{t^n|n=0,1,\mathrm{},q1\}`$ for a positive integer $`q`$.

###### Example 7.2

Let $`X=W_m=_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m`$ or $`X=U_m=_{q^m}[T,T^1]/(T1+q)`$, and $`L`$ the Whitehead link. Then the generalized cocycle invariant is

$$\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\{\underset{q^{2m}copies}{\underset{}{(1,1),\mathrm{},(1,1)}}\}\hfill & \text{for }m=1,2\text{,}\hfill \\ \{\underset{q^{m+2}copies}{\underset{}{(t^n,t^n),\mathrm{},(t^n,t^n)}}\}_{n\{0,1,\mathrm{},q1\}}\hfill & \text{for }m3\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

Consequently,

$$\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Phi }}(L)=\{\begin{array}{cc}(q^{2m},q^{2m})\hfill & \text{for }m=1,2\text{,}\hfill \\ (q^{m+2}(t^{q1}+\mathrm{}+t+1),q^{m+2}(t^{q1}+\mathrm{}+t+1))\hfill & \text{for }m3\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

Proof. Let $`X=_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m`$. The case for $`X=_{q^m}[T,T^1]/(T1+q)`$ is similar. Pick base points $`b_1`$ and $`b_2`$ on the components $`K_1`$ and $`K_2`$, respectively, of the Whitehead link $`L=K_1K_2`$ as depicted in Fig. 8, and trace each component in the given orientation of the link. The colors (elements of $`X`$) assigned to the arcs that appear in this order are $`w_1,w_2`$ for $`K_1`$, and $`w_3,\mathrm{},w_6`$ for $`K_2`$ as depicted. The crossing at the initial point of the arc colored by $`w_i`$ is defined to be $`\tau _i`$. First we determine the set of colorings: For $`m3`$, for two elements $`w_1`$, $`w_3X`$ assigned to the top two arcs of the Whitehead link $`L`$ as shown in Fig. 8, there is a coloring of $`L`$ by $`X`$ which restricts to the given $`w_1`$, $`w_3`$ if and only if

$$w_3w_10(mod(1T)^{m3})\text{for}w_1,w_3_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m.$$

For $`m=1,2`$, there is such a coloring for any $`w_1,w_3X`$. This can be computed as follows.

Represent the elements of $`X=_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m`$ by $`a=a_{m1}(1T)^{m1}+\mathrm{}+a_1(1T)+a_0`$, where $`a_j_q`$. Note that $`(1(1T))(1+(1T)+\mathrm{}+(1T)^{m1})=1`$ in $`X`$, so $`T^1=1+(1T)+\mathrm{}+(1T)^{m1}`$. Note also that $`a\overline{}b=T^1a+(1T^1)b`$.

We have the following calculations for each arc:

$`w_2`$ $`=`$ $`w_1w_3=w_1+(1T)(w_3w_1)`$
$`w_4`$ $`=`$ $`w_3w_2=w_3+(1T)(w_2w_3)=(w_3w_1)(1T)^2(w_3w_1)(1T)+w_3`$
$`w_6`$ $`=`$ $`w_3\overline{}w_4=T^1w_3+(1T^1)w_4=(w_3w_1)(1T)^2+w_3`$
$`w_5`$ $`=`$ $`w_4w_6=w_4+(1T)(w_6w_4)=2(w_3w_1)(1T)^2(w_3w_1)(1T)+w_3.`$
These relations are obtained using the top four crossings ($`\tau _2,\tau _4,\tau _3`$, and $`\tau _5`$, respectively). The bottom two crossings ($`\tau _6`$ and $`\tau _1`$) of the link give rise to the next two relations. The first relation is $`w_6w_2=w_5`$ for the second bottom crossing, giving $`(w_1w_3)(1T)^30(mod(1T)^m)`$. The second relation that corresponds to the bottom crossing is $`w_1w_6=w_2`$ giving $`(w_3w_1)(1T)^30(mod(1T)^m)`$, as claimed above.

Now we determine the contribution to the invariant for each coloring. Recall that $`\varphi (w_1,w_3)=[s(w_1)s(w_3)s(w_1w_3)]/(1T)^m`$. Since $`(w_3w_1)(1T)^30(mod(1T)^m)`$, we see that the contribution is

$`\varphi (w_1,w_3)\varphi (w_1,w_6)`$
$`=`$ $`[s(w_1)s(w_3)s(w_1w_3)]/(1T)^m`$
$`[s(w_1)s(w_3)+(w_3w_1)(1T)^3s(w_1w_3)]/(1T)^m`$
$`=`$ $`(w_3w_1)(1T)^3/(1T)^m(modq),`$
for the first component, and for the second component, computations show that

$$\varphi (w_3,w_2)\varphi (w_6,w_2)+\varphi (w_6,w_4)+\varphi (w_4,w_6)=(w_3w_1)(1T)^3/(1T)^m(modq).$$

For $`m=1,2`$ the contributions for the first and the second component are both $`0`$, and we have $`q^m`$ choices for both $`w_1`$ and $`w_3`$, therefore $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)=(\underset{q^{2m}copies}{\underset{}{(1,1),\mathrm{},(1,1)}})`$ and $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Phi }}(L)=(q^{2m},q^{2m})`$.

For $`m3`$, if $`w_1`$ and $`w_3`$ color $`L`$, then $`(w_3w_1)(1T)^3`$ is $`0`$ as an element of $`X`$, so that $`w_3w_1`$ is uniquely written as $`w_3w_1=k(1T)^{m3}`$, where $`k=k_0+k_1(1T)+k_2(1T)^2`$, and $`k_0,k_1,k_2\{0,1,\mathrm{},q1\}`$. Then

$$(w_3w_1)(1T)^3=k(1T)^m=(k_0+k_1(1T)+k_2(1T)^2)(1T)^m=k_0(1T)^mE.$$

Thus the contribution to the invariant for the first and second components are $`t^{k_0}`$ and $`t^{k_0}`$, respectively.

To find the number of colorings conrtibuting to $`t^{k_0}`$ and $`t^{k_0}`$, fix $`k_0`$. We have $`q^m`$ choices for $`w_1`$ and $`q^2`$ choices for $`k`$. Then $`w_3`$ is uniquely determined by $`w_3=w_1+k(1T)^{m3}`$. In total, the contribution is $`q^mq^2=q^{m+2}`$ for each $`t^{k_0}`$ and $`t^{k_0}`$. Setting $`n=k_0`$ we obtain the result.

###### Example 7.3

Let $`X=_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m`$ or $`X=_{q^m}[T,T^1]/(T1+q)`$, and $`L`$ the Borromean rings. Then the generalized cocycle invariant is

$$\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\{\underset{q^{3m}copies}{\underset{}{(1,1,1),\mathrm{},(1,1,1)}}\}\hfill & \text{for }m=1\text{,}\hfill \\ \{\underset{q^{m+2}copies}{\underset{}{(t^{k_0},t^\mathrm{}_0,t^{k_0+\mathrm{}_0}),\mathrm{},(t^{k_0},t^\mathrm{}_0,t^{k_0+\mathrm{}_0})}}\}_{k_0,\mathrm{}_0\{0,1,\mathrm{},q1\}}\hfill & \text{for }m2\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

Consequently,

$$\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Phi }}(L)=\{\begin{array}{cc}(q^{3m},q^{3m},q^{3m})\hfill & \text{for }m=1\text{,}\hfill \\ (q^{m+2}(t^{q1}+\mathrm{}+t+1),q^{m+2}(t^{q1}+\mathrm{}+t+1),q^{m+2}(t^{q1}+\mathrm{}+t+1))\hfill & \text{for }m2\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

Proof. Let $`X=_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m`$ and let $`L`$ be the Borromean rings as depicted in Fig. 9. The case for $`X=_{q^m}[T,T^1]/(T1+q)`$ is similar. Calculations are similar to the preceding example and we give a sketch. First we determine the set of colorings: For three elements $`y_1,y_2,y_3X`$ assigned to each outer arc in the diagram of $`L`$, there is a coloring of $`L`$ by $`X`$ which restricts to the given $`y_1,y_2,y_3`$ if and only if

$$(y_2y_3)(1T)^20,(y_1y_2)(1T)^20\text{and}(y_3y_1)(1T)^20.$$

The outer three crossings are used to describe $`y_4,y_5,y_6`$ in terms of the rest, and the inner three crossings give the above relations.

Contributions to the invariant are computed as follows. The contribution for the first component of $`L`$ colored by $`y_1`$ is $`\varphi (y_1,y_2)\varphi (y_1,y_2y_3)=(y_3y_2)(1T)^2/(1T)^m(modq)`$. For $`m=1`$, the contribution is trivial, and the total number of colorings is $`q^{3m}`$. For $`m2`$, $`(y_3y_2)(1T)^2`$ is divisible by $`(1T)^m`$, so $`y_3y_2`$ is uniquely written as $`y_3y_2=k(1T)^{m2}`$, where $`k=k_0+k_1(1T)`$ and $`k_0,k_1\{0,1,\mathrm{},q1\}`$. So

$$(y_3y_2)(1T)^2=k(1T)^m=(k_0+k_1q)(1T)^m=k_0(1T)^m,$$

and the first component contributes $`t^{k_0}`$ to the invariant. For the second component of $`L`$ colored by $`y_2`$, similar calculations as above give the contribution $`\varphi (y_2,y_3)\varphi (y_2,y_3y_1)=(y_1y_3)(1T)^2`$, which is divisible by $`(1T)^m`$ so $`y_1y_3=(\mathrm{}_0+\mathrm{}_1(1T))(1T)^{m2}`$ and therefore $`(y_1y_3)(1T)^2=\mathrm{}_0(1T)^m`$. The we obtain $`y_2y_1=[(k_0+\mathrm{}_0)+(k_1+\mathrm{}_1)(1T)](1T)^{m2}`$, so that the third component contributes $`t^{k_0+\mathrm{}_0}`$. Finally, the contribution to the invariant is the vector $`(t^{k_0},t^\mathrm{}_0,t^{k_0+\mathrm{}_0})`$, where the entries correspond to the components $`K_1,K_2,K_3`$, respectively. The result follows.

In the above examples, we see that the cocycle invariant is non-trivial when the given link is colored by $`X=_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m`$ but not by $`E=_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^{m+1}`$, and the descrepancy in extending the coloring contributes to the invariant. This is the case in general, as proved in  for the knot case. We rephrase the theorem in our situation and include a similar proof for reader’s convenience.

Let $`K`$ be a classical or virtual knot or link. Let $`𝒞`$ be a coloring of $`K`$ by $`X`$. Let $`E`$ be a quandle with a surjective homomorphism $`p:EX`$. If there is a coloring $`𝒞^{}`$ of $`K`$ by $`E`$ such that for every arc $`a`$ of $`K`$, it holds that $`p(𝒞^{}(a))=𝒞(a)`$, then $`𝒞^{}`$ is called an extension of $`𝒞`$.

###### Theorem 7.4

Let

$$\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)=\left\{(\underset{\tau 𝒯_1}{}B(\tau ,𝒞),\mathrm{},\underset{\tau 𝒯_r}{}B(\tau ,𝒞))\right\}_{𝒞\text{Col}}$$

be the generalized cocycle invariant of a link $`L=K_1\mathrm{}K_n`$ with a quandle $`X`$ and a cocycle $`\varphi Z_\mathrm{Q}^2(X;A)`$ for an abelian group $`A`$. Then $`(_{\tau 𝒯_1}B(\tau ,𝒞),\mathrm{},_{\tau 𝒯_r}B(\tau ,𝒞))`$ is a vector with every entry $`1`$ for a coloring $`𝒞`$ if and only if the coloring $`𝒞`$ extends to a coloring of $`L`$ by $`E(X,A,\varphi )`$.

Proof. Let $`𝒞`$ be a coloring whose contribution to $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)`$ is $`(1,\mathrm{},1)`$. Fix this coloring in what follows. Pick a base point $`b_0`$ on a component $`K_i`$ of $`L`$. Let $`xX`$ be the color on the arc $`\alpha _0`$ containing $`b_0`$. Let $`\alpha _i`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},n`$, be the set of arcs that appear in this order when the diagram $`K`$ is traced in the given orientation of $`K_i`$, starting from $`b_0`$. Pick an element $`aA`$ and give a color $`(a,x)`$ on $`\alpha _0`$, so that we define a coloring $`𝒞^{}`$ by $`E`$ on $`\alpha _0`$ by $`𝒞^{}(\alpha _0)=(a,x)E`$. We try to extend it to the entire diagram by traveling the diagram from $`b_0`$ along the arcs $`\alpha _i`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},n`$, in this order, by induction.

Suppose $`𝒞^{}(\alpha _i)`$ is defined for $`0i<k`$. Define $`𝒞^{}(\alpha _{k+1})`$ as follows. Suppose that the crossing $`\tau _k`$ separating $`\alpha _k`$ and $`\alpha _{k+1}`$ is positive, and the over-arc at $`\tau _k`$ is $`\alpha _j`$. Let $`𝒞^{}(\alpha _k)=(a,x)`$ and $`𝒞(\alpha _j)=yX`$. Then we have $`𝒞(\alpha _{k+1})=xyX`$. Define $`𝒞^{}(\alpha _{k+1})=(a\varphi (x,y),xy)`$ in this case.

Suppose that the crossing $`\tau _k`$ is negative. Let $`𝒞^{}(\alpha _k)=(a,x)`$ and $`𝒞(\alpha _j)=yX`$. Then if $`𝒞(\alpha _{k+1})=z`$, then we have $`zy=x`$. Define $`𝒞^{}(\alpha _{k+1})=(a\varphi (z,y)^1,z)`$ in this case.

Define $`𝒞^{}(\alpha _i)`$ inductively for all $`i=0,\mathrm{},n`$. Regard $`\alpha _0`$ as $`\alpha _{n+1}`$, and repeat the above construction at the last crossing $`\tau _n`$ to come back to $`\alpha _0`$. By the construction we have $`𝒞^{}(\alpha _{n+1})=(a_\tau B(\tau ,𝒞),𝒞(\alpha _0))`$, where $`_\tau B(\tau ,𝒞)`$ is the state-sum contribution (the product of Boltzmann weights over all crossings) of $`𝒞`$. This contribution is equal to $`1`$ by the assumption that $`_\tau B(\tau ,𝒞)=1`$, and we have a well-defined coloring $`𝒞^{}`$. Hence this color extends to $`E(X,A,\varphi )`$.

Conversely, if a coloring $`𝒞`$ by $`X`$ extends to a coloring by $`E(X,A,\varphi )`$, then from the above argument, we have that $`(a,x)=(a_\tau B(\tau ,𝒞),x)`$, if $`(a,x)`$ is the color on the base point $`b_0`$. Hence $`_\tau B(\tau ,𝒞)=1`$.

## 8 Cocycle invariants and Alexander matrices

In this section we point out relations of the cocycle invariants to Alexander matrices. We examine closely Example 7.2 given in Section 7 from this new point of view.

Let $`B_{D_L}=_{i=1}^nB_i`$ be an $`(n\times n)`$-matrix where $`B_i`$ is the $`(n\times n)`$-matrix corresponding to each crossing point $`\tau _i`$ such that $`(k_i,i)`$ entry is $`T^{ϵ_i}`$, $`(\mathrm{}_i,i)`$ entry is $`1T^{ϵ_i}`$ and otherwise is 0. Here $`ϵ_i`$ means the sign of the crossing point $`\tau _i`$. Set $`A_{D_L}=B_{D_L}E_n`$, where $`E_n`$ denotes the $`n`$-dimensional identity matrix, then from the definitions it follows that $`A_{D_L}`$ is an Alexander matrix. Recall that a coloring is a function $`𝒞:RX`$, where $`R`$ is the set of over-arcs in the diagram and $`X`$ is a fixed Alexander quandle $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/J`$ for an ideal $`J`$. A coloring which assigns $`y_i`$ to an arc $`a_i`$ ($`𝒞(a_i)=y_i`$) is represented by the vector $`\stackrel{}{y}=(y_1,\mathrm{},y_n)`$ satisfying $`\stackrel{}{y}A_{D_L}^{(X)}=\stackrel{}{0}`$. These descriptions are given in  to prove Theorem 2.1.

###### Proposition 8.1

Let $`L=K_1\mathrm{}K_r`$ be a link and $`X=\mathrm{\Lambda }_q/J`$ be an Alexander quandle. Suppose $`E=\mathrm{\Lambda }_q^{}/J^{}`$ is an abelian extension of $`X`$, where $`q,q^{}`$ are positive integers. Let $`A_{D_L}^{(X)}`$ (respectively $`A_{D_L}^{(E)}`$) be the matrix $`A_{D_L}`$ regarded as a matrix over $`X`$ (respectively over $`E`$). Then a coloring $`\stackrel{}{y}`$ of $`L`$ by $`X`$ contributes a non-trivial value to the invariant $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)`$ if and only if $`\stackrel{}{y}A_{D_L}^{(X)}=\stackrel{}{0}`$ and $`s(\stackrel{}{y})A_{D_L}^{(E)}=\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{0}`$, where $`s:XE`$ is the natural section.

Proof. Let $`\psi :(\mathrm{\Lambda }_q/J)^n(\mathrm{\Lambda }_q/J)^n`$ be the map which takes a row vector $`\stackrel{}{y}`$ to $`\stackrel{}{y}A_{D_L}`$. By Inoue’s description given above, the set of all quandle colorings is equal to ker$`A_{D_L}^{(X)}`$. If $`\stackrel{}{y}A_{D_L}^{(X)}=\stackrel{}{0}`$ and $`s(\stackrel{}{y})A_{D_L}^{(E)}=\stackrel{}{x}0`$, then by Theorem 7.4 we obtain that $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)`$ is non-trivial.

Next, we compute the non-trivial contributions using Alexander matrices, for extensions discussed in Section 5. Let $`X=W_m=\mathrm{\Lambda }_q/(1T)^m`$ or $`X=U_m=\mathrm{\Lambda }_{q^m}/(T1+q)`$, and $`E=W_{m+1}`$ or $`E=U_{m+1}`$ be their abelian extensions, respectively. For this purpose, we fix the following convention in numbering crossings and arcs of a given diagram.

Let $`L=K_1\mathrm{}K_r`$ be a link with $`n`$ crossings. Pick a base point $`b_i`$ on $`K_i`$, for $`i=1,\mathrm{},r`$. Let $`a_1,\mathrm{},a_{i_1}`$ be the arcs of $`K_1`$ such that $`a_1`$ contains $`b_1`$ and they appear in this order when one traces $`K_1`$ in the given orientation of $`K_1`$ starting from $`b_1`$. Then let $`a_{i_1+1}`$ be the arc of $`K_2`$ containing $`b_2`$ and $`a_{i_1+2},\mathrm{},a_{i_2}`$ be the arcs of $`K_2`$ similarly defined from the given orientation. Repeat this process for the remaining components to obtain the arcs $`a_1,\mathrm{},a_{i_1},a_{i_1+1},\mathrm{},a_{i_2},a_{i_2+1},\mathrm{},a_{i_{r1}+1},\mathrm{},a_{i_r}=a_n`$. Let $`𝒞:RX`$ be a coloring of $`L`$ by $`X`$. Let $`w_i=𝒞(a_i)`$ and $`\tau _i`$ be the crossing such that the outcoming under-arc is $`a_i`$ for $`i=1,\mathrm{},n`$ (see Fig. 10). This convention is used in Fig. 8.

Let $`s:XE`$ be the section defined in Section 5 respectively by

$`s\left({\displaystyle \underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}}A_j(1T)^j\text{mod}(1T)^m\right)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}}A_j(1T)^j\text{mod}(1T)^{m+1}\text{for }W_m\text{, and}`$
$`s\left({\displaystyle \underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}}X_jq^j\right)`$ $`=`$ $`0q^m+{\displaystyle \underset{j=0}{\overset{m1}{}}}X_jq^j\text{for }U_m\text{.}`$
For the following theorem, let $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)`$ be the generalized cocycle invariant defined with the cocycle $`\varphi Z_\mathrm{Q}^2(X;_q)`$ corresponding to the extension $`p:EX`$ specified above.

###### Proposition 8.2

Let $`A_{D_L}`$ be the Alexander matrix obtained from $`D_L`$ with the above choice of order of $`w_i`$ and $`\tau _i`$.

A given coloring represented by a vector $`\stackrel{}{w}`$ contributes a non-trivial vector to the invariant $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)`$ if and only if $`\stackrel{}{w}A_{D_L}^{(X)}=\stackrel{}{0}`$ and $`s(\stackrel{}{w})A_{D_L}^{(E)}=\stackrel{}{z}\stackrel{}{0}`$. This contribution is

$`(t^{_{j=1}^{i_1}\eta (\tau _j)z_j/(1T)^m},\mathrm{},t^{_{j=i_{r1}+1}^{i_r}\eta (\tau _j)z_j/(1T)^m})`$ for $`X=W_m`$, and
$`(t^{_{j=1}^{i_1}\eta (\tau _j)z_j/q^m},\mathrm{},t^{_{j=i_{r1}+1}^{i_r}\eta (\tau _j)z_j/q^m})`$ for $`X=U_m`$, respectively
where $`\eta (\tau )=1`$ for a positive crossing $`\tau `$ and $`\eta (\tau )=T`$ for a negative crossing $`\tau `$.

Proof. We consider the case $`X=W_m`$, as the other case is similar. Let $`\psi :(\mathrm{\Lambda }_q/(1T)^m)^n(\mathrm{\Lambda }_q/(1T)^m)^n`$ be the map which takes a row vector $`\stackrel{}{w}`$ to $`\stackrel{}{w}A_{D_L}^{(X)}`$. Assume that $`\stackrel{}{w}A_{D_L}^{(X)}=\stackrel{}{0}`$ and $`s(\stackrel{}{w})A_{D_L}^{(E)}=\stackrel{}{z}\stackrel{}{0}`$. The contribution to the invariant at a positive crossing $`\tau _i`$ is given by

$`\varphi (w_{k_i},w_\mathrm{}_i)`$ $`=`$ $`[s(w_{k_i})s(w_\mathrm{}_i)s(w_{k_i}w_\mathrm{}_i)]/(1T)^m`$
$`=`$ $`[s(w_{k_i})s(w_\mathrm{}_i)s(w_i)]/(1T)^m,`$
where $`w_\mathrm{}_i`$ is the color on the over-arc at the crossing $`\tau _i`$, and $`w_{k_i}`$ is the color on the incoming under-arc at $`\tau _i`$ if $`\tau _i`$ is positive (see Fig. 10). Since $`\stackrel{}{w}`$ is in the kernel, $`w_{k_i}w_\mathrm{}_iw_i=Tw_{k_i}+(1T)w_\mathrm{}_iw_i=0\text{mod}(1T)^m`$ and we have $`[s(w_{k_i})s(w_\mathrm{}_i)s(w_i)]/(1T)^m=z_i/(1T)^m`$.

Suppose $`\tau _i`$ is negative. Then the contribution is

$`\varphi (w_i,w_\mathrm{}_i)`$ $`=`$ $`[s(w_i)s(w_\mathrm{}_i)s(w_iw_\mathrm{}_i)]/(1T)^m`$
$`=`$ $`[s(w_i)s(w_\mathrm{}_i)s(w_{k_i})]/(1T)^m`$
$`=`$ $`[Tw_i+(1T)w_\mathrm{}_iw_{k_i}]/(1T)^m.`$
On the other hand,

$$z_i=T^1w_{k_i}+(1T^1)w_\mathrm{}_iw_i=T^1[Tw_i+(1T)w_\mathrm{}_iw_{k_i}]$$

so that the contribution is $`Tz_i`$ in this case. Hence the total contribution of the invariant for the component $`K_r`$ is

$$t^{_{j=i_{r1}+1}^{i_r}\eta (\tau _j)z_j/(1T)^m},$$

where $`\{z_1,\mathrm{},z_{i_r}\}K_r`$.

###### Example 8.3

We consider the Whitehead link $`L=K_1K_2`$ depicted in Fig. 8. Let $`X=W_m`$ and $`E=W_{m+1}`$. Use the letters $`w_i`$, ($`i=1,\mathrm{},6`$) as depicted in the figure as colors assigned to the arcs, as well as generators for the Alexander matrix. Then the Alexander matrix $`A_{D_L}=B_{D_L}E_n`$ with respect to the columns corresponding to $`(\tau _1,\mathrm{},\tau _6)`$ and rows corresponding to $`(w_1,\mathrm{},w_6)`$ is given by

$$A_{D_L}=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}1& T& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ T^1& 1& 0& 1T& 0& 1T^1\\ 0& 1T& 1& T& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 1T& 1& T& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& T^1\\ 1T^1& 0& T& 0& 1T& 1\end{array}\right).$$

After some row and column permutations we obtain

$$A_0=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}1& 1T& 0& 0& 1T^1& T^1\\ 0& 1& 1T& T& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& T& 1T& 1& 1T^1\\ 0& 0& 0& 1& T^1& 0\\ T& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1\\ 1T& T& 1& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right),$$

with respect to the columns corresponding to $`(\tau _2,\tau _4,\tau _3,\tau _5,\tau _6,\tau _1)`$ and rows corresponding to $`(w_2,w_4,w_6,w_5,w_1,w_3)`$. This permutation is performed so that we can diagonalize the first four rows and columns by column reductions to obtain

$$A_1=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0\\ T& T+T^2& (1T)^2& 13T+2T^2& T^1(1T)^3& T^1(1T)^3\\ 1+T& 1+TT^2& 1(1T)^2& 2+3T2T^2& T^1(1T)^3& T^1(1T)^3\end{array}\right).$$

The solution set

$$(w_2,w_4,w_6,w_5,w_1,w_3)A_1^{(X)}=(0,0,0,0,0,0),$$

is written by

$`w_2`$ $`=`$ $`Tw_1+(1T)w_3`$
$`w_4`$ $`=`$ $`T(1T)w_1+(T+(1T)^2)w_3`$
$`w_6`$ $`=`$ $`(1T)^2w_1+(1+(1T)^2)w_3`$
$`w_5`$ $`=`$ $`(T(1T)(1T)^2)w_1+(T+2(1T)^2)w_3`$
$`0`$ $`=`$ $`(w_3w_1)T^1(1T)^3`$
where $`A_1^{(X)}`$ denotes the matrix $`A_1`$ regarded as a matrix over $`X`$. The set of colorings is represented by vectors in the kernel of $`A_1^{(X)}`$. Specifically, the kernel is the set of vectors $`\stackrel{}{w}`$ with $`w_1`$ and $`w_3`$ satisfying $`(1T)^3(w_3w_1)=0`$ in $`X`$ and $`w_2,w_4,w_6,w_5`$ determined accordingly as above. This matches the computations in Example 7.2. The contribution to the invariant is obtained by computing

$`\stackrel{}{z}`$ $`=`$ $`s(\stackrel{}{w})A_{D_L}^{(E)}`$
$`=`$ $`(T^1(1T)^3(w_3w_1),0,0,0,0,T^1(1T)^3(w_3w_1)).`$
By Proposition 8.2 the non-trivial contribution to $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)`$ is $`(t^{_{j=1}^2\eta (\tau _j)z_j/(1T)^3},t^{_{j=3}^6\eta (\tau _j)z_j/(1T)^3})=(t^s,t^s)`$ for some $`s`$ $`(0sq1)`$ depending on the value of $`w_3w_1`$, and this matches Example 7.2.

Finally we observe a relation to the Conway polynomial. Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L(T)[T^{\frac{1}{2}},T^{\frac{1}{2}}]`$ be the Conway-normalized Alexander polynomial . In our case, let $`A_{D_L}^{^{}}`$ be the matrix obtained from $`A_{D_L}`$ by deleting the $`j`$th column and $`j`$th row for some $`j`$, $`j=1,\mathrm{},n`$, let $`f(T)=\text{det}(A_{D_L}^{^{}})[T^1,T^1]`$ and $`\mu `$ and $`\nu `$ be the maximal and minimal degree of $`f`$ respectively. Then $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L(T)=T^{\frac{\mu +\nu }{2}}f(T)`$. The Conway polynomial $`_L(z)[z]`$ is defined by $`_L(T^{\frac{1}{2}}T^{\frac{1}{2}})=\mathrm{\Delta }_L(T)`$ where $`z=T^{\frac{1}{2}}T^{\frac{1}{2}}`$.

###### Proposition 8.4

Let the minimal degree of $`_L(z)`$ be denoted by min-deg$`_L(z)`$, then it satisfies min-deg$`_L(z)m`$, where $`m`$ is the smallest integer such that the cocycle invariant defined from the extension of $`_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^m`$ to $`_q[T,T^1]/(1T)^{m+1}`$ is non-trivial.

Proof. Assume that $`\stackrel{}{y}A_{D_L}^{(X)}=\stackrel{}{0}`$ and $`s(\stackrel{}{y})A_{D_L}^{(E)}=\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{0}`$. Then $`\stackrel{}{y}`$ contributes a non-trivial value to the invariant $`\stackrel{}{\mathrm{\Psi }}(L)`$ as in Proposition 8.1. Since $`\stackrel{}{x}\stackrel{}{0}`$ there exists $`i`$, $`1in`$, such that $`x_i0`$. Let $`j`$ be an integer, $`1jn`$, with $`ji`$. Let $`\stackrel{}{x^{}}`$ be the vector $`\stackrel{}{x}`$ with the $`x_j`$ entry deleted. Then there exists $`\stackrel{}{y^{}}\stackrel{}{0}`$, where $`\stackrel{}{y^{}}`$ is the vector $`\stackrel{}{y}`$ with the $`j`$th entry deleted, such that $`\stackrel{}{y^{}}A_{D_L}^{{}_{}{}^{}(X)}=\stackrel{}{0}`$. This implies that $`\text{det}A_{D_L}^{{}_{}{}^{}(X)}=0`$. Hence $`\text{det}A_{D_L}^{^{}}0(mod(1T)^m)`$, and we have min-deg$`_L(z)m`$.


text:
# Interaction between Ionized and Molecular Gas in the Active Star-Forming Region W31

## 1 Introduction

Stars form in the dense cores of molecular clouds and eventually emerge as visible objects. Thus the molecular gas and dust surrounding newly formed stars should be disrupted. Massive stars are expected to play an important role in dispersing the ambient materials, since they emit strong radiation, stellar winds, and outflows even at their earliest evolutionary stage. Moreover, massive stars could dramatically impact on the surrounding environments through HII regions and supernova explosions. However, direct observational evidence of this conjecture is rarely seen.

W31 is one of the brightest HII region/molecular cloud complex in the inner Galaxy. Kalberla, Goss, & Wilson (1982) suggested on the basis of their sensitive HI absorption line observations that W31 is associated with the expanding 3-kpc arm with a peculiar velocity of $``$30 km s-1 and so lies about 6 kpc from the Sun (see also Wilson 1974). We adopt this distance throughout the present paper, although there are some reports that propose different distances, e.g., 14.5$`\pm `$1.4 kpc (Corbel et al. 1997) and 3.4$`\pm `$0.3 kpc (Blum, Damineli, & Conti 2001). W31 appears as two prominent extended HII regions, G10.2$``$0.3 and G10.3$``$0.1, in the radio continuum maps with low ($`>`$1) angular resolutions (e.g., Reich, Reich, & Fürst 1990). High-resolution ($`<`$10′′) radio continuum observations show that the central regions of both HII regions form elongated ionization ridges (Woodward, Helfer, & Pipher 1984; Ghosh et al. 1989). Two ultracompact (UC) HII regions, G10.15$``$0.34 and G10.30$``$0.15, were found to be located at the peaks of the ionization ridges, respectively (Wood & Churchwell 1989; Kim & Koo 2001). Several other massive young stellar objects were also identified in G10.2$``$0.3 by near-infrared observations (Blum et al. 2001). These suggest that massive star formation is actively ongoing in the W31 complex. On the other hand, a Crab-like supernova remnant (SNR) G10.0$``$0.3 is $``$10 southwest of G10.15$``$0.34. The SNR is likely to be associated with a soft $`\gamma `$-ray repeater, SGR 1806$``$20 (Kulkarni et al. 1994). Accordingly, the W31 complex seems to be one of the best laboratories for studying the formation of massive stars and the interaction of massive stars with their parental molecular cloud.

In this paper, we present radio continuum, radio recombination line (RRL), and various molecular line observations of the W31 complex. Our observations aim to investigate the physical characteristics of molecular clouds that are actively forming massive stars, and to explore how massive stars and their natal molecular clouds interact with each other. The observations are described in § 2 and the results are presented in § 3. In § 4 we discuss the physical properties of the W31 molecular cloud and the interaction between ionized and molecular gas in the region. Our main results are summarized in the last section.

## 2 Observations

### 2.1 Radio Continuum and Recombination Lines

The radio continuum and RRL data are extracted from the survey of 16 UC HII regions with extended envelopes. The observational details were presented by Kim & Koo (2001). In summary, radio continuum observations were made at 21 cm with the VLA of the NRAO111 The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is operated by Associated Universities, Inc., under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation  in 1995 February. The array was in the DnC hybrid configuration and the observations were sensitive to structures up to 15. The final map resulted from two separate pointings of the array. The phase centers were set at G10.15$``$0.34 and G10.30$``$0.15, i.e., $`(\alpha ,\delta )_{1950}`$= ($`18^\mathrm{h}06^\mathrm{m}22.^\mathrm{s}5`$, $`20^{}20^{}05^{\prime \prime }`$) and ($`18^\mathrm{h}05^\mathrm{m}57.^\mathrm{s}9`$, $`20^{}06^{}26^{\prime \prime }`$) or $`(\alpha ,\delta )_{2000}`$= ($`18^\mathrm{h}09^\mathrm{m}21.^\mathrm{s}0`$, $`20^{}19^{}31^{\prime \prime }`$) and ($`18^\mathrm{h}08^\mathrm{m}56.^\mathrm{s}1`$, $`20^{}05^{}53^{\prime \prime }`$). The data were calibrated, imaged, and mosaicked using the AIPS. The resulting synthesized half-power beamwidth was $`37^{\prime \prime }\times 25^{\prime \prime }`$ and the rms noise level of final image was 1.7 mJy beam-1.

H76$`\alpha `$ (14.68999 GHz) RRL observations were conducted using the 140 foot telescope of the NRAO in 1997 February and June. The telescope has a FWHM of about 2 and a main beam efficiency of 0.58 at the observing frequency. Both circular polarizations were observed simultaneously using two 1024 channel autocorrelators with 40 MHz bandwidth each, yielding a velocity resolution of 1.59 km s-1 after Hanning smoothing.

### 2.2 Molecular Lines

We have carried out 12CO, 13CO, CS, and C34S line observations of the W31 complex. A summary of the observations is given in Table 1. 13CO J=1$``$0 and 12CO J=2$``$1 line observations were made with the 12 m telescope of the NRAO at Kitt Peak using the on-the-fly mapping technique. We used 256 channel filterbanks with 64 MHz and 128 MHz bandwidths as the backend, respectively. A squared area of $`30^{}\times 40^{}`$ centered at $`(\alpha ,\delta )_{1950}`$= ($`18^\mathrm{h}06^\mathrm{m}09.^\mathrm{s}1`$, $`20^{}09^{}23^{\prime \prime }`$) was mapped at 20′′ spacing in the 13CO J=1$``$0 line, while a $`5^{}\times 5^{}`$ region centered at G10.30$``$0.15 was mapped at 10′′ sampling in the 12CO J=2$``$1 line. We used positions with some emission as reference positions, ($`l`$, $`b`$) = ($`10.^{}15`$, $`1.^{}50`$) and ($`10.^{}05`$, $`+0.^{}03`$), because we could not find any positions devoid of 12CO and/or 13CO emission near the source. We obtained a sensitive spectrum of each reference position and then added it to the position-switched spectra. The system temperatures were typically 300 K at 110 GHz and 400 K at 230 GHz. We have converted the observed temperatures ($`T_\mathrm{R}^{}`$) to the main-beam brightness temperature ($`T_\mathrm{b}`$) using the corrected main-beam efficiencies ($`\eta _{\mathrm{mb}}^{}`$) provided by the NRAO.

CS J=2$``$1 line observations were undertaken using the 14 m telescope of the Taeduk Radio Astronomy Observatory (TRAO). We mapped two regions of $`11^{}\times 14^{}`$ and $`12^{}\times 10^{}`$, respectively, centered at G10.15$``$0.34 and G10.30$``$0.15 in full-beam (60′′) spacing. The two UC HII regions were observed in the CS J=3$``$2 and C34S J=2$``$1 and J=3$``$2 lines as well. We used SIS mixer receivers with 256 channel filterbanks of 64 MHz bandwidth. The spectra were obtained by position switching to ($`l`$, $`b`$) = ($`10.^{}15`$, $`0.^{}50`$), which was checked to be free from appreciable ($`T_\mathrm{A}^{}<0.1`$ K) CS emission. The system temperature varied in the range 300$``$500 K at 98 GHz and 600$``$800 K at 147 GHz. We also made 12CO J=1$``$0 line observations of the region mapped in 12CO J=2$``$1 line emission using a 256 channel filterbank with 256 MHz bandwidth. The system temperature was about 1000 K. The line intensity was obtained on the $`T_\mathrm{A}^{}`$ scale from the chopper-wheel calibration.

## 3 Results

### 3.1 Radio Continuum and Recombination Line Results

Figure 1 is our 21 cm radio continuum image of the W31 complex. There are two distinct extended HII regions, G10.2$``$0.3 and G10.3$``$0.1, in the field. G10.2$``$0.3 has several compact components, almost all of which are embedded in low-level extended envelope of $`10.^{}9\times 6.^{}7`$ (or 19.0 pc $`\times `$ 11.1 pc). The central region is elongated in the east-west direction on the whole and is composed of two strong compact components. The UC HII region G10.15$``$0.34 lies at the peak of the western one. High-resolution ($``$5′′) VLA continuum observations at 5 GHz suggest that the central region comprises about 20 dense ionized clumps (Woodward et al. 1984). The surface brightness declines sharply to the west, while it decreases slowly to the east. Figure 2 shows H76$`\alpha `$ spectra observed along $`\delta (1950)20^{}20^{}05^{\prime \prime }`$. The center velocity decreases with increasing right ascension. The velocity difference is about 10 km s-1 between the central region and the eastern protuberance.

In G10.3$``$0.1, there are one isolated compact component and two strong ones surrounded by diffuse emission extending over $`12.^{}8\times 4.^{}6`$ (or 22.3 pc $`\times `$ 8.0 pc). The two central compact components form an ionization ridge elongated in the northeast-southwest direction. The UC HII region G10.30$``$0.15 is located at the peak of the western one. The diffuse envelope extends straight in the northwest-southeast direction, which is perpendicular to the central ridge. There is no significant velocity difference between the central region and the envelope. According to Kim & Koo (2001), the UC HII regions and their associated compact components are likely to be excited by the same ionizing sources in both G10.2$``$0.3 and G10.3$``$0.1, while the individual compact components may be ionized by separate sources.

### 3.2 13CO J=1$``$0 Line Results

Figure 3 exhibits 13CO J=1$``$0 line profiles observed towards G10.15$``$0.34 and G10.30$``$0.15. There are three or more velocity components in the lines of sight. In each spectrum, the strongest component is associated with the UC HII region. The center velocities of 13CO gas are shifted by 5$``$8 km s-1 from those of the ionized gas, marked by the vertical dotted lines. There seem to be high-velocity wings in the 13CO lines of both UC HII regions, even though the features are significantly confused by multiple velocity components. Shepherd & Churchwell (1996) have also found high-velocity wings in the 12CO J=1$``$0 line of G10.30$``$0.15, but could not identify them in G10.15$``$0.34 due to a complex blend of lines. We will discuss in more detail the high-velocity gas using our CS spectra in the next section.

Figure 4 is 13CO line integrated intensity map, obtained by integrating over the velocity range between $`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 0 and 22 km s-1. Large crosses indicate the positions of UC HII regions, while small crosses represent the peak positions of the strong compact components without UC HII regions (see Fig. 1). The molecular cloud is very clumpy. There is a large hollow over the central region, which makes the cloud appear as an incomplete shell being open to the northeast. A possible explanation for this morphology is that the cloud has been produced by energetic events near the center, such as strong stellar winds and/or supernova explosions of massive stars, although we have not found any massive star or nonthermal radio continuum emission in the hollow region. As will be discussed in § 4.2, the dynamical age of G10.2$``$0.3 is similar to that of G10.3$``$0.1, suggesting that star formation has begun almost simultaneously at the southern spherical and northern flat components. This may be in favor of the above interpretation. It seems that the northern component has been substantially dispersed by massive stars, since a small but conspicuous hollow exists near the UC and compact HII regions, $`(\alpha ,\delta )_{1950}`$ $``$ ($`18^\mathrm{h}05^\mathrm{m}58^\mathrm{s}`$, $`20^{}05^{}45^{\prime \prime }`$) (see § 4.2). In the southern component, on the contrary, the dense 13CO cores associated with the UC and compact HII regions are still strong. It is worthwhile to note that the integrated intensity drops steeply on the eastern boundary of the southern component, in contrast to the radio continuum intensity distribution.

Figure 5 displays the channel maps of the molecular cloud. 13CO emission appears mainly in the velocity range between 2 and 20 km s-1. The channel maps show that the northern and southern components are certainly associated, and reveal more clearly incomplete shell-like morphology of the cloud. The molecular gas shell remains nearly constant in size as the velocity varies, suggesting that it does not dynamically expand or contract. There are small velocity variations in both northern and southern components. As the velocity decreases, strong 13CO emission moves from the western part to the eastern part in the northern component, while it moves from the northeastern part through the northern part to the southern part in the southern component. The 13CO core associated with G10.15$``$0.34 ($``$8 km s-1) is slightly blueshifted from the main shell-like structure ($``$12 km s-1). The northern flat component seems to be nearly broken through at the position of the distinctive hollow, which persists over a velocity interval of 10$``$15 km s-1.

Assuming that the molecular gas is in local thermodynamical equilibrium (LTE), 13CO column density, $`N(^{13}\mathrm{CO})`$, can be computed from the formula (see, e.g., Dickman 1978)

$$N(^{13}\mathrm{CO})=2.42\times 10^{14}\frac{T_{\mathrm{ex}}\tau 𝑑v}{1\mathrm{exp}(5.29/T_{\mathrm{ex}})}(\mathrm{cm}^2),$$
(1)
where $`T_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ is the excitation temperature in K, $`\tau `$ is the optical depth, $`v`$ is the velocity in km s-1. The mass of molecular cloud, $`M_{\mathrm{LTE}}`$, is measured to be 6.20$`\times `$105 $`M_{}`$, provided that 13CO abundance relative to H2 is 2$`\times `$10-6 (Dickman 1978). In this calculation we assumed that the cloud boundary is $`T_R^{}𝑑v10`$ K km s-1 and that $`T_{\mathrm{ex}}`$ is 30 K in the central regions of the northern and southern components and 15 K in the outer regions, based on our 12CO line data and the Massachusetts-Stony Brook 12CO Galactic Plane Survey (Sanders et al. 1986). Our mass estimate adopted a mean molecular weight of 2.3 to account for the contribution of helium. Table 2 summarizes the physical parameters of the W31 molecular cloud.

### 3.3 CS Line results

Figure 6 exhibits our CS and C34S line profiles obtained towards G10.15$``$0.34 and G10.30$``$0.15. The line parameters of these spectra are presented in Table 3. There is a single velocity component along the line of sight and it is associated with each UC HII region. The center velocity of CS gas is in good agreement with that of 13CO gas. The CS J=2$``$1 and J=3$``$2 lines of both UC HII regions show distinct high-velocity wings. This implies that dense gas exists in high-velocity molecular components. There are a few tens of massive star-forming regions where high-velocity wings have been observed in the CS lines. For example, Plume, Jaffe, & Evans (1992) detected CS J=7$``$6 line emission in 104 massive star-forming regions, selected originally by the presence of an H2O maser, and found high-velocity wings in more than 18 out of them. The full widths of the CS J=2$``$1 lines are about 50 km s-1 at typical rms noise level for G10.15$``$0.34 and about 30 km s-1 for G10.30$``$0.15. These values are similar to those expected from the 13CO lines, respectively. The CS J=3$``$2 line of G10.30$``$0.15 has very similar shape and full width as the CS J=2$``$1 line, while the CS J=3$``$2 line of G10.15$``$0.34 has a different asymmetric shape and a smaller (20 km s-1) full width than the CS J=2$``$1 line. The full width of the CS J=2$``$1 line of G10.15$``$0.34 is comparable to that of G5.89$``$0.39, which drives one of the most energetic outflows in the Galaxy (Harvey & Forveille 1988). On the other hand, we can not find high-velocity wings in the CS lines observed in the surrounding regions of both UC HII regions. It seems mainly because the extents of CS outflows are $``$1, taking into account that CO outflows observed in massive star-forming regions usually have linear sizes of $``$2 pc (Ridge & Moore 2001; Beuther et al. 2002). So high-resolution CS line observations are required to confirm whether the high-velocity gas is indeed due to bipolar molecular outflows, and to explore the physical and dynamical properties of the outflows.

Assuming that the excitation temperature and the beam filling factor are identical in the CS and C34S lines in each transition, we determine the optical depth of C34S line emission, $`\tau _\mathrm{p}`$, from the peak brightness temperature ratio using the following formula

$$T_\mathrm{b}(\mathrm{C}^{34}\mathrm{S})/T_\mathrm{b}(\mathrm{CS})=\left[1\mathrm{exp}(\tau _\mathrm{p})\right]/\left[1\mathrm{exp}(\tau _\mathrm{p}R)\right].$$
(2)
The estimated values are listed in Table 3. Here the CS to C34S abundance ratio, $`R`$, was assumed to be equal to the terrestrial value (22.5).

Figure 7 shows integrated CS J=2$``$1 line intensity maps. The CS gas distribution agrees well with the 13CO gas distribution in the dense regions of the northern and southern components. We can see the prominent hollow near G10.30$``$0.15 in the CS gas distribution as well. The UC HII regions correspond to the peaks of CS cores, while the compact components without UC HII regions do not. This seems to be consistent with the result of Kim & Koo (2001) that the compact components with UC HII regions are smaller and denser than those without UC HII regions. Based on the observation they suggested that the former are in an earlier evolutionary stage than the latter. We have also found the same trend in several other UC HII regions with extended envelopes that have two or more compact components. The results will be presented in a separate paper (Kim & Koo 2002).

If CS line emission originates from regions in LTE and is optically thin, the CS column density, $`N(\mathrm{CS})`$, is given as

$$N(\mathrm{CS})=1.88\times 10^{11}T_\mathrm{r}\mathrm{exp}(7.05/T_\mathrm{r})T_\mathrm{b}𝑑v(\mathrm{cm}^2),$$
(3)
where $`T_\mathrm{r}`$ is the rotation temperature in K, $`T_\mathrm{b}`$ is the brightness temperature in K, and $`v`$ is the velocity in km s-1. If we take a fractional CS abundance to H2 of 1$`\times `$10-9 (Linke & Goldsmith 1980; Frerking et al. 1980), the total masses of CS-emitting regions are 2.13$`\times `$105 $`M_{}`$ for G10.2$``$0.3 and 0.82$`\times `$105 $`M_{}`$ for G10.3$``$0.1. In these calculations $`T_\mathrm{r}`$ was assumed to be 30 K on the basis of the results of studies on dense cores in massive star-forming regions (e.g., Snell et al. 1984; Linke & Goldsmith 1980). Table 2 lists the physical parameters of the CS-emitting regions.

### 3.4 12CO J=1$``$0 and J=2$``$1 Line Results

We obtained 12CO J=2$``$1/J=1$``$0 integrated intensity ratio map for the squared area of $``$$`5^{}\times 5^{}`$ centered at G10.30$``$0.15, after convolving 12CO J=2$``$1 data to the resolution (53′′) of 12CO J=1$``$0 data. The integrated velocity range was $`v_{\mathrm{LSR}}`$ = 0$``$22 km s-1. Figure 8 shows the distribution of 12CO J=2$``$1/J=1$``$0 ratio (grey scale) overlaid with the distribution of 12CO J=2$``$1 line integral (contours). The ratio peaks over the dense cores associated with the UC and compact HII regions and is low ($``$1.2) over the hollow region. The estimated values are between 1.0 and 2.0. The average value is 1.4, which is much greater than typical value (0.5$``$0.8) for molecular clouds in the Galactic disk (e.g., Sakamoto et al. 1997). Such a high ($`>`$1.0) ratio is observed towards the areas around HII regions in molecular clouds undergoing massive star formation, e.g., Orion A molecular cloud (Castets et al. 1990; Sakamoto et al. 1994), Sgr A molecular cloud (Oka et al. 1996), and W51B molecular cloud (Koo 1999).

If a molecular cloud has a uniform temperature, these high ratios can be obtained when the molecular gas is warm, dense, and less opaque. For example, Sakamoto et al. (1994) showed on the basis of an one-zone large velocity gradient (LVG) analysis that ratios greater than unity are produced when the CO-emitting regions have $`T_{\mathrm{ex}}`$$``$40 K, $`n(\mathrm{H}_2)`$$``$1$`\times `$103 cm-3, and $`\tau _{21}`$$`<`$5. In this model the ratio variation is mainly attributed to the density variation of unresolved clumps that constitute the cloud. However such a single-temperature model does not seem to be applicable to our case, since the ratio of 12CO J=1$``$0 and 13CO J=1$``$0 line intensities, $`{}_{}{}^{12/13}R_{10}^{}`$, ranges between 1.3 and 6.7 with an average of 2.7, indicating that 12CO line emission is optically thick ($`\tau _{21}`$$``$5). On the other hand, the high ratios can also be obtained when a dense molecular cloud is externally heated by strong far-ultraviolet (FUV) radiation. Gierens, Stutzki, & Winnewisser (1992) performed a detailed 12CO and 13CO line radiative transfer analysis for spherically symmetric clumps irradiated by intense FUV radiation, and showed that the ratios $`>`$ 1 observed in the Orion A molecular cloud are easily explained by the temperature and abundance variations within the photodissociation region layer of the clumps. If we adopt their results, we can derive $`<`$$`n(\mathrm{H}_2)`$$`>`$ and $`<`$$`N(\mathrm{H}_2)`$$`>`$/$`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$ of the CO-emitting regions from the ratio of 12CO J=2$``$1 and J=1$``$0 line intensities, $`{}_{}{}^{12}R_{21/10}^{}`$, and $`{}_{}{}^{12/13}R_{10}^{}`$ using their Figures 3 and 5. The $`{}_{}{}^{12}R_{21/10}^{}`$’s are 1.0$``$2.4 with an average of 1.6. The average values for $`{}_{}{}^{12/13}R_{10}^{}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{12}R_{21/10}^{}`$ suggest that $`<`$$`N(\mathrm{H}_2)`$$`>`$/$`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$$``$1$`\times `$1022 cm-2 (km s-1)-1 and $`<`$$`n(\mathrm{H}_2)`$$`>`$$``$104 cm-3. The $`{}_{}{}^{12}R_{21/10}^{}`$ is lower ($``$1.4) over the hollow region than the surrounding regions, while the $`{}_{}{}^{12/13}R_{10}^{}`$ is higher ($``$4). This implies, as expected, that $`<`$$`n(\mathrm{H}_2)`$$`>`$ and $`<`$$`N(\mathrm{H}_2)`$$`>`$/$`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$ are both lower in the hollow region, i.e., $`<`$$`N(\mathrm{H}_2)`$$`>`$/$`\mathrm{\Delta }v`$=(0.3$``$1.0)$`\times `$1022 cm-2 (km s-1)-1 and $`<`$$`n(\mathrm{H}_2)`$$`>`$=(1.5$``$6.0)$`\times `$103 cm-3.

## 4 Discussion

### 4.1 Physical Characteristics of the W31 Molecular Cloud

The W31 molecular cloud is classified as a giant molecular cloud (GMC) based on the physical parameters determined from the 13CO line observations. The CS-emitting regions of W31 are much more massive and larger than those (102$``$104 $`M_{}`$ in mass and 0.5$``$5 pc in size) of molecular clouds associated with Sharpless HII regions, which are excited by single late O or early B stars (Zinchenko et al. 1994; Carpenter, Snell, & Schloerb 1995). Hence the fraction of dense ($`>`$104 cm-3) molecular gas may be much higher in the W31 cloud than in the molecular clouds with Sharpless HII regions. For W31 as a whole, the CS-emitting regions contain 48% of the total mass and occupy 16% of the total area (see Table 2). In comparison, these values are, respectively, one order of magnitude greater than estimates (2% and $`<`$1%) for the Gemini OB1 cloud complex with about 10 Sharpless HII regions, which has a similar total mass to the W31 cloud (Carpenter et al. 1995). This seems to be consistent with the observation that more luminous $`IRAS`$ sources tend to be associated with more massive CS cores in the Gemini complex, suggesting that more massive cores in general form more massive stars (Carpenter et al. 1995). Similar results have been found in the Orion B (L1630) molecular cloud (Lada 1992) and the Rosette molecular cloud (Phelps & Lada 1997). In these molecular clouds the embedded clusters are associated with the most massive dense cores. These observations indicate that both high gas density and high gas mass are required for the formation of stellar clusters. On the other hand, the CS-emitting regions of W31 are further more massive and larger than those of some other GMCs undergoing active massive star formation, such as M17 (Snell et al. 1984) and Orion B (Lada et al. 1991). This difference is likely due to difference in evolution (destruction of dense cores by massive stars) as well as difference in the initial physical properties, since some newly formed massive stars have already emerged as visible objects in the regions (e.g., Stephenson & Hobbs 1961; Warren & Hesser 1978).

The ratio of infrared (IR) luminosity to mass is a good measure of the massive star formation activity of molecular clouds. The ratio varies widely from cloud to cloud, and shows little correlation with cloud mass from 102 to 107 $`M_{}`$ or location in the Galaxy (Mooney & Solomon 1988; Scoville & Good 1989; Carpenter, Snell, & Schloerb 1990). We estimate the ratio for the W31 molecular cloud using $`IRAS`$ HIgh RESolution processing (HIRES) images at 60 $`\mu `$m and 100 $`\mu `$m. After a smooth background emission is removed from each image, the total flux densities at 60 $`\mu `$m and 100 $`\mu `$m, $`F_{60}`$ and $`F_{100}`$, are measured to be $`(7.4\pm 0.8)\times 10^4`$ Jy and $`(1.09\pm 0.10)\times 10^5`$ Jy within the could boundary, respectively. Here we took average intensities on the cloud boundary as the background emission levels. The total IR luminosity in the wavelength range 1$``$500 $`\mu `$m, $`L_{\mathrm{IR}}`$, can be calculated from $`F_{60}`$ and $`F_{100}`$ in Jy using the following formula (Lonsdale et al. 1985; Lee et al. 1996)

$$L_{\mathrm{IR}}=0.394R(\overline{T_d},\beta )\left[F_{100}+2.58F_{60}\right]d^2(L_{}),$$
(4)
where $`T_d`$ is the 60/100 $`\mu `$m color temperature in K, $`\beta `$ is the index in the emissivity law, $`Q_{\mathrm{abs}}\lambda ^\beta `$, and $`d`$ is the source distance in kpc. The $`R(\overline{T_d},\beta )`$ is color correction factor that accounts for the flux radiated outside the 60 $`\mu `$m and 100 $`\mu `$$`IRAS`$ bands. If $`\beta `$ is assumed to be 1 (Hildebrand 1983), $`L_{\mathrm{IR}}`$ is derived to be 5.8$`\times `$106 $`L_{}`$, which gives $`L_{\mathrm{IR}}`$/$`M_{\mathrm{LTE}}`$=9.4 $`L_{}`$/$`M_{}`$. This estimate is much greater than the average ratio (2.8 $`L_{}`$/$`M_{}`$) of all molecular clouds in the inner Galactic plane, but is comparable to the median value (7 $`L_{}`$/$`M_{}`$) for GMCs with HII regions (Scoville & Good 1989).

We also derive star formation efficiency, SFE$`M_{}/(M_{}+M_{\mathrm{cloud}})`$, of the W31 cloud. The stellar mass $`M_{}`$ was computed from the Lynman continuum photon flux $`N_c^{}`$ measured by radio continuum observations of G10.2$``$0.3 and G10.3$``$0.1, 2.7$`\times `$1050 photons s-1 (Kim & Koo 2001). Here we adopt $`<M_{}>/<N_c^{}>=5.7\times 10^{47}`$ $`M_{}`$ (photons s-1)-1, which was determined by McKee & Williams (1997) using the initial mass function of Scalo (1986) and the parameters of OB stars of Vacca, Garmany, & Shull (1996). The SFE estimated for the entire cloud is 3%, which is somewhat greater than the Galactic median value of $``$2% (Myers et al. 1986). On the other hand, the SFE’s for the two CS-emitting regions are derived to be 6% and 4%, respectively (Table 3).

### 4.2 Interaction between Ionized and Molecular Gas

Figure 9 shows the ionized gas distribution (contours) superposed on the molecular gas distribution (color). For both G10.2$``$0.3 and G10.3$``$0.1, the morphology of extended envelope seems to be largely determined by the distribution of the ambient molecular gas. In G10.2$``$0.3, the radio continuum surface brightness decreases slowly to the east while it drops rapidly to the west. This surface brightness behavior can be naturally understood if the central part of G10.2$``$0.3 is situated within the molecular cloud and the eastern protuberance is a result of the champagne flow (Israel 1978; Tenorio-Tagle 1979). A large ($`>`$10 km s-1) velocity gradient exists between the central and eastern parts (see Fig. 2), which is compatible with what would be expected from the champagne flow model. On the other hand, the extended envelope of G10.3$``$0.1 has a bipolar morphology. Such a morphology can be created by the champagne flow in case where the HII region forms in a flat molecular cloud (Bodenheimer, Tenorio-Tagle, & Yorke 1979; Tenorio-Tagle, Yorke, Bodenheimer 1979). Indeed the distribution of molecular gas in the region is severely elongated in the direction orthogonal to the bipolar axis of G10.3$``$0.1 (see also Fig. 7$`b`$). Therefore, the extended envelope of G10.3$``$0.1 is also likely to be a consequence of the champagne flow. However, we have not observed any significant velocity difference between the central region and the envelope. This might be due to a small inclination. The velocity of a champagne flow is determined by the pressure contrast at the cloud boundary and can increase up to about 30 km s-1 (Tenorio-Tagle 1979). Since the farthest boundary is $``$12 pc (7) from the central region for both G10.2$``$0.3 and G10.3$``$0.1, their dynamical ages may be in the range (4$``$12) $`\times `$ 105 yr. For G10.2$``$0.3, our estimate matches with the result of Blum et al. (2001), who derived a mean age of $``$1$`\times `$106 yr for the embedded cluster associated with the eastern compact component in the central region, based on their near-IR photometry and spectroscopy.

A striking feature is the distinctive molecular gas hollow in the northern flat component of the W31 cloud. The hollow is $``$4 pc (2.$`^{}`$4) in size. It is located close to the UC and compact HII regions. The thickness of the flat molecular cloud is much smaller at the hole position than other parts. These observations strongly suggest that the hollow might have been produced due to the dispersion and destruction of molecular gas by the HII regions and their ionizing stars. This view is supported by the fact that the 12CO J=2$``$1/J=1$``$0 integrated intensity ratio exceed unity around the UC and compact HII regions, implying that the HII regions and their central stars are closely interacting with the surrounding molecular materials. It is well known that the surrounding gas and dust of newly formed massive stars should be eventually dispersed and destroyed by strong radiation, stellar winds, and HII regions.

If the molecular gas column density of the hollow region had been equal to the average value of the surrounding regions, which have $`T_R^{}𝑑v25`$ K km s-1, the amount of molecular gas dispersed by the massive stars would be (4$`\pm `$1)$`\times `$103 $`M_{}`$. The quoted error represents variation in the measured mass depending on the assumed threshold value for the surrounding regions. Our estimate is not very different from the ionized gas mass of G10.3$``$0.1, 2$`\times `$103 $`M_{}`$, determined from radio continuum observations (Kim & Koo 2001). The derived mass and dynamical age imply that the disruption rate of the molecular cloud is (3$``$10)$`\times `$10-3 $`M_{}`$ yr-1, which is very similar to the results of two-dimensional numerical calculations for the champagne flows in various conditions, (5$``$10)$`\times `$10-3 $`M_{}`$ yr-1 (Yorke, Bodenheimer, & Tenorio-Tagle 1982). Whitworth (1979) also performed a semi-analytic study on the efficiency with which massive stars destroy their parental molecular clouds and showed that the disruption rate is determined by the Lyman continuum photon flux, the ambient density, and the elapse time. The Lyman continuum photon flux of G10.3$``$0.1 is 5.5$`\times `$1049 photons s-1 (Kim & Koo 2001). The average density of the surrounding regions with $`T_R^{}𝑑v25`$ K km s-1 is $``$1$`\times `$103 cm-3. In that case the disruption rate is (5$`\pm `$1)$`\times `$10-3 $`M_{}`$ yr-1. This value is in good agreement with the rate estimated above, too. In addition to strong radiation, the bipolar outflow associated with G10.30$``$0.15 might have played a role in the dispersion process. Therefore, it is most likely that the northern flat molecular cloud is being disrupted by newly formed massive stars. This may also be true for the southern spherical molecular cloud, although compelling observational evidence for molecular gas disruption have not been found except the champagne flow.

## 5 Conclusions

We have carried out 21 cm radio continuum, H76$`\alpha `$ RRL, 12CO, 13CO, CS, and C34S line observations of the W31 HII region/molecular cloud complex. The physical parameters of the W31 cloud are largely comparable to those of other GMCs that are undergoing active massive star formation. However, the CS-emitting regions are more massive and larger than those of some other GMCs with indicators of massive star formation. The large amount of dense ($`>`$104 cm-3) gas implies that the W31 cloud has ability to form rich stellar clusters and suggests, together with the young dynamical ages ($``$1$`\times `$106 yr) of G10.2$``$0.3 and G10.3$``$0.1, that star formation has recently begun in the cloud. On the other hand, we have found high-velocity molecular gas towards G10.15$``$0.34 and G10.30$``$0.15, which are likely due to bipolar outflows. The extended envelopes of both G10.2$``$0.3 and G10.3$``$0.1 may be results of the champagne flows, based on the distributions of ionized and molecular gas and the velocity gradient of RRL emission. In the vicinity of the UC and compact HII regions in G10.3$``$0.1, a distinctive molecular gas hollow is present and the 12CO J=2$``$1/J=1$``$0 line intensity ratio exceeds unity. Together these observations support that the HII regions and their ionizing stars are strongly interacting with the surrounding molecular materials. Therefore, W31 is a good example showing not only formation of massive stars but also destruction of their parental molecular cloud by them.

###### Acknowledgements.

We are grateful to Bob Blum, John Carpenter, Youngung Lee, and Young Chol Minh for helpful comments, and Yong-Sun Park for giving us part of his observing time at the TRAO. We also thank the staff at the IPAC in Caltech for processing the $`IRAS`$ HIRES maps for W31 region. This work has been supported by a bilateral KOSEF-Korea and CONACyT-México agreement (2000-113-01-2), and also BK21 Program, Ministry of Education, Korea through SEES.