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# On the Hilbert Scheme of Palatini threefolds

## 1. introduction

Let $`X`$ be a smooth non degenerate $`3`$-fold in $`^5`$ which is a scroll over a smooth surface $`S`$. There are four examples, all classical, of such scrolls in $`^5`$: the Segre scroll, the Bordiga scroll, the Palatini scroll and the $`K3`$-scroll, of degree 3, 6, 7, 9 respectively. Ottaviani in \[O\] proved that in $`^5`$ these are the only smooth $`3`$-dimensional scrolls over a surface.

The first two scrolls are arithmetically Cohen-Macaulay threefolds, defined by the maximal minors of a $`3\times 2`$, or of a $`4\times 3`$ matrix of linear forms respectively and their Hilbert schemes are described by Ellingsrud (\[E\]).

In this paper we are interested in studying the Hilbert scheme of Palatini scrolls.

By definition, a Palatini scroll is the degeneracy locus of a general morphism $`\varphi :𝒪_^5^4\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$. This definition is the straightforward analogous in $`^5`$ of the classical construction performed by Guido Castelnuovo in 1891 for the projected Veronese surface $`S`$ in $`^4`$ (see \[C\]). In the modern language, he showed indeed that any such surface $`S`$ can be interpreted as the degeneracy locus of a morphism defined by three independent sections of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_^4(2)`$.

This kind of morphisms are closely connected to the notion of linear complexes of lines (see \[C\], \[BM\]). In fact, it is possible to interpret the degeneracy locus of a general morphism $`\varphi :𝒪_^5^4\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$ as the set of centres of linear complexes in $`^5`$ belonging to a general linear system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of dimension $`3`$ (web for short) of linear complexes in $`^5`$. This latter interpretation will be very important in proving our results.

In the case of Veronese surfaces, Castelnuovo proved also that the net of complexes, giving raise to the morphism $`𝒪_^4^3\mathrm{\Omega }_^4(2)`$, can be reconstructed from $`S`$, as the span of the locus of trisecant lines to $`S`$ inside the embedding space of the Grassmannian $`𝔾(1,4)`$. This is equivalent to the claim that the irreducible component of the Hilbert scheme of the Veronese surface is birational to $`𝔾(2,H^0(\mathrm{\Omega }_^4(2))`$. Here we study the analogous problem for Palatini threefolds.

One of the first things we prove, see Proposition (3.1), is that the Hilbert scheme of the Palatini scroll has a distinguished reduced irreducible component $``$ which is smooth at the point representing $`X`$ and of dimension $`44`$. Such dimension is equal to the dimension of $`𝔾(3,\stackrel{}{}{}_{}{}^{14})`$, the Grassmannian parametrizing maps $`𝒪_^5^4\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$.

It’s known that there is a natural map $`\rho :𝔾(3,\stackrel{}{}{}_{}{}^{14})`$ and we study such map. The main result we obtain is the following theorem. It relies on a careful description of the variety of four-secant lines of the Palatini scroll. We prove that this variety is the union of $`C_4`$, the base locus of a general web of linear complexes, and of one more component, the one given by the lines contained in $`X`$. Hence the situation is a bit different from the one encountered by Castelnuovo in the case of a general net of linear complexes in $`^4`$. But nevertheless we can reconstruct $`C_4`$ from $`X`$ in a geometrical way, as it was done by Castelnuovo in the case of Veronese surfaces.

###### THEOREM 1.1.

Let $`X^5`$ be a smooth Palatini scroll of degree $`7`$. Let $``$ be the irreducible component of the Hilbert scheme containing $`X`$. Then the rational map

$$\rho :𝔾(3,\stackrel{}{}{}_{}{}^{14})$$

is birational.

Since the map $`\rho `$ is birational, our next task is to determine the locus over which such map is not regular.

It is well-known that if the degeneracy locus of a bundle map from a vector bundle $`F`$ to a vector bundle $`G`$ has the expected dimension then it lies in the same Hilbert scheme as the degeneracy locus of a general map from $`F`$ to $`G`$. So $`\rho `$ is not regular over the points $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,\stackrel{}{}{}_{}{}^{14})`$ such that the set of centres of linear complexes in $`^5`$ belonging to $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ has dimension strictly bigger than $`3`$.

It turns out that these are the $`3`$-spaces of $`\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$ which either are completely contained in the dual Grassmannian $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$, or intersect $`𝔾(3,5)`$, naturally identified with the singular locus of $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$, along a curve. In other words, we can consider the intersection of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$: in general it is a cubic surface $`S`$ which can be identified with the base of the scroll. The non-regularity of $`\rho `$ at $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ means that either $`S`$ is not defined or that it is singular along a curve.

For the precise statements about the locus over which the map $`\rho `$ is not regular, we refer to §4, Theorem (4.3) and Theorem (4.9).

In the last section we will see how the Hilbert scheme of the Palatini scrolls fits into commutative diagrams involving the variety of $`6\times 6`$ skew-symmetric matrices of linear forms, the space of cubic surfaces, the moduli space of rank two bundles $`E`$ on a cubic surface, with $`c_1(E)=𝒪_S(2),c_2(E)=5`$. The relations among the latter mathematical objects where considered in \[B\] to which we refer for all the details.

Aknowledgments. The authors would like to thank the referee for many interesting comments and suggestions.

## 2. Notations and Preliminaries

The following notation will be needed later on in the paper. We refer to \[LB\] for the details.

Let $`X`$ be a smooth non degenerate 3-fold in $`^5`$. By $`Hilb^4^5`$, respectively $`Hilb^4X`$, we denote the Hilbert scheme of zero dimensional subschemes of $`^5`$, respectively of $`X`$, of length $`4`$, i.e. $`4`$-tuples.

Let $`Hilb_c^4^5`$ be the open smooth subset of $`Hilb^4^5`$ of the 4-tuples lying on a smooth curve, $`Hilb_c^4X`$:=$`Hilb^4X\times _{Hilb^4P^5}Hilb_c^4^5`$. Note that dim $`Hilb_c^4^5=20`$.

Let $`Al^4^5`$ be the subvariety given by those elements in $`Hilb_c^4^5`$, which are on some line in $`^5`$.

###### Remark 2.1.

(1) $`Al^4^5`$ is a smooth subvariety of $`Hilb_c^4^5`$ of dimension 12.

(2) the map $`a:Al^4^5𝔾(1,5)`$ which sends an element of $`Al^4^5`$ to the line on which it lies is a fibration of fibre type $`Hilb^4^1^4`$.

We recall the definition of the embedded $`4`$-secant variety of $`X`$.

Let $`Al^4X`$:=$`Al^4^5\times _{Hilb^4^5}Hilb_c^4X`$. We denote by $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_4(X)`$ the closure of $`a(Al^4X)`$ in $`𝔾(1,5)`$. Let

$$:=\{(x,L)^5\times 𝔾(1,5)|xL\}$$

be the flag manifold and let $`p_1:^5`$, $`p_2:𝔾(1,5)`$ be the two projections.

###### Definition 2.2.

$`S_4(X):=p_1(p_2^1(\mathrm{\Sigma }_4(X)))^5`$ is the embedded $`4`$-secant variety of $`X`$.

We recall a basic result on the Hilbert scheme which will be important for us.

Let $`Z`$ be a smooth connected projective variety. Let $`X`$ be a connected submanifold of $`Z`$ with $`H^1(X,N)=0`$ where $`N`$ is the normal bundle of $`X`$. The following proposition holds, see (\[G\], \[S\]).

###### Proposition 2.3.

Let $`Z`$ and $`X`$ be as above. There exist irreducible projective varieties $`𝒴`$ and $``$ with the following properties:

* $`𝒴\times Z`$ and the map $`p:𝒴`$ induced by the product projection is a flat surjection,
* there is a smooth point $`x`$ with $`p`$ of maximal rank in a neighborhood of $`p^1(x)`$,
* $`q`$ identifies $`p^1(x)`$ with $`X`$ where $`q:𝒴Z`$ is the map induced by the product projection, and
* $`H^0(N)`$ is naturally identified with $`T_{,x}`$ where $`T_{,x}`$ is the Zariski tangent space of $``$ at $`x`$.

## 3. Webs of linear complexes in $`^5`$

In this section we will study the maps $`𝒪_^5^4\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$ and their degeneracy loci.

Note that a general morphism $`\varphi :𝒪_^5^4\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$ is assigned by given $`4`$ general global sections of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$.

We recall first two interpretations of global sections of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$, that explain the link with the classical construction of Castelnuovo (\[C\]).

$``$ Geometric interpretation of $`\varphi `$ (see \[O\]).

Let $`^5=(V)`$. Consider the twisted dual Euler sequence on $`^5`$

$`0\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)\stackrel{6}{}𝒪_^5(1)𝒪_^5(2)0`$
Being $`V^{}H^0(^5,𝒪_^5(1))`$, we have the natural identification Hom$`(𝒪_^5,\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2))^2V^{}`$, where a morphism $`𝒪_^5\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$ is given (after choosing a basis in $`V`$ and its dual basis in $`V^{}`$) by a skew-symmetric $`6\times 6`$ matrix $`A=(a_{ij})`$, $`a_{ij}`$ and corresponds to the morphism $`VV^{}`$ given by

$$(x_0,\mathrm{},x_5)(a_{0i}x_i,\mathrm{},a_{5i}x_i)$$

The morphism $`\varphi :𝒪_^5^4\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$ is given by four generic $`6\times 6`$ skew-symmetric matrices $`A,B,C,D`$.

The equations of the degeneracy locus $`X`$ of $`\varphi `$ are the $`4\times 4`$ minors of the $`4\times 6`$ matrix

(5) $`F=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}a_{0i}x_i& .& .& a_{5i}x_i\\ b_{0i}x_i& .& .& b_{5i}x_i\\ c_{0i}x_i& .& .& c_{5i}x_i\\ d_{0i}x_i& .& .& d_{5i}x_i\end{array}\right)`$
If $`P=(x_0,\mathrm{},x_5)X`$ then there exists $`(x,y,z,t)(0,0,0,0)`$ such that

(6) $`(xA+yB+zC+tD)P=0`$
or equivalently

(7) $`{\displaystyle \underset{i=0}{\overset{5}{}}}(xa_{ji}+ya_{ji}+za_{ji}+ta_{ji})x_i=0,j=0,\mathrm{},5`$
Hence the matrix $`xA+yB+zC+tD`$ has to be a degenerate skew-symmetric matrix and its pfaffian has to vanish. Let $`(x,y,z,t)`$ be homogeneous coordinates in $`^3`$, then the vanishing of the pfaffian of $`xA+yB+zC+tD`$ defines a hypersurface $`S`$ of degree $`3`$ in $`^3`$.

For $`\varphi `$ general and a fixed $`(x,y,z,t)S`$, the matrix $`xA+yB+zC+tD`$ has rank four, so we find in $`X`$ a line of solutions of the equation (7) and thus $`X`$ is a scroll over $`S`$. Such $`X`$ is a Palatini scroll of degree $`7`$, see (\[O\], \[BM\]).

Let $`f:XS`$ denote the scroll map. If we fix a point $`PX`$, then $`f(P)`$ is the unique solution of the equation (6), interpreted as an equation in $`(x,y,z,t)`$. The unicity of the solution is equivalent to the fact that the $`4\times 6`$ matrix $`F`$ in (5) has rank $`3`$.

The morphism $`f:XS`$ is associated to the line bundle $`K_X+2H`$, (\[O\], 3.3), where $`H`$ is the hyperplane divisor. Moreover $`X_S(E)`$ where $`E:=f_{}H`$ is a rank two vector bundle on $`S`$ with $`c_1(E)=𝒪_S(2),c_2(E)=5`$.

$``$ Global sections of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$ as linear complexes.

Consider $`𝔾(1,5)`$, the Grassmannian of lines in $`^5`$, embedded in $`(^2V)^{14}`$ via the Plücker map. The dual space $`(^2V^{})\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$ parametrizes hyperplane sections of $`𝔾(1,5)`$ or, in the old terminology, linear complexes in $`^5`$. A linear complex $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ in $`^5`$ is represented by a linear equation: $`_{0i<j5}a_{ij}p_{ij}`$ in the Plücker coordinates $`p_{ij}`$. We associate to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ the skew-symmetric matrix $`A=(a_{ij})`$ of order $`6`$. A point $`P^5`$ is called a centre of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ if all lines through $`P`$ belong to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. The space $`(Ker(A))`$ is the set of centres of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ and it is called the singular space of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Since we are in $`^5`$ a general linear complex $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ does not have any centre. In fact let $`A`$ be the skew-symmetric matrix associated to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Being $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ general it follows that $`rkA=6`$. $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is said to be special if its singular space is at least a line. The special complexes can be of first type or of second type depending on whether they have a line or a $`^3`$ as a singular space.

Note that a special $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ corresponds to a tangent hyperplane section of $`𝔾(1,5)`$, or equivalently to a point of $`\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$ lying in $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$, the dual variety of $`𝔾(1,5)`$.

From this it follows that it is possible to interpret the degeneracy locus $`X`$ of a general morphism $`\varphi :𝒪_^5^4\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$ as the set of centres of linear complexes belonging to a general linear system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of dimension $`3`$ (web for short) of linear complexes in $`^5`$. Since $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is general, it does not contain any special complex of the second type. Moreover such $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is spanned by four linearly independent complexes $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Gamma }_4`$ and it corresponds to a linear subspace $`^3`$ in $`\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$: it intersects $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$ (which is a hypersurface of degree three) along a cubic surface which is disjoint from $`𝔾(3,5)`$. Its points represent the special complexes of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and so the surface can be identified with $`S`$ (see \[BM\]).

Hence given a general web of linear complexes in $`^5`$ its set of centres is the degeneracy locus $`X`$ of a general morphism $`\varphi :𝒪_^5^4\mathrm{\Omega }_^5(2)`$ which is a Palatini scroll of degree $`7`$.

We see next that the Hilbert scheme of the Palatini scroll has a distinguished reduced irreducible component of dimension equal to $`44`$.

###### Proposition 3.1.

Let $`X^5`$ be the Palatini scroll of degree $`7`$. Then the Hilbert scheme of $`X`$ has an irreducible component, $``$, which is smooth at the point representing $`X`$ and of dimension $`44`$.

###### Proof.

We have seen that $`X_S(E)`$ where $`E`$ is a rank two vector bundle on a smooth cubic surface $`S`$ with $`c_1(E)=𝒪_S(2),c_2(E)=5`$. Note that $`E`$ is stable with respect to $`𝒪_S(1)`$ and therefore simple: in fact $`f_{}H=E`$, where $`f`$ is the adjunction mapping of $`X`$, hence $`H^0(S,E(1))=H^0(X,(K+H))=0`$.

Let $`N`$ denote the normal bundle of $`X`$ in $`^5`$. We will show that $`H^1(X,N)=0`$. Let

(8) $`0𝒪_X𝒪_X(1)^6T_{^5|X}0`$
be the Euler sequence on $`^5`$ restricted to $`X`$. From the cohomology sequence associated to (8) we have $`h^i(X,T_{^5|X})=0`$ for $`i1`$. Using the following exact sequence

(9) $`0T_XT_{^5|X}N0`$
and the fact that $`h^i(X,T_{^5|X})=0`$ for $`i1`$ we get that

(10) $`h^i(X,N)=h^{i+1}(X,T_X)\text{for}i1.`$
Hence in order to compute $`h^1(X,N)`$ will be enough to compute $`h^2(X,T_X)`$.

Let $`f:(E)S`$ be the scroll map, where $`E`$ is a rank two vector bundle on $`S`$ as above. We have the following sequences:

(11) $`0\mathrm{\Omega }_{X|S}(f^{}E)(1)𝒪_X0`$
(12) $`0T_{X|S}T_Xf^{}T_S0`$
Dualizing (11) we get

(13) $`0𝒪_X(f^{}E^{})(1)T_{X|S}0`$
By the projection formula and the fact that $`R^1f_{}𝒪_X(1)=0`$ it follows that the 1-st direct image $`R^1f_{}((f^{}E^{})(1))=E^{}R^1f_{}𝒪_X(1)=0`$. Hence by the Leray spectral sequence it follows that

$$H^i(X,(f^{}E^{})(1))H^i(S,f_{}(f^{}E^{})(1))H^i(S,E^{}E)$$

for $`i0`$. In particular we have that $`h^3(X,(f^{}E^{})(1))=0`$ being $`h^3(S,E^{}E)=0`$. On the other hand $`h^i(X,𝒪_X)=0`$ for $`i>0`$. Hence the cohomology sequence associated to (13) gives that $`h^3(X,T_{X|S})=0`$. We also know that $`H^i(X,f^{}T_S)H^i(S,T_S)`$, $`i0`$ and that $`h^3(S,T_S)=0`$. Thus $`h^3(X,f^{}T_S)=0`$ and by (12) it follows that $`h^3(X,T_X)=0`$. This latter fact along with (10) gives $`h^2(X,N)=0`$.

We now compute $`H^i(S,T_S)`$. Since $`S`$ is a smooth cubic surface in $`^3`$, the Euler sequence on $`^3`$ restricted to $`S`$ along with

$`0T_ST_{^3|S}𝒪_S(3)0`$
and the fact that $`h^i(S,𝒪_S(3))=0`$ for $`i>0`$ give that $`h^2(S,T_S)=0`$ and thus $`h^2(X,f^{}T_S)=0`$. It remains to prove that $`h^2(X,T_{X|S})=0`$. From the cohomology sequence associated to (13) it follows that $`h^2(X,T_{X|S})=h^2(S,E^{}E)`$. Note that

$$h^2(S,E^{}E)=h^2(S,𝓃𝒹(E))=h^2(S,𝒪_S)+h^2(S,𝓃𝒹_0(E))$$

The last equality follows from the fact that $`𝓃𝒹(E)𝒪_S𝓃𝒹_0(E)`$, where $`𝓃𝒹_0(E)`$ is the bundle of the traceless endomorphisms of $`E`$, see (\[br\], pg. 121). Since $`S`$ is a smooth cubic surface in $`^3`$ it follows that $`h^2(S,𝒪_S)=0`$. Moreover $`h^2(S,𝓃𝒹_0(E))=0`$, see (\[B\], proof of Lemma 7.7). Hence the cohomology sequence associated to (12) gives that $`h^2(X,T_X)=0`$ and thus, by (10), $`h^1(X,N)=0`$. In order to compute the dimension of $``$, by ((2.3), (iv)) we need to compute $`h^0(X,N)`$. But $`h^0(N)=\chi (N)`$ and by the Hirzebruch-Riemann-Roch theorem we know that

(14) $`\chi (N)={\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}(n_1^33n_1n_2+3n_3)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}c_1(n_1^22n_2)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{12}}(c_1^2+c_2)n_1+r\chi (𝒪_X)`$
where $`n_i=c_i(N),c_i=c_i(X)`$ and $`r=rk(N)=2`$.

Note that $`n_3=0`$ since $`rk(N)=2`$. We compute the remaining Chern classes of $`N`$ from the exact sequence (9) and we get:

$$n_1=K+6H;n_2=15H^2+6HK+K^2c_2$$

The numerical invariants of the Palatini scroll and its Hilbert polynomial have been computed in \[O\] and they are:

$$KH^2=8;K^2H=7;K^3=2;Kc_2=24$$

$$\chi (𝒪_X(t))=\frac{7}{6}t^3+2t^2+\frac{11}{6}t+1$$

From these we get that $`c_2H=15`$. Plugging these in (14) we get that $`\chi (N)=44`$ and thus $`h^0(N)=\chi (N)=44`$. ∎

Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be a web of linear complexes in $`^5`$. $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is spanned by 4 independent linear complexes in $`^5`$ and hence it corresponds to a linear $`^3`$ in $`(^2V^{})\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$. Thus the webs of linear complexes in $`^5`$ are parametrized by $`𝔾(3,\stackrel{}{}{}_{}{}^{14})`$, the Grassmannian of $`^3`$’s in $`\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$. Therefore we can define a natural rational map

$$\rho :𝔾(3,\stackrel{}{}{}_{}{}^{14})ilb(X).$$

The map $`\rho `$ sends a general web $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ to its singular set $`X`$. By Propositions (2.3) and (3.1), the Hilbert scheme of $`X`$, $`ilb(X)`$, has an irreducible component $``$ which is smooth at the point representing $`X`$ and of dimension $`44`$. It is well known that the image of $`\rho `$ is dense in $``$. We let $`\rho `$ denote also the map $`\rho :𝔾(3,\stackrel{}{}{}_{}{}^{14})`$. Since domain and codomain of $`\rho `$ have the same dimension $`44`$ and $`\rho `$ is dominant, a general fibre of $`\rho `$ is finite. So it is natural to ask for the degree of such fibre.

An answer to this question is one of the main results of this paper.

###### THEOREM 3.2.

Let $`X^5`$ be a smooth Palatini scroll of degree $`7`$. Let $``$ be the irreducible component of the Hilbert scheme containing $`X`$. Then the rational map

$$\rho :𝔾(3,\stackrel{}{}{}_{}{}^{14})$$

is birational.

The proof of Theorem (3.2) will follow at once after we have proved the following Claims and Proposition.

Let us point out that to prove this theorem we have tried to adapt Castelnuovo’s result, (\[C\], §7, 8) to our case. Unfortunately his whole argument does not extend and the difficulty lies in the fact that the locus of the $`4`$-secants of $`X`$ in $`𝔾(1,5)`$ contains besides $`C_4`$, also other lines. By $`C_4`$ we denote the base locus of a general web $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of linear complexes in $`^5`$ of which $`X`$ is the singular set. In fact we prove, see Proposition (3.6), that there is only one more component, the one given by the lines of the ruling of $`X`$.

Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be a general web of linear complexes. Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1,\mathrm{\Gamma }_2,\mathrm{\Gamma }_3,\mathrm{\Gamma }_4`$ be four linear complexes of $`^5`$ generating $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Let $`C_4𝔾(1,5)`$ denote the base of the web $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, that is, $`C_4`$ is the family of lines in $`^5`$ which are common to $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1,\mathrm{\Gamma }_2,\mathrm{\Gamma }_3,\mathrm{\Gamma }_4`$: it is irreducible and $`4`$-dimensional, being the intersection of the Grassmannian with a general linear space of codimension $`4`$. Let $`X`$ be the set of centres of complexes belonging to $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The following claim is the analogous of the Castelnuovo’s result about trisecants of the Veronese surface in $`^4`$.

###### Claim 3.3.

The lines of $`C_4`$ are 4-secants of $`X`$.

###### Proof.

(of Claim) The equations of the degeneracy locus $`X`$ are the fifteen $`4\times 4`$ minors $`F_{ij}`$ of the $`4\times 6`$ matrix $`F`$, with $`F`$ as in (5). If $`F_{12}`$ denotes the $`4\times 4`$ minor obtained by deleting the 1st and 2nd column of $`F`$ then

$$\{F_{12}=0\}$$

is the variety of degree $`4`$ which is made out of the lines of $`C_4`$ which intersect the 3-plane $`x_0=x_1=0`$.

Let $`l`$ be a line in $`C_4`$ which does not intersect the 3-plane $`x_0=x_1=0`$. Let $`l\{F_{12}=0\}=\{P_1,P_2,P_3,P_4\}`$: then each $`P_i`$ is also on a line $`r`$ of $`C_4`$ which intersects the $`3`$-plane $`x_0=x_1=0`$. Hence there is a pencil of lines of $`C_4`$ through $`P_i`$: the pencil spanned by $`l`$ and $`r`$, and so $`P_iX`$. This is true for every $`P_i`$, $`i=1,\mathrm{},4`$, hence $`l`$ is a 4-secant of $`X`$. ∎

###### Claim 3.4.

$`C_4`$ is a congruence of lines of order one, i.e. for a generic point $`x^5`$, there is only one line of $`C_4`$ passing through $`x`$.

###### Proof.

(of Claim) In fact, as a cycle, $`C_4`$ coincides with $`\sigma _1^4`$, where $`\sigma _1`$ is the Schubert cycle of lines of $`^5`$ intersecting a fixed $`^3`$. Using Pieri formula, it is easy to show that $`\sigma _1^4=a_0\sigma _4+a_1\sigma _{31}+a_2\sigma _{22}=\sigma _4+3\sigma _{31}+2\sigma _{22}`$ (see \[DP\]). Since the coefficient of $`\sigma _4`$ is equal to the number of lines of $`\sigma _1^4`$ passing through a general point, we have the claim. ∎

###### Claim 3.5.

$`C_4`$ is an irreducible component of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_4(X)`$, the locus of all $`4`$-secant lines of $`X`$ in the Grassmannian $`𝔾(1,5)`$.

###### Proof.

(of Claim) Let $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_k(X)`$ denote the locus of all $`k`$-secant lines of $`X`$ in the Grassmannian $`𝔾(1,5)`$. Note that every irreducible component of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_4(X)`$ has dimension $`5`$. If otherwise then, since $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_4(X)\mathrm{\Sigma }_2(X)`$ and since $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_2(X)`$ is irreducible of dimension $`6`$, it would follow that every secant line is also a $`4`$-secant, which is impossible.

So either $`C_4`$ is a whole irreducible component of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_4(X)`$, or it is contained in an irreducible component $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$ of dimension $`5`$. But, in the second case, it follows from \[M\], Theorem 2.3, that the lines of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$ cannot fill up $`^5`$, against the fact that $`C_4`$ has order one. ∎

###### Proposition 3.6.

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }_4(X)=C_4\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\mathrm{}}(X)`$, where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\mathrm{}}(X)`$ is the variety of lines contained in $`X`$.

###### Proof.

(of Proposition) The number $`q_4(X)`$ of the $`4`$-secant lines of $`X`$ passing through a general point of $`^5`$ is finite by \[M\]. Hence $`q_4(X)`$ can be computed using the formula given by Kwak in \[Kw\] and it turns out that $`q_4(X)=1`$. So $`C_4`$ is the unique irreducible component of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_4(X)`$ whose lines fill up $`^5`$. We have to exclude the existence of another irreducible component $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$, of dimension $`4`$ of $`5`$, such that the union of the lines of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$ is strictly contained in $`^5`$.

If such a component $`\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$ exists, it follows from \[M\] that $`X`$ contains either a one-dimensional family of surfaces of $`^3`$ of degree at least $`4`$, or a $`2`$-dimensional family of plane curves of degree at least $`4`$. In the first case, every hyperplane $`H`$ containing such a surface $`S`$ of $`^3`$ cuts $`X`$ along a reducible surface: $`HX=SS^{}`$, where $`S^{}`$ is a surface of degree $`7k3`$. So on $`X`$ there should be also a $`2`$-dimensional family of surfaces of degree $`3`$. But then a general hyperplane section of $`X`$ should contain a $`2`$-dimensional family of curves of degree $`3`$. This surface is a rational non-special surface of $`^4`$, which has been extensively studied (see for instance \[A\]): it can be easily excluded that it contains such a family of curves.

In the second case, every $`3`$-space containing a plane curve on $`X`$, of degree $`k4`$, should cut $`X`$ residually in a curve of degree $`3`$. So we would get on $`X`$ also a $`3`$-dimensional family of curves of degree $`3`$. Now, $`X`$ contains in fact both a three-dimensional family of conics and of cubics, but a computation in the Picard group of a general hyperplane section of $`X`$ shows that their residual curves cannot be plane.

So both possibilities are excluded and the proof of the Proposition is accomplished. ∎

###### Proof.

(of Theorem) Let $`X=\rho (\mathrm{\Delta })`$ be a general threefold in the image of $`\rho `$. Then $`C_4`$ is the unique irreducible component of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_4(X)`$ whose lines fill up $`^5`$. This implies that $`X`$ comes via $`\rho `$ from a unique web $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Therefore, by the theorem on the dimension of the fibres, there is an open subset in $``$ such that the fibres of $`\rho `$ over this open subset are finite and of degree one. This proves the theorem. ∎

## 4. Regularity of the map $`\rho `$

We will see that there are webs $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ over which the map $`\rho `$ is not regular. Our next task is to determine such webs.

It is well-known that if the degeneracy locus of a bundle map from a vector bundle $`F`$ to a vector bundle $`G`$ has the expected dimension then it lies in the same Hilbert scheme as the degeneracy locus of a general map from $`F`$ to $`G`$. So $`\rho `$ is not regular over the webs $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ such that the corresponding degeneracy locus has dimension strictly bigger than $`3`$.

We recall the following facts about dual Grassmannians that will be used in the sequel (see for instance \[Ha\]):

###### FACTS 4.1.

* $`𝔾(3,5)`$ can be naturally embedded in $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}`$, where $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}`$ stands for the dual Grassmannian $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$. We can interpret $`𝔾(3,5)`$ as the set of singular complexes of the second type, because a complex of second type is determined uniquely by its singular space $`^3`$: it is formed by the lines intersecting that $`^3`$.
* $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}=Sec(𝔾(3,5))`$, the variety of secant lines, and $`𝔾(3,5)=Sing(\stackrel{}{𝔾})`$, hence $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}=Sec(Sing(\stackrel{}{𝔾}))`$.
* The linear spaces contained in $`𝔾(3,5)`$ have dimension $`4`$. In particular, a linear $`^3`$ in $`𝔾(3,5)`$ represents the set of the 3-spaces of a fixed $`^4`$ passing through a fixed point.

We will use Plücker coordinates $`p_{ij}`$ on $`^{14}`$ and the dual coordinates $`m_{ij}`$ on its dual space.

Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be a web of linear complexes in $`^5`$. Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Gamma }_4`$ be four linearly independent complexes which span $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Hence $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ corresponds to a $`^3\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$. The special complexes of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ are parametrized by $`\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$. In fact the space $`\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$ parametrizes all linear complexes: special complexes correspond to tangent hyperplane sections of $`𝔾(1,5)`$, that is to points of $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$ which is a cubic hypersurface in $`\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$. Moreover special complexes of second type can be interpreted as points in $`𝔾(3,5)`$ (which is also embedded in $`\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$), because a special complex of second type is uniquely determined by its singular space $`^3`$: it is formed by the lines intersecting that $`^3`$.

Hence the following situations can occur:

* $`\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$, that is, all the complexes of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ are special, or
* $`\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$ is a cubic surface $`S`$, possibly singular.

Let us consider case $`\alpha `$): $`\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$, that is, the case in which all the complexes of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ are special. Let $`A,B,C,D`$ be four $`6\times 6`$ skew-symmetric matrices associated to the complexes $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1,\mathrm{},\mathrm{\Gamma }_4`$, respectively. Hence these matrices span $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Note that in this case for all $`(x,y,z,t)^3`$ we have that $`pf(xA+yB+zC+tD)0`$. Hence the equation $`pf(xA+yB+zC+tD)=0`$ does not define any surface in $`^3`$.

Before stating our result concerning case $`\alpha `$) we recall few facts, already introduced in \[BM\], which will be needed. Let

$$\psi :\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)𝔾(1,5)$$

be the rational surjective map which sends a special complex of first type to its singular line, see \[BM\]. So $`\psi `$ is regular on $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)𝔾(3,5)`$. The fibre $`\psi ^1(l)`$ is formed by the special complexes having l as singular line. The closures of these fibres are 5-dimensional linear spaces which are denoted by $`_l^5`$. In fact we may think of $`\psi ^1(l)`$ as the linear system of hyperplanes in $`^{14}`$ containing the tangent space to $`𝔾(1,5)`$ at the point l : $`T_{l,𝔾(1,5)}^8`$, see (\[BM\], section 3) for the details.

###### Remark 4.2.

Let $`l,m𝔾(1,5)`$ be lines of $`^5`$. Then the intersection of $`_l^5`$ with $`𝔾(3,5)`$ is a smooth quadric of dimension $`4`$. Also $`_l^5_m^5`$ is contained in $`𝔾(3,5)`$ and is just one point if l, m do not intersect, or a plane if they intersect, see (\[BM\], Remark 1).

###### THEOREM 4.3.

Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be a web of linear complexes in $`^5`$ as in case $`\alpha `$). Then the rational map

$$\rho :𝔾(3,\stackrel{}{}{}_{}{}^{14})$$

is not regular at the point corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

###### Proof.

Since the web $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is as in case $`\alpha `$) then the following situations can occur:

* $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)`$, or
* $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{}{𝔾}`$.

Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be as in case $`\alpha 1`$), i.e. $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)`$. Then by (4.1) we see that $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ represents the set of the 3-dimensional linear spaces of a fixed $`^4`$ passing through a fixed point. Let us fix the flag: $`E_0H_5`$, where $`E_0=(1,0,0,0,0,0)^5`$ and $`H_5`$ is the hyperplane in $`^5`$ whose equation is $`x_5=0`$.

Hence $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ represents the 3-dimensional linear spaces of $`^5`$ whose equations are: $`x_5=0,xx_1+yx_2+zx_3+tx_4=0`$, with $`(x,y,z,t)^3`$. The lines intersecting such $`^3`$ satisfy the following equations in the Plücker coordinates $`p_{ij}`$: $`xp_{15}+yp_{25}+zp_{35}+tp_{45}=0`$. Thus $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ has equations: $`m_{01}=m_{02}=m_{03}=m_{04}=m_{05}=m_{12}=m_{13}=m_{14}=m_{23}=m_{24}=m_{34}=0`$ in $`\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$.

The corresponding matrix is

$$\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& x\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& y\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& z\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& t\\ 0& x& y& z& t& 0\end{array}\right)$$

Hence a generic element of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ can be written in the form $`xA+yB+zC+tD`$, where $`(x,y,z,t)^3`$ and $`A,B,C,D`$ are $`6\times 6`$ skew-symmetric matrices. Note that

$$A=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right)$$

and similarly we can write down $`B,C,D`$. So $`X`$ is the variety whose equations are the $`4\times 4`$ minors $`F_{ij}`$ of the $`4\times 6`$ matrix

(23) $`F=\left(\begin{array}{cccc}a_{0i}x_i& .& .& a_{5i}x_i\\ b_{0i}x_i& .& .& b_{5i}x_i\\ c_{0i}x_i& .& .& c_{5i}x_i\\ d_{0i}x_i& .& .& d_{5i}x_i\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}0& x_5& 0& 0& 0& x_1\\ 0& 0& x_5& 0& 0& x_2\\ 0& 0& 0& x_5& 0& x_3\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& x_5& x_4\end{array}\right)`$
It is straightforward to see that $`X=3H_5`$, where $`H_5:x_5=0`$. Hence the map $`\rho `$ is not regular in this case.

Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be as in case $`\alpha 2`$), i.e. $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{}{𝔾}`$. According to the position of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with respect to the fibre of $`\psi :\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)𝔾(1,5)`$, we have the following situations:

* there exists a unique line l such that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_l^5`$,
* $`\mathrm{\Delta }_l^5`$, for every l, but there exists a line m such that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_m^5=\pi `$, with $`\pi `$ a plane,
* the general fibre of $`\psi _{|\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ is a line,
* the general fibre of $`\psi _{|\mathrm{\Delta }}`$ is a point.

In the case $`\alpha `$2.1) since $`\mathrm{\Delta }_l^5`$, then $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)=\mathrm{\Delta }(_l^5𝔾(3,5))`$. Note that $`_l^5𝔾(3,5)`$ is a smooth 4-dimensional quadric, $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is a $`^3`$ and thus $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)`$ is a 2-dimensional quadric of $`^3`$: its points correspond to complexes having a $`^3`$ containing $`l`$ as a singular set, these $`^3`$ are contained in the degeneracy locus $`X`$ and thus dim$`X>3`$.

In the case $`\alpha `$2.2) since there exists a line m such that $`\mathrm{\Delta }_m^5=\pi `$, with $`\pi `$ a plane, then $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)(\mathrm{\Delta }_m^5)(𝔾(3,5)_m^5)`$. This latter intersection is either $`\pi `$ or a conic, since $`𝔾(3,5)_m^5`$ is a smooth 4-dimensional quadric and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_m^5=\pi `$.

As in the previous case, the points in such intersection correspond to complexes having a $`^3`$ as a singular set which is contained in the degeneracy locus $`X`$ and thus dim$`X>3`$.

In the case $`\alpha `$2.3) the general fibre of $`\psi _{|\mathrm{\Delta }}:\mathrm{\Delta }\psi _{|\mathrm{\Delta }}(\mathrm{\Delta })𝔾(1,5)`$ is a line. Thus $`T=\psi _{|\mathrm{\Delta }}(\mathrm{\Delta })`$ is a surface in $`𝔾(1,5)`$. The intersection $`(\mathrm{\Delta }_l^5)(𝔾(3,5)_l^5)\mathrm{}`$, for every $`lT`$. Hence for every $`lT`$, we find a $`^3`$ contained in $`X`$ and thus dim$`X>3`$.

In the case $`\alpha `$2.4) the general fibre of $`\psi _{|\mathrm{\Delta }}:\mathrm{\Delta }\psi _{|\mathrm{\Delta }}(\mathrm{\Delta })𝔾(1,5)`$ is a point. This means that $`T=\psi _{|\mathrm{\Delta }}(\mathrm{\Delta })`$ is a 3-fold in $`𝔾(1,5)`$ and that a general complex in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ has a line as singular set. Thus there is a 3-dimensional family of such lines and the variety $`X`$ is their union.

It could a priori happen that $`dimX=3`$, but then infinitely many lines of the family pass through a general point of $`X`$. Hence the matrix $`F`$ (see (5)) should have rank $`<3`$ at every point of $`X`$. This means that the four hyperplanes, whose coordinates are the rows of $`F`$, belong to a pencil, whose support is a $`3`$-space $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_P`$: it is the union of the lines of $`C_4`$ (the base of the web $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$) passing through $`P`$. Assume that the first two rows of $`F`$ are linearly independent, then the Plücker coordinates of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_P`$ are the order two minors of the first two rows of $`F`$. If $`F_{0123}`$ is the minor of the last two columns, then its vanishing at $`P`$ represents the condition that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_P`$ meets the line $`x_0=x_1=x_2=x_3=0`$ (as in Claim 3.4). If $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_P`$ is disjoint from this line, let $`Q_P`$ be the quadric surface $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_P\{F_{0123}=0\}`$: we claim that $`Q_PX`$. Indeed, if $`zQ_P`$, then both the line of $`C_4`$ through $`P`$ and the $`3`$-plane $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_z`$ contain $`z`$. Let $`P^{}`$ be the point $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_z\{x_0=x_1=x_2=x_3=0\}`$: the line $`\overline{zP^{}}`$ is in $`C_4`$ but not in $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_P`$, so $`zX`$, and the claim is proved.

Let now $`P`$, $`P^{}`$ be two distinct points in $`X`$: if $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_P=\mathrm{\Lambda }_P^{}`$, then $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_PX`$: in fact if $`r`$ is a line of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_P`$ through $`P`$, then $`rC_4`$, so if $`Rr`$, then $`R\mathrm{\Lambda }_P^{}`$ so the line $`RP^{}C_4`$ and $`RX`$. Therefore we can deduce that, if $`dimX=3`$, to each point $`PX`$ we can associate a $`^3`$ $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_P`$ and different points give different $`3`$-spaces. So also the quadrics $`Q_P`$ are two by two distinct and $`X`$ contains a family of dimension $`3`$ of quadric surfaces: a contradiction. Hence we conclude that $`dimX>3`$. ∎

Before considering case $`\beta `$) we make the following remark about equations of cubic surfaces in $`^3`$ which will be used later on in the paper.

###### Remark 4.4.

Let $`S`$ be a cubic surface in $`^3`$. If $`S`$ is smooth then it can be defined by an equation $`pfM=0`$, where $`M`$ is a $`6\times 6`$ skew-symmetric matrix of linear forms (\[B\], Prop. 7.6).

Let $`S`$ be a singular element of $`|𝒪_{P^3}(3)|`$. If $`S`$ has a finite number of lines then by (\[BL\]) it follows that its equation can be expressed as the determinant of a $`3\times 3`$ matrix $`N`$ of linear forms, except if $`S`$ is the surface whose class of projective equivalence is called $`T_1`$. Note that if $`S`$ is defined by $`detN=0`$, then $`S`$ is also defined by $`pfM=0`$, where $`M=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& N\\ ^tN& 0\end{array}\right)`$, since $`pfM=detN`$. Up to automorphisms the equation of the surface in the class $`T_1`$ is the following: $`x_0x_1^2+x_1x_3^2+x_2^3=0`$. It is easy to check that it is the pfaffian of the following matrix

$$\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}0& x_0& 0& 0& x_2& x_1\\ x_0& 0& x_0& x_3& 0& x_2\\ 0& x_0& 0& x_2& x_3& 0\\ 0& x_3& x_2& 0& x_1& 0\\ x_2& 0& x_3& x_1& 0& 0\\ x_1& x_2& 0& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right)$$

If $`S`$ has an infinite number of lines then by a well known result (see for instance \[fC\]) $`S`$ is either a reducible cubic surface, or an irreducible cone, or an irreducible cubic surface with a double line (i.e a general ruled cubic surface). But in all of these cases $`S`$ can be defined by an equation $`detN`$, where $`N`$ is a $`3\times 3`$ matrix of linear forms, and hence also by $`pfM=0`$, with $`M`$ as above.

Hence we can conclude that every cubic surface can be expressed as a pfaffian.

Let us consider now case $`\beta `$). Let $`S`$ be the cubic surface $`\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$. One of the following may happen:

* $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)=\mathrm{}`$, or
* $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)\mathrm{}`$, but $`S𝔾(3,5)=Sing(\stackrel{}{𝔾})`$, or
* $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)\mathrm{}`$ and $`S𝔾(3,5)`$, that is, $`SSing(\stackrel{}{𝔾})`$.

Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be as in $`\beta `$1). Then either $`S`$ is smooth, or it is singular and its singularities correspond to tangency points of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ to $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$. The case of $`S`$ smooth was considered in Theorem (3.2). We give next an explicit example of a surface $`S=\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{}{𝔾}(1,5)`$ with $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)=\mathrm{}`$ and $`S`$ singular.

###### Example 4.5.

Let $`S`$ be the cubic surface whose equation is $`x^2yx^2zxy^2+xz^2+y^3y^2t+yzt=0`$. The class of projective equivalence of this surface is called $`T_4`$ in \[BL\]. Its equation can be written as $`detN=0`$, where $`N`$ is the following matrix: $`\left(\begin{array}{ccc}t& x& y\\ y+z& y& 2x+t\\ y& 0& x+yz\end{array}\right)`$ or as $`pfM=0`$, where $`M`$ is obtained from $`N`$ as in (4.4).

$`S`$ has only one singularity at the point $`(0,0,0,1)`$, which corresponds to the only matrix of rank less than $`6`$ obtained from $`M`$, for a particular choice of $`x,y,z,t`$. It is easy to see that its rank is $`4`$.

Note that if $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is as in $`\beta `$1), for all $`(x,y,z,t)S`$, the matrix $`xA+yB+zC+tD`$ has rank four, so it determines always a line of solutions of the equation $`(xA+yB+zC+tD)^t(x_0\mathrm{}x_5)=0`$ on the degeneracy locus $`X`$. Thus $`dimX=3`$.

###### Remark 4.6.

It is possible that, for certain surfaces $`S`$, the matrices $`A,B,C,D,`$ appearing in a pfaffian $`pf(xA+yB+zC+tD)`$ giving the equation of $`S`$, are linearly dependent, so they don’t generate a $`3`$-space $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in $`\stackrel{}{}^{14}`$, but only a plane.

For example, let $`S`$ be the union of $`3`$ planes, then $`S`$ is defined by $`det(M)=0`$, where $`M`$ is a $`3\times 3`$ diagonal matrix whose non zero entries are the linear forms defining the three planes: $`F=ax+by+cz+td,G=a^{}x+b^{}y+c^{}z+t^{}d,H=a^{\prime \prime }x+b^{\prime \prime }y+c^{\prime \prime }z+t^{\prime \prime }d`$.

Note that $`S`$ is also defined by $`pf(xA+yB+zC+tD)=0`$, where

$$A=\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}0& 0& 0& a& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& a^{}& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& a^{\prime \prime }\\ a& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& a^{}& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& a^{\prime \prime }& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right)$$

The remaining matrices $`B,C,D`$ are of the same type where the entries $`a,a^{},a^{\prime \prime }`$ are replaced by $`b,b^{},b^{\prime \prime }`$, $`c,c^{},c^{\prime \prime }`$, $`d,d^{},d^{\prime \prime }`$, respectively. Thus the matrices $`A,B,C,D`$ are linearly dependent.

Another example is that of cones: if $`S`$ is a cone of vertex $`(0,0,0,1)`$ over a smooth plane elliptic curve, then its equation can be put in Weierstrass normal form $`y^2z=x(xz)(xcz)`$: this can be interpreted as the determinant of a $`3\times 3`$ matrix whose entries are linear forms in the variables $`x,y,z`$ only.

Nevertheless, for both examples, it is possible to find also another pfaffian expression of the equation of $`S`$, with a matrix which is a linear combination of four independent matrices. In the first case, for example, the equation of $`S`$ is the pfaffian of the matrix $`M`$:

$$\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}0& 0& 0& F& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& G& x\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 0& H\\ F& 0& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& G& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& x& H& 0& 0& 0\end{array}\right)$$

In the second case, the equation of $`S`$ is the pfaffian of

$$\left(\begin{array}{cccccc}0& x& t& y& 0& 0\\ x& 0& 0& 0& y& y\\ t& 0& 0& x& z& 0\\ y& 0& x& 0& l& l\\ 0& y& z& l& 0& x\\ 0& y& 0& l& x& 0\end{array}\right)$$

where $`l=(c+1)xcz`$.

We prove next that the case $`\beta `$3) does not occur.

###### Proposition 4.7.

The case $`\beta `$3) does not occur.

###### Proof.

Let $`S`$ be as in $`\beta `$3). Let $`P,QS`$ and let $`L`$ denote the line through $`P`$ and $`Q`$. Then $`L\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Moreover $`L\stackrel{}{𝔾}`$ since $`\stackrel{}{𝔾}=Sec(𝔾(3,5))`$. Thus $`LS`$ and hence $`Sec(S)=S`$. This latter fact implies that (the support of) $`S`$ is linear, hence it is a triple plane. So $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ should be tangent to $`𝔾(3,5)`$ along a plane. But this is impossible, because every tangent space to $`𝔾(3,5)`$ is tangent at one point only, and the tangent spaces intersect two by two along a plane. ∎

Let us consider now the case $`\beta `$2), that is: $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)\mathrm{}`$ and $`S𝔾(3,5)=SSing(\stackrel{}{𝔾})\mathrm{}`$, where $`S`$ is the cubic surface $`S=\mathrm{\Delta }\stackrel{}{𝔾}`$, which in this case is singular.

For all points $`(x,y,z,t)`$ in $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)`$, the equation

$$(xA+yB+zC+tD)^t(x_0\mathrm{}x_5)=0$$

is satisfied by the points of a $`^3`$, which enters in the degeneracy locus $`X`$. If the intersection $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)`$ is a finite set of points, say $`d`$ points, then $`X`$ has dimension $`3`$ and contains $`d`$ $`3`$-spaces as irreducible components. This number $`d`$ is at most $`4`$ (see \[BL\]). If the intersection is infinite, then it contains at least a curve $`C`$, and over every point of $`C`$ there is a $`3`$-space contained in $`X`$, therefore $`dimX4`$.

The latter situation can appear only if $`S`$ is irreducible with a double line, or reducible in the union of a plane with a quadric (possibly reducible). We will give examples of both these situations.

###### Example 4.8.

$`(i)`$ Let $`S`$ be a cubic surface having the line $`r`$ of equation $`x=y=0`$ as double line, and containing also the lines $`y=z=0`$ and $`x=t=0`$. Then its equation takes the form $`F(x,y,z,t)=0`$, where

$$F(x,y,z,t)=ax^2y+bx^2z+cxy^2+dxyz+exyt+fy^2t$$

Note that $`F=detN`$, where $`N=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}ex+fy& bx+dy& ax+cy\\ 0& y& z\\ x& 0& t\end{array}\right)`$, or $`F=pfM`$ where $`M`$ is the corresponding skew-symmetric matrix $`xA+yB+zC+tD`$ (as in (4.4)). It is easy to check that the rank of $`M`$ is less than $`4`$ precisely at the points of $`r`$. Therefore, if $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the $`3`$-space generated by $`A,B,C,D`$, $`r`$ is the intersection $`\mathrm{\Delta }𝔾(3,5)`$.

$`(ii)`$ Let now $`S`$ be the union of the quadric $`Q:xzyt=0`$ with the plane $`\pi :L(x,y,z,t)=0`$. Then the determinant $`\left|\begin{array}{ccc}x& y& 0\\ t& z& 0\\ 0& 0& L\end{array}\right|`$ clearly vanishes on $`S`$. Hence the rank of the corresponding skew-symmetric matrix $`M`$ is $`2`$ along the conic $`Q\pi `$. If we replace $`Q`$ with a quadric cone $`Q^{}`$, with similar computations we get rank $`2`$ on the conic $`Q^{}\pi `$ and moreover in the vertex of $`Q^{}`$.

We conclude this section collecting the results so far obtained about case $`\beta `$) in the following Theorem:

###### THEOREM 4.9.

Let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be a web of linear line complexes in $`^5`$ as in case $`\beta `$). Then the rational map

$$\rho :𝔾(3,\stackrel{}{}{}_{}{}^{14})$$

is not regular at the point corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ if and only if the intersection of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ with $`𝔾(3,5)`$ contains a line or a conic.

## 5. The pfaffian map

Let $`𝒮_3`$ be the variety of the $`6\times 6`$ skew-symmetric matrices of linear forms on $`^3`$. Let $`pf:𝒮_3|𝒪_^3(3)|`$ be the rational map which sends $`M𝒮_3`$ to the cubic surface $`S`$ defined by $`pfM=0`$. It is regular on the open set of matrices whose pfaffian is not identically zero. Note that the equation $`pfM=0`$ is equivalent to $`pf(^tPMP)=0`$, with $`PGL(6)`$. In fact $`pf(^tPMP)=(detP)(pfM)`$ and thus $`S`$ can also be defined by $`pf(^tPMP)=0`$.

Let $`GL(6)`$ act on $`𝒮_3`$ by congruence, that is the action is given by $`{}_{}{}^{t}PMP`$ where $`M𝒮_3`$ and $`PGL(6)`$. As noted in \[B\] the group $`GL(6)`$ acts freely and properly on $`𝒮_3`$ and the map $`pf`$ factors through $`𝒮_3/GL(6)`$. Hence we have the following commutative diagram:

It’s easy to see that dim $`𝒮_3/GL(6)=6036=24`$. By Remark (4.4) it follows that the pfaffian map, and by consequence also $`\overline{pf}`$ is surjective.

If $`S`$ is a generic cubic surface defined by an equation $`pfM=0`$, Beauville in \[B\] has also proved that expressing $`S`$ as a linear pfaffian is equivalent to produce a rank $`2`$ vector bundle $`E_M`$ on $`S`$ which is so defined

$$E_M:=coker(𝒪_^3(1)^6\stackrel{M}{}𝒪_^3^6).$$

Let $`𝒮_3^s`$ be the scheme of matrices $`M𝒮_3`$ such that $`pfM`$ is smooth: it follows that the map $`M`$ is injective and $`E_M`$ is a stable bundle. Then $`𝒮_3^s`$ is an open non-empty set of $`𝒮_3`$. Going through the proof of Lemma 7.7 in \[B\], one gets that for the generic $`S`$ the fibre $`\overline{pf}^1(S)`$ can be identified with an open subset of the moduli space of simple rank $`2`$ vector bundles $`E`$ on $`S`$ with $`c_1(E)=𝒪_S(2),c_2(E)=5`$. These are precisely the bundles on $`S`$ such that $`(E)`$ is a Palatini scroll over $`S`$ (\[O\]).

Moreover the quotient $`𝒮_3^s/GL(6)`$ can be canonically identified with the set of pairs $`(S,E)`$, where $`S`$ is a smooth cubic surface and $`E`$ is a rank two bundle on $`S`$, of the previous type.

There is a natural rational map $`\mathrm{\Phi }:|𝒪_^3(3)|`$, where $``$ is the component of the Hilbert scheme studied in Section 3. The map $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ sends a scroll $`X`$ to the base $`S`$ of the scroll. If $`X`$ is smooth then $`S`$ is its image via the adjunction map. Moreover we have the following commutative diagram of rational maps:

where $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ is the map which sends the matrix $`M=Ax+By+Cz+Dt`$ to the degeneracy locus $`X`$ as in Section 3.

Let $`X`$ be a Palatini scroll and let $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ be the web associated to it. The fibre of $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ over $`X`$ is $`16`$-dimensional: its elements correspond to the different choices of a base of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Note that $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ does not induce any map from the quotient $`𝒮_3/GL(6)`$ to $``$.

As a consequence of the interpretation of $`𝒮_3/GL(6)`$ seen above, $`\overline{pf}`$ can be interpreted as a forgetful map and we get a factorization of $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ through $`𝒮_3/GL(6)`$, as $`\mathrm{\Phi }=\overline{pf}\overline{\mathrm{\Phi }}`$.

The new map $`\overline{\mathrm{\Phi }}:𝒮_3/GL(6)`$ sends a Palatini scroll $`X=(E)`$ to the corresponding pair $`(S,E)`$. Since $`dim=44`$ and $`dim𝒮_3/GL(6)=24`$, the fibres of $`\overline{\mathrm{\Phi }}`$ are $`20`$-dimensional.

To explain this number, let us observe that the points of the fibre $`\overline{\mathrm{\Phi }}^1(S,E)`$ are nothing more than the different embeddings of the projective bundle $`(E)`$ on $`S`$ in $`^5`$, i.e. the automorphisms of $`^5`$ preserving $`X`$.

We claim that if an automorphism of $`^5`$ preserves $`X`$, then it belongs to the subgroup $`\overline{P}`$ of $`PGL(5)`$ of automorphisms inducing the identity on $`^3=(H^0(𝒪_S(1)))`$.

Indeed, if $`G`$ is an automorphism of $`^5`$ which preserves $`X`$, it preserves also $`^3`$, because

$$^3=(H^0(𝒪_X(K+2H)))(H^4(_X(2))),$$

so it induces on $`^3`$ an action which preserves $`S`$. But every automorphism of $`S`$ is trivial, being $`S`$ general, so the restriction of $`G`$ to $`^3`$ is the identity (see \[K\]). This shows that the fibre of $`\overline{\mathrm{\Phi }}`$ is isomorphic to the subgroup $`\overline{P}`$, whose dimension is $`20`$.


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# The Numerical Simulation of Radiative Shocks. I: The elimination of numerical shock instabilities using a localized oscillation filter

## 1 Introduction

Computational hydrodynamics is an established research area in astrophysics and the insight gained by numerical simulations has advanced our knowledge in many topics including astrophysical jets, accretion discs, cosmology, star formation, supernovae and stellar structure, to name a few. Most of these simulations have been confined to the regime of adiabatic flow and in the case of extragalactic jets, for example, this assumption is warranted. However, when the flow is significantly radiative, as in the case of stellar jets (Blondin et al., 1990; Xu et al., 2000), or when radiative shocks are important, e.g. when light jets interact with dense material driving a radiative shock into the latter, an adiabatic approximation is no longer appropriate. The effect of radiative cooling on the internal energy needs to be taken into account and this affects the resulting flow substantially. The research presented in this paper arose from the conduct of such simulations that will be reported in subsequent papers in this series. A numerical shock instability, which is often present at some level in adiabatic simulations, is exacerbated by cooling and becomes so severe that it probably invalidates any physical interpretation of the results. This instability therefore needs to be controlled when conducting simulations containing radiative shocks.

The instability to which we are referring is one which occurs in directionally split codes, when a shock propagates parallel, or nearly parallel, to a coordinate plane, and is most obvious when the shock velocity is small with respect to the grid (see Figure 1). Small errors in cells parallel to the shock front are amplified, leading to trailing perpendicular stripes, representing transverse quasi-periodic density, pressure and temperature fluctuations, as the shock propagates. In adiabatic flow, this “striping” often damps out in the post–shock region where the sound speed is high, and usually is not a significant cause for concern. However, when cooling is dynamically important, density fluctuations are thermally unstable; this leads to prominent, unphysical features in the flow. This problem is not isolated to the code that is the subject of this paper – a code based on the VH-1 implementation of the Piecewise Parabolic Method (PPM; Colella & Woodward (1984a); CW84). The problem is generic and occurs in other directionally split codes. For example, we have encountered it using both two and three dimensional versions of the ZEUS code (Stone & Norman, 1992a, b). In part the instability is related to cells that are slightly over-pressured, driving matter into lower pressure cells.

The source of the striping is described by CW84111see § 4 of their paper. To quote from their paper: “ In the column of zones where a shock transition occurs, a small disturbance develops in tangential velocity, due to numerical error. These small velocities transport large amounts of the conserved quantities, creating in effect, large sources and sinks in the shock transition zone for the essentially one-dimensional calculations of the motion of the shock in each row of zones. Finally, although we have discussed these errors in terms of the single-step Eulerian schemes, they occur as well when the PPM Eulerian scheme is formulated as a Lagrangian step followed by a remap”. As we have mentioned above, this instability becomes much more important when cooling is introduced. It should also be appreciated that the seed for the instability may be physical rather than numerical and we give an example of this in § 3. For example, a wave propagating along a shock front, may provide the seed for the instability which is then unphysically amplified by the mechanism indentified by CW84. The fact that stripes only form when the shock front is almost parallel to one of the grid planes also indicates that the instability is numerical.

Standard ways of dealing with post–shock fluctuations include the introduction of either artificial viscosity or grid “jittering”. Artificial viscosity smoothes the shock over more than two zones, thereby reducing the fluctuations between zones parallel to the shock front as it propagates across the grid. Grid–jittering involves displacement of the grid in an oscillatory fashion thereby smoothing fluctuations between cells with the additional numerical diffusion from the modified grid resampling process. Both of these techniques can be useful. However, they have the disadvantage that they are applied to the entire flow. This means that otherwise sharp features, e.g. tangential discontinuities in velocity, are smoothed unnecessarily, degrading the resolution. We give examples of this in § 3. We have therefore implemented a new approach involving a “localized oscillation filter”. This filter applies a light smoothing to cells parallel to the shock front, in one sweep, using information stored from the previous orthogonal sweeps. In this case the smoothing is applied to cells local to a shock *in the previous orthogonal sweep*, even though the current sweep may be parallel to the shock and should not include any significant velocity variations. The localized action of this smoothing avoids many of the undesirable side–effects of other methods. In the following sections we describe the filter in some detail and then present some comparison calculations.

In the work described here we have utilized a version of the VH-1 code, made available by Blondin et al. via the web-site (http://wonka.physics.ncsu.edu/pub/VH-1/). We have extensively reorganized the basic code for vectorization and overall efficiency on the ANU Fujitsu VPP300 computer as well as adding subroutines to advect a passive scalar that distinguishes different gases and to update the energy density, using an implicit method, when optically thin radiative cooling cooling operates. The new code is now called, simply, ppmlr, to distinguish it from VH-1 and to refer to the method used.

## 2 The Local Oscillation Filter

As mentioned above, methods involving global smoothing in one form or another have been used to suppress post-shock ringing and stripes. In this paper, we report a spatially and temporally localized method of eliminating the striping problem, the ‘Local Oscillation Filter’ (hereafter LOF ), which interferes minimally with most of the cells in a multi–dimensional simulation. The filter consequently preserves the high resolution nature of modern hydrodynamic methods. In particular, it preserves the excellent shock-capturing characteristics of PPM.

The LOF is constructed to use additional information from previous orthogonal sweeps (e.g. the previous $`x`$sweep for the current $`y`$sweep) as follows:

1. In a PPM code, the shock–capturing regions, usually about one to three cells in extent, are clearly indicated by “flattened” cells. These are cells where the piecewise parabolic interpolation is replaced by a piecewise linear interpolation, reducing to a first order Godunov method in the shock front itself. For example, following an $`x`$-sweep in a two–dimensional simulation with a shock propagating in the $`x`$–direction, there is a band of flattened cells parallel to the shock front (see Figure 2). These are marked for reference in the subsequent $`y`$-sweep.
2. In the $`y`$sweep, following the lagrangian advection, the code searches in only the cells ‘flattened’ in the prior $`x`$sweep, for a specific pattern of density variations that is indicative of striping. We require this to extend over at least five lagrangian cells and to have at least 3 vertices, e.g. HLHLH or LHLHL (where H is “high” and L is “low” density) . A single vertex, or three-cell LHL or HLH pattern, occurs too frequently because of random fluctuations and is an insufficient criterion for stripe detection. A schematic version of this procedure is given in Figure 3.

We take the detection threshold in the density variation, $`\mathrm{\Delta }\rho /\rho `$, to be of order $`10^6`$. The entire $`y`$sweep row is searched for the three–vertex pattern, and the vertex cells are marked for attention during the standard remap step, where the lagrangian cells are interpolated back onto the Eulerian grid.
3. Immediately subsequent to the remap step the zone averages of flagged vertex cells are reassigned. (A brief description of the lagrangian Riemann method with a remap to a fixed Eulerian grid is given in the Appendix, to more clearly show where this additional dissipation fits into a normal ppm method.)

Let $`Q_i`$ represent the zone average of either mass, momentum or specific energy densities ($`\rho `$, $`\rho u`$ or $`E`$). The reassignment of zone averages is defined in a conservative fashion by:

$$\begin{array}{cccc}Q_i\hfill & & Q_i\hfill & +\alpha (Q_{i+1}Q_i)\hfill \\ Q_{i+1}\hfill & & Q_{i+1}\hfill & \alpha (Q_{i+1}Q_i)\hfill \end{array}$$
(1)
Typically, $`\alpha `$ is no larger than $`0.075`$ and we have successfully used $`\alpha =0.05`$. This additional smoothing successfully damps the erroneous growing mass exchange and related stripe growth.
4. Cells that are flattened in the $`y`$sweep as a result of shocks in that direction are marked for potential smoothing in the subsequent $`x`$sweep, and so on.

In contrast to 1D artificial viscosity, which only smooths strong velocity gradients in the current sweep, the LOF shares information between otherwise independent sweeps, and smooths cells that artificial viscosity does not affect. This is similar to the multi–dimensional velocity divergence artificial viscosity from Colella & Woodward (1984b), but the LOF has the advantage in that a much smaller number of cells are smoothed.

An important feature of this method is that in a 2D or 3D simulation, the marked cells typically constitute a small fraction of the cells that are associated with strong shock and that are ‘flattened’ during the previous sweep. The marked cells usually constitute less than 0.001% of the total cells in the test $`320\times 64`$ cell simulation since the filtering is *only applied when the up–down pattern of the striping occur in the flattened zones*. In some sweeps, no striping is detected and consequently *no* cells are smoothed. Since additional calculations are only employed for a limited number of cells and time–steps, the performance impact of the additional calculations for this method is minimal, typically amounting to less than 5% in the cells processed per second.

## 3 Comparison of techniques

### 3.1 The test problem

Let us now compare some of the previous techniques for handling shock–striping with the LOF approach. For a test calculation (see Figure 4) we set up a radiative, Mach 15 flow incident from the left upon a dense layer (a wall) at the right. Mass flows out of the right hand grid boundary at a rate slightly less than the mass flux of the incoming flow keeping the dense layer more or less constant in thickness during the simulation. The outflow velocity is sub-sonic and less than $`1`$% of the inflow velocity. The lower and upper boundary conditions are periodic. To break perfect 1D symmetry, which ppmlr handles correctly without smoothing, velocity gradients are introduced into the flow in the form of a narrow shear layer. This is established by increasing the inflow velocity over the four cells adjacent to the boundaries by 1, 3, 7 and 10 % at the grid edges. The grid resolution is $`320\times 64`$ .

The physical evolution of this simulation is as follows: First, a radiative shock is reflected from the wall. Then, as a result of post-shock cooling, the shock stalls and collapses against the cooling high density layer that forms adjacent to the wall. The shock then re–forms, expands and collapses repeatedly. At the same time, the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability guarantees that the shear layer is unstable and produces the characteristic pattern of alternating vortices. The growth rate of the instability is largest in the post-shock region where the differential Mach number across the layer is least. The growth rate of the instability is negligible in the pre-shock region because of the hypersonic Mach number. The introduction of the shear layer to this test problem is valuable since it enables us to judge the effect of different methods on other large velocity gradients in the flow.

The four snapshots in Figure 4 are images of the temperature in the flow, near the point in time at which the first shock attains its maximum distance from the wall (in the “standard” simulation). In each snapshot, the periodic simulation is replicated once in the vertical direction. This has the result of showing the unstable shear layer in the middle of each image. The grayscale of each image has been adjusted non-linearly to enhance the salient features. In the shocked regions, white represents the coolest temperatures, black the hottest. In the precursor regions and the post shock cool gas, the images were scaled in a different fashion. Gray represents a temperature of about 7500K and white is approximately 1% hotter. This shows the effect of the smoothing methods on the supersonic shear layer before it is shocked.

### 3.2 The “standard” model

Our first test involves using ppmlr without any smoothing/anti-striping options activated; this is the ‘standard’ model. Post-shock stripes of alternating higher and lower temperatures, with peak to peak variations of 10% or more, are evident in this simulation for about the first quarter of the post-shock flow. Downstream of this region, additional, larger inhomogeneities are also evident. The expected instability of the shear layer is not strong, however it spreads slightly as the interior pressure drops, and pulsations are visible.

In panel (a) of Figure 5 the transverse $`y`$-profiles of density and pressure in the immediate post-shock zone are shown. The mean density has almost attained its correct post-shock value indicated by the dotted line, but there are obvious fluctuations in both density and pressure. Also note (see specifically the cells marked 1 and 2, that the pressure and density fluctuations are anti-correlated. This is the result of positive fluctuations in pressure pushing matter into the adjacent low pressure cells. Panel (b) of the same figure shows the fluctuations in pressure and density several cells downstream of the shock. The pressure fluctuations have smoothed out somewhat but the density fluctuations have grown as a result of thermal instability.

In subsequent simulations in this suite of comparisons, oblique waves are obvious in the post-shock region. These are related to waves on the shock front. These waves are absent or appear at a low level in the standard simulation because of the pressure perturbations associated with the stripes in the region near the shock.

### 3.3 Artificial viscosity

The “Lapidus artificial viscosity” simulation was performed with the addition of code designed to implement the artificial viscosity of Lapidus (1967). This viscosity is proportional to the local velocity gradient, in the direction of the sweep. It might be argued that this could eliminate striping, by smoothing the shock and eliminating the irregularities that cause the stripes. Of course, an unappealing feature of this approach is that one of the major strengths of the PPM method is that shock capturing does not normally require the use of artificial viscosity. Some of the deficiencies of this approach are evident in the second snapshot. First, the shock reaches its maximum extent earlier and does not expand as far as the standard shock. This is probably caused by unphysical, additional cooling caused by incorrect densities in the post-shock zone. Second, even with a level of artificial viscosity that causes such undesirable simulation features, post-shock striping remains. Much higher levels of artificial viscosity would be required to reduce the striping, but it is never entirely eliminated even with quite high values, as long as the smoothing remains aligned with the sweeps. Third, the stripes are still strong, but have a lower spatial frequency.

### 3.4 Grid jittering

The third snapshot in Figure 4 shows the results of conducting the simulation with the incorporation of grid–jittering. The grid was jittered in the $`y`$–direction only, with a speed equivalent to seven percent of the Courant length per time step (0.042 of a grid cell with Courant number, $`C=0.6`$). The snapshot shows that this amount of grid jittering successfully counteracts striping and other tests showed that a level of grid jittering in between five and seven percent is capable of eliminating stripes. With the stripes eliminated, the oblique waves, referred to above, are apparent. Nevertheless, the grid is jittered over the entire flow, and the velocity gradients in the post-shock shear layer region are smoothed as a result. Consequently, the shear layer does not grow rapidly (especially when compared to the local oscillation filter simulation described below). In this case, the shear layer is also affected in the pre-shock region, with excessive diffusion resulting in spreading of the layer and associated pressure and temperature effects. The effect of the grid-jittering in the pre–shock region is quite unphysical. There are no Kelvin-Helmholtz vortices produced, but simply a redistribution of the velocity resulting in a broader stream layer at the shock face than in the other simulations. This also appears to have an effect on the degree of instability in the post–shock shear layer.

### 3.5 Local Oscillation Filter

The fourth snapshot shows the effect of the LOF . This has several desirable features. The post–shock striping is absent; the shear layer starts to become unstable almost immediately following the shock and although there are initially only less than six pixels across the shear layer the detail is excellent. At the contact discontinuity between the incoming flow and the dense layer adjacent to the wall, there is more detail in the flow. With the stripes absent, the oblique wave pattern noted above, is quite apparent. The pre–shock region and shear layer are unaffected.

The amplitude of this simulation is very close to the standard model and the grid–jittered model. The general features of the simulations are similar to those of the grid–jittered model, in general, except that the resolution appears better. The fraction of cells that have been smoothed in this simulation averages to about $`6\times 10^4`$ of the total cells, over the total of approximately 2300 $`xy`$ iterations. Additionally, in about 46% of the sweeps, no smoothing took place at all, and frequently less than 10% of the cells adjacent to the shock front region are smoothed in a given sweep. This means that most of the cells are untouched by the smoothing and the simulation retains the maximum resolution allowed by the ppmlr method. The decrease in code performance resulting from additional testing and smoothing in this simulation is less than 4% overall. This small simulation has a high I/O overhead however and the impact on larger simulations is expected to be less.

## 4 A More Severe Test

With only 10% shear velocities, the grid–jittering and the LOF perform similarly well. However, with stronger shear layers, the excessive diffusion introduced by the jittering technique is unsatisfactory. The Local Oscillation Filter is designed so as not to affect shear layers, or even large steps in velocity, but to focus upon the characteristic up–down noise of the striping error.

In order to see at what point grid jittering becomes a problem, and whether the LOF can cope with the same conditions, we performed a simulation with an increased shear gradient, maintaining the same smoothing as in the first simulation - that is sufficient jittering and LOF smoothing to just remove the stripes. The shear was increased to 1, 5, 20, and 50% velocity increase at the grid boundary. This is more extreme, but still less than a factor of unity compared to the bulk velocity, and thus is not an unreasonable test case.

The results of the standard, jittered and LOF models are shown in Figure 6, at a model step corresponding to 40% of the peak shock amplitude in the $`x`$–direction. The standard model shows the usual striping, and some shear instability in the post–striping region. The Local Oscillation Filter model has no stripes, the same shock front location, some oblique waves, and the shear instability is well developed in the post–shock region. The stream has also started to dig a hole in the dense wall layer, depositing energy there. The grid–jittering model, however, is different. The shear layer in the precursor region has been diffused so much by the jittering that the wider stream of gas has a significantly exerts a different pressure over a large fraction of the shock front, strongly deforming the shock front in the region of the shear layer impact. The post shock shear layer is completely disrupted and less energy is deposited into the dense layer, probably accounting for the increased amplitude of the shock.

We conclude that in the case of a strong shear layer parallel to the grid, jittering can cause quite major errors. By operating as a localized spatial filter, the Local Oscillation Filter avoids this particular problem, having no effect on the regions outside the shock front location.

## 5 Conclusions

The work we have described here represents the first step in a project aimed at the accurate simulation of radiatively cooling flows, particularly those which contain embedded shocks. As we have seen, the inclusion of cooling is not simply a matter of adding the right terms to the energy equation. One also needs to consider numerical instabilities that may be enhanced by thermal instabilities. In this paper we have investigated a classic case, that of post-shock striping that occurs when shock fronts are parallel to a coordinate grid. This is not a contrived situation and occurs, for example, near the axis of a supersonic jet simulation. Our local oscillation filter solution is simple and the tests that we have presented show it to be effective. It has the advantage that it does not affect other regions of the flow, nor does it significantly affect the overall performance of the code.

### Appendix: The Lagrangian – Eulerian PPM method with Additional Remapping Dissipation

As is common in methods based on the PPM algorithm, *VH1* and *ppmlr* use a Lagrangian time step, where the fluxes at the cell boundaries are evaluated from the solution of the local Riemann problem. After moving the boundaries, $`\xi _{j+1/2}`$, which are contact discontinuities, the solution is remapped to the original Eulerian grid, $`\xi _{i+1/2}`$. (Note that we use a subscript $`i`$ for the Eulerian grid and a $`j`$ for the Lagrangian grid. Proper selection of the Courant number $`C`$, prevents the boundaries from moving more than an Eulerian grid cell in a single time step, keeping the remapping process simple and accurate.

Solving the Riemann problem at the Lagrangian cell boundary, $`\xi _{j+1/2}`$, gives the velocity at the contact discontinuity $`u_{}`$. After parabolic interpolation over the region within the domain of dependence of the solution at $`\xi _{j+1/2},t^{n+1}`$, the left and right states $`W_L`$ and $`W_R`$ of the primitive variables $`\rho `$, $`u`$, and $`p`$ are known. The Riemann problem is then solved for the region between the two outer waves – the so-called star region. The velocity and pressure, $`u_{}`$ and $`p_{}`$, in this central region are constant, and $`u_{}`$, velocity of the contact discontinuity, is given by

$$u_{}=\frac{1}{2}(u_L+u_R)+\frac{1}{2}[f_R(p)f_L(p)],$$
(2)
where $`u_L`$ and $`u_R`$ are the initial left and right velocities, and $`f_R(p)`$ and $`f_L(p)`$ are functions determined by the nature of the outer waves in the Riemann solution; these are either rarefaction or shocks. For a clear and detailed description of how $`f_R(p)`$ and $`f_L(p)`$ are determined, see Toro (1999). Following the solution to the Riemann problem on each cell boundary, the coordinates of the cell boundary $`\xi _{j+1/2}`$ are moved with the velocities $`u_{}`$ over the timestep $`\text{D}t`$,

$$\xi _{j+1/2}^{n+1}=\xi _{j+1/2}^n+u_{,j+1/2}\text{D}t.$$
(3)
The cell boundary follows the contact discontinuity in the Riemann problem, so that at the end of the step each cell is naturally constrained to contain the same mass as at the beginning of the time step.

Using parabolic interpolation in the volume coordinate (as described in CW84), the hydrodynamic grid is remapped back to the original Eulerian grid in the following way. The volume $`\text{D}V`$ of the overlapping regions between the updated Lagrangian grid, $`\xi _j`$ and the original Eulerian grid $`\xi _i`$ , is determined:

$$\text{D}V_{i+1/2}=\xi _{j+1/2}\xi _{i+1/2}.$$
(4)
Then, effective mass, momentum, and energy fluxes, $`F_{i+1/2}`$ between the Eulerian cells are evaluated from:

$$F_{i+1/2}=\text{D}V_{i+1/2}q_{i+1/2},$$
(5)
where the $`q_{i+1/2}`$ represent the averages of the relevant dynamic quantities ($`q=\rho `$, $`\rho u`$ or $`E`$) over the volume $`\text{D}V_{i+1/2}`$. The remapping fluxes are used to redistribute the Lagrangian gridded variables onto the Eulerian grid, and the pressure is updated at the end from $`\rho `$, the velocity, $`u`$ and the total specific energy, $`E`$. Note that the fluxes, $`F_{i+1/2}`$ are positive if the Lagrangian boundary moves to the right, because of the convention in defining $`\text{D}V_{i+1/2}`$. The remapping procedure maintains the conservative nature of the Lagrangian method.

The Local Oscillation Filter transports a small amount of mass, momentum and energy in the opposite direction in the flagged cells. Thus, immediately following the remap step, the Eulerian zone average, $`Q_i`$ of a given quantity, $`q_i`$ is modified by:

$$\begin{array}{cccc}\hfill Q_i& & Q_i\hfill & +\alpha (Q_{i+1}Q_i)\hfill \\ \hfill Q_{i+1}& & Q_{i+1}\hfill & \alpha (Q_{i+1}Q_i)\hfill \end{array}$$
(6)
where the coefficient $`\alpha 0.075`$. Hence, an excess (deficit) of $`Q_{i+1}`$ over $`Q_i`$ is reduced (increased) by a small amount and in a conservative fashion. The zone average is modified only if both the cell has been flattened during a previous orthogonal sweep and also if the pattern of variations in density satisfies the “HLHLH” criteria. This ansatz amounts to a modification of the remapping fluxes according to

$$F_{i+1/2}F_{i+1/2}\alpha (Q_{i+1}Q_i)$$
(7)
bearing in mind that the $`Q_i`$ have been obtained from the previously unmodified fluxes. This reassignment of zone averages critically damps the instability. The value of $`\alpha 0.075`$ was arrived at through experimentation.

In summary, the modification of fluxes is implemented in the following way. Cells that are flattened in one sweep are marked (using an integer array). When an HLHLH or LHLHL density pattern is detected in marked cells in one of the subsequent orthogonal sweeps, the remapped zone averages of all variables into and out of the vertex cells in the pattern are modified using equation (6). For example in our test problem, flattened cells are detected in the $`x`$–sweep. When the appropriate density variation pattern is picked up in the ensuing $`y`$–sweep, the zone averages in the $`y`$-direction are modified in such a way as to partially reverse the numerical fluxes into and out of the vertex cells in the pattern. A critical point in our LOF algorithm is that this effective dissipation is only applied in restricted regions but not globally. This prevents unnecessary dissipation in regions such as shear layers; regions such as these are affected by all of the other algorithms that we have discussed.

Figure Captions

Figure 1: A portion of a typical 2D strong radiative shock model using a directionally split sweep code. Striping can occur at the stagnation point of bowshocks (a), but may be absent altogether when the shock is oblique to the grid (b). Flat portions of a nearly stationary shock (c) are particularly prone to this type of error. All of these situations can occur simultaneously in a given simulation.

Figure 2: A small portion of a Mach 15 shock simulation in two dimensions, with uniform, one dimensional initial conditions. Small grid errors in VH-1 stimulate the stripe instability. In the ppmlr code the grid errors are removed and the system remains pseudo one-dimensional indefinitely. However, small perturbations still cause strong striping in ppmlr unless further steps are taken to control the instability.

Figure 3: A schematic representation of the LOF smoothing, showing the grid density cells. In the $`x`$sweep, cells in the shock transition zone use a lower order interpolation scheme, and are said to be ’flattened’. In the $`y`$sweep, cells in the $`x`$flattened cells are searched for three high-low-high or low-high-low density ’vertices’ in a row (requiring 5 high–low density points in a row). In the diagram, only the cells marked $`V_y`$ are density vertices by this definition in the $`y`$sweep. Of these cells, only the cells in the left column will be smoothed by the LOF because there are more than 5 cells marked in a row. The shorter run of 4 vertices in the right column will not be smoothed. In practice, the vertices in the right column will not occur, because that gas will have already been smoothed when passing through the left column of the grid.

Figure 4: Snapshots of temperature, at the same instant of time, of four different wall-shock simulations comparing different approaches to the elimination of post–shock striping. In each case, a Mach 15 supersonic inflow enters from the left, producing a reflected shock from a dense wall layer on the right. A shear layer with increased velocity in steps of 1%, 3%, 7% and 10% at the edges of each grid slightly modifies the planar nature of the shock front and induces particularly strong striping. In the figures, the periodic nature of the boundaries in the $`y`$–direction is shown by repeating the grid, showing the shear layer as a stream in the middle of the simulation. The gray scale is a non–linear scaling applied to the logarithm of the temperature, to best show the small ($`10`$%) fluctuations on top of the intrinsic 10-100 fold variations in temperature caused by the shock. In the precursor region the contrast enhancement is more extreme to show variations $`<<1`$%, revealing small temperature errors in the grid–jittering model which are absent in the other simulations.

Figure 5: Plots of the density and pressure in the immediate post shock zone (panel (a)) and a few zones downstream of the shock (panel (b)). Panel (a) shows significant fluctuations in density and pressure as a result of the instability. The density and pressure are anti–correlated as a result of the perturbations driving mass from the high pressure zones into the low pressure zones. In panel (b) the pressure fluctuations have diminished but the density fluctuations have survived as a result of the thermal instability.

Figure 6: Snapshots of temperature, at the same instant of time, of three different simulations, similar to figure 4, but with an increased shear profile of 1%, 5%, 20% and 50% over the velocity of the incoming stream. The pre-shock jittering spreads the shear layer, substantially modifying the shock front, disrupting the post shock stream completely, resulting in a different shock amplitude and appearance. The LOF simulation eliminates the standard model’s stripes without affecting the shear layer at all.


text:
# Relativistic dissipative hydrodynamics with spontaneous symmetry breaking.

## I Introduction

Relativistic hydrodynamics has often been used as a starting point in the field of heavy ion collisions in order to reproduce single-particle spectra or multi-particle correlations (see Csernai  for example). However, the hot and dense hadronic phase created in such experiments is mainly constituted of pions and, until recently son , no care has been taken on the fact that the breaking of the chiral symmetry can affect the theory of hydrodynamics itself moi ; murongaWinter . Among all the applications of such a modification of the theory, two main directions emerge : first, it is highly wished to have a quantitative estimation of this effect when reproducing the experimental spectra nous  and, second, the aim of this paper, it is important to complete the whole theory, that is, to include dissipation.

In hydrodynamic regime, relevant variables are those whose variations in space and time are slow and relaxation time becomes infinite in the long wavelength, small frequency limit. Such variables are of two kinds : densities of conserved quantities and Goldstone modes associated to continuous broken symmetry forster . The prototype of such a theory which includes both types of hydrodynamic variables is the well-established theory of superfluidity associated to the breaking of $`U(1)`$ and developed many years ago by Landau landau  in the non-relativistic case (see also carter ; putt  in the relativistic domain). The example of the superfluidity will be used in the first part as a guideline in order to show explicitly how to include dissipation in hydrodynamic equations with a broken continuous symmetry. Then, in a second part, we will generalize to the case of $`SU(2)_L\times SU(2)_R`$ : starting from the equations of ideal hydrodynamics, we will introduce explicitely new transport coefficients associated to the chiral charge densities and Goldstone modes.

## II Superfluidity

Let us focus on our first example of hydrodynamics with a continuous broken symmetry : the superfluidity. As mentioned in the introduction, the spontaneous breaking of a continuous symmetry implies that the Goldstone modes are hydrodynamic variables, i.e. relax very slowly to equilibrium in the long wavelength, small frequency limit. Concerning the superfluid, one therefore has to introduce $`\varphi `$, which is the phase of the condensate which breaks the $`U(1)`$ symmetry associated to the particle number, in our theory. More precisely, the equations for ideal (that is without dissipation) relativistic superfluid can be written as son2 :

$`_\mu (n_0u^\mu V^2^\mu \varphi )=0`$ (1)
$`\text{ }_\mu T^{\mu \nu }=0`$ (2)
$`\text{ }u^\mu _\mu \varphi =\mu _0`$ (3)
where $`T^{\mu \nu }`$ is the energy-momentum tensor, $`V^2`$ is the superfluid density in the non-relativistic limit and $`\mu _0=\gamma \mu `$ is the chemical potential ($`\gamma `$ is the Lorentz factor). We have to notice at this stage that the third equation is equivalent to the one contained in the original two-fluid model of Landau landau  when making the correspondence :

$$\mu =\mu _{Landau}+\frac{v_s^2}{2}\stackrel{}{v}_n.\stackrel{}{v}_s$$

where $`\stackrel{}{v}_n`$ is the spatial part of the four-velocity $`u^\mu =\gamma (1,\stackrel{}{v}_n)`$ and $`\stackrel{}{v}_s=\frac{1}{m}\stackrel{}{}\varphi `$ is the superfluid velocity.

We can see that the presence of the new hydrodynamic variable $`\varphi `$ manifests itself not only in the third equation but also in the first one (conservation of particle number) and in the second one since $`T^{\mu \nu }`$ is equal to :

$$T^{\mu \nu }=(ϵ+p)u^\mu u^\nu pg^{\mu \nu }+V^2^\mu \varphi ^\nu \varphi $$
(4)
Since we are dealing with an ideal fluid the entropy conservation must be satisfied. Actually it is already contained in the second above equation when projected along the direction of $`u^\nu `$ : $`u_\nu _\mu T^{\mu \nu }=0\text{ }\text{ }_\mu (s_0u^\mu )=0.`$

Now, we can go further and add dissipative terms in the hydrodynamic equations. The method, described for example in landau , consists in introducing fluxes such as :

$`\text{ }_\mu (n_0u^\mu V^2^\mu \varphi +\nu ^\mu )=0`$ (5)
$`_\mu \left((ϵ+p)u^\mu u^\nu pg^{\mu \nu }+V^2^\mu \varphi ^\nu \varphi +\tau ^{\mu \nu }\right)=0`$ (6)
$`\text{ }u^\mu _\mu \varphi =\mu _0\varphi _0^{}`$ (7)
Moreover, our choice for the hydrodynamic velocity $`u^\mu `$ imposes that $`u_\mu \tau ^{\mu \nu }=0`$ and $`u_\mu \nu ^\mu =0`$ (the Eckart choice leads to other constraints, see weinberg  for example).

With these equations, we are now able to derive explicitely the new equation for the entropy. Writing $`u_\nu _\mu T^{\mu \nu }=0`$, we obtain :

$$_\mu (s_0u^\mu \frac{\mu _0}{T_0}\nu ^\mu )=\nu ^\mu _\mu \frac{\mu _0}{T_0}+\frac{\varphi _0^{}}{T_0}_\mu (V^2^\mu \varphi )+\frac{\tau ^{\mu \nu }}{T_0}_\mu u_\nu $$
(8)
This equation has the generic form : $`_\mu S^\mu =\sigma `$ where $`S^\mu `$ is the total four-flow entropy and $`\sigma `$ the entropy production. $`\sigma `$ is a bilinear form between fluxes and thermodynamic forces. In the hydrodynamic regime, we are by definition near the global equilibrium so that we can express linearly the relation between these fluxes and these forces. The coefficients of proportionality are called the transport coefficients. Their physical meaning is thus to characterize the magnitude of the response of the system (flows) to a certain disturbance (thermodynamic forces).

Moreover, because of thermodynamics, $`\sigma `$ must be positive. This constraint when combined with the Onsager principle leads to :

$`\text{ }\nu ^\mu =\kappa (g^{\mu \nu }u^\mu u^\nu )_\nu ({\displaystyle \frac{\mu _0}{T_0}})`$ (9)
$`\tau ^{\mu \nu }=(g^{\mu \nu }u^\mu u^\nu )[\zeta _1_\lambda (V^2^\lambda \varphi )+(\zeta _2{\displaystyle \frac{2}{3}}\eta )_\lambda u^\lambda ]+\eta [(g^{\mu \lambda }u^\mu u^\lambda )_\lambda u^\nu +(g^{\lambda \nu }u^\lambda u^\nu )_\lambda u^\mu )]`$ (10)
$`\text{ }\varphi _0^{}=\zeta _1_\mu u^\mu +\zeta _3_\mu (V^2^\mu \varphi )`$ (11)
where $`\kappa `$ is proportional to the thermal conductivity and $`\eta ,\zeta _1,\zeta _2,\zeta _3`$ are the shear and bulk viscosities (notations are those defined in landau ). The positivity of $`\sigma `$ implies that $`\eta ,\zeta _2,\zeta _3`$ are positive and $`\zeta _1^2\zeta _2\zeta _3`$. The sign of $`\zeta _1`$ has to be determined by physical considerations only (here, it can be checked by comparison with landau  that $`\zeta _1`$ is positive as well).

## III Chiral dynamics

### III.1 Ideal fluid

In this section, we are going to recall the main results of hydrodynamics with chiral $`SU(2)`$ symmetry spontaneously broken son . The hydrodynamic degrees of freedom in a chiral fluid are the densities of the conserved quantities, namely entropy density $`s`$, momentum density $`T^{0i}`$, baryonic number density $`n`$, left and right-handed charge densities written as $`SU(2)`$-matrices $`\rho _L\rho _L^i\tau _i/2`$ and $`\rho _R\rho _R^i\tau _i/2`$ and finally the variables associated to the Golstone modes. For chiral symmetry, these modes are actually the pions. Then, following son , we can write the new hydrodynamic variables as a $`SU(2)`$-matrix $`\mathrm{\Sigma }e^{i\stackrel{}{\tau }.\stackrel{}{\pi }/f_\pi }`$ and, by analogy with the superfluid, denote $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ as ”phases”. The energy density $`T^{00}`$ is a function of all these variables and of the first partial derivatives of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ (assuming $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ varies slowly). Following again son  we thus write the energy density $`T^{00}`$ as :

$$T^{00}=ϵ_0(s,n,T^{0i})+ϵ_1$$

where $`ϵ_0`$ is the ”normal fluid” part and $`ϵ_1`$ contains all the non trivial terms, at lowest order, compatible with chiral symmetry :

$`ϵ_1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{f_s^2}{4}}(\delta _{ij}{\displaystyle \frac{1v_\pi ^2}{1v_\pi ^2v^2}}v^iv^j)\text{tr}_i\mathrm{\Sigma }_j\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\gamma ^2f_t^2(1v_\pi ^2v^2)}}\text{tr}(\rho _L\mathrm{\Sigma }\rho _R\mathrm{\Sigma }^{})^2`$
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\gamma ^2f_v^2}}\text{tr}(\rho _L+\mathrm{\Sigma }\rho _R\mathrm{\Sigma }^{})^2i{\displaystyle \frac{v_\pi ^2}{\gamma ^2(1v_\pi ^2v^2)}}v^k\text{tr}(\rho _L\mathrm{\Sigma }_k\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}+\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}_k\mathrm{\Sigma }\rho _R)`$
where $`v_\pi f_s/f_t`$ is the pion velocity and $`f_s,f_t`$ and $`f_v`$ are functions to be determined by thermodynamics of the underlying fundamental theory, namely QCD.

We have fourteen hydrodynamics variables. Therefore we must have fourteen hydrodynamics equations. With the hamiltonian density above, it is possible to show son  that the equations can be written in a covariant way only if we make some combinations of the initial variables. Finally the result is :

$$_\mu (n_0u^\mu )=0$$
(12)
$$_\mu T^{\mu \nu }=0$$
(13)
$$_\mu (\alpha u^\mu )+\frac{1}{2}[A,\alpha ]=0$$
(14)
$$i_\mu ((f_t^2f_s^2)u^\mu A+f_s^2\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{})+[A,\alpha ]=0$$
(15)
with $`T^{\mu \nu }=(ϵ+p)u^\mu u^\nu pg^{\mu \nu }+\frac{f_s^2}{4}\text{tr}(^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^\nu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{}+^\nu \mathrm{\Sigma }^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{})`$ and $`A=u^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }_\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$.

The nine equations which are specific to chiral dynamics ($`_\mu J_{L,R}^\mu =0`$ and the first order equation for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$) are actually contained in the first order equation (14) for $`\alpha (\rho _L+\mathrm{\Sigma }\rho _R\mathrm{\Sigma }^{})/\gamma `$ and in the second order equation (15) for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ constructed from the combination $`(\rho _L\mathrm{\Sigma }\rho _R\mathrm{\Sigma }^{})`$.

Once again, starting from equation (13) and using all the other (hydrodynamic and thermodynamic) equations, it is possible to deduce the entropy conservation : $`_\mu (s_0u^\mu )=0`$ as it should be for a perfect fluid. At this stage, we can already make some comparisons with the superfluid. First of all if $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ was associated with the breaking of $`U(1)`$ type symmetry, namely $`\mathrm{\Sigma }=e^{i\varphi }`$ , then $`i\mathrm{\Sigma }_\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$ would be equal to $`_\mu \varphi `$. This means that $`i\mathrm{\Sigma }\stackrel{}{}\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}`$ plays the role of superfluid velocity. Then, by direct comparison between the energy-momentum tensors (for $`U(1)`$ and $`SU(2)`$), we see that $`\frac{f_s^2}{2}`$ can be interpreted as ”superfluid density”.

### III.2 Dissipation

We are now in position to treat the dissipation case. As for the superfluid, we add some dissipative flux densities to conservation equations : $`\nu ^\mu `$ for baryonic number, $`j_{L,R}^\mu j_{L,R;i}^\mu \tau _i/2`$ for chiral charges and $`\tau ^{\mu \nu }`$ for energy-momentum tensor; and we add also a dissipative term for the other non-conserved variables : $`\frac{i}{2}\mathrm{\Sigma }_0^{}\frac{i}{2}\mathrm{\Sigma }_{0,i}^{}\tau _i/2`$.

Then, performing the same combinations as in the previous section, we can finally write after some calculations :

$$_\mu (n_0u^\mu +\nu ^\mu )=0$$
(16)
$$_\mu \left((ϵ+p)u^\mu u^\nu pg^{\mu \nu }+\frac{f_s^2}{4}\text{tr}(^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^\nu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{}+^\nu \mathrm{\Sigma }^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{})+\tau ^{\mu \nu }\right)=0$$
(17)
$$_\mu (\alpha u^\mu )+\frac{1}{2}[A^{(0)},\alpha ]=_\mu j_L^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }_\mu j_R^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{}$$
(18)
$$i_\mu \left((f_t^2f_s^2)u^\mu A^{(0)}+f_s^2\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{}\right)+[A^{(0)},\alpha ]=2_\mu j_L^\mu 2\mathrm{\Sigma }_\mu j_R^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{}$$
(19)
with $`A=A^{(0)}+\frac{i}{2}\mathrm{\Sigma }_0^{}`$ which is the dissipative first order equation for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$. $`A^{(0)}`$ represents the non-dissipative part of $`A`$. With these new equations, it is a simple task to express the equation for the entropy (note that, since the expressions for $`ϵ`$ and $`p`$ must be given by the same formula as in the non-dissipative case, $`ϵ`$ and $`p`$ depend actually only on $`A^{(0)}`$ and not on $`A`$) :

$`_\mu \left(s_0u^\mu {\displaystyle \frac{\mu _0}{T_0}}\nu ^\mu \text{tr}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mu _{L0}}{T_0}}j_L^\mu +{\displaystyle \frac{\mu _{R0}}{T_0}}j_R^\mu \right)\right)`$ $`=`$ $`\nu ^\mu _\mu ({\displaystyle \frac{\mu _0}{T_0}})+{\displaystyle \frac{\tau ^{\mu \nu }}{T_0}}_\mu u_\nu `$ (20)
$``$ $`\text{tr}\left(j_L^\mu _\mu \left({\displaystyle \frac{\mu _{L0}}{T_0}}\right)+j_R^\mu _\mu \left({\displaystyle \frac{\mu _{R0}}{T_0}}\right)+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Sigma }_0^{}}{2T_0}}_\mu \left({\displaystyle \frac{f_s^2}{2}}i\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{}\right)\right)`$
where $`\mu _{L0}={\displaystyle \frac{2\alpha }{f_v^2}}iA^{(0)}`$ and $`\mu _{R0}=\mathrm{\Sigma }^{}({\displaystyle \frac{2\alpha }{f_v^2}}+iA^{(0)})\mathrm{\Sigma }`$.

The introduction of the above shorthand notations $`\mu _{R0}`$ and $`\mu _{L0}`$ is motivated by the fact that they can be identified as chemical potentials but for the left and right chiral densities (they are thermodynamic conjugate variables of $`\rho _L`$ and $`\rho _R`$). Nevertheless, due to the fact that we are considering the $`SU(2)`$ case and no more $`U(1)`$, new features appear, that is we have now some couplings with the derivatives of these chemical potentials $`\mu _{R0}`$ and $`\mu _{L0}`$.

On the right-hand side of the equation, the entropy production is, as usual, a bilinear form between ”thermodynamic forces” and dissipative fluxes. Again, we can make linear combinations with those thermodynamic forces and introduce transport coefficients. Our choice for the hydrodynamic velocity imposes also that $`u_\mu j_L^\mu =0`$ and $`u_\mu j_R^\mu =0`$ and we have to make the entropy production positive. These prescriptions allow us to eliminate some coefficients and to obtain some constraints on the remaining others. We get :

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }_0^{}=\left(\zeta _{4,i}_\mu u^\mu +[\zeta _3]_{i,j}_\mu \left(\frac{f_s^2}{2}i(\mathrm{\Sigma }^\mu \mathrm{\Sigma }^{})_j\right)\right)\tau _i$$
(21)
$$\nu ^\mu =(g^{\mu \nu }u^\mu u^\nu )(\kappa _\nu \left(\frac{\mu _0}{T_0}\right)+\kappa _{L,i}._\nu \left(\frac{\mu _{L0,i}}{T_0}\right)+\kappa _{R,i}._\nu \left(\frac{\mu _{R0,i}}{T_0}\right))$$
(22)
$$j_L^\mu =(g^{\mu \nu }u^\mu u^\nu )\left(\kappa _{L,i}_\nu \left(\frac{\mu _0}{T_0}\right)+[\kappa _{LL}]_{i,j}_\nu \left(\frac{\mu _{L0,j}}{T_0}\right)+[\kappa _{LR}]_{i,j}_\nu \left(\frac{\mu _{R0,j}}{T_0}\right)\right)\tau _i$$
(23)
$$j_R^\mu =(g^{\mu \nu }u^\mu u^\nu )\left(\kappa _{R,i}_\nu \left(\frac{\mu _0}{T_0}\right)+[\kappa _{LR}]_{j,i}_\nu \left(\frac{\mu _{L0,j}}{T_0}\right)+[\kappa _{RR}]_{i,j}_\nu \left(\frac{\mu _{R0,j}}{T_0}\right)\right)\tau _i$$
(24)
$$\tau ^{\mu \nu }=(g^{\mu \nu }u^\mu u^\nu )\left((\zeta _2\frac{2}{3}\eta )_\lambda u^\lambda +\zeta _{1,j}_\lambda \left(\frac{f_s^2}{2}i(\mathrm{\Sigma }^\lambda \mathrm{\Sigma }^{})_j\right)\right)+\eta \left((g^{\mu \lambda }u^\mu u^\lambda )_\lambda u^\nu +(g^{\lambda \nu }u^\lambda u^\nu )_\lambda u^\mu \right)$$
(25)
where $`[Q]`$ means that $`Q`$ is a 3$`\times `$3 matrix. Due to the Onsager reciprocity principle, all the matrices except $`[\kappa _{LR}]`$ are symmetric, $`4\zeta _{1,i}=\zeta _{4,i}`$ and there are actually 39 independant coefficients. If we represent the quadratic form of the entropy production by a 12 $`\times `$ 12 matrix, we can easily show that all coefficients appearing in the diagonal should be positive and that there exists inequalities between the 39 coefficients : as for the superfluid, all the principal minors have to be positive. We see that dissipative equations for $`SU(2)_L\times SU(2)_R`$ symmetry implies new transport coefficients and couplings between baryonic, left-handed and right-handed currents. We also see that spontaneous breaking of the chiral symmetry implies the existence of matricial transport coefficient for, by instance, the bulk viscosities $`\zeta _1`$ and $`\zeta _3`$ : the thermodynamic force $`_\lambda \left(\frac{f_s^2}{2}i(\mathrm{\Sigma }^\lambda \mathrm{\Sigma }^{})_j\right)`$ which is the equivalent of $`_\lambda (V^2^\lambda \varphi )`$ has now three components. These components are nevertheless all multiplied by the same factor $`\frac{f_s^2}{2}`$ which is related to the amplitude of the order parameter of the chiral symmetry. Of course, near the transition phase this amplitude is not frozen as in our case and can fluctuate. The dynamics of these fluctuations is such that the amplitude of the order parameter has to be incorporated explicitely in the approach since then it becomes an hydrodynamic variable Ginzburg .

Finally let us remark that, since it is known that dissipation can affect the observables (see muronga  for the modification of the temperature profile used to describe heavy ion collisions), it will be of fundamental importance to determine quantitatively the influence of these new couplings.

## IV Conclusions and outlook

We have treated in this paper the dissipation in the hydrodynamic regime for relativistic systems with spontaneously broken symmetry $`U(1)`$ and $`SU(2)`$. For the superfluid, we recovered the non-relativistic limit of landau . For the $`SU(2)`$ case, we introduced new transport coefficients associated to the right and left charges and to the Goldstone modes. Since we know that transport coefficients can affect quantitatively observables, it would be interesting to express them with Kubo-type relations and then compute them explicitely from this microscopic approach. This work is under study renous . An other extension of this paper is to determine the new relaxation times with the effect of the symmetry breaking in order to know if this implies some noticeable modifications to the conclusions drawn in moi  concerning the typical equilibration time of heavy ions collisions. It is well known that the way we introduced the dissipative effects in that paper leads formally to instabilities and can not allow to reach the underlying physics of the relaxation times. In order to solve that problem one has to introduce them explicitely. One convenient way to do this is to use the 14-moments of Grad as done in moi .

Acknowledgments : We thank G. Chanfray and D.T. Son for useful discussions.