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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The contrast and resemblance between classical and quantum mechanics and/or field theory has been a good source of stimulus for theoretical physicists since the inception of quantum theory at the beginning of the twentieth century. In spite of the well-publicised differences such as the instability (stability) of the hydrogen atom in classical (quantum) mechanics, the photo-electric effect, and tunneling effects, classical and quantum mechanics share many common theoretical structures (in particular, the canonical formalism) and under certain circumstances provide (almost) the same predictions, as exemplified by the correspondence principle and Ehrenfest’s theorem.

In this paper we discuss issues related with the quantum and classical integrability in Calogero-Moser systems , , having a rational potential with harmonic confining force (the Calogero systems) and/or a trigonometric potential (the Sutherland systems). This is a part of a program for establishing a quantum Liouville theorem on completely integrable systems. As is well-known, a classical Hamiltonian system with finitely many degrees of freedom can be transformed into action-angle variables by quadrature if a complete set of involutive independent conserved quantities can be obtained. It is a good challenge to formulate a quantum counterpart of the ‘transformation into the action-angle variables by quadrature’. Calogero-Moser systems are expected to provide the best materials in this quest. They are known to be integrable at both quantum and classical levels, and the integrability is deeply related to the invariance of the Hamiltonian with respect to a finite (Coxeter, Weyl) reflection group $`G_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ based on the root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

Calogero-Moser systems for any root systems were formulated by Olshanetsky and Perelomov , who provided Lax pairs for the systems based on the classical root systems, i.e. the $`A`$, $`B`$, $`C`$, $`D`$ and $`BC`$ type root systems. A universal classical Lax pair applicable to all the Calogero-Moser systems based on any root systems including the $`E_8`$ and the non-crystallographic root systems was derived by Bordner-Corrigan-Sasaki  which unified various types of Lax pairs known at that time . A universal quantum Lax pair applicable to all the Calogero-Moser systems based on any root systems and for degenerate potentials was derived by Bordner-Manton-Sasaki  which provided the basic tools for the present paper. These universal classical and quantum Lax pairs are very closely related to each other and also to the Dunkl operators , another well-known tool for quantum systems. For quantum systems, universal formulae for the discrete spectra and the ground state wave functions as well as the proof of lower triangularity of the Hamiltonian and the creation-annihilation operator formalism etc have been obtained by Khastgir-Pocklington-Sasaki  based on the universal quantum Lax pair. In this respect, the works of Heckman and Opdam  offer a different approach based on Dunkl operators.

The quantum Calogero and Sutherland systems have “integer” energy eigenvalues characterised by the root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. Various quantities of the corresponding classical systems, for example, minimum energy, frequencies of small oscillations, the eigenvalues of the classical Lax pair matrices, etc., at the equilibrium point of the potential are investigated in the present paper. Some of these problems were tackled by Calogero and his collaborators , about a quarter of a century ago. They showed, mainly for the $`A`$-type theories, that the eigenvalues of Lax matrices at equilibrium are “integers”, and that the equilibrium positions are related to zeros of classical polynomials (Hermite, Laguerre), etc. The present paper provides systematic answers, both analytical and numerical, to these old problems and presents new results thanks to the universal Lax pair  which are applicable to all root systems. To our surprise, most of the classical data are “integers”, and appear to be “quantised”.

The present paper is organised as follows. In section two we recapitulate the basic ingredients of the Calogero-Moser systems and the solution mechanisms, the reflection operators and the root systems, the quantum and classical Hamiltonian and potentials (in §2.1), the discrete spectra (in §2.2), classical Lax pairs (in §2.3) in order to introduce notation. In section three the properties of the classical equilibrium point and its uniqueness, its representation in terms of the Lax pairs, are discussed. The importance of the pre-potential $`W`$, which is the logarithm of the ground state wave function (2.10), is stressed. The formulation of the spin exchange models , by ‘freezing the dynamical freedom at the equilibrium point’  is explained. Their definition is also based on a root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and a set of vectors $``$. The uniqueness of the equilibrium point and the minimality of the classical potential as well as the maximality of the pre-potential are proved universally. The explanation of the highly organised nature of the energy spectra of the spin exchange models  in terms of the Lax pairs at equilibrium is one of the motivations of the present paper. Sections four and five contain the main results—the classical data of the Calogero systems (§4), and of the Sutherland systems (§5). In §4.1 we show that the minimum energies are “integer-valued”. A general ‘virial theorem’ is derived based on the classical potential and the pre-potential. In §4.2 the determination of the classical equilibrium points is discussed. For $`A_r`$ and $`B_r`$ the equilibrium points are known to be given by the zeros of the Hermite and Laguerre polynomials . For the other root systems, the equilibrium points are determined numerically. In §4.3 the Lax pair matrices ($`L`$ and $`M`$) at the equilibrium points are shown to satisfy classical versions of the creation-annihilation operator relations. As a consequence, the eigenvalues of the $`M`$ matrix at equilibrium are shown to be equally spaced. The eigenvalue-multiplicity relation of the $`M`$ matrix at equilibrium is shown to be the same as the height-multiplicity relation of the chosen set of vectors $``$. The eigenvalues of $`L^+L^{}`$ at equilibrium are also evaluated. In §5.1 the minimum energy of the Sutherland system is shown to be “quantised” since it is identical with the ground state energy of the quantum system. The equilibrium position of the $`A_r`$ Sutherland system is known to be “equally-spaced” (5.14). We show in §5.2.2 that the equilibrium positions of $`BC_r`$ and $`D_r`$ Sutherland systems are given as zeros of Jacobi polynomials, which is a new analytical result. The equivalence to the classical problem of maximising the van der Mond determinant is also noted. The Jacobi polynomials are known to reduce to simple trigonometric (Chebyshev, etc) polynomials for three specific values of $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ (5.37), in which the zeros are again “equally-spaced”. We show that these three cases are utilised for the spin exchange models based on $`BC_r`$ root system by Bernard-Pasquier-Serban . The eigenvalues of the $`L_K`$ (5.34) and $`M`$ matrices at the equilibrium are all “integer-valued”. In particular, The eigenvalue-multiplicity relation of the $`L_K`$ matrix at equilibrium is shown to be the same as the height-multiplicity relation of the chosen set of vectors $``$. In this case the ‘height’ is determined by the ‘deformed Weyl vector’ $`\varrho `$ (2.18) in contrast to the ordinary Weyl vector $`\delta `$ (2.19) which determines the height-multiplicity relation for the $`M`$ matrix in Calogero system discussed in §4. The final section is devoted to comments and discussion. In the Appendix we discuss a remarkable constant matrix $`K`$ (2.50) which plays an important role in many parts of Calogero-Moser theory. It is a non-negative matrix with integer elements only. For any root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and set of vectors $``$ its eigenvalues are all “integers” with multiplicities. The eigenvectors of the $`K`$ matrix span representation spaces of the Weyl group whose dimensions are the multiplicities of the corresponding eigenvalues.

## 2 Calogero-Moser Systems

In this section, we briefly summarise the quantum and classical Calogero-Moser systems along with as much of the appropriate notation and background as is necessary for the main body of the paper. A Calogero-Moser model is a Hamiltonian system associated with a root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ of rank $`r`$. This is a set of vectors in $`𝐑^r`$ invariant under reflections in the hyperplane perpendicular to each vector in $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }s_\alpha (\beta )=\beta (\alpha ^{}\beta )\alpha ,\alpha ^{}=\frac{2\alpha }{\alpha ^2},\alpha ,\beta \mathrm{\Delta }.$$
(2.1)
The set of reflections $`\{s_\alpha ,\alpha \mathrm{\Delta }\}`$ generates a finite reflection group $`G_\mathrm{\Delta }`$, known as a Coxeter (or Weyl) group. For detailed and unified treatment of Calogero-Moser models based various root systems and various potentials, we refer to .

The dynamical variables of the Calogero-Moser model are the coordinates $`\{q_j\}`$ and their canonically conjugate momenta $`\{p_j\}`$, with the canonical commutation (Poisson bracket) relations (throughout this paper we put $`\mathrm{}=1`$):

$`(Q):`$ $`[q_j,p_k]=i\delta _{jk},[q_j,q_k]=[p_j,p_k]=0,`$
$`j,k=1,\mathrm{},r,`$
$`(C):`$ $`\{q_j,p_k\}=\delta _{jk},\{q_j,q_k\}=\{p_j,p_k\}=0.`$
These will be denoted by vectors in $`𝐑^r`$

$$q=(q_1,\mathrm{},q_r),p=(p_1,\mathrm{},p_r).$$

In quantum theory, the momentum operator $`p_j`$ acts as a differential operator:

$$p_j=i\frac{}{q_j},j=1,\mathrm{},r.$$

### 2.1 Hamiltonians and Potentials

We will concentrate on those cases in which bound states occur, meaning those with discrete spectra. In other words, we deal with the rational potential with harmonic confining force (to be called Calogero systems  for short) and trigonometric potential (to be referred to as the Sutherland systems ):

$`(Q):_Q`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}p^2+V_Q,V_Q=\{\begin{array}{c}{\displaystyle \frac{\omega ^2}{2}}q^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{g_\rho (g_\rho 1)\rho ^2}{(\rho q)^2}},\hfill \\ {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{g_\rho (g_\rho 1)\rho ^2}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\rho q)}},\hfill \end{array}`$ (2.4)
$`(C):_C`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}p^2+V_C,V_C=\{\begin{array}{c}{\displaystyle \frac{\omega ^2}{2}}q^2+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{g_\rho ^2\rho ^2}{(\rho q)^2}},\hfill \\ {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{g_\rho ^2\rho ^2}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\rho q)}}.\hfill \end{array}`$ (2.7)
In these formulae, $`\mathrm{\Delta }_+`$ is the set of positive roots and $`g_\rho `$ are real positive coupling constants which are defined on orbits of the corresponding Coxeter group, i.e., they are identical for roots in the same orbit. For crystallographic root systems there is one coupling constant $`g_\rho =g`$ for all roots in simply-laced models, and there are two independent coupling constants, $`g_\rho =g_L`$ for long roots and $`g_\rho =g_S`$ for short roots in non-simply laced models. Throughout this paper we put the scale factor in the trigonometric functions to unity for simplicity; instead of the general form $`a^2/\mathrm{sin}^2a(\rho q)`$, we use $`1/\mathrm{sin}^2(\rho q)`$. We also adopt the convention that long roots have squared length two, $`\rho _L^2=2`$, unless otherwise stated.

The Sutherland systems are integrable, both at the classical and quantum levels, for the crystallographic root systems, that is those associated with simple Lie algebras: {$`A_r,r1\}`$111For $`A_r`$ models, it is customary to introduce one more degree of freedom, $`q_{r+1}`$ and $`p_{r+1}`$ and embed all of the roots in $`𝐑^{r+1}`$.  , $`\{B_r,r2\}`$, $`\{C_r,r2\}`$, $`\{D_r,r4\}`$, $`E_6`$, $`E_7`$, $`E_8`$, $`F_4`$ and $`G_2`$ and the so-called $`\{BC_r,r2\}`$. On the other hand, the Calogero systems are integrable for any root systems, crystallographic and non-crystallographic. The latter are $`H_3`$, $`H_4`$, whose Coxeter groups are the symmetry groups of the icosahedron and four-dimensional 600-cell, respectively, and $`\{I_2(m),m4\}`$ whose Coxeter group is the dihedral group of order $`2m`$.

These potentials, classical and quantum, both rational and trigonometric, have a hard repulsive singularity $`1/(\rho q)^2`$ near the reflection hyperplane $`H_\rho =\{q𝐑^r,\rho q=0\}`$. The strength of the singularity is given by the coupling constant $`g_\rho (g_\rho 1)`$ (Q), ($`g_\rho ^2`$ (C) ), which is independent of the choice of the normalisation of the roots. This repulsive potential is classically (quantum mechanically, $`g_\rho >1`$) insurmountable. Thus the motion is always confined within one Weyl chamber both at the classical and quantum levels. This feature allows us without loss of generality to constrain the configuration space, to the principal Weyl chamber ($`\mathrm{\Pi }`$ is the set of simple roots):

$$PW=\{q𝐑^r|\rho q>0,\rho \mathrm{\Pi }\}.$$
(2.8)
In the case of the trigonometric potential, due to the periodicity of the potential the configuration space is further limited to the principal Weyl alcove

$$PW_T=\{q𝐑^r|\rho q>0,\rho \mathrm{\Pi },\rho _hq<\pi \},$$
(2.9)
where $`\rho _h`$ is the highest root.

The potentials of the quantum and classical systems are expressed neatly in terms of a pre-potential $`W`$ which is defined through a ground state wavefunction $`\varphi _0`$ of the quantum Hamiltonian $`H_Q`$ (2.4). Since $`\varphi _0`$ can be chosen real and positive, because it has no nodes, it can be expressed by a real smooth function $`W`$, to be called a pre-potential, in the principal Weyl chamber ($`PW`$) (2.8) or the principal Weyl alcove ($`PW_T`$) (2.9) by

$`\varphi _0`$ $`=`$ $`e^W,`$ (2.10)
$`_Q\varphi _0`$ $`=`$ $`_0\varphi _0.`$ (2.11)
The pre-potential $`W`$ and the ground state energy $`_0`$ are expressed entirely in terms of the coupling constants and roots :

$`W`$ $`=`$ $`\{\begin{array}{c}{\displaystyle \frac{\omega }{2}}q^2+{\displaystyle \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}}g_\rho \mathrm{log}\rho q,\\ {\displaystyle \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}}g_\rho \mathrm{log}\mathrm{sin}(\rho q),\end{array}`$ (2.14)
$`_0`$ $`=`$ $`\{\begin{array}{c}\omega \left({\displaystyle \frac{r}{2}}+{\displaystyle \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}}g_\rho \right),\\ 2\varrho ^2.\end{array}`$ (2.17)
The deformed Weyl vector $`\varrho `$ is defined by

$$\varrho =\frac{1}{2}\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho \rho ,$$
(2.18)
which reduces to the Weyl vector $`\delta `$ when all the coupling constants are unity:

$$\delta =\frac{1}{2}\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}\rho .$$
(2.19)
By plugging (2.10) into (2.11) and (2.4), we obtain a simple formula expressing the quantum potential in terms of the pre-potential $`W`$ :

$`(Q):V_Q`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}}\left[\left({\displaystyle \frac{W}{q_j}}\right)^2+{\displaystyle \frac{^2W}{q_j^2}}\right]+_0,`$ (2.20)
and similarly,

$`(C):V_C`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{W}{q_j}}\right)^2+\stackrel{~}{}_0,\stackrel{~}{}_0=\{\begin{array}{c}\omega \left(_{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}g_\rho \right),\\ 2\varrho ^2.\end{array}`$ (2.23)
In the context of super-symmetric quantum mechanics  the quantities $`W/q_j`$ are called super-potentials. In this paper we will not discuss super-symmetry at all and we stick to our notion of $`W`$ being a pre-potential. The difference between the quantum and classical potential is $`1/2_{j=1}^r^2W/q_j^2`$ plus the zero point energy $`\omega r/2`$, for the rational cases. These are both quantum corrections, being of the order $`\mathrm{}`$. It should be noted that the quantum Hamiltonian (2.4) with the potential (2.20) can be expressed in a ‘factorised form’

$$_Q=\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}\left(p_ji\frac{W}{q_j}\right)\left(p_j+i\frac{W}{q_j}\right)+_0=\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}\left(p_j+i\frac{W}{q_j}\right)^{}\left(p_j+i\frac{W}{q_j}\right)+_0,$$
(2.24)
which is obviously positive semi-definite apart from the constant term $`_0`$. Therefore it is elementary to verify, thanks to the simple formulae

$$\left(p_j+i\frac{W}{q_j}\right)e^W=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r,$$
(2.25)
that $`\varphi _0=e^W`$ satisfying (2.11) is the lowest energy state.

### 2.2 Discrete Spectra

#### 2.2.1 Rational potentials

The discrete spectrum of the Calogero systems is an integer times $`\omega `$ plus the ground state energy $`_0`$. In other words, the energy eigenvalue $``$ depends on the coupling constant $`g_\rho `$ only via the ground state energy $`_0`$. The $`integer`$ is specified by an $`r`$-tuple of non-negative integers $`\stackrel{}{n}=(n_1,\mathrm{},n_r)`$ by :

$$_\stackrel{}{n}=\omega N_\stackrel{}{n}+_0,N_\stackrel{}{n}=\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}n_jf_j,n_j𝐙_+,$$
(2.26)
and the set of integers $`\{f_j\}`$ are listed in Table 1 for each root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$.

These are the degrees at which independent Coxeter invariant polynomials occur. They are related to the exponents $`e_j`$ of the root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ by

$$f_j=1+e_j,j=1,\mathrm{},r.$$
(2.27)
One immediate consequence of the spectra (2.26) is the periodicity of motion. Suppose, at time $`t=0`$, the system has the wavefunction $`\mathrm{\Psi }_0`$ then the system returns to the same physical state after $`T=2\pi /\omega `$. Let us introduce a complete set of wavefunctions indexed by the $`r`$-tuple of non-negative integers $`\stackrel{}{n}`$

$$\varphi _\stackrel{}{n},$$

and express the initial state $`\mathrm{\Psi }_0`$ as the linear combination

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_0=\underset{\stackrel{}{n}}{}a_\stackrel{}{n}\varphi _\stackrel{}{n}.$$

Then, at time $`t`$ the wavefunction is given by

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(t)=\underset{\stackrel{}{n}}{}a_\stackrel{}{n}\varphi _\stackrel{}{n}e^{i_\stackrel{}{n}t}=e^{i_0t}\underset{\stackrel{}{n}}{}a_\stackrel{}{n}\varphi _\stackrel{}{n}e^{i\omega (_{j=1}^rn_jf_j)t}.$$

In other words, we have

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(T)=e^{i_0T}\underset{\stackrel{}{n}}{}a_\stackrel{}{n}\varphi _\stackrel{}{n}e^{i2\pi (_{j=1}^rn_jf_j)}=e^{i_0T}\underset{\stackrel{}{n}}{}a_\stackrel{}{n}\varphi _\stackrel{}{n}=e^{i_0T}\mathrm{\Psi }_0.$$

For some root systems, the quantum state returns to $`\mathrm{\Psi }_0`$ earlier than $`T=2\pi /\omega `$. The corresponding classical theorem, or rather its generalisation for the entire hierarchy, is given as Proposition III.2 in . It is interesting to note that the $`1/(\rho q)^2`$ interactions do not disturb the periodicity of the harmonic potential.

#### 2.2.2 Trigonometric potentials

The discrete spectrum of the Sutherland systems is indexed by a dominant weight $`\lambda `$ as follows,

$$_\lambda =2(\lambda +\varrho )^2,$$
(2.28)
in which $`\varrho `$ is the deformed Weyl vector (2.18). This spectrum can be interpreted as a “free” particle energy

$$=\frac{1}{2}p^2,$$

in which the momentum $`p𝐑^r`$ is simply given by

$$p=2(\lambda +\varrho ).$$

A dominant weight is specified by an $`r`$-tuple of non-negative integers $`\stackrel{}{n}=(n_1,\mathrm{},n_r)`$ by

$$\lambda =\lambda _\stackrel{}{n}=\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}n_j\lambda _j,$$
(2.29)
in which $`\lambda _j`$ is the $`j`$-th fundamental weight. We extract explicitly the part of $`_\lambda `$ which depends linearly on $`\stackrel{}{n}`$, and write

$$_{\lambda _\stackrel{}{n}}=2(\lambda _\stackrel{}{n}^2+\varrho ^2+2\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}n_j\lambda _j\varrho ).$$
(2.30)
### 2.3 Classical Lax pairs

The classical equations of motion for the Hamiltonian $`_C`$ are known to be written in a Lax pair form:

$$\dot{q}_j=p_j,\dot{p}_j=\frac{_C}{q_j}\frac{d}{dt}L=[L,M].$$
(2.31)
#### 2.3.1 Universal Lax Pair

Here we will summarise the universal formulation applicable to any root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ for both the rational ($`\omega =0`$ case) and trigonometric potentials . The inclusion of the harmonic confining potential ($`\omega 0`$) needs a further construction which will be discussed at the end of this section. (For the universal quantum Lax pair, which we will not use in this paper, we refer to .) The universal Lax pair operators read

$`L(p,q)`$ $`=`$ $`p\widehat{H}+X,X=i{\displaystyle \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}}g_\rho (\rho \widehat{H})x(\rho q)\widehat{s}_\rho ,`$ (2.32)
$`M(q)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}}g_\rho \rho ^2y(\rho q)(\widehat{s}_\rho I),I:\text{Identity Operator},`$ (2.33)
in which the functions $`x(u)`$ and $`y(u)`$ are listed in the Table 2.

|  | $`V(u)`$ | $`x(u)`$ | I$`y(u)`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Rational | $`1/u^2`$ | $`1/u`$ | I-$`1/u^2`$ |
| Trigonometric | $`1/\mathrm{sin}^2u`$ | $`\mathrm{cot}u`$ | I-$`1/\mathrm{sin}^2u`$ |

Table 2: Functions appearing in the Lax pair.

The operators $`\widehat{H}_j`$ and $`\widehat{s}_\rho `$ obey the following commutation relations

$`[\widehat{H}_j,\widehat{H}_k]=0,`$ (2.34)
$`[\widehat{H}_j,\widehat{s}_\alpha ]=\alpha _j(\alpha ^{}\widehat{H})\widehat{s}_\alpha ,`$ (2.35)
$`\widehat{s}_\alpha \widehat{s}_\beta \widehat{s}_\alpha =\widehat{s}_{s_\alpha (\beta )},\widehat{s}_\alpha ^2=1,\widehat{s}_\alpha =\widehat{s}_\alpha .`$ (2.36)
Let us choose a set of $`D`$ vectors $``$

$$=\{\mu ^{(1)},\mathrm{},\mu ^{(D)}|\mu ^{(a)}𝐑^r\},$$
(2.37)
which form a single orbit of the reflection (Weyl) group $`G_\mathrm{\Delta }`$. That is, any element of $``$ can be obtained from any other by the action of the reflection (Weyl) group. Let us note that all these vectors have the same length, $`(\mu ^{(a)})^2=(\mu ^{(b)})^2`$, $`a,b=1,\mathrm{},D`$, which we denote simply as $`\mu ^2`$. They form an over-complete basis 222The $`A_r`$ case needs a special attention, since it has one additional degree of freedom due to the embedding (see footnote on page 1). of $`𝐑^r`$:

$$\underset{\mu }{}\mu _j\mu _k=\delta _{jk}\mu ^2D/r,j,k=1,\mathrm{},r.$$
(2.38)
In terms of $``$, $`L`$ and $`M`$ are $`D\times D`$ matrices whose ingredients $`\widehat{H}_j`$ and $`\widehat{s}_\rho `$ are defined by

$$(\widehat{H}_j)_{\mu \nu }=\mu _j\delta _{\mu \nu },(\widehat{s}_\rho )_{\mu \nu }=\delta _{\mu ,s_\rho (\nu )}=\delta _{\nu ,s_\rho (\mu )}.$$
(2.39)
The Lax operators are Coxeter covariant:

$$L(s_\alpha (p),s_\alpha (q))=\widehat{s}_\alpha L(p,q)\widehat{s}_\alpha ,M(s_\alpha (q))=\widehat{s}_\alpha M(q)\widehat{s}_\alpha ,$$
(2.40)
and $`L`$ ($`M`$) is (anti-) hermitian:

$$L^{}=L,M^{}=M,$$
(2.41)
implying real and pure imaginary eigenvalues of $`L`$ and $`M`$, respectively. For various examples of the sets of vectors $``$ see the Appendix.

#### 2.3.2 Minimal Type Lax Pair

A set of weights $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=\{\mu \}`$ is called minimal if the following condition is satisfied:

$$\frac{2\rho \mu }{\rho ^2}=0,\pm 1,\mu \mathrm{\Lambda }\text{and}\rho \mathrm{\Delta }.$$
(2.42)
A representation of Lie algebra $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is called minimal if its weights are minimal. All the fundamental representations of the $`A_r`$ algebras are minimal. The vector, spinor and anti-spinor representations of the $`D_r`$ algebras are minimal representations. There are three minimal representations belonging to the simply-laced exceptional algebras—the 27 and $`\overline{\mathrm{𝟐𝟕}}`$ of $`E_6`$ and the 56 of $`E_7`$; $`E_8`$ has no minimal representations.

When $``$ is a set of minimal weights $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, the representation of the operator $`\widehat{s}_\rho `$ simplifies

$$(\widehat{s}_\rho )_{\mu \nu }=\{\begin{array}{ccc}\delta _{\mu \nu ,\rho },\hfill & & \rho ^{}\mu =1,\hfill \\ \delta _{\mu \nu ,\rho },\hfill & \text{if}& \rho ^{}\mu =1,\hfill \\ \delta _{\mu \nu ,0},\hfill & & \rho ^{}\mu =0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(2.43)
In this case a Lax pair with with a different functional dependence from the universal Lax pair (2.32) (2.33) is possible for the trigonometric potential systems, which we call a minimal type Lax pair

$`L_m(p,q)=p\widehat{H}+X_m,M_m(q)=D+Y_m.`$ (2.44)
The matrix $`X_m`$ has the same form as before but with a different functional dependence on the coordinates $`q`$,

$$X_m=i\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho (\rho \widehat{H})x_m(\rho q)\widehat{s}_\rho ,x_m(u)=1/\mathrm{sin}u.$$
(2.45)
The matrix $`Y_m`$ is an off-diagonal matrix

$$Y_m=\frac{i}{2}\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }}{}g_\rho \rho ^2y_m(\rho q)\widehat{s}_\rho ,y_m(u)=x_m^{}(u)=\mathrm{cos}u/\mathrm{sin}^2u.$$
(2.46)
The diagonal matrix $`D`$ is defined by

$$D_{\mu \nu }=\delta _{\mu ,\nu }D_\mu ,D_\mu =\frac{i}{2}\underset{\mathrm{\Delta }\beta =\mu \nu }{}g_\beta \beta ^2z(\beta q),z(u)=1/\mathrm{sin}^2u.$$
(2.47)
This type of Lax pair has been known from the early days of Calogero-Moser .

#### 2.3.3 Lax Pair for Calogero Systems

Lax type representations of the Hamiltonian $`_C`$ (2.7) for the Calogero systems ($`\omega 0`$) is obtained from the rational Lax pair for the $`\omega =0`$ case discussed above. The canonical equations of motion are equivalent to the following Lax equations for $`L^\pm `$:

$$\frac{d}{dt}L^\pm =\{L^\pm ,_C\}=[L^\pm ,M]\pm i\omega L^\pm ,$$
(2.48)
in which $`M`$ is the same as before (2.33), and $`L^\pm `$ and $`Q`$ are defined by

$$L^\pm =L\pm i\omega Q,Q=q\widehat{H},$$
(2.49)
with $`L`$, $`\widehat{H}`$ as earlier (2.32), (2.39). It is easy to see that the classical commutator $`[Q,L]`$ is a constant matrix (see §4 of  and §II of ):

$$QLLQ=iK,K\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho (\rho \widehat{H})(\rho ^{}\widehat{H})\widehat{s}_\rho .$$
(2.50)
We will discuss this interesting matrix $`K`$ in some detail in the Appendix. If we define hermitian operators $`_1`$ and $`_2`$ by

$$_1=L^+L^{},_2=L^{}L^+,$$
(2.51)
they satisfy Lax-like equations, and classical conserved quantities are obtained:

$$\dot{}_k=[_k,M],\frac{d}{dt}\text{Tr}_k^n=0,k=1,2.$$
(2.52)
This completes the brief summary of Calogero-Moser systems, the quantum and classical Hamiltonians, the discrete spectra and their classical Lax representations.

## 3 Classical Equilibrium and Spin Exchange Models

Here we discuss the properties of the classical potential $`V_C`$, the pre-potential $`W`$, and Lax matrices $`L`$, $`M`$, $`_{1,2}`$ near the classical equilibrium point:

$$p=0,q=\overline{q}.$$
(3.1)
For the classical potential the point $`\overline{q}`$ is characterised as its minimum point:

$$\frac{V_C}{q_j}|_{\overline{q}}=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r,$$
(3.2)
whereas it is a maximal point of the pre-potential $`W`$ and of the ground state wavefunction $`\varphi _0=e^W`$:

$$\frac{W}{q_j}|_{\overline{q}}=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r.$$
(3.3)
In this connection, it should be noted that the condition (2.25) $`(p+iW/q_j)e^W=0`$ is also satisfied classically at this point. In the Lax representation it is a point at which two Lax matrices commute:

$$0=[\overline{L},\overline{M}],0=[\overline{L}_m,\overline{M}_m],0=[\overline{}_{(1,2)},\overline{M}],$$
(3.4)
in which $`\overline{L}=L(0,\overline{q})`$, $`\overline{M}=M(\overline{q})`$ etc and $`d\overline{L}/dt=0`$, etc at the equilibrium point. The value of a quantity $`A`$ at the equilibrium is expressed by $`\overline{A}`$.

By differentiating (2.23), we obtain

$$\frac{V_C}{q_j}=\underset{l=1}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{^2W}{q_jq_l}\frac{W}{q_l}.$$
(3.5)
Since $`^2W/q_jq_k`$ is negative definite everywhere,

$$\frac{^2W}{q_jq_k}=\{\begin{array}{c}\omega \delta _{jk}\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho \frac{\rho _j\rho _k}{(\rho q)^2},\\ \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho \frac{\rho _j\rho _k}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\rho q)},\end{array}$$
(3.6)
we find the equilibrium point of $`W`$ is a maximum and that the two conditions (3.2) and (3.3) are equivalent:

$$\frac{V_C}{q_j}|_{\overline{q}}=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r,\frac{W}{q_j}|_{\overline{q}}=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r.$$
(3.7)
By differentiating (3.5) again, we obtain

$$\frac{^2V_C}{q_jq_k}=\underset{l=1}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{^2W}{q_jq_l}\frac{^2W}{q_lq_k}+\underset{l=1}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{^3W}{q_jq_kq_l}\frac{W}{q_l}.$$

Thus at the equilibrium point of the classical potential $`V_C`$, the following relation holds:

$$\frac{^2V_C}{q_jq_k}|_{\overline{q}}=\underset{l=1}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{^2W}{q_jq_l}|_{\overline{q}}\frac{^2W}{q_lq_k}|_{\overline{q}}.$$
(3.8)
If we define the following two symmetric $`r\times r`$ matrices $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$,

$$\stackrel{~}{V}=\text{Matrix}\left[\frac{^2V_C}{q_jq_k}|_{\overline{q}}\right],\stackrel{~}{W}=\text{Matrix}\left[\frac{^2W}{q_jq_k}|_{\overline{q}}\right],$$
(3.9)
we have

$$\stackrel{~}{V}=\stackrel{~}{W}^2,$$
(3.10)
and

$`\begin{array}{ccccc}\hfill \text{Eigenvalues}(\stackrel{~}{V})& =& \{w_1^2,\mathrm{},w_r^2\},\hfill & & \\ \hfill \text{Eigenvalues}(\stackrel{~}{W})& =& \{w_1,\mathrm{},w_r\},\hfill & w_j>0,\hfill & j=1,\mathrm{},r.\hfill \end{array}`$ (3.13)
That is $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ is positive definite and the point $`\overline{q}`$ is actually a minimal point of $`V_C`$.

As mentioned above, the classical potential $`V_C`$ tends to plus infinity at all the boundaries (including the infinite point in $`PW`$) of $`PW`$ ($`PW_T`$). Since it is positive definite (see (2.7)), $`V_C`$ has at least one equilibrium (minimal) point in $`PW`$ ($`PW_T`$). Next we show that it is unique in $`PW`$ ($`PW_T`$). Suppose there are two classical equilibrium points $`\overline{q}^{(1)}`$ and $`\overline{q}^{(2)}`$

$$\frac{W}{q_j}|_{\overline{q}^{(1)}}=\frac{W}{q_j}|_{\overline{q}^{(2)}}=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r,$$

then (see (2.23))

$$V_C(\overline{q}^{(1)})=V_C(\overline{q}^{(2)})=\stackrel{~}{}_0.$$

Let us consider a space $`P`$ of paths of finite length $`q(t)`$, ($`0t1`$), connecting these two equilibrium points, $`q(0)=\overline{q}^{(1)}`$ and $`q(1)=\overline{q}^{(2)}`$. For each path $`q(t)`$ there is maximum

$$m[q(t)]=\underset{0<t<1}{\mathrm{max}}V_C(q(t)).$$

Since $`m[q(t)]>\stackrel{~}{}_0`$, there is a minimum of $`m[q(t)]`$ in the space of paths $`P`$:

$$\text{Min}=\underset{q(t)P}{\mathrm{min}}m[q(t)].$$

Let us denote the extremal path achieving Min by $`q_C(t)`$ and $`q_C(t_M)=\overline{q}_C`$ be its maximal point. By definition of $`\overline{q}_C`$, it is an extremal point of $`V_C`$ with one negative eigenvalue of $`^2V_C/q_jq_k`$ in the direction of $`q_C(t)`$. However, from (3.13) we know it is impossible. Thus the assumption of two extremal points $`\overline{q}^{(1)}`$ and $`\overline{q}^{(2)}`$ is false.

A few remarks are in order. Most of the discussion in this section, except for those depending on the explicit form of $`W`$ (3.6), are valid in any classical potentials of multiparticle quantum mechanical systems. The dynamics of the pre-potentials $`W`$ (2.14), or rather that of $`W`$, for the rational and trigonometric and hyperbolic potentials has been discussed by Dyson  from a different point of view. It was also introduced by Calogero and collaborators  in the context of determining the equilibrium but without the connection with the quantum ground state wavefunction.

At the end of this section let us briefly summarise the basic ingredients of the spin exchange models associated with the Calogero (Sutherland) system based on the root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and with the set of vectors $``$, . They are defined at the equilibrium points (3.1) of the corresponding classical systems. Here we call each element $`\mu `$ of $``$ a site to which a dynamical degree of freedom called spin is attached. The spin takes a finite set of discrete values. In the simplest, and typical case, they are an up ($``$) and a down ($``$). The dynamical state of the spin exchange model is represented by a vector $`\psi _{Spin}`$ which takes values in the tensor product of $`D`$ copies of a vector space $`𝒱`$ whose basis consists of an up ($``$) and a down ($``$):

$$\psi _{Spin}\stackrel{D}{}𝒱_\mu .$$
(3.14)
The Hamiltonian of the spin exchange model $`_{Spin}`$ is

$$_{Spin}=\{\begin{array}{c}\frac{1}{2}\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho \rho ^2\frac{1}{(\rho \overline{q})^2}(1\widehat{𝒫}_\rho ),\hfill \\ \frac{1}{2}\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho \rho ^2\frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\rho \overline{q})}(1\widehat{𝒫}_\rho ),\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.15)
in which $`\{\widehat{𝒫}_\rho \}`$, $`\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+`$ are the dynamical variables called spin exchange operators. The operator $`\widehat{𝒫}_\rho `$ exchanges the spins of sites $`\mu `$ and $`s_\rho (\mu )`$, $`\mu `$. In terms of the operator-valued Lax pairs

$$L_{Spin}=\{\begin{array}{c}i\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho (\rho \widehat{H})\frac{1}{\rho \overline{q}}\widehat{𝒫}_\rho \widehat{s}_\rho ,\hfill \\ i\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho (\rho \widehat{H})\mathrm{cot}(\rho \overline{q})\widehat{𝒫}_\rho \widehat{s}_\rho ,\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.16)
$$M_{Spin}=\{\begin{array}{c}\frac{i}{2}\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho \rho ^2\frac{1}{(\rho \overline{q})^2}\widehat{𝒫}_\rho \left(\widehat{s}_\rho I\right),\hfill \\ \frac{i}{2}\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho \rho ^2\frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\rho \overline{q})}\widehat{𝒫}_\rho \left(\widehat{s}_\rho I\right),\hfill \end{array}$$
(3.17)
the Heisenberg equations of motion for the trigonometric spin exchange model can be written in a matrix form

$$i[_{Spin},L_{Spin}]=[L_{Spin},M_{Spin}].$$
(3.18)
Since the $`M_{Spin}`$ matrix satisfies a sum up to zero condition,

$$\underset{\mu }{}(M_{Spin})_{\mu \nu }=\underset{\nu }{}(M_{Spin})_{\mu \nu }=0,$$
(3.19)
one obtains conserved quantities via the total sum of $`L_{Spin}^k`$:

$$[_{Spin},\text{Ts}(L_{Spin}^k)]=0,\text{Ts}(L_{Spin}^k)\underset{\mu ,\nu }{}(L_{Spin}^k)_{\mu \nu },k=3,\mathrm{}$$
(3.20)
These are necessary ingredients for complete integrability.

The rational spin exchange model needs some modification similar to those for the Calogero systems. We define

$$L_{Spin}^\pm =L_{Spin}\pm i\omega \overline{Q},\overline{Q}=\overline{q}\widehat{H},$$
(3.21)
then the Heisenberg equations of motion in a matrix form read

$$i[_{Spin},L_{Spin}^+L_{Spin}^{}]=[L_{Spin}^+L_{Spin}^{},M_{Spin}]$$
(3.22)
and conserved quantities are given by

$$\text{Ts}\left((L_{Spin}^+L_{Spin}^{})^k\right)\underset{\mu ,\nu }{}\left(L_{Spin}^+L_{Spin}^{}\right)_{\mu \nu }^k,k=3,\mathrm{},.$$

Let us emphasise that the current definition of completely integrable spin exchange models is universal, in the sense that it applies to any root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and to an arbitrary choice of the set of vectors $``$. It contains all the known examples of spin exchange models as subcases. For the $`A_r`$ root system and for the set of vector weights, $`=𝐕`$, (A.12), the trigonometric spin exchange model reduces to the well-known Haldane-Shastry model , the rational spin exchange model reduces to the so-called Polychronakos model . For the $`BC_r`$ root systems with trigonometric interactions, a spin model has been proposed with $``$ chosen to be the set of short roots $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$, or rather, to be more precise, its $`r`$-dimensional degeneration. In this case, complete integrability is known only for three different values of the coupling ratio $`g_S/g_L`$ . For $`BC_r`$ root systems with rational interactions, a spin model with $`r`$ sites has been proposed .

As is clear from the formulation, the dynamics of spin exchange models depends on the details of the classical potential $`V_C`$ or $`W`$ at the equilibrium point and on $``$. It is quite natural to expect that the highly organised spectra of the known spin exchange models - are correlated with the remarkable properties of the Lax matrices at the equilibrium point—for example, the integer eigenvalues and their high degeneracies. These will be explored in the following two sections.

A determination of the energy spectrum of specific spin exchange models is not pursued in the present paper.

## 4 Classical Data I: Rational Potential

Next, we will obtain various data of the classical Calogero systems extracted from the potentials, pre-potentials, Lax matrices etc., near the equilibrium point. First, we will derive universal properties which are valid in any root system. Those results depending on specific root systems will be discussed afterwards.

### 4.1 Minimum Energy

Let us consider the equation (3.2) and (3.3) for determining the classical equilibrium, which for the rational case reads:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{V_C}{q_j}}|_{\overline{q}}=0`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}}g_\rho ^2{\displaystyle \frac{\rho ^2\rho _j}{(\rho \overline{q})^3}}=\omega ^2\overline{q}_j,`$
$`j=1,\mathrm{},r.`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{W}{q_j}}|_{\overline{q}}=0`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}}g_\rho {\displaystyle \frac{\rho _j}{(\rho \overline{q})}}=\omega \overline{q}_j,`$ (4.2)
By multiplying $`\overline{q}_j`$ to both equations, we obtain the virial theorem for the classical potential $`V_C`$

$$\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho ^2\frac{\rho ^2}{(\rho \overline{q})^2}=\omega ^2\overline{q}^2,$$
(4.3)
and a relationship

$$\omega \overline{q}^2=\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho \frac{\rho \overline{q}}{(\rho \overline{q})}=\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho .$$
(4.4)
By combining these we arrive at the minimal value of the classical potential (2.23):

$$V_C(\overline{q})=\omega ^2\overline{q}^2=\omega (\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho )=\stackrel{~}{}_0.$$
(4.5)
As stated before, this is the ground state energy $`_0`$ minus the zero point energy $`\omega r/2`$. Although it is a classical quantity, it has the general structure of a coupling constant(s) times an integer:

$$\stackrel{~}{}_0=\{\begin{array}{cc}\omega g\times \mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Delta }/2,\hfill & \hfill \text{simply laced,}\\ \omega \left(g_L\times \mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Delta }_L+g_S\times \mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Delta }_S\right)/2,\hfill & \hfill \text{non-simply laced.}\end{array}$$
(4.6)
Here, $`\mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is the total number of roots, $`\mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ ($`\mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$) is the number of long (short) roots, and $`\mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Delta }=\mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Delta }_L+\mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$.

### 4.2 Determination of the Equilibrium Point and Eigenvalues of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$

Once the equilibrium position $`\overline{q}=(\overline{q}_1,\mathrm{},\overline{q}_r)`$ of the pre-potential $`W`$ is determined, one can define a Coxeter invariant polynomial of one variable, say $`x`$, to encode the data. For $`A_r`$ it is $`_{j=1}^r(x\overline{q}_j)`$ and for $`B_r`$ ($`D_r`$) it is $`_{j=1}^r(x\overline{q}_j^2)`$, since the set of $`\{\overline{q}_1,\mathrm{},\overline{q}_r\}`$ and $`\{\overline{q}_1^2,\mathrm{},\overline{q}_r^2\}`$ (or rather $`\{\pm \overline{q}_1,\mathrm{},\pm \overline{q}_r\}`$) are invariant under the Weyl group of $`A_r`$ and $`B_r`$, respectively. As shown below, these are classical orthogonal polynomials for the classical root systems (after suitably scaling $`x`$): the Hermite polynomials for $`A_r`$ , and the associated Laguerre polynomials for $`B_r`$ ($`C_r`$ and $`D_r`$) . For an arbitrary root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, such polynomials can be defined through a Lax matrix for a proper choice of $``$ by det$`(yI\overline{Q})`$, in which $`\overline{Q}=\overline{q}\widehat{H}`$ is the diagonal matrix $`Q`$ (2.49) at equilibrium. In fact, for $`A_r`$ and the choice of vector weights, this is the Hermite polynomial $`H_{r+1}(x)`$ (with $`x=y`$), and for $`B_r`$ ($`D_r`$) and the set of short roots (vector weights), it is the Laguerre polynomial $`L_r^{(\alpha )}(x)`$ (with $`x=y^2`$). For the exceptional and non-crystallographic root systems, the polynomials have not to the best of our knowledge been identified or named. We strongly believe and have several pieces of numerical evidence that the polynomials for non-classical root systems have “integer coefficients” like the Hermite and Laguerre polynomials. We have not been able to determine these polynomials exactly, except in the case $`I_2(m)`$ with special coupling ratios $`g_e=g_o=g`$, (4.32)-(4.34).

After determining $`\overline{q}`$ we will evaluate the eigenvalues of $`\stackrel{~}{W}W^{\prime \prime }|_{\overline{q}}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{V}V^{\prime \prime }|_{\overline{q}}`$ in this subsection and various Lax pair matrices $`\overline{L}`$, $`\overline{M}`$, $`_k`$ etc in §4.3.

To the integer spaced quantum spectrum (2.26), apart from the $`_0`$ term, one could simply associate the following effective quadratic potential

$$V_{eff}=\frac{1}{2}\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}\left(\omega f_j\right)^2\stackrel{~}{q}_j^2,$$
(4.7)
in certain normal coordinates $`\stackrel{~}{q}_j`$. We will show later that the classical potential $`V_C`$ has the same behaviour as above when expanded at the equilibrium point, in other words:

$$\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{V})=\omega ^2\{f_1^2,\mathrm{},f_r^2\}.$$
(4.8)
Considering the relation $`\stackrel{~}{V}=\stackrel{~}{W}^2`$ (3.10), this is equivalent to showing

$$\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})=\omega \{f_1,\mathrm{},f_r\}=\omega \{1+e_1,\mathrm{},1+e_r\}.$$
(4.9)
Since the exponents $`\{e_j\}`$ satisfy the relation

$$\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}e_j=\mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Delta }/2=hr/2,$$
(4.10)
where $`h`$ is the Coxeter number, we have a simple sum rule (see footnote on page 2)

$$\text{Tr}(\stackrel{~}{W})=\omega (r+\mathrm{\#}\mathrm{\Delta }/2)=\omega r(1+h/2).$$
(4.11)
#### 4.2.1 $`A_r`$

Calogero and collaborators discussed this problem about quarter of a century ago . In these cases the root vectors embedded in $`𝐑^{r+1}`$ are given by:

$$A_r=\{𝐞_j𝐞_k,j,k=1,\mathrm{},r+1|𝐞_j𝐑^{r+1},𝐞_j𝐞_k=\delta _{jk}\}.$$
(4.12)
The equations (4.2) read

$$\underset{kj}{\overset{r+1}{}}\frac{1}{\overline{q}_j\overline{q}_k}=\frac{\omega }{g}\overline{q}_j,j=1,\mathrm{},r+1.$$
(4.13)
These determine $`\{\overline{x}_j=\sqrt{\frac{\omega }{g}}\overline{q}_j\}`$, $`j=1,\mathrm{},r+1`$ to be the zeros of the Hermite polynomial $`H_{r+1}(x)`$ .

The matrix $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ is given by

$$\stackrel{~}{W}_{jk}=\left(\omega +g\underset{lj}{}\frac{1}{(\overline{q}_j\overline{q}_l)^2}\right)\delta _{jk}+g\frac{1}{(\overline{q}_j\overline{q}_k)^2},$$
(4.14)
and is equal to $`(\omega I+i\overline{M})_{jk}`$ for the representation of the Lax matrix $`\overline{M}`$ (2.33) in terms of the $`A_r`$ vector weights (A.12). From the general result in §4.3 (4.43), we obtain

$$A_r:\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})=\omega \{1,2,\mathrm{},r+1\}.$$
(4.15)
The general result on the relationship between $`\overline{q}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{}_0`$ (4.5) translates, in this case, to the classical result

$$\underset{j=1}{\overset{r+1}{}}\overline{x}_j^2=\frac{r(r+1)}{2},$$
(4.16)
in which $`\{\overline{x}_j\}`$, $`j=1,\mathrm{},r+1`$ are the zeros of $`H_{r+1}(x)`$. These are some of the earliest results concerning integer eigenvalues associated with the Calogero-Moser classical equilibrium points. The original results  depended heavily on specific properties of Hermite polynomials. Here we have emphasised the universal structure rather than particular properties of specific systems.

#### 4.2.2 $`B_r`$ ($`D_r`$)

In this case, the root vectors are expressed neatly in terms of an orthonormal basis of $`𝐑^r`$ by:

$$B_r=\{\pm 𝐞_j\pm 𝐞_k,\pm 𝐞_j,j,k=1,\mathrm{},r|𝐞_j𝐑^r,𝐞_j𝐞_k=\delta _{jk}\}.$$
(4.17)
Let us note that the rational $`C_r`$ and $`BC_r`$ systems are identical with the $`B_r`$ system. Assuming $`\overline{q}_j0`$, the equations (4.2) read

$$\underset{kj}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{1}{\overline{q}_j^2\overline{q}_k^2}+\frac{g_S/2g_L}{\overline{q}_j^2}=\frac{\omega }{2g_L},j=1,\mathrm{},r,$$
(4.18)
and determine $`\{\overline{q}_j^2\}`$, $`j=1,\mathrm{},r`$, as the zeros of the associated Laguerre polynomial $`L_r^{(\alpha )}(cx)`$, with $`\alpha =g_S/g_L1`$, $`c=\omega /g_L`$, . The general result on the relationship between $`\overline{q}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{}_0`$ (4.5) translates in this case to the classical result

$$\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}\overline{x}_j=r(r+\alpha ),$$
(4.19)
in which $`\{\overline{x}_j\}`$, $`j=1,\mathrm{},r`$, are the zeros of $`L_r^{(\alpha )}(x)`$. The subcase with $`g_S=0`$, that is $`D_r`$, $`\{\overline{q}_j^2\}`$, $`j=1,\mathrm{},r`$, are the zeros of the associated Laguerre polynomial ,

$$rL_r^{(1)}(cx)=cxL_{r1}^{(1)}(cx)$$
(4.20)
for which one of the $`\overline{q}_j`$ is zero. (This also means that the $`\{\overline{q}_j\}`$ of $`B_r`$ for $`g_S/g_L=2`$ or $`\alpha =1`$ are the same as the non-vanishing $`\{\overline{q}_j\}`$ of $`D_{r+1}`$. This can be understood easily from the Dynkin diagram folding $`D_{r+1}B_r`$. Let us note that another Weyl invariant of $`D_r`$, $`\overline{q}_1\mathrm{}\overline{q}_r`$, is trivial (zero) in the present case.) By summing (4.18) over $`j`$, we obtain another sum rule for the inverse square of the zeros

$$g_S\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{1}{\overline{q}_j^2}=r\omega ,\text{or}\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{1}{\overline{x}_j}=\frac{r}{\alpha +1}.$$
(4.21)
This formula implies that the $`D_r`$ limit, or $`g_S0`$ ($`\alpha 1`$) limit is singular. In other words, in this limit one of the $`\overline{q}_j`$ must vanish, otherwise the left hand side of (4.21) goes to zero, whereas the right hand side is a constant. This singularity explains the difference of the spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ for $`B_r`$ and $`D_r`$ in units of $`\omega `$:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | I Spec($`\stackrel{~}{W}`$) |
| --- | --- |
| $`B_r`$ | 2, 4, 6, …, $`2r2`$, $`2r`$ |
| $`D_r`$ | 2, 4, 6, …, $`2r2`$, $`r`$ |

(4.22)
verified by direct computation. This is to be compared with Table 1. It is easy to understand via a scaling the coupling constant independence of the spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ for $`A_r`$ and $`D_r`$ root sytems. However, for the non-simply laced root systems, $`B_r`$, $`F_4`$ and $`I_2(even)`$, with two independent coupling constants, $`g_L`$ and $`g_S`$, the coupling independence of the spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ is rather non-trivial.

In fact, Szegö derived the equations (4.13) and (4.18) while tackling the problem of maximising $`\varphi _0=e^W`$ (Theorem 6.7.2 ) in a slightly different notation and setting—without $`V_C`$, or quantum mechanics, or the Lax pairs. However, he did not mention (4.21).

#### 4.2.3 Exceptional root systems ($`F_4`$ and $`E_r`$, $`r=6,7,8`$)

In each of these cases we have calculated the equilibrium position numerically, and evaluated the spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$. For $`F_4`$, various ratios of $`g_S/g_L`$ have been tried and we have verified that the spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ is independent of the coupling ratio. The results are tabulated in units of $`\omega `$:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`r`$ | I Spec($`\stackrel{~}{W}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| $`F_4`$ | 4 | 2, 6, 8, 12 |
| $`E_6`$ | 6 | 2, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12 |
| $`E_7`$ | 7 | 2, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 18 |
| $`E_8`$ | 8 | 2, 8, 12, 14, 18, 20, 24, 30 |

(4.23)
#### 4.2.4 $`I_2(m)`$

In this case the root vectors are given by:

$$I_2(m)=\left\{\sqrt{2}(\mathrm{cos}((j1)\pi /m),\mathrm{sin}((j1)\pi /m))𝐑^2,j=1,\mathrm{},2m\right\}.$$
(4.24)
The complete set of quantum eigenfunctions are obtained by separation of variables in terms of two dimensional polar coordinates :

$$(q_1,q_2)=r(\mathrm{sin}\phi ,\mathrm{cos}\phi ),$$
(4.25)
which of course separate the pre-potential, the ground state wavefunction:

$$W=\{\begin{array}{cc}g(m\mathrm{log}r+\mathrm{log}\mathrm{sin}m\phi )\frac{\omega }{2}r^2,\hfill & m\text{odd,}\hfill \\ g_e(m/2\mathrm{log}r+\mathrm{log}\mathrm{sin}(m\phi /2))+g_o(m/2\mathrm{log}r+\mathrm{log}\mathrm{cos}(m\phi /2))\frac{\omega }{2}r^2,\hfill & m\text{even.}\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.26)
The equilibrium points are easily obtained:

$$\overline{r}^2=\frac{mg}{\omega },\overline{\phi }=\frac{\pi }{2m},m\text{odd,}\overline{r}^2=\frac{m(g_e+g_o)}{2\omega },\mathrm{tan}\frac{m\overline{\phi }}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{g_e}{g_o}},m\text{even,}$$
(4.27)
together with the values of the second derivatives:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{^2W}{r^2}}|_{\overline{q}}`$ $`=`$ $`2\omega ,{\displaystyle \frac{^2W}{\phi ^2}}|_{\overline{q}}=m^2g,m:\text{odd,}`$ (4.28)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{^2W}{r^2}}|_{\overline{q}}`$ $`=`$ $`2\omega ,{\displaystyle \frac{^2W}{\phi ^2}}|_{\overline{q}}=m^2(g_e+g_o)/2,m\text{even.}`$ (4.29)
These translate into the spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ in cartesian coordinates:

$$I_2(m):\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})=\omega \{2,m\},m\text{odd or even.}$$
(4.30)
The case $`G_2`$ is the $`m=6`$ dihedral root system treated above.

It is relatively easy to derive the explicit form the Coxeter invariant polynomials for $`I_2(m)`$ when

$$g_e=g_o=g.$$
(4.31)
In these cases the pre-potential $`W`$ and the equations for the equilibrium position look the same for even or odd $`m`$. If we choose for $``$ the set of vertices $`R_m`$ of the regular $`m`$-gon associated with $`I_2(m)`$, (A.36), we obtain a degree $`m`$ polynomial in $`y`$, det$`(yI\overline{Q})`$. By scaling $`y=\sqrt{\frac{2mg}{\omega }}x`$ we obtain

$$\text{det}(yI\overline{Q})\left\{\begin{array}{cc}_{k=1}^m\left(x\mathrm{sin}\left[\frac{2k\pi }{m}+\frac{\pi }{2m}\right]\right)\hfill & m\text{even}\hfill \\ _{k=1}^m\left(x\mathrm{sin}\left[\frac{2k\pi }{m}+\frac{\pi }{m}\right]\right)\hfill & m\text{odd}\hfill \end{array}\right\}T_m(x),$$
(4.32)
in which $`T_m`$ is the Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind (5.51),

$$T_m(x)=\mathrm{cos}m\phi ,x=\mathrm{cos}\phi .$$
(4.33)
They satisfy the orthogonality

$$_1^1\frac{T_m(x)T_l(x)}{\sqrt{1x^2}}𝑑x\delta _{ml}.$$
(4.34)
The general theory of Coxeter invariant polynomials for the arbitrary coupling case $`g_eg_o`$ will be published elsewhere.

#### 4.2.5 $`H_r`$

In this case, we have evaluated the equilibrium points numerically and verified the following

$`H_3\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})`$ $`=`$ $`\omega \{2,6,10\},`$ (4.35)
$`H_4\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})`$ $`=`$ $`\omega \{2,12,20,30\}.`$ (4.36)
In all the cases, from §4.2.1 to §4.2.5 the 1 part in the spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$, i.e., $`f_j=1+e_j`$, is always due to the confining harmonic potential $`\omega q^2/2`$ in the pre-potential $`W`$.

### 4.3 Eigenvalues of Lax Matrices

The Lax pair operators $`L`$, $`M`$, $`L^\pm `$ etc (2.32), (2.33), (2.49) are $`D\times D`$ matrices if a set of vectors $``$ forming a single orbit of the reflection (Coxeter) group with $`D`$ elements is chosen.

#### 4.3.1 Universal Spectrum of $`M`$

Let us denote by $`𝐯_0`$ a special vector in $`𝐑^D`$ with each element unity:

$$𝐯_0=(1,1,\mathrm{},1)^T𝐑^D,D=\mathrm{\#},\text{or}𝐯_{0\mu }=1,\mu .$$
(4.37)
Let us note that the condition for classical equilibrium (4.2) can be written simply in terms of $`L^{}`$ as

$$\underset{\nu }{}(\overline{L}^{})_{\mu \nu }=0,\overline{L}^{}L^{}(0,\overline{q}),$$

since $`_\nu (\widehat{s}_\rho )_{\mu \nu }=1`$. Similarly from (2.33) we obtain sum up to zero conditions

$$\underset{\nu }{}M_{\mu \nu }=0,\underset{\mu }{}M_{\mu \nu }=0.$$

It should be stressed that the above two conditions are essential for deriving the quantum conserved quantities . These can be expressed neatly in matrix-vector notation as

$$\overline{L}^{}𝐯_0=0,𝐯_0^T\overline{L}^+=0,\overline{M}𝐯_0=0,𝐯_0^T\overline{M}=0,$$
(4.38)
inspiring the idea that $`𝐯_0`$ is the classical (Coxeter invariant) ground state of a matrix counterpart of the Hamiltonian ($`\overline{M}`$) and that $`\overline{L}^{}`$ is an annihilation operator. The analogy goes further when we evaluate the Lax equation for $`L^\pm `$ (2.48) at the classical equilibrium to obtain

$$[\overline{M},\overline{L}^\pm ]=\pm i\omega \overline{L}^\pm .$$
(4.39)
However, the commutator of $`L^+`$ and $`L^{}`$ does not produce $`\overline{M}`$ but the constant matrix $`K`$ (see (2.50) and the Appendix):

$$[\overline{L}^+,\overline{L}^{}]=[\overline{L}+i\omega \overline{Q},\overline{L}i\omega \overline{Q}]=2\omega K,$$
(4.40)
together with the relation

$$[\overline{M},[\overline{L}^+,\overline{L}^{}]]=0,$$
(4.41)
since $`K`$ and $`\overline{M}`$ commute (A.5). The relation (4.39) simply means that the eigenvalues of $`\overline{M}`$ are integer spaced in units of $`i\omega `$. We obtain

$$\overline{M}𝐯_0=0,\overline{M}\overline{L}^+𝐯_0=i\omega \overline{L}^+𝐯_0,\mathrm{},\overline{M}(\overline{L}^+)^n𝐯_0=in\omega (\overline{L}^+)^n𝐯_0,$$
(4.42)
implying $`\overline{L}^+`$ is a corresponding creation operator. This also means there is a universal formula:

$$\text{Spec}(\overline{M})=i\omega \{0,1,2,\mathrm{},\},$$
(4.43)
with possible degeneracies. The following sum rules (trace formulae) (4.45) and (4.46) are useful. Let us note the simple formula

$$(\widehat{s}_\rho I)_{\mu \mu }=\{\begin{array}{cc}1,& \rho \mu 0,\hfill \\ 0,& \rho \mu =0\hfill \end{array}$$
(4.44)
and the fact that, for a fixed $`\rho `$, the number of $`\mu `$’s in $``$ such that $`\rho \mu 0`$ is almost independent of $`\rho `$, depending only on its orbit ($`|\rho |`$) and $``$. Let us denote this number by $`F_\rho ^{}`$. On taking the trace of $`\overline{M}`$, we obtain

$$\text{Tr}(\overline{M})=\frac{i}{2}\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho F_\rho ^{}\frac{\rho ^2}{(\rho \overline{q})^2}.$$
(4.45)
This formula simplifies for the simply laced root systems. In those cases, we arrive at a simple relation between Tr($`\stackrel{~}{W}`$), which is independent of $``$, and Tr($`\overline{M}`$), which depends on the choice of $``$, by comparing with (3.6):

$$\text{Tr}(\overline{M})=F^{}\frac{i}{2}(\omega r+\text{Tr}(\stackrel{~}{W}))=\frac{i}{4}\omega rhF^{},\mathrm{\Delta }:\text{simply laced},$$
(4.46)
in which (4.11) is used. This formula provides a non-trivial check for the numerical evaluation of the eigenvalues of $`\overline{M}`$, since the right hand side (except for the factor $`i\omega /4`$) is an integer determined by $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and $``$.

For $`A_r`$ ($`B_r`$) with vector weights (or with short roots) $`\overline{M}`$ has no degeneracy but high multiplicities occur for the $`D_r`$ vector or spinor weights. Here is the summary of the spectrum of $`\overline{M}`$ (in units of $`i\omega `$) with \[multiplicity\] for the classical root systems:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`A_r`$ | V | $`r+1`$ | 0, 1, …, $`r1`$, $`r`$ |
| $`B_r`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$ | $`2r`$ | 0, 1, 2, …, $`2r1`$ |
| $`D_r`$ | V | $`2r`$ | 0, 1, 2, …, $`r1`$, …, $`2r2`$ |
| $`D_4`$ | S | 8 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 |
| $`D_5`$ | S | 16 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 |
| $`D_6`$ | S | 32 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, |
|  |  |  | I 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 |

(4.47)
For the minimal weights of the exceptional root systems $`E_r`$, we obtain:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`E_6`$ | 27 | 27 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, |
|  |  |  | I 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16 |
| $`E_7`$ | 56 | 56 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, |
|  |  |  | I 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, |
|  |  |  | I 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 |

(4.48)
These are consistent with the trace formula for $`\overline{M}`$ (4.46), since

$$F^𝐕(A_r)=2,F^𝐕(D_r)=4,F^𝐒(D_r)=2^{r2},F^{\mathrm{𝟐𝟕}}(E_6)=12,F^{\mathrm{𝟓𝟔}}(E_7)=24.$$
(4.49)
For example, $`F^𝐕(A_r)=2`$ can be seen easily. For the typical choice $`\rho =𝐞_1𝐞_2`$, $`\mu =𝐞_1`$ and $`\mu =𝐞_2`$ are the only two vectors having non-vanishing scalar product with $`\rho `$.

Let us define the height of a vector $`\mu 𝐑^r`$ by its scalar product with the Weyl vector, i.e., (2.19)

$$\delta \mu 𝐑.$$
(4.50)
The set of heights of all vectors in $``$, denoted by $`\delta `$,

$$\delta =\{\delta \mu |\mu \},$$
(4.51)
together with its maximum $`h_{max}\mathrm{max}(\delta )`$, are independent of the choice of the positive roots. The above results on the spectrum of the Lax matrix $`\overline{M}`$ at equilibrium (defined by $``$) (4.47)-(4.48) are summarised neatly by the set of heights of the vectors in $``$ shifted by $`h_{max}`$:

$$\text{Spec}(\overline{M})=i\omega \{\delta \mu +h_{max}|\mu \}.$$
(4.52)
The eigenvalues and multiplicities of $`\overline{M}`$ in the root type Lax pairs of simply laced crystallographic root systems can also be understood as the height and multiplicities of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. These are mirror symmetric with respect to the midpoint, including multiplicity. The maximum multiplicity is always the rank $`r`$ occurring twice in the middle. The highest eigenvalue (in units of $`i\omega `$) is $`2h3`$, where $`h`$ is the Coxeter number. If the lower half is shifted by $`(h1)`$, ($`h1`$ is the maximal height), and the higher half by $`(h2)`$, then the eigenvalues range from $`(h1)`$ to $`h1`$, precisely the range of the height of the roots. The multiplicities of $`\overline{M}`$ are just the numbers of roots with that height. The following tables summarize the spectrum of $`\overline{M}`$ in the root type Lax pairs for the simply laced classical root systems obtained by direct computation:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`A_r`$ | $`r+1`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`r(r+1)`$ | 0, 1, …, $`r1`$\[$`r`$\], $`r`$\[$`r`$\], $`r+1`$\[$`r1`$\], …, $`2r2`$, $`2r1`$ |
| $`D_4`$ | $`6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 24 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, |
| $`D_5`$ | 8 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 40 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, |
|  |  |  |  | I 12, 13, |
| $`D_6`$ | 10 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 60 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, |
|  |  |  |  | 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 |
| $`D_7`$ | 12 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 84 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, |
|  |  |  |  | 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, |

(4.53)
The spectrum of $`\overline{M}`$ with the long roots of the $`B_r`$ is very interesting. The highest eigenvalue is $`2h5`$$`=2h^{}3`$, in which $`h^{}`$ is the dual Coxeter number and the highest multiplicity is $`r1`$, the number of the long simple roots. The spectrum is mirror symmetric with respect to the midpoint. If the lower half is shifted by $`(h^{}1)`$ and the higher half by $`(h^{}2)`$, the eigenvalues range from $`(h^{}1)`$ to $`h^{}1`$, which is the range of the height of the roots. Thus we conclude that the spectrum of $`\overline{M}`$ with the long roots is again the same as the distribution of the $`B_r`$ long roots with respect to the height:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $`h^{}`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`B_4`$ | $`8`$ | $`7`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 24 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 |
| $`B_5`$ | 10 | 9 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 40 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, |
|  |  |  |  |  | I 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 |
| $`B_6`$ | 12 | 11 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 60 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, |
|  |  |  |  |  | I 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 |
| $`B_7`$ | 14 | 13 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 84 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, |
|  |  |  |  |  | I 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, |
|  |  |  |  |  | I 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 |

(4.54)
The spectrum of root type $`\overline{M}`$ (4.53),(4.54), (4.56), (4.57) can be expressed succinctly in terms of the Weyl vector $`\delta `$:

$$\text{Spec}(\overline{M})=\left\{\begin{array}{cc}\delta \mu +h_{max},\hfill & \text{for }\delta \mu <0\\ \delta \mu +h_{max}1,\hfill & \text{for }\delta \mu >0\end{array}\right|\mu \mathrm{\Delta }(\mathrm{\Delta }_L)\},$$
(4.55)
in which as before $`h_{max}\mathrm{max}(\delta \mathrm{\Delta })`$ or $`\mathrm{max}(\delta \mathrm{\Delta }_L)`$. The spectra for $`F_4`$ in terms of $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ and $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$ are the same, reflecting the self-duality of the $`F_4`$ root system. The situation is about the same as in the $`B_r`$ cases. The highest multiplicity is 2, which is the number of long (short) simple roots.

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $`h^{}`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`F_4`$ | 12 | 9 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 24 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, |
|  |  |  |  |  | I 12, 13, 14, 15, |
| $`F_4`$ | 12 | 9 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$ | 24 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, |
|  |  |  |  |  | I 12, 13, 14, 15, |

(4.56)
| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`E_6`$ | 12 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 72 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, |
|  |  |  |  | I 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 |
| $`E_7`$ | 18 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 126 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, |
|  |  |  |  | I 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, |
|  |  |  |  | I 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, |
|  |  |  |  | I 30, 31, 32, 33 |
| $`E_8`$ | 30 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 240 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, |
|  |  |  |  | I 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, |
|  |  |  |  | I 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, |
|  |  |  |  | I 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, |
|  |  |  |  | I 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, |
|  |  |  |  | I 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57 |

(4.57)
The eigenvalue (the height of the root) where the multiplicity changes corresponds to the exponent. When the multiplicity changes by two units, which occurs only in $`D_{even}`$, there are two equal exponents. We do not have analytic proofs of these facts.

The situation for the non-crystallographic root systems is different since the “integral heights” are not defined for the roots. The highest eigenvalue is not $`2h3`$. The places where the multiplicity changes, counted from the center of the spectrum, are not the exponents but 3, 5 and 7 ($`3+7=10=5+5=h`$ for $`H_3`$) and 7, 13, 17 and 23 ($`7+23=13+17=30=h`$ for $`H_4`$). It is known that $`H_3`$ ($`H_4`$) is obtained from $`D_6`$ ($`E_8`$) by “folding”. The above integers are the exponents of $`D_6`$ and $`E_8`$. The rest of the exponents of $`D_6`$ ($`E_8`$) are inherited by $`H_3`$ ($`H_4`$). The pair $`D_6`$ and $`H_3`$ ($`E_8`$ and $`H_4`$) share the same Coxeter number $`h`$. For other aspects of the $`\overline{M}`$ spectra of root type Lax pairs of $`H_r`$, we do not have an explanation to offer. Here is the summary of the spectrum of $`\overline{M}`$ for the root type Lax pairs of $`H_r`$:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`H_3`$ | 10 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 30 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, |
|  |  |  |  | I 10, 11, 12, 13 |
| $`H_4`$ | 30 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 120 | 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, |
|  |  |  |  | I 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, |
|  |  |  |  | I 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, |
|  |  |  |  | I 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, |
|  |  |  |  | I 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45 |

(4.58)
In all these root type cases the highest multiplicity is equal to the rank $`r`$. The spectra of $`\overline{M}`$ for the simply laced root systems are consistent with the trace formula for $`\overline{M}`$ (4.46), since

$`F^\mathrm{\Delta }(A_r)`$ $`=`$ $`2(2r1),F^\mathrm{\Delta }(D_r)=8r14,F^\mathrm{\Delta }(E_6)=42,`$
$`F^\mathrm{\Delta }(E_7)`$ $`=`$ $`66,F^\mathrm{\Delta }(E_8)=114,F^\mathrm{\Delta }(H_3)=26,F^\mathrm{\Delta }(H_4)=90.`$ (4.59)
For crystallographic root systems, i.e., $`A_r`$, $`D_r`$ and $`E_r`$, $`F^\mathrm{\Delta }=4h6`$ and $`F^\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is twice the maximal eigenvalue of $`\overline{M}`$ for all the cases listed above.

Finally, for $`I_2(m)`$ in the $`m`$ dimensional representation (A.36):

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`I_2(2n+1)`$ | $`2n+1`$ | $`R_{2n+1}`$ | $`2n+1`$ | 0, 1, …, $`2n1`$, $`2n`$ |
| $`I_2(2n)`$ | $`2n`$ | $`R_{2n}`$ | $`2n`$ | 0, 1, …, $`2n2`$, $`2n1`$ |

(4.60)
#### 4.3.2 Spectrum of $`\overline{}_1`$ and $`\overline{}_2`$

Next let us consider the spectra of $`\overline{}_1=\overline{L}^+\overline{L}^{}`$ and $`\overline{}_2=\overline{L}^{}\overline{L}^+`$, the generators of the conserved quantities (2.52). Note first that a classical analogue of the creation-annihilation operator commutation relation of a harmonic oscillator reads $`[L^+,L^{}]=2\omega K`$, (see (4.40). By using the information on $`K`$ in the Appendix, we can derive the spectrum of $`\overline{}_1=\overline{L}^+\overline{L}^{}`$ and $`\overline{}_2=\overline{L}^{}\overline{L}^+`$ for specific choices of $``$.

Let us explain the method using the simplest examples. First, $`A_r`$ with vector weights embedded in $`𝐑^{r+1}`$ (A.12). The $`K`$ matrix has the following form,

$$K=g(𝐯_0𝐯_0^TI),$$

with the highest eigenvalue at $`𝐯_0`$ (A.15), (A.6):

$$K𝐯_0=gr𝐯_0.$$

Since $`\overline{}_{1,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}}`$ are simultaneously diagonalisable with $`\overline{M}`$ (3.4), it is natural to assume that $`\{(\overline{L}^+)^m𝐯_0\}`$ form the eigenvectors for $`\overline{}_{1,2}`$. In fact, we have:

$`\overline{}_1𝐯_0`$ $`=`$ $`0,\overline{}_1\overline{L}^+𝐯_0=\overline{L}^+\left([\overline{L}^{},\overline{L}^+]+\overline{L}^+\overline{L}^{}\right)𝐯_0=2\omega \overline{L}^+K𝐯_0=2\omega gr\overline{L}^+𝐯_0,`$
$`\overline{}_2𝐯_0`$ $`=`$ $`\left([\overline{L}^{},\overline{L}^+]+\overline{L}^+\overline{L}^{}\right)𝐯_0=2\omega K𝐯_0=2\omega gr𝐯_0,`$ (4.61)
and we arrive at

$`A_r(𝐕):\text{Spec}(\overline{}_1)`$ $`=`$ $`2g\omega \{0,r,r1,\mathrm{},1\},`$ (4.62)
$`A_r(𝐕):\text{Spec}(\overline{}_2)`$ $`=`$ $`2g\omega \{r,r1,\mathrm{},1,0\}.`$ (4.63)
In this case, it is easy to see $`\overline{L}^2+\omega ^2\overline{Q}^2`$ also has integer eigenvalues.

Next, let us consider $`D_r`$ with vector weights (A.22), or $`B_r`$ with the short roots (A.19). In these cases we have (A.24) and (A.21):

$$D_r(𝐕):K=g\left(𝐯_0𝐯_0^TI{}_{S}{}^{}I\right),B_r(\mathrm{\Delta }_S):K=g_L\left(𝐯_0𝐯_0^TI{}_{S}{}^{}I\right)+2g_S{}_{S}{}^{}I,$$

in which $`{}_{S}{}^{}I`$ is the second identity matrix. It is 1 for the elements $`(𝐞_j,𝐞_j)`$, $`(𝐞_j,𝐞_j)`$, $`j=1,\mathrm{},r`$ and zero otherwise. The $`L^\pm `$ satisfy simple commutation relation with $`{}_{S}{}^{}I`$: and

$${}_{S}{}^{}I(L^\pm )^m=(1)^m(L^\pm )^m{}_{S}{}^{}I.$$
(4.64)
We have (in units of $`2g\omega `$ for the simply laced root systems):

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{}_1`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`A_r`$ | V | $`r+1`$ | 0, $`r`$, $`r1`$, …, 2, 1 |
| $`D_r`$ | V | $`2r`$ | 0, $`2(r1)`$, …, 2 |
| $`B_r`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$ | $`2r`$ | 0, $`2(r1)g_L+2g_S`$, $`2(r1)g_L`$, $`2(r2)g_L+2g_S`$, |
|  |  |  | I$`2(r2)g_L`$, …, $`2g_L+2g_S`$, $`2g_L`$, $`2g_S`$ |

(4.65)
In these cases, the spectrum of $`\overline{L}^2+\omega ^2\overline{Q}^2`$ also consists of integer eigenvalues.

It is interesting to note for other cases the spectrum of $`\overline{}_1`$ does not always consist of integers. For example, the spinor weights of $`D_r`$, the set of roots for $`A_r`$, $`D_r`$, etc and for the exceptional $`E_r`$ and non-crystallographic root systems $`H_r`$. Here we list only the integer eigenvalues of $`\overline{}_1`$ in units of $`2g\omega `$ (the total number of integer eigenvalues including multiplicity is denoted by $`\mathrm{\#}I`$):

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mathrm{\#}I`$ | I Spec($`\overline{}_1`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`A_3`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 12 | 10 | 0, 2, 4, 6, 8 |
| $`A_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 20 | 14 | 0, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10 |
| $`A_5`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 30 | 20 | 0, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 |
| $`A_6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 42 | 30 | 0, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 14, 15 |

(4.66)
| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mathrm{\#}I`$ | I Spec($`\overline{}_1`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`D_4`$ | S | 8 | 8 | 0, 2, 4, 6 |
| $`D_5`$ | S | 16 | 8 | 0, 2, 4, 6, 10, 12 |
| $`D_6`$ | S | 32 | 16 | 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 15, 19, 20 |
| $`D_7`$ | S | 64 | 14 | 0, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9, 15, 21, 30, 31 |
| $`D_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 24 | 24 | 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16 |
| $`D_5`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 40 | 26 | 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 |
| $`D_6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 60 | 38 | 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, |
|  |  |  |  | I 20, 24 |
| $`D_7`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 84 | 49 | 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, |
|  |  |  |  | I 18, 20, 24, 30 |

(4.67)
The results for the exceptional root systems are in units of $`2\omega `$ for $`F_4`$:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mathrm{\#}I`$ | I Spec($`\overline{}_1`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`F_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 24 | 12 | 0, $`6g_L`$, $`2(g_L+2g_S)`$, $`4(2g_L+g_S)`$, $`4(g_L+2g_S)`$, |
|  |  |  |  | I $`2(5g_L+4g_S)`$, $`8(2g_L+g_S)`$, $`12(g_L+g_S)`$ |
| $`F_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$ | 24 | 12 | 0, $`2g_L+g_S`$, $`3g_S`$, $`2(2g_L+g_S)`$, $`2(g_L+2g_S)`$, |
|  |  |  |  | I $`2g_L+5g_S`$, $`6(g_L+g_S)`$, $`4(g_L+2g_S)`$ |

(4.68)
For the simply laced $`E_r`$ in units of $`2g\omega `$:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mathrm{\#}I`$ | I Spec($`\overline{}_1`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`E_6`$ | 27 | 27 | 15 | 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16, 18, 20 |
| $`E_7`$ | 56 | 56 | 23 | 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, |
|  |  |  |  | I 15, 16, 18, 20, 27, 32, 35, 36 |
| $`E_6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 72 | 29 | 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 |
| $`E_7`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 126 | 31 | 0, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, |
|  |  |  |  | 18, 24, 36, 48, 50, 56 |
| $`E_8`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 240 | 55 | 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, |
|  |  |  |  | I 36, 54, 60, 84, 90, 96 |

(4.69)
The results for the non-crystallographic root systems are:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mathrm{\#}I`$ | I Spec($`\overline{}_1`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`H_3`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 30 | 15 | 0, 2, 3, 5, 8, 10 |
| $`H_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 120 | 48 | 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 |

(4.70)
All the eigenvalues are “integers” for $`I_2(m)`$ in the $`m`$ dimensional representation (A.36):

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mathrm{\#}I`$ | I Spec($`\overline{}_1`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`I_2(2n+1)`$ | $`R_{2n+1}`$ | $`2n+1`$ | $`2n+1`$ | 0, $`4n+2`$\[$`2n1`$\], $`8n+4`$ |
| $`I_2(2n)`$ | $`R_{2n}`$ | $`2n`$ | $`2n`$ | 0, $`8g_en`$, $`8g_on`$, $`4(g_e+g_0)n`$\[$`2n4`$\], $`8(g_e+g_0)n`$ |

(4.71)
## 5 Classical Data II: Trigonometric Potential

### 5.1 Minimum Energy

Let us start this subsection by recalling that the classical minimum energy $`2\varrho ^2`$ (2.17) is, in fact, “quantised”. In this section we discuss only the crystallographic root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ to which a Lie algebra $`𝔤_\mathrm{\Delta }`$ is associated. If all the coupling constants are unity $`g_\rho =1`$, $`\varrho =\delta `$, and the Freudenthal-de Vries (“strange”) formula leads to

$$2\varrho ^2=\frac{\text{dim}(𝔤_\mathrm{\Delta })\rho _h^2h^{}}{12},$$
(5.1)
in which dim$`(𝔤_\mathrm{\Delta })`$ is the dimension of the Lie algebra $`𝔤_\mathrm{\Delta }`$, $`\rho _h`$ is the highest root and $`h^{}`$ is the dual Coxeter number. This gives the classical minimum energy formula for the simply laced root systems (in the unit of $`g^2`$ and with $`\alpha ^2=2`$):

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | I$`_0`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`_0`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`_0`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`_0`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`_0`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| I$`A_r`$ | $`r(r+1)(r+2)/6`$ | $`D_r`$ | $`r(r1)(2r1)/3`$ | $`E_6`$ | 156 | $`E_7`$ | 399 | $`E_8`$ | 1240 |

(5.2)
For the non-simply laced root systems, the classical minimum energy formula is given by:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | I$`_0`$ |
| --- | --- |
| I$`B_r`$ | $`r\left(2g_L^2+4r^2g_L^26g_Lg_S+3g_S^2+r(6g_L^2+6g_Lg_S)\right)/6`$ |
| I$`C_r`$ | $`r(g_S^26g_Sg_L+6g_L^23g_S^2r+6g_Sg_Lr+2g_S^2r^2)/3`$ |
| I$`F_4`$ | $`28g_L^2+36g_Lg_S+14g_S^2`$ |
| I$`G_2`$ | $`4g_L^2+4g_Lg_S+4g_S^2/3`$ |

(5.3)
in which long roots have $`\rho _L^2=2`$, except for the $`C_r`$ case where a different normalisation $`\rho _L^2=4`$ is chosen.

By taking the trace of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ (3.6), we obtain

$$\text{Tr}(\stackrel{~}{W})=\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}\frac{g_\rho \rho ^2}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\rho \overline{q})}.$$
(5.4)
For the simply laced root systems, this is related to $`V_C(\overline{q})`$ (2.7) and thus to $`_0`$ (2.23):

$$\text{Tr}(\stackrel{~}{W})=2V_C(\overline{q})/g=2_0/g=4\varrho ^2/g,\mathrm{\Delta }:\text{simply laced}.$$
(5.5)
As in the Calogero systems (4.46), Tr($`\overline{M}`$) is related to Tr($`\stackrel{~}{W}`$). By taking the trace of $`\overline{M}`$, we obtain

$$\text{Tr}(\overline{M})=\frac{i}{2}\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho F_\rho ^{}\frac{\rho ^2}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\rho \overline{q})^2},$$
(5.6)
on recalling the earlier definition of $`F_\rho ^{}`$ (4.44). This formula simplifies for the simply laced root systems to:

$$\text{Tr}(\overline{M})=\frac{i}{2}F^{}\text{Tr}(\stackrel{~}{W})=2iF^{}\varrho ^2/g,\mathrm{\Delta }:\text{simply laced}.$$
(5.7)
As in the calogero case, this formula provides a non-trivial check for the numerical evaluation of the eigenvalues of $`\overline{M}`$. Since the Lax matrix $`\overline{L}`$ is off-diagonal, $`(\overline{L})_{\mu \mu }=0`$ and we have a trivial trace formula:

$$\text{Tr}(\overline{L})=0.$$
(5.8)
### 5.2 Determination of the Equilibrium Point and Eigenvalues of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$

Since the quantum energy levels of the Sutherland systems are not integers (time a constant) spaced but (2.30)

$$_{\lambda _\stackrel{}{n}}=2(\lambda _\stackrel{}{n}^2+\varrho ^2+2\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}n_j\lambda _j\varrho ),$$

it is not obvious what to expect for the eigenfrequencies of the small oscillations near the equilibrium point. In other words, what are the corresponding spectra of $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ or equivalently of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$? An educated guess would be that, just as in the rational potential situation, we assume the parts of the spectra which are linear in the integer labels $`\stackrel{}{n}`$ correspond to the eigenfrequencies of the small oscillations near the equilibrium point. That is, we expect

$$\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{V})=\{(4\lambda _1\varrho )^2,\mathrm{},(4\lambda _r\varrho )^2\}$$
(5.9)
and

$$\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})=\{4\lambda _1\varrho ,\mathrm{},4\lambda _r\varrho \},$$
(5.10)
which we will show presently. For the simply laced root systems, we have a simple relation

$$\varrho =\frac{g}{2}\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}\rho =g\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}\lambda _j,$$
(5.11)
which implies a simple sum rule

$$\text{Tr}(\stackrel{~}{W})=\frac{4\varrho ^2}{g}=\frac{2_0}{g},\mathrm{\Delta }:\text{simply laced},$$
(5.12)
which has been derived before (5.5) via a different route. The equations determining the equilibrium position (3.3) read

$$\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho \mathrm{cot}(\rho \overline{q})\rho _j=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r,$$

and can be expressed in terms of the $`L`$ matrix at equilibrium:

$$\overline{L}𝐯_0=0=𝐯_0^T\overline{L}.$$
(5.13)
The “ground state” $`𝐯_0`$ (4.37) is also annihilated by $`\overline{M}`$;

$$\overline{M}𝐯_0=0=𝐯_0^T\overline{M}.$$

These relations are valid for any $``$. As in the Calogero case, the equilibrium positions $`\overline{q}=(\overline{q}_1,\mathrm{},\overline{q}_r)`$ can be easily identified for the classical root systems. For the exceptional root systems the equilibrium positions are determined numerically. We shall discuss each case in turn.

#### 5.2.1 $`A_r`$

In this case, the equilibrium position and the eigenvalues of the Lax matrices can be obtained explicitly. This is the reason why the Haldane-Shastry model is better understood than other spin exchange models. The equations determining the equilibrium position (3.2) and (3.3) read:

$$\underset{kj}{\overset{r+1}{}}\frac{\mathrm{cos}[\overline{q}_j\overline{q}_k]}{\mathrm{sin}^3[\overline{q}_j\overline{q}_k]}=0,\underset{kj}{\overset{r+1}{}}\mathrm{cot}[\overline{q}_j\overline{q}_k]=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r+1,$$

and the equilibrium position is “equally-spaced

$$\overline{q}=\pi (0,1,\mathrm{},r1,r)/(r+1)+\xi 𝐯_0,\xi 𝐑:\text{arbitrary},$$
(5.14)
due to the well-known trigonometric identities:

$$\underset{kj}{\overset{r+1}{}}\frac{\mathrm{cos}[\pi (jk)/(r+1)]}{\mathrm{sin}^3[\pi (jk)/(r+1)]}=0,\underset{kj}{\overset{r+1}{}}\mathrm{cot}[\pi (jk)/(r+1)]=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r+1.$$

This enables us to calculate most quantities exactly. For example, we have

$$\stackrel{~}{W}_{jk}=g\frac{(1\delta _{jk})}{\mathrm{sin}^2[(jk)\pi /(r+1)]}g\delta _{jk}\underset{lj}{}\frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^2[(jl)\pi /(r+1)]},j,k=1,\mathrm{},r+1$$
(5.15)
and

$$A_r:\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})=2g\{r,(r1)2,\mathrm{},(r+1j)j,\mathrm{},2(r1),r\},$$
(5.16)
in which the trivial eigenvalue 0, coming from the translational invariance, is removed. This agrees with the general formula (5.10) of the $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ spectrum (i.e. the $`j`$-th entry is $`4\lambda _j\varrho `$, and obviously satisfies the above sum rule (5.2), (5.12)). The spectrum (5.16) is symmetric with respect to the middle point, $`\lambda _j\lambda _{r+1j}`$, reflecting the symmetry of the $`A_r`$ Dynkin diagram. It is easy to see that $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ is essentially the same as the Lax matrix $`\overline{M}`$ with the vector weights ($`=𝐕`$, see (A.12)):

$$\overline{M}=i\stackrel{~}{W}.$$
(5.17)
(This is consistent with (5.7), since $`F^𝐕=2`$, see (4.49)).

##### $`A_r`$ Universal Lax pair ($`𝐕`$)

The other Lax matrix with the vector weights reads ($`j,k=1,\mathrm{},r+1`$):

$$(\overline{L})_{jk}=ig(1\delta _{jk})\mathrm{cot}[\pi (jk)/(r+1)],$$
(5.18)
$$A_r(𝐕):\text{Spec}(\overline{L})=g\left\{\begin{array}{cc}0[2],\pm 2,\pm 4,\mathrm{},\pm (r1)\hfill & r:\text{odd}\hfill \\ 0,\pm 1,\pm 3,\mathrm{},\pm (r1)\hfill & r:\text{even}\hfill \end{array}\right\},$$
(5.19)
with the common eigenvectors ($`h=r+1`$):

$$u^{(a)},(u^{(a)})_j=e^{2iaj\pi /h},a=0,1,\mathrm{},r,u^{(0)}𝐯_0,$$
(5.20)
satisfying

$`\overline{L}u^{(a)}`$ $`=`$ $`g\lambda _au^{(a)},\lambda _a=\{\begin{array}{cc}0,\hfill & a=0,\hfill \\ r+12a,\hfill & a0,\hfill \end{array}`$ (5.23)
$`\overline{M}u^{(a)}`$ $`=`$ $`ig\mu _au^{(a)},\mu _a=2a(r+1a).`$ (5.24)
These are well-known results .

##### $`A_r`$ Minimal type Lax pair ($`𝐕`$)

The minimal Lax pair matrices in the vector weights read ($`j,k=1,\mathrm{},r+1`$):

$$(\overline{L}_m)_{jk}=ig(1\delta _{jk})/\mathrm{sin}[\pi (jk)/(r+1)],$$
(5.25)
$$(\overline{M}_m)_{jk}=ig\frac{(1\delta _{jk})}{\mathrm{sin}^2[(jk)\pi /(r+1)]}ig\delta _{jk}\underset{lj}{}\frac{\mathrm{cos}[(jl)\pi /(r+1)]}{\mathrm{sin}^2[(jl)\pi /(r+1)]}.$$
(5.26)
They have common eigenvectors with integer eigenvalues ($`h=r+1`$):

$$v^{(a,\pm )},(v^{(a,\pm )})_j=e^{\pm iaj\pi /h},a=1,3,5,\mathrm{},h,$$
(5.27)
$`\overline{L}_mv^{(a,\pm )}`$ $`=`$ $`\pm g(ha)v^{(a,\pm )},`$ (5.28)
$`\overline{M}_mv^{(a,\pm )}`$ $`=`$ $`ig\left(ah(a^2+1)/2\right)v^{(a,\pm )}.`$ (5.29)
The above spectrum of $`\overline{M}_m`$ can be derived easily from the following relation between $`\overline{L}_m`$ and $`\overline{M}_m`$ (see eq.(5.8) of )

$$R^{1/2}\overline{M}_mR^{1/2}R^{1/2}\overline{M}_mR^{1/2}=i\left(R^{1/2}\overline{L}_mR^{1/2}+R^{1/2}\overline{L}_mR^{1/2}\right),$$
(5.30)
in which $`Re^{2i\overline{Q}}`$. We note $`R^{\pm a/2}𝐯_0=v^{(a,\pm )}`$ and use the spectrum of $`\overline{L}_m`$. The above relationship is a special case of the general formulae which are valid in any root systems having minimal weights:

$`R^{1/2}\overline{L}_mR^{1/2}`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{L}+K,R^{1/2}\overline{L}_mR^{1/2}=\overline{L}K,`$ (5.31)
$`R^{1/2}\overline{M}_mR^{1/2}`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{M}iR^{1/2}\overline{L}_mR^{1/2},`$ (5.32)
$`R^{1/2}\overline{M}_mR^{1/2}`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{M}+iR^{1/2}\overline{L}_mR^{1/2},`$ (5.33)
in which the constant matrix $`K`$ is defined in (2.50). These mean, for example, that the spectrum of $`\overline{L}_m`$ and $`\overline{L}\pm K`$ are the same and those of $`\overline{M}`$ and $`\overline{M}_m\pm i\overline{L}_m`$ are the same. We will see many examples later.

##### $`A_r`$ Root type Lax pair

The $`\overline{L}`$-matrices of the $`A_r`$ root type Lax pair do not have integer eigenvalues, although the quantities $`\overline{L}^2`$ do. Let us tentatively say that $`\overline{L}`$ has $`\sqrt{\text{integer}}`$ eigenvalues. (Recall that Tr($`L^2`$) is proportional to the Hamiltonian.) However, a new type of $`L`$-matrix having all integer eigenvalues can be defined by

$$\overline{L}_K=\overline{L}+\stackrel{~}{K},\stackrel{~}{K}=\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho |\rho \widehat{H}|\widehat{s}_\rho ,[\stackrel{~}{K},\overline{M}]=0,$$
(5.34)
in which $`\stackrel{~}{K}`$ is a non-negative matrix closely related to the $`K`$-matrix defined by (2.50). The absolute value in the definition of $`\stackrel{~}{K}`$ means $`\stackrel{~}{K}_{\mu \nu }=_{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}g_\rho |\rho \mu |(\widehat{s}_\rho )_{\mu \nu }`$, $`\mu ,\nu `$. This type of Lax matrix has been obtained (see §8.3 eq.(8.22) in ) by incorporating a spectral parameter ($`\xi `$) into the Lax pair and taking a limit (say, $`\xi i\mathrm{}`$). For $`=\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ {set of minimal weights}, we have $`\stackrel{~}{K}K`$ and $`\overline{L}_K`$ has the same spectrum as the minimal type $`\overline{L}_m`$ due to the relation (5.31). The spectra of $`\overline{L}_K`$ are very simple, whereas those of $`\overline{M}`$ of the root type are sums of those of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$, i.e. $`4\lambda _j\varrho `$, with varied multiplicities:

$$A_r(\mathrm{\Delta }):\text{Spec}(\overline{L}_K)=g\{\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}[r],\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}[r1],\mathrm{},\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}(r1)[2],\pm r\},$$
(5.35)
| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`A_3`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 12 | 0, 6, 8, 12, 14 |
| $`A_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 20 | 0, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24 |
| $`A_5`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 30 | 0, 10, 16, 18, 20, 26, 28, 32, 34 |
| $`A_6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 42 | 0, 12, 20, 24, 32, 36, 40, 44, 48 |
| $`A_7`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 56 | 0, 14, 24, 28, 30, 32, 38, 44, 46, |
|  |  |  | I 48, 54, 56, 60, 62 |
| $`A_8`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 72 | 0, 16, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44, 52, 56, |
|  |  |  | I 64, 68, 72, 76, 80 |

(5.36)
The eigenvalues of $`\overline{M}`$ are of the form $`i_{j=1}^ra_j(4\varrho \lambda _j)`$, in which $`a_j=0,1`$. The relation between Tr($`\stackrel{~}{W}`$) and Tr($`\overline{M}`$), (5.7) is satisfied, since $`F^\mathrm{\Delta }(A_r)=2(2r1)`$—see (4.59).

#### 5.2.2 $`BC_r`$ and $`D_r`$

The analytical treatment of the classical equilibrium position of the $`BC_r`$ and $`D_r`$ Sutherland system has not been reported, to the best of our knowledge, except for the aforementioned three cases when the coupling ratio $`g_S/g_L`$ takes special values . We will show in this subsection, that the equilibrium position is given in terms of the zeros of Jacobi polynomials. The Jacobi polynomials $`P_r^{(\alpha ,\beta )}`$ are known to reduce to elementary trigonometric polynomials, Chebyshev polynomials, etc. for three cases:

$$(i)\alpha =\beta =1/2,(ii)\alpha =\beta =1/2,(iii)\alpha =1/2,\beta =1/2,$$
(5.37)
which will be identified later with the three cases discussed in .

Let us start from the pre-potential of the $`BC_r`$ Sutherland system

$`W`$ $`=`$ $`g_M{\displaystyle \underset{j<k}{\overset{r}{}}}\mathrm{log}\left[\mathrm{sin}(q_jq_k)\mathrm{sin}(q_j+q_k)\right]+{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}}\left\{g_S\mathrm{log}\mathrm{sin}q_j+g_L\mathrm{log}\mathrm{sin}2q_j\right\}`$ (5.38)
$`=`$ $`g_M{\displaystyle \underset{j<k}{\overset{r}{}}}\mathrm{log}\left[(1/2)(\mathrm{cos}2q_j\mathrm{cos}2q_k)\right]+{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}}\left\{g_S\mathrm{log}\mathrm{sin}q_j+g_L\mathrm{log}\mathrm{sin}2q_j\right\}`$ (5.39)
which depends on three independent coupling constants, $`g_L`$, $`g_M`$ and $`g_S`$, for the long, middle and short roots, respectively. Here we have adopted the following representation of the $`BC_r`$ roots in terms of an orthonormal basis of $`𝐑^r`$:

$$BC_r=\{\pm 𝐞_j\pm 𝐞_k,\pm 𝐞_j,\pm 2𝐞_j,j,k=1,\mathrm{},r|𝐞_j𝐑^r,𝐞_j𝐞_k=\delta _{jk}\}.$$
(5.40)
We look for the solution $`\{\overline{q}_j\}`$ of (3.3)

$$\frac{W}{q_j}=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r,$$

which read

$$2g_M\underset{kj}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{\mathrm{sin}2\overline{q}_j}{\mathrm{cos}2\overline{q}_j\mathrm{cos}2\overline{q}_k}+g_S\frac{\mathrm{cos}\overline{q}_j}{\mathrm{sin}\overline{q}_j}+2g_L\frac{\mathrm{cos}2\overline{q}_j}{\mathrm{sin}2\overline{q}_j}=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r.$$
(5.41)
For non-vanishing $`g_S`$ and $`g_L`$, $`\mathrm{sin}2\overline{q}_j=0`$ cannot satisfy the above equation. Thus by dividing by $`\mathrm{sin}2\overline{q}_j`$ we obtain

$$\underset{kj}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{1}{\overline{x}_j\overline{x}_k}+\frac{g_S+g_L}{2g_M}\frac{1}{\overline{x}_j1}+\frac{g_L}{2g_M}\frac{1}{\overline{x}_j+1}=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r,$$
(5.42)
in which

$$\overline{x}_j\mathrm{cos}2\overline{q}_j.$$
(5.43)
These are the equations satisfied by the zeros $`\{\overline{x}_j\}`$ of Jacobi polynomial $`P_r^{(\alpha ,\beta )}(x)`$  with

$$\alpha =(g_L+g_S)/g_M1,\beta =g_L/g_M1.$$
(5.44)
The solution (the equilibrium position) is shown to be unique.

Next let us consider the $`D_r`$ case, the pre-potential is simply

$$W=g\underset{j<k}{\overset{r}{}}\mathrm{log}\left[(1/2)(\mathrm{cos}2q_j\mathrm{cos}2q_k)\right]$$
(5.45)
and the equations for its equilibrium point read:

$$\mathrm{sin}2\overline{q}_j\underset{kj}{\overset{r}{}}\frac{1}{\mathrm{cos}2\overline{q}_j\mathrm{cos}2\overline{q}_k}=0,j=1,\mathrm{},r.$$
(5.46)
These can be decomposed into two parts:

$$\mathrm{sin}2\overline{q}_1=0=\mathrm{sin}2\overline{q}_r\mathrm{cos}2\overline{q}_1=1,\mathrm{cos}2\overline{q}_r=1$$
(5.47)
and

$$\underset{k=2,j}{\overset{r1}{}}\frac{1}{\overline{x}_j\overline{x}_k}+\frac{1}{\overline{x}_j1}+\frac{1}{\overline{x}_j+1}=0,j=2,\mathrm{},r1,$$
(5.48)
in which $`\{\overline{x}_j\}`$, $`j=2,\mathrm{},r1`$ are defined as before (5.43). The latter part (5.48) are the equations that the zeros $`\{\overline{x}_j\}`$ of the Jacobi polynomial $`P_{r2}^{(1,1)}(x)`$ or the Gegenbauer polynomial $`C_{r2}^{3/2}(x)`$ satisfy.

Note, the problem of finding the maximal point of the $`D_r`$ pre-potential $`W`$ is the same as the classical problem of maximising the van der Monde determinant

$$VdM(x_1,\mathrm{},x_r)=\underset{j<k}{\overset{r}{}}(x_jx_k),$$
(5.49)
under the boundary conditions

$$1=x_1>x_2>\mathrm{}>x_{r1}>x_r=1.$$
(5.50)
Now let us show that the three special cases (5.37) are also characterised by equally-spaced $`\overline{q}_j`$’s, that is $`\overline{q}_j\overline{q}_{j+1}`$ is independent of $`j`$.

1. For $`\alpha =\beta =1/2`$ $``$ $`g_L/g_M=1/2`$, $`g_S=0`$, which is a special case of $`C_r`$ obtained from the Dynkin diagram folding $`A_{2r1}C_r`$. Jacobi polynomial $`P_r^{(1/2,1/2)}(x)`$ is known to be proportional to Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind $`T_r(x)`$, which can be expressed as

$$T_r(x)=\mathrm{cos}r\phi ,x=\mathrm{cos}\phi .$$
(5.51)
The zeros are equally-spaced in $`\phi `$:

$$\overline{\phi }_j=\frac{(2j1)\pi }{2r}\mathrm{cos}2\overline{q}_j=\mathrm{cos}\frac{(2j1)\pi }{2r}\overline{q}_j=\frac{(2j1)\pi }{4r},j=1,\mathrm{},r.$$
(5.52)
The Dynkin diagram folding $`A_{2r1}C_r`$ explains this situation neatly. By imposing the following restrictions on the dynamical variables

$$q_j=q_{2r+1j},j=1,\mathrm{},r,$$
(5.53)
in the pre-potential of $`A_{2r1}`$ Sutherland system,

$$W_{A_{2r1}}=g\underset{j<k}{\overset{2r}{}}\mathrm{log}\mathrm{sin}(q_jq_k),$$

it reduces to to that of $`C_r`$ with the coupling relation $`g_L/g_M=1/2`$:

$$W_{A_{2r1}C_r}=2g\underset{j<k}{\overset{r}{}}\mathrm{log}\left[\mathrm{sin}(q_jq_k)\mathrm{sin}(q_j+q_k)\right]+g\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}\mathrm{log}\mathrm{sin}2q_j.$$
(5.54)
The equilibrium point of the above $`A_{2r1}`$ pre-potential is given in general by

$$\overline{q}_j=\frac{j\pi }{2r}+\xi ,j=1,\mathrm{},2r,$$
(5.55)
in which $`\xi `$ is an arbitrary real constant, reflecting the “translational invariance” of the pre-potential. By imposing the restrictions (5.53) on the above equilibrium point, we find $`\xi =(2r+1)\pi /4r`$, which turns the general $`A_{2r1}`$ equilibrium point (5.55) to that of $`C_r`$ (5.52). It is interesting to note that the above equilibrium point (5.52) is given by the deformed Weyl vector (2.18) with $`g_M=\pi /2r`$, $`g_L=\pi /4r`$ and a choice of positive roots $`\{𝐞_j𝐞_k\}`$ for $`j<k`$.
2. For $`\alpha =\beta =1/2`$ $``$ $`g_L/g_M=3/2`$, $`g_S=0`$, which is also a special case of $`C_r`$. Jacobi polynomial $`P_r^{(1/2,1/2)}(x)`$ is known to be proportional to Chebyshev polynomial of the second kind $`U_r(x)`$ which has a simple expression as a trigonometric polynomial:

$$U_r(x)=\frac{\mathrm{sin}(r+1)\phi }{\mathrm{sin}\phi },x=\mathrm{cos}\phi .$$
(5.56)
The zeros are equally-spaced in $`\phi `$:

$$\overline{\phi }_j=\frac{j\pi }{r+1}\mathrm{cos}2\overline{q}_j=\mathrm{cos}\frac{j\pi }{r+1}\overline{q}_j=\frac{j\pi }{2(r+1)},j=1,\mathrm{},r.$$
(5.57)
3. For $`\alpha =1/2,\beta =1/2`$ $``$ $`g_L/g_M=1/2`$, $`g_S/g_M=1`$. In this case we have

$$P_r^{(1/2,1/2)}(x)\frac{\mathrm{sin}[(2r+1)\phi /2]}{\mathrm{sin}[\phi /2]},x=\mathrm{cos}\phi .$$

The zeros are equally-spaced in $`\phi `$:

$$\overline{\phi }_j=\frac{2j\pi }{2r+1}\mathrm{cos}2\overline{q}_j=\mathrm{cos}\frac{2j\pi }{2r+1}\overline{q}_j=\frac{j\pi }{2r+1},j=1,\mathrm{},r.$$
(5.58)
This equilibrium point is also obtained as a deformed Weyl vector (2.18) for $`g_M=\pi /(2r+1)`$. For $`\alpha =1/2`$, $`\beta =1/2`$, Jacobi polynomial $`P_r^{(\alpha ,\beta )}`$ is proportional to another trigonometric polynomial. But this case is not compatible with positive coupling constants $`g_\rho `$ and will not be discussed here.

In this connection, let us remark on the dynamical implications of another well-known Dynkin diagram folding, $`D_{r+1}B_r`$. By restricting one of the dynamical variables of $`D_{r+1}`$ Sutherland system to its equilibrium position

$$q_{r+1}=0,$$
(5.59)
its pre-potential,

$$W_{D_{r+1}}=g\underset{j<k}{\overset{r+1}{}}\mathrm{log}\left[\mathrm{sin}(q_jq_k)\mathrm{sin}(q_j+q_k)\right],$$

reduces to that of $`B_r`$ with the coupling relation $`g_S/g_M=2`$:

$$W_{D_{r+1}B_r}=g\underset{j<k}{\overset{r}{}}\mathrm{log}\left[\mathrm{sin}(q_jq_k)\mathrm{sin}(q_j+q_k)\right]+2g\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}\mathrm{log}\mathrm{sin}q_j.$$
(5.60)
This means that the equilibrium position of the reduced $`B_r`$ system (5.59), the zeros of $`P_r^{(1,1)}(x)`$, is given by that of the original $`D_{r+1}`$ system, i.e. the zeros of $`P_{r1}^{(1,1)}(x)`$ plus $`x=1`$. In other words, the following identities hold:

$$(r+1)(x+1)P_{r1}^{(1,1)}(x)=2rP_r^{(1,1)}(x),r=1,2,\mathrm{},$$
(5.61)
which are trigonometric counterparts of (4.20).

In the following, we summarise the spectra of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$, $`\overline{L}`$, $`\overline{M}`$, $`\overline{L}_m`$, $`\overline{M}_m`$ of the $`D_r`$ Sutherland system which are evaluated numerically, with the vector weights $`𝐕`$ and the roots $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The spectra are all “integer-valued”, except for $`\overline{L}`$. The combinations (5.34) $`\overline{L}_K=\pm \stackrel{~}{K}+\overline{L}`$ are integer valued having the same spectra as $`\overline{L}_m`$ for $`=𝐕`$, see (5.31). It is interesting to note that $`\overline{L}^2`$ is integer-valued for $`=𝐕`$, but the eigenvalues are not all integers for $`=\mathrm{\Delta }`$. The spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ is:

$`D_r:\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})`$ $`=`$ $`g\{4(r1),\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}(2r3),\mathrm{},2j(2r1j),\mathrm{},`$ (5.62)
$`2(r2)(r+1),r(r1)[2]\},`$
which agrees with the general formula (5.10) of the $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ spectrum, i.e., the $`j`$-th entry is $`4\lambda _j\varrho `$, and obviously satisfies the sum rule (5.2), (5.12). The two-fold degeneracy reflects the Dynkin diagram symmetry corresponding to the spinor and anti-spinor fundamental weights, $`\lambda _S\lambda _{\overline{S}}`$.

##### $`D_r`$ Universal Lax pair ($`𝐕`$)

The spectrum of $`\overline{M}`$ is

$`D_r(𝐕):\text{Spec}(\overline{M})`$ $`=`$ $`ig\{0,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}(r1)[2],\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}(2r3)[2],\mathrm{},2j(2r1j)[2],\mathrm{},`$ (5.63)
$`2(r2)(r+1)[2],r(r1)[2],\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}r(r1)\},`$
which is essentially the duplication of that of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$, except for the lowest, i.e., 0, and the highest eigenvalues, $`2r(r1)`$. The latter is exactly twice the eigenvalue of those belonging to $`\lambda _S`$ ($`\lambda _{\overline{S}}`$). Let us note that the identity between the traces of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ and $`\overline{M}`$ (5.7) is also satisfied, since $`F^𝐕(D_r)=4`$, see (4.49). As in the $`A_r`$ vector weight case (5.17), these can be understood by the close relationship between $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ and $`\overline{M}`$:

$$\overline{M}=i\left(\begin{array}{cc}A& B\\ B& A\end{array}\right),\stackrel{~}{W}=A+B.$$
(5.64)
The $`r\times r`$ matrices $`A`$ and $`B`$ are

$`A_{jj}`$ $`=`$ $`g{\displaystyle \underset{kj}{\overset{r}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\overline{q}_j\overline{q}_k)}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\overline{q}_j+\overline{q}_k)}}\right)=\stackrel{~}{W}_{jj},B_{jj}=0,`$ (5.65)
$`A_{jk}`$ $`=`$ $`g{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\overline{q}_j\overline{q}_k)}},B_{jk}=g{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^2(\overline{q}_j+\overline{q}_k)}}.`$ (5.66)
Thus to each eigenvector $`v`$ of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ with eigenvalue -$`\lambda `$, $`\stackrel{~}{W}v=(A+B)v=\lambda v`$, corresponds an eigenvector V with eigenvalue $`i\lambda `$:

$$V=\left(\begin{array}{c}v\\ v\end{array}\right),\overline{M}V=i\left(\begin{array}{cc}A& B\\ B& A\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}v\\ v\end{array}\right)=i\lambda V.$$
(5.67)
The $`\overline{L}`$ matrix with the vector weights has the following decomposition:

$$\overline{L}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}C& D\\ D& C\end{array}\right),{}_{S}{}^{}I\overline{L}=\overline{L}{}_{S}{}^{}I,{}_{S}{}^{}I=\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& I_r\\ I_r& 0\end{array}\right),$$
(5.68)
in which $`I_r`$ is the $`r\times r`$ identity matrix and

$$C_{jk}=ig(1\delta _{jk})\mathrm{cot}(\overline{q}_j\overline{q}_k),D_{jk}=ig(1\delta _{jk})\mathrm{cot}(\overline{q}_j+\overline{q}_k),j,k=1,\mathrm{},r.$$
(5.69)
Since $`\overline{L}`$ commutes with $`\overline{M}`$, $`\overline{L}V`$ provides another independent eigenvector with the same eigenvalue $`\overline{M}(\overline{L}V)=i\lambda (\overline{L}V)`$,

$$\overline{L}V=\left(\begin{array}{cc}C& D\\ D& C\end{array}\right)\left(\begin{array}{c}v\\ v\end{array}\right)=(CD)v\left(\begin{array}{c}1\\ 1\end{array}\right),$$

except for the duplicated eigenvalue $`r(r1)`$ and the lowest and the highest. The zero mode (the eigenvector corresponding to the lowest eigenvalue) is $`𝐯_0`$ which is annihilated by $`\overline{L}`$. The eigenvectors of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ belonging to the duplicated eigenvalue $`r(r1)`$ are

$$v_s=(1,0,\mathrm{},0)^T,v_{\overline{s}}=(0,0,\mathrm{},1)^T,$$

corresponding to the conditions $`\mathrm{cos}2q_1=1`$ and $`\mathrm{cos}2q_r=1`$. The corresponding eigenvectors of $`\overline{M}`$ are both annihilated by $`\overline{L}`$,

$$\overline{L}\left(\begin{array}{c}v_s\\ v_s\end{array}\right)=0,\overline{L}\left(\begin{array}{c}v_{\overline{s}}\\ v_{\overline{s}}\end{array}\right)=0.$$

The spectrum of $`\overline{L}`$ is $`\sqrt{\text{integer}}`$ :

$`D_r(𝐕):\text{Spec}(\overline{L})`$ $`=`$ $`g\{0[4],\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\sqrt{2},\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\sqrt{6},\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}\sqrt{3},\mathrm{},\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\sqrt{(j1)(j2)},`$ (5.70)
$`\mathrm{},\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\sqrt{(r1)(r2)}\}.`$
##### $`D_r`$ Minimal type Lax pair ($`𝐕`$)

The minimal Lax pairs have integer spectrum:

$$D_r:\text{Spec}(\overline{L}_m)=g\{0[2],\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2},\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4},\mathrm{},\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}(r2),\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}(r1)\}$$
(5.71)
and

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}_m`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`D_4`$ | 6 | $`𝐕`$ | 8 | 6, 12, 16, 22 |
| $`D_5`$ | 8 | $`𝐕`$ | 10 | 8, 20, 22, 32, 38 |
| $`D_6`$ | 10 | $`𝐕`$ | 12 | 10, 28, 30, 42, 52, 58 |
| $`D_7`$ | 12 | $`𝐕`$ | 14 | 12, 34, 42, 52, 66, 76, 82 |
| $`D_8`$ | 14 | $`𝐕`$ | 16 | 14, 40, 56, 62, 80, 94, 104, 110 |

(5.72)
The lowest eigenvalue is $`h`$, the Coxeter number, and the highest eigenvalue is $`rh2`$. The two-fold degenerate eigenvalues of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$, $`r(r1)`$ are always contained.

##### $`D_r`$ Root type Lax pair

The $`\overline{L}_K`$ matrices have simple spectra. They are mirror symmetric with respect to zero. The highest multiplicity is the rank $`r`$ and the highest (lowest) eigenvalue is $`2(h1)`$, with interval 2. Thus the multiplicity distribution of the eigenvalues of $`\overline{L}_K`$ of the root type Lax matrix is the number of roots having the specified (2 times the) height. We have encountered the same distributions (shifted parallelly) in the eigenvalues of $`\overline{M}`$ in Calogero systems.

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{L}_K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`D_4`$ | 6 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 24 | $`\pm `$ 2, $`\pm `$ 4, $`\pm `$ 6, $`\pm `$ 8, $`\pm `$ 10 |
| $`D_5`$ | 8 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 40 | $`\pm `$ 2, $`\pm `$ 4, $`\pm `$ 6, $`\pm `$ 8, $`\pm `$ 10, $`\pm `$ 12, $`\pm `$ 14 |
| $`D_6`$ | 10 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 60 | $`\pm `$ 2, $`\pm `$ 4, $`\pm `$ 6, $`\pm `$ 8, $`\pm `$ 10, $`\pm `$ 12, $`\pm `$ 14, $`\pm `$ 16, $`\pm `$ 18 |
| $`D_7`$ | 12 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 84 | $`\pm `$ 2, $`\pm `$ 4, $`\pm `$ 6, $`\pm `$ 8, $`\pm `$ 10, $`\pm `$ 12, $`\pm `$ 14, $`\pm `$ 16, |
|  |  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 18, $`\pm `$ 20, $`\pm `$ 22 |
| $`D_8`$ | 14 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 112 | $`\pm `$ 2, $`\pm `$ 4, $`\pm `$ 6, $`\pm `$ 8, $`\pm `$ 10, $`\pm `$ 12, $`\pm `$ 14, $`\pm `$ 16, |
|  |  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 18, $`\pm `$ 20, $`\pm `$ 22, $`\pm `$ 24, $`\pm `$ 26 |

(5.73)
Here is the summary of the spectra of the $`\overline{L}_K`$ ($`L_m`$) matrices (5.28), (5.35), (5.71), (5.73). The eigenvalues are 2 times the ‘height’ which is determined by the deformed Weyl vector $`\varrho `$:

$$\text{Spec}(\overline{L}_K)=\{2\varrho \mu |\mu \}.$$
(5.74)
This formula applies to all the other $`\overline{L}_K`$ ($`L_m`$) matrices, (5.80), (5.81), (5.87), (5.88), (5.91), (5.94), (5.97), (5.100). This is to be compared with the formulae for the spectra of $`\overline{M}`$ matrices of Calogero system (4.52), (4.55), in which the ‘height’ is determined by the Weyl vector $`\delta `$. The difference is visible in the non-simply laced root systems (5.80), (5.81), (5.87), (5.88), (5.97), (5.100).

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`D_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 24 | 0, 12, 20, 24, 32, 36 |
| $`D_5`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 40 | 0, 16, 20, 28, 36, 40, 44, 48, 52, 56, 64, 68 |
| $`D_6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 60 | 0, 20, 30, 36, 48, 50, 56, 60, 66, 68, 76, |
|  |  |  | I 78, 80, 84, 86, 92, 96, 104, 108 |
| $`D_7`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 84 | 0, 24, 42, 44, 60, 66, 68, 72, 80, 84, 86, |
|  |  |  | I 96, 102, 104, 108, 114, 116, 122, 124, |
|  |  |  | I 128, 132, 140, 144, 152, 156 |
| $`D_8`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 112 | 0, 28, 52, 56, 72, 80, 84, 88, 100, 108, 112, |
|  |  |  | I 116, 124, 128, 136, 140, 144, 152, 156, 160, |
|  |  |  | I 164, 172, 180, 184, 188, 196, 200, 208, 212 |

(5.75)
The relation between Tr($`\stackrel{~}{W}`$) and Tr($`\overline{M}`$), (5.7) are satisfied, since $`F^\mathrm{\Delta }(D_r)=8r14,`$ see (4.59).

Next let us summarise the spectra of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$, $`\overline{M}`$ and $`\overline{L}`$ of the $`B_r`$ Sutherland system which are evaluated numerically. The set of short roots $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$ is chosen for the Lax pairs. They are all “integer valued”, except for $`\overline{L}`$. As in the $`D_r`$ case $`\overline{L}^2`$ is integer valued. The spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ is:

$`B_r:\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})`$ $`=`$ $`\{4(r1)g_L+2g_S,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}((2r3)g_L+g_S),\mathrm{},`$ (5.76)
$`2j((2r1j)g_L+g_S),\mathrm{},2(r1)(rg_L+g_S),`$
$`r((r1)g_L+g_S)\},`$
which agrees with the general formula (5.10) of the $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ spectrum, i.e. the $`j`$-th entry is $`4\lambda _j\varrho `$, and obviously satisfies the sum rule (5.2), (5.12). The last piece corresponds to the spinor fundamental weight.

##### $`B_r`$ Root type Lax pair ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$)

The spectrum of $`\overline{M}`$ is

$`B_r(\mathrm{\Delta }_S):\text{Spec}(\overline{M})`$ $`=`$ $`i\{0,4(r1)g_L+2g_S[2],\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}((2r3)g_L+g_S)[2],\mathrm{},`$ (5.77)
$`2j((2r1j)g_L+g_S)[2],\mathrm{},2(r1)(rg_L+g_S)[2],`$
$`r((r1)g_L+g_S)\}`$
$`=`$ $`i4\varrho \{0,\lambda _1[2],\lambda _2[2],\mathrm{},\lambda _{r1}[2],\lambda _r\},`$ (5.78)
which is essentially the duplication of that of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$, except for the lowest, i.e., 0, and the eigenvalue belonging to the spinor weight. Let us note that the identity between the traces of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ and $`\overline{M}`$ (5.7) is not satisfied, since $`B_r`$ is not simply laced. It is simply the lack of the contribution from the “anti-spinor weight” which is removed by the Dynkin diagram folding (5.59). The eigenvectors of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ belonging to the degenerate eigenvalue $`r((r1)g_L+g_S)`$ are

$$v_s=(1,0,\mathrm{},0)^T,$$

corresponding to the condition $`\mathrm{cos}2q_1=1`$. The explanation of the duplication of the $`\overline{M}`$ spectrum is essentially the same as in the $`D_r`$ case. The spectrum of $`\overline{L}`$ is $`\sqrt{\text{integer}}`$:

$`B_r(\mathrm{\Delta }_S):\text{Spec}(\overline{L})`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{g_L}\{0[2],\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\sqrt{g_S},\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\sqrt{2(g_L+g_S)},\mathrm{},`$
$`\pm 2\sqrt{j((j1)g_L+g_S)},\mathrm{},\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\sqrt{(r1)((r2)g_L+g_S)}\}.`$
To be more precise, $`\sqrt{\text{integer}}`$ means that the spectrum of $`\overline{L}^2`$ is a quadratic polynomial in $`g_L`$ and $`g_S`$ with integer coefficients. For $`g_L=g_S=g`$ it reduces to that of minimal Lax matrix $`\overline{L}_m`$ of $`D_r`$ (5.71). For $`g_S=0`$ it reduces to that of the Lax matrix $`\overline{L}`$ of $`D_r`$ (5.70). The modified Lax matrix $`\overline{L}_K`$ (see (5.34)) has simple integer spectrum, see formula (5.74):

$`B_r(\mathrm{\Delta }_S):\text{Spec}(\overline{L}_K)`$ $`=`$ $`\{\pm g_S,\pm (2g_L+g_S),\pm (4g_L+g_S),\mathrm{},`$ (5.80)
$`\pm (2(r1)g_L+g_S)\}.`$
##### $`B_r`$ Root type Lax pair ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$)

The $`\overline{L}_K`$ matrices have simple spectrum

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{L}_K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`B_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 24 | $`\pm `$ 2$`g_L`$, $`\pm `$ 4$`g_L`$, $`\pm `$ 6$`g_L`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`2g_L+g_S)`$, |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 2(3$`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(4$`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(5$`g_L+g_S)`$, |
| $`B_5`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 40 | $`\pm `$ 2$`g_L`$, $`\pm `$ 4$`g_L`$, …, $`\pm `$ 8$`g_L`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`2g_L+g_S)`$, |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 2(3$`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(4$`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(5$`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(6$`g_L+g_S)`$ |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 2(7$`g_L+g_S)`$ |
| $`B_6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 60 | $`\pm `$ 2$`g_L`$, $`\pm `$ 4$`g_L`$, …, $`\pm `$ 10$`g_L`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`2g_L+g_S)`$, |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 2(3$`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(4$`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(5$`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(6$`g_L+g_S)`$ |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 2(7$`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(8$`g_L+g_S)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(9$`g_L+g_S)`$ |

(5.81)
The spectra of $`\overline{M}`$ can be expressed succinctly in terms of the fundamental weights $`\{\lambda _j\}`$, whose expression in terms of the coupling constants $`g_L`$ and $`g_S`$ can be found in (5.76). The entry $`\lambda _j`$ means that the corresponding eigenvalue is $`i4\varrho \lambda _j`$, etc:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`B_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 24 | 0, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _4`$, $`\lambda _2`$, $`\lambda _3`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _2)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _4)[2]`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _3)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _3)`$ |
| $`B_5`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 40 | 0, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _5`$, $`\lambda _2`$, $`\lambda _3`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _5)`$, $`\lambda _4`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _2)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _3)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _3)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _4)`$ |
| $`B_6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 60 | 0, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _6`$, $`\lambda _2`$, $`\lambda _3`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _2)`$, $`\lambda _4`$, $`\lambda _5`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _3)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _3)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _4+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _4)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _4+\lambda _5)`$ |
| $`B_7`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 84 | 0, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _2`$, $`\lambda _7`$, $`\lambda _3`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _2)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _7)`$, $`\lambda _4`$, $`\lambda _5`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _3)`$, $`\lambda _6`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _7)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _3)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _7)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _4+\lambda _7)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _5)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _5+\lambda _7)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _6)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _4+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _4+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _5+\lambda _6)`$ |

(5.82)
##### $`C_r`$ Lax pair ($`𝐕`$)

Here let us summarise the spectra of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$, $`\overline{M}`$ and $`\overline{L}`$ of the $`C_r`$ Sutherland system which are evaluated numerically. The set of vector weights $`𝐕`$ is chosen for the Lax pairs. They are all “integer valued”, except for $`\overline{L}`$. As in the $`B_r`$ and $`D_r`$ case $`\overline{L}^2`$ is integer valued. The spectrum of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ is:

$`C_r:\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})`$ $`=`$ $`\{4((r1)g_M+g_L),\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}((2r3)g_M+2g_L),\mathrm{},`$ (5.83)
$`2j((2r1j)g_M+2g_S),\mathrm{},2(r1)(rg_M+2g_L),`$
$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}r((r1)g_M+2g_L)\},`$
which agrees with the general formula (5.10) of the $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ spectrum, i.e. the $`j`$-th entry is $`4\lambda _j\varrho `$, and obviously satisfies the sum rule (5.2), (5.12). The spectrum of $`\overline{M}`$ is

$`C_r(𝐕):\text{Spec}(\overline{M})`$ $`=`$ $`i\{0,4((r1)g_M+g_L)[2],\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}((2r3)g_M+2g_L)[2],\mathrm{},`$ (5.84)
$`2j((2r1j)g_M+2g_S)[2],\mathrm{},2(r1)(rg_M+2g_L)[2],`$
$`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}r((r1)g_M+2g_L)\}`$
$`=`$ $`i4\varrho \{0,\lambda _1[2],\lambda _2[2],\mathrm{},\lambda _{r1}[2],\lambda _r\},`$ (5.85)
which is essentially the duplication of that of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$, except for the lowest, i.e., 0, and the highest eigenvalue corresponding to the fundamental weight of the long simple root. This degeneracy pattern reflects the Dynkin diagram folding $`A_{2r1}C_r`$. Let us note that the identity between the traces of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ and $`\overline{M}`$ (5.7) is not satisfied, since $`C_r`$ is not simply laced. The spectrum of $`\overline{L}`$ is $`\sqrt{\text{integer}}`$ :

$`C_r(𝐕):\text{Spec}(\overline{L})`$ $`=`$ $`\sqrt{g_M}\{0[2],\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\sqrt{2g_L},\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\sqrt{2(g_M+2g_L)},\mathrm{},`$ (5.86)
$`\pm 2\sqrt{j((j1)g_M+2g_L)},\mathrm{},\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\sqrt{(r1)((r2)g_M+2g_L)}\}.`$
The modified Lax matrices $`\overline{L}_K`$ (see (5.34)) have simple integer spectra:

$`C_r(𝐕):\text{Spec}(\overline{L}_K)`$ $`=`$ $`\{\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}g_L,\pm (2g_M+2g_L),\pm (4g_M+2g_L),\mathrm{},`$ (5.87)
$`\pm (2(r1)g_M+2g_L)\}.`$
##### $`C_r`$ Root type Lax pair ($`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$)

The $`\overline{L}_K`$ matrices have simple spectrum

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{L}_K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`C_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_M`$ | 24 | $`\pm `$ 2$`g_M`$, $`\pm `$ 4$`g_M`$, $`\pm `$ 6$`g_M`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`2g_M+2g_L)`$, |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 2(3$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(4$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(5$`g_M+2g_L)`$, |
| $`C_5`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_M`$ | 40 | $`\pm `$ 2$`g_M`$, $`\pm `$ 4$`g_M`$, …, $`\pm `$ 8$`g_M`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`2g_M+2g_L)`$, |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 2(3$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(4$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(5$`g_M+2g_L)`$, |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 2(6$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(7$`g_M+2g_L)`$, |
| $`C_6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_M`$ | 60 | $`\pm `$ 2$`g_M`$, $`\pm `$ 4$`g_M`$, …, $`\pm `$ 10$`g_M`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`2g_M+2g_L)`$, |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 2(3$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 4(2$`g_M+g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(5$`g_M+2g_L)`$, |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 4(3$`g_M+g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(7$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(8$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(9$`g_M+2g_L)`$ |
| $`C_7`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_M`$ | 84 | $`\pm `$ 2$`g_M`$, $`\pm `$ 4$`g_M`$, …, $`\pm `$ 12$`g_M`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2($`2g_M+2g_L)`$, |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 2(3$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(4$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(5$`g_M+2g_L)`$, |
|  |  |  | $`\pm `$ 2(6$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(7$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(8$`g_M+2g_L)`$, |
|  |  |  | I $`\pm `$ 2(9$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(10$`g_M+2g_L)`$, $`\pm `$ 2(11$`g_M+2g_L)`$, |

(5.88)
The interpretation of the root type $`\overline{L}_K`$ eigenvalues in terms of the “height” of the roots is also valid for $`C_r`$, too. The spectra of $`\overline{M}`$ can be expressed succinctly in terms of the fundamental weights $`\{\lambda _j\}`$, whose expression in terms of the coupling constants $`g_L`$ and $`g_M`$ can be found in (5.83). The entry $`\lambda _j`$ means that the corresponding eigenvalue is $`i4\varrho \lambda _j`$, etc:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`C_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_M`$ | 24 | 0, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _2`$, $`\lambda _3`$, $`\lambda _4`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _2)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _3)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _4)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _3)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _4)[2]`$ |
| $`C_5`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_M`$ | 40 | 0, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _2`$, $`\lambda _3`$, $`\lambda _4`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _2)`$, $`\lambda _5`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _3)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _3)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _5)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _5)`$ |
| $`C_6`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_M`$ | 60 | 0, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _2`$, $`\lambda _3`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _2)`$, $`\lambda _4`$, $`\lambda _5`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _3)`$, $`\lambda _6`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _3)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _4)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _6)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _4+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _4+\lambda _6)`$ |
| $`C_7`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_M`$ | 84 | 0, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _2`$, $`\lambda _3`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _2)`$, $`\lambda _4`$, $`\lambda _5`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _3)`$, $`\lambda _6`$, |
|  |  |  | $`\lambda _7`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _3)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _6)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _7)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _4)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _4)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _7)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _5)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _7)`$, ($`\lambda _4+\lambda _5)`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _4+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _4+\lambda _7)`$, ($`\lambda _5+\lambda _6)`$, ($`\lambda _5+\lambda _7)`$ |

(5.89)
In the rest of this section, we list the results on the exceptional root systems using tables since most of the methods and concepts have now been explained.

#### 5.2.3 $`E_r`$

First we list the eigenvalues of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ (the coupling constant and minus sign removed):

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`r`$ | I Spec($`\stackrel{~}{W}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| $`E_6`$ | 6 | 32, 44, 60, 84 |
| $`E_7`$ | 7 | 54, 68, 98, 104, 132, 150, 192 |
| $`E_8`$ | 8 | 116, 184, 228, 272, 336, 364, 440, 540 |

(5.90)
Of course they are equal to $`\{4\varrho \lambda _j\}`$. The degeneracies in $`E_6`$ spectrum reflect the symmetry in Dynkin diagram. First let us show the eigenvalues of the Lax matrices for the set of minimal weights $`\mathrm{𝟐𝟕}`$ of $`E_6`$ and $`\mathrm{𝟓𝟔}`$ of $`E_7`$. In these cases the spectrum of minimal type $`L`$ matrix and that of modified $`L_K`$ are the same:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{L}_m`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`E_6`$ | $`\mathrm{𝟐𝟕}`$ | 27 | 0, $`\pm `$ 2, $`\pm `$ 4, $`\pm `$ 6, $`\pm `$ 8, $`\pm `$ 10, $`\pm `$ 12, $`\pm `$ 14, $`\pm `$ 16, |
| $`E_7`$ | $`\mathrm{𝟓𝟔}`$ | 56 | $`\pm `$ 1, $`\pm `$ 3, $`\pm `$ 5, $`\pm `$ 7, $`\pm `$ 9, $`\pm `$ 11, $`\pm `$ 13, |
|  |  |  | $`\pm `$ 15, $`\pm `$ 17, $`\pm `$ 19, $`\pm `$ 21, $`\pm `$ 23, $`\pm `$ 25, $`\pm `$ 27, |

(5.91)
The eigenvalues of minimal $`\overline{M}_m`$ and those of $`\overline{M}`$ are slightly different. The latter are $`4\varrho \lambda _j`$ and their sums but those of the former are different:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}_m`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`E_6`$ | $`\mathrm{𝟐𝟕}`$ | 27 | 0, 16, 32, 38, 46, 52, 60, 62, 68, 72, |
|  |  |  | 80, 88, 92, 94, 110, 118 |
| $`E_7`$ | $`\mathrm{𝟓𝟔}`$ | 56 | 27, 61, 7, 83, 101, 113, 115, 127, 141, 149, |
|  |  |  | 151, 161, 171, 179, 189, 197, 203, 205, 211, |
|  |  |  | 227, 241, 245, 247, 271, 289, 299 |

(5.92)
| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`E_6`$ | $`\mathrm{𝟐𝟕}`$ | 27 | 0, 32, 44, 60, 64, 76, 84, |
|  |  |  | 92, 104, 116, 120, |
| $`E_7`$ | $`\mathrm{𝟓𝟔}`$ | 56 | 0, 54, 68, 98, 104, 122, 132, 150, |
|  |  |  | 152, 166, 172, 186, 192, 202, 204, 218, |
|  |  |  | 230, 236, 246, 248, 260, 282, 296, 302 |

(5.93)
The relation between Tr($`\stackrel{~}{W}`$) and Tr($`\overline{M}`$), (5.7) are satisfied, since $`F^{\mathrm{𝟐𝟕}}=12`$ in $`E_6`$ and $`F^{\mathrm{𝟓𝟔}}=24`$ in $`E_7`$, see (4.49).

##### Root type Lax pair

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{L}_K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`E_6`$ | 12 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 72 | $`\pm `$ 2, $`\pm `$ 4, $`\pm `$ 6, $`\pm `$ 8, $`\pm `$ 10, $`\pm `$ 12, $`\pm `$ 14, $`\pm `$ 16 |
|  |  |  |  | $`\pm `$ 18, $`\pm `$ 20, $`\pm `$ 22 |
| $`E_7`$ | 18 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 126 | $`\pm `$ 2, $`\pm `$ 4, $`\pm `$ 6, $`\pm `$ 8, $`\pm `$ 10, $`\pm `$ 12, $`\pm `$ 14, $`\pm `$ 16, |
|  |  |  |  | $`\pm `$ 18, $`\pm `$ 20, $`\pm `$ 2, $`\pm `$ 24, $`\pm `$ 26, $`\pm `$ 28, $`\pm `$ 30, $`\pm `$ 32, $`\pm `$ 34 |
| $`E_8`$ | 30 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 240 | $`\pm `$ 2, $`\pm `$ 4, $`\pm `$ 6, $`\pm `$ 8, $`\pm `$ 10, $`\pm `$ 12, $`\pm `$ 14, $`\pm `$ 16, |
|  |  |  |  | $`\pm `$ 18, $`\pm `$ 20, $`\pm `$ 22, $`\pm `$ 24, $`\pm `$ 26, $`\pm `$ 28, $`\pm `$ 30, |
|  |  |  |  | $`\pm `$ 32, $`\pm `$ 34, $`\pm `$ 36, $`\pm `$ 38, $`\pm `$ 40, $`\pm `$ 42, $`\pm `$ 44, |
|  |  |  |  | $`\pm `$ 46, $`\pm `$ 48, $`\pm `$ 50, $`\pm `$ 52, $`\pm `$ 54, $`\pm `$ 56, $`\pm `$ 58 |

(5.94)
In all cases, the highest multiplicity of $`\overline{L}_K`$ is the rank $`r`$ and the highest eigenvalue is $`2(h1)`$ with interval 2. Thus the multiplicity distribution of the eigenvalues of $`\overline{L}_K`$ of the root type Lax matrix is the number of roots having the specified (2 times the) height. Like in all the other cases, the eigenvalues of $`\overline{M}`$ are of the form $`i_{j=1}^ra_j(4\varrho \lambda _j)`$, in which $`a_j=0,1`$.

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`E_6`$ | 12 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 72 | 0, 32, 44, 60, 64, 76, 84, 92, 104, |
|  |  |  |  | 108, 116, 120, 128, 136, 144, 148, 164 |
| $`E_7`$ | 18 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 126 | 0, 54, 68, 98, 104, 122, 132, 150, 152, |
|  |  |  |  | 158, 166, 172, 186, 192, 200, 202, 204, |
|  |  |  |  | 218, 220, 230, 236, 246, 248, 254, 260, |
|  |  |  |  | 270, 272, 282, 284, 290, 296, 314, 316, |
|  |  |  |  | 324, 334, 336, 342, 364, 380 |
| $`E_8`$ | 30 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 240 | 0, 116, 184, 228, 272, 300, 336, 344, 364, |
|  |  |  |  | 388, 412, 440, 452, 456, 480, 500, 520, |
|  |  |  |  | 540, 548, 556, 564, 572, 592, 608, 624, |
|  |  |  |  | 636, 65, 668, 684, 700, 712, 724, 740, |
|  |  |  |  | 752, 768, 776, 792, 804, 812, 816, 828, |
|  |  |  |  | 840, 852, 864, 876, 896, 904, 920, 940, |
|  |  |  |  | 952, 972, 980, 992, 1032, 1060, 1076 |

(5.95)
The relation between Tr($`\stackrel{~}{W}`$) and Tr($`\overline{M}`$), (5.7) are satisfied, since $`F^\mathrm{\Delta }(E_6)=42`$, $`F^\mathrm{\Delta }(E_7)=66`$ and $`F^\mathrm{\Delta }(E_8)=114`$, see (4.59).

#### 5.2.4 $`F_4`$

The eigenvalues of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ are:

$`F_4:\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})`$ $`=`$ $`\{20g_L+12g_S,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}36}g_L+24g_S,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}24}g_L+18g_S,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}12}g_L+10g_S\}`$ (5.96)
$`=`$ $`4\varrho \{\lambda _1,\lambda _2,\lambda _3,\lambda _4,\}.`$
The eigenvalues of the modified Lax matrix $`\overline{L}_K`$ are simple:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{L}_K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`F_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 24 | $`\pm `$ (10$`g_L`$ \+ 6$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (8$`g_L`$ \+ 6$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (6$`g_L`$ \+ 6$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (6$`g_L`$ \+ 4$`g_S`$), |
|  |  |  | $`\pm `$ (4$`g_L`$ \+ 4$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (6$`g_L`$ \+ 2$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (2$`g_L`$ \+ 4$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (4$`g_L`$ \+ 2$`g_S`$), |
|  |  |  | $`\pm `$ 4$`g_L`$, $`\pm `$ (2$`g_L`$ \+ 2$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ 2$`g_L`$ |
| $`F_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$ | 24 | (6$`g_L`$ \+ 5$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (6$`g_L`$ \+ 4$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (6$`g_L`$ \+ 3$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (4$`g_L`$ \+ 3$`g_S`$), |
|  |  |  | $`\pm `$ (4$`g_L`$ +2$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (2$`g_L`$ \+ 3$`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (4$`g_L`$ \+ $`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ (2$`g_L`$ \+ 2$`g_S`$), |
|  |  |  | $`\pm `$ (2$`g_L`$ \+ $`g_S`$), $`\pm `$ 2$`g_S`$, $`\pm `$$`g_S`$ |

(5.97)
The interpretation of the root type $`\overline{L}_K`$ eigenvalues in terms of the “height” of the roots is also valid for $`F_4`$, too. The eigenvalues of $`\overline{M}`$ can be expressed succinctly in terms of the fundamental weights $`\{\lambda _j\}`$, which are listed in (5.96). The entry $`\lambda _j`$ means that the corresponding eigenvalue is $`i4\varrho \lambda _j`$, etc:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`F_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 24 | 0, $`\lambda _4`$, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _3`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _4`$), $`\lambda _2`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _3`$), ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _4`$), ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _2`$) |
| $`F_4`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$ | 24 | 0, $`\lambda _4`$, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _3`$, ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _4`$), $`\lambda _2`$, |
|  |  |  | ($`\lambda _3+\lambda _4`$), ($`\lambda _1+\lambda _3`$), ($`\lambda _2+\lambda _4`$) |

(5.98)
#### 5.2.5 $`G_2`$

The eigenvalues of $`\stackrel{~}{W}`$ are:

$`G_2:\text{Spec}(\stackrel{~}{W})`$ $`=`$ $`\{4g_L+8g_S/3,\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}8}g_L+4g_S,\}`$ (5.99)
$`=`$ $`4\varrho \{\lambda _1,\lambda _2\}.`$
The eigenvalues of the modified Lax matrix $`\overline{L}_K`$ are simple:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{L}_K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`G_2`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 6 | $`\pm (4g_L+2g_S)`$, $`\pm (2g_L+2g_S)`$, $`\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}g_L`$ |
| $`G_2`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$ | 6 | $`\pm (2g_L+(4g_S/3))`$, $`\pm (2g_L+(2g_S/3))`$, $`\pm \mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}g_S/3`$ |

(5.100)
The eigenvalues of $`\overline{M}`$ can be expressed succinctly in terms of the fundamental weights $`\{\lambda _j\}`$, which are listed in (5.99). The entry $`\lambda _j`$ means that the corresponding eigenvalue is $`i4\varrho \lambda _j`$, etc:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | I Spec($`\overline{M}`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`G_2`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 6 | 0, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _2`$, |
| $`G_2`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$ | 6 | 0, $`\lambda _1`$, $`\lambda _2`$, |

(5.101)
## 6 Comments and Discussion

We have shown that the classical Calogero and Sutherland systems at their equilibrium points have very interesting properties. The equilibrium point is related to the zeros of classical polynomials of Hermite, Laguerre and Jacobi types. The second derivatives of the potential have “integer-eigenvalues”, and various Lax matrices also have “integer-eigenvalues” at the equilibrium point. Most of these results are obtained by numerical evaluation and it remains a real challenge to derive these “integer-eigenvalues” analytically.

In this connection, it is interesting to compare with the situation of another well-known set of integrable multi-particle dynamical systems based on crystallographic root systems—the Toda systems. Since the non-affine Toda molecule systems do not have a finite equilibrium point, we only consider the affine Toda molecule of the root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$,

$$H=\frac{1}{2}p^2+V_{Toda}(q),V_{Toda}(q)=\frac{1}{\beta ^2}\underset{j=0}{\overset{r}{}}n_je^{\beta \alpha _jq},$$
(6.1)
in which $`\{\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _r\}`$ are the simple roots of $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and

$$\alpha _0=\underset{j=1}{\overset{r}{}}n_j\alpha _j,(n_0=1),$$
(6.2)
is the euclidean part of the additional affine simple root. The integers $`\{n_j\}`$, $`j=1,\mathrm{},r`$ are called Coxeter labels and $`\beta `$ is the real coupling constant. The above potential is so chosen as to have the equilibrium point

$$\overline{q}=(0,0,\mathrm{},0).$$
(6.3)
The eigenvalues of the second derivatives of the potential

$$V_{Toda}^{\prime \prime }(0)=\underset{j=0}{\overset{r}{}}n_j\alpha _j\alpha _j,$$
(6.4)
are not integers but so-called affine Toda masses $`\{m_1^2,\mathrm{},m_r^2\}`$, corresponding to the Perron-Frobenius eigenvector of the incidence matrix of the root system $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$, . Since the Lax pair of the Toda molecules is expressed in terms of the coordinates $`q`$ and the Lie algebra generators corresponding to $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ , the eigenvalues of the Lax pair matrices at the equilibrium point are completely determined by the chosen representation of the Lie algebra.

## Acknowledgements

We thank Kanehisa Takasaki and Toshiaki Shoji for fruitful discussion and useful comments. This work was supported by the Anglo-Japanese Collaboration Project of the Royal Society and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science with the title “Symmetries and Integrability”. R. S. is partially supported by the Grant-in-aid from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan, priority area (#707) “Supersymmetry and unified theory of elementary particles”.

Appendix

## Eigenvalues of $`K`$ Matrix

Here we show that the constant matrix $`K`$ defined in (2.50)

$$K\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho (\rho \widehat{H})(\rho ^{}\widehat{H})\widehat{s}_\rho $$
(A.1)
has a remarkable property that its eigenvalues are all integer $`\times `$coupling constant. The $`\stackrel{~}{K}`$ matrix (5.34) has a similar property. This matrix plays an important role in the theory of classical $`r`$-matrix of Calogero-Moser systems . First we note that it is Coxeter invariant and symmetric

$$\widehat{s}_\sigma K\widehat{s}_\sigma =K,\sigma \mathrm{\Delta },K^\mathrm{T}=K,$$
(A.2)
implying that the eigenvalues are real, and the eigenvectors span representation spaces of the Weyl group whose dimensions are the multiplicities given in the tables below. As simple examples, we indicate, for the $`A_r`$ root system, the decomposition of $``$ into the irreducible representations of the Weyl group, which is the symmetric group. The diagonal elements of $`K`$ are all vanishing:

$$K_{\mu \mu }=\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho (\rho \mu )(\rho ^{}\mu )\delta _{\mu ,s_\rho (\mu )}=0,$$
(A.3)
since $`\mu s_\rho (\mu )=(\rho ^{}\mu )\rho =0`$ is necessary for the Kronecker delta to be non-vanishing. Thus it is traceless

$$\text{Tr}K=0,$$
(A.4)
which is also obvious from the definition as a commutator (2.50). Another important property is that it commutes with $`M`$:

$$[K,M]=0,$$
(A.5)
at the general position $`q`$ for both Calogero and Sutherland systems. All the matrix elements of $`K`$ are non-negative and the eigenvector for the highest eigenvalue (the Perron-Frobenius eigenvector) is in fact $`𝐯_0`$ (4.37), which is a singlet representation of the Weyl group:

$$K𝐯_0=\lambda _{PF}𝐯_0,\lambda _{PF}=2\mu ^2(\underset{\rho \mathrm{\Delta }_+}{}g_\rho )/r=2\mu ^2\stackrel{~}{}_0/\omega r.$$
(A.6)
Other important eigenvectors of $`K`$ are given by

$$Q𝐯_0$$
(A.7)
in which $`Q`$ is defined by (2.49) and $`𝐯_0`$ is the above Perron-Frobenius eigenvector introduced in (4.37). For all possible values of the coordinates $`q=(q_1,\mathrm{},q_r)`$, it is always an eigenvector of $`K`$:

$$KQ𝐯_0=\lambda _QQ𝐯_0,$$
(A.8)
in which the eigenvalue $`\lambda _Q`$ is expressed by boldface fonts in the formulae from (A.13) to (A.37). This eigenvalue is usually $`r`$ (rank) fold degenerate and the corresponding eigenvectors form an ever present $`r`$ dimensional irreducible representation of the Weyl group. Exceptional situations of additional degeneracies occur in $`A_7`$ root type (A.17), $`D_4`$, $`D_6`$ and $`E_6`$ root type (A.26), (A.31) and $`H_3`$ and $`H_4`$ root type (A.34). For the cases when $``$ is the set of minimal weights, (A.13), (A.23) and (A.29), $`\lambda _Q`$ is related to $`\lambda _{PF}`$ by the Coxeter number $`h`$:

$$\lambda _Q=\lambda _{PF}gh.$$
(A.9)
For the crystallographic simply laced root type cases, (A.17), (A.26) and (A.31), we have

$$\lambda _Q=(h6)g.$$
(A.10)
If the set $``$ consists of minimal weights (2.42), all the matrix elements of $`K`$ are either 1 or 0 times the coupling constant. If the set $``$ coincides with the set of all roots $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ for a crystallographic simply laced root system, the matrix element of $`K`$ is characterised by the inner products of the roots (the roots are normalised as $`\alpha ^2=2`$):

$$K_{\alpha \beta }=g\{\begin{array}{cc}4\hfill & \text{if}\alpha \beta =2,i.e.,\alpha =\beta ,\hfill \\ 1\hfill & \text{if}\alpha \beta =1,\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{otherwise},\hfill \end{array}$$
(A.11)
and a similar statement holds for non-simply laced crystallographic root systems.

We list the spectrum of $`K`$, i.e., set of eigenvalues with \[multiplicity\] for all $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ and for typical choices of the set of single Coxeter (Weyl) orbits $``$ for which the typical Lax pairs are known. For the simply laced root systems, we omit the coupling constant $`g`$ in the spectrum. In these formulae $`h`$ denotes the Coxeter number.

1. $`A_r`$ with vector weights embedded in $`𝐑^{r+1}`$, i.e.,

$$=𝐕=\{𝐞_j,j=1,\mathrm{},r+1|𝐞_j𝐑^{r+1},𝐞_j𝐞_k=\delta _{jk}\},$$
(A.12)
| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`A_r`$ | $`r+1`$ | V | $`r+1`$ | 1 | $`r`$, -1\[$`r`$\] |

(A.13)
corresponding to the following decomposition into the irreducible representation of the Weyl group:

$$(1+r)=1r.$$
(A.14)
In this case $`K`$ has a very simple expression in terms of $`𝐯_0`$:

$$K=g(𝐯_0𝐯_0^TI),I:\text{Identity matrix}.$$
(A.15)
The matrix elements of $`K`$ are characterised by the inner products, too:

$$K_{\mu \nu }=g\{\begin{array}{cc}1\hfill & \text{if}\mu \nu =0,\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{otherwise},\hfill \end{array}\mu ,\nu 𝐕.$$
(A.16)
2. $`A_r`$ with roots $`=\mathrm{\Delta }`$:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | I Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`A_2`$ | 3 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 6 | 2 | 6, 3, -3, -6 |
| $`A_3`$ | 4 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 12 | 2 | 8, 4, 2, -2, -6 |
| $`A_4`$ | 5 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 20 | 2 | 10, 5, 2, -1, -6 |
| $`A_5`$ | 6 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 30 | 2 | 12, 6, 2, 0, -6 |
| $`A_6`$ | 7 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 42 | 2 | 14, 7, 2, 1, -6 |
| $`A_7`$ | 8 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 56 | 2 | 16, 8, 2, -6 |
| $`A_8`$ | 9 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 72 | 2 | 18, 9, 3, 2, -6 |
| $`A_9`$ | 10 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 90 | 2 | 20, 10, 4, 2, -6 |
| $`A_{10}`$ | 11 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 110 | 2 | 22, 11, 5, 2, -6 |
| $`A_{11}`$ | 12 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 132 | 2 | 24, 12, 6, 2, -6 |
| $`A_{12}`$ | 13 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 156 | 2 | 26, 13, 7, 2, -6 |
| $`A_r`$ | $`r+1`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`r(r+1)`$ | 2 | $`2h`$, $`h`$ \[$`r`$\], (h-6)\[$`r`$\], |
|  |  |  |  |  | 2 \[$`(r+1)(r2)/2`$\], -6 \[$`r(r1)/2`$\] |

(A.17)
corresponding to the following decomposition into the irreducible representations of $`A_r`$ Weyl group:

$$r(r+1)=1rr^{}(r+1)(r2)/2r(r1)/2,$$
(A.18)
in which $`r`$ and $`r^{}`$ are two distinct $`r`$ dimensional irreducible representations.
3. $`B_r`$ with short roots:

$$=\mathrm{\Delta }_S=\{\pm 𝐞_j,j=1,\mathrm{},r|𝐞_j𝐑^r,𝐞_j𝐞_k=\delta _{jk}\},$$
(A.19)
| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | I Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`B_r`$ | 2$`r`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_S`$ | $`2r`$ | 1 | $`2g_L(r1)+2g_S`$, $`\mathrm{𝟐}g_S`$\[$`r`$\], $`2g_L+2g_S`$\[$`r1`$\] |

(A.20)
The $`C_r`$ in the vector representation $`=𝐕=\{\pm 𝐞_j\}`$, $`j=1,\mathrm{},r`$ is the same as above if the coupling constants are interchanged, $`g_Sg_L`$. Similarly to the $`A_r`$ vector weight case (A.15), we have

$$K=g_L\left(𝐯_0𝐯_0^TI{}_{S}{}^{}I\right)+2g_S{}_{S}{}^{}I,$$
(A.21)
in which $`{}_{S}{}^{}I`$ is the second identity matrix. It is 1 for the elements $`(𝐞_j,𝐞_j)`$, $`(𝐞_j,𝐞_j)`$, $`j=1,\mathrm{},r`$ and zero otherwise.
4. $`D_r`$ with the vector weights:

$$=𝐕=\{\pm 𝐞_j|j=1,\mathrm{},r\},$$
(A.22)
| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | I Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`D_r`$ | $`2(r1)`$ | V | $`2r`$ | 1 | $`2(r1)`$, 0 \[$`r`$\], -2\[$`r1`$\] |

(A.23)
Similarly to the $`C_r`$ vector weight case (A.21), we have an expression

$$K=g\left(𝐯_0𝐯_0^TI{}_{S}{}^{}I\right).$$
(A.24)
This $`K`$ matrix is also characterised by the inner product as in (A.16).
5. $`D_r`$ with the (anti) spinor weights:

$$=𝐒=\frac{1}{2}\{\pm 𝐞_1\pm \mathrm{}\pm 𝐞_r\}\text{with even (odd) number of}\text{signs},$$
(A.25)
| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | I Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`D_4`$ | 6 | S | 8 | 1 | 6, 0, -2 |
| $`D_5`$ | 8 | S | 16 | 5/4 | 10, 2, -2 |
| $`D_6`$ | 10 | S | 32 | 3/2 | 15, 5, -1, -3 |
| $`D_7`$ | 12 | S | 64 | 7/4 | 21, 9, 1, -3 |
| $`D_8`$ | 14 | S | 128 | 2 | 28, 14, 4, -2, -4 |
| $`D_9`$ | 16 | S | 256 | 9/4 | 36, 20, 8, 0, -4 |
| $`D_{10}`$ | 18 | S | 512 | 5/2 | 45, 27, 13, 3, -3, -5 |
| $`D_{11}`$ | 20 | S | 1024 | 11/4 | 55, 35, 19, 7, -1, -5 |

(A.26)
The characterisation of the spinor $`K`$ matrix is a bit different:

$$K_{\mu \nu }=g\{\begin{array}{cc}1\hfill & \text{if}\mu \nu =(r4)/4,\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{otherwise}.\hfill \end{array}\mu ,\nu 𝐒.$$
(A.27)
6. $`D_r`$ with the roots i.e., $`=\mathrm{\Delta }`$:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | I Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`D_4`$ | 6 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 24 | 2 | 12, 4, 0, -6 |
| $`D_5`$ | 8 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 40 | 2 | 16, 6, 4, 2, 0, -6 |
| $`D_6`$ | 10 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 60 | 2 | 20, 8, 4, 0, -6 |
| $`D_7`$ | 12 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 84 | 2 | 24, 10, 6, 4, 0, -6 |
| $`D_8`$ | 14 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 112 | 2 | 28, 12, 8, 4, 0, -6 |
| $`D_9`$ | 16 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 144 | 2 | 32, 14, 10, 4, 0, -6 |
| $`D_{10}`$ | 18 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 180 | 2 | 36, 16, 12, 4, 0, -6 |
| $`D_{11}`$ | 20 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 220 | 2 | 40, 18, 14, 4, 0, -6 |
| $`D_r`$ | $`2(r1)`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`2r(r1)`$ | 2 | $`2h`$, $`2(h1)`$ \[$`r1`$\], $`(𝐡\mathrm{𝟔})`$\[$`r`$\], |
|  |  |  |  |  | 4 \[$`r(r1)/2`$\], 0 \[$`r(r3)/2`$\], -6 \[$`r(r2)`$\] |

(A.28)
7. $`E_r`$ with the minimal weights:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | I Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`E_6`$ | 12 | 27 | 27 | 4/3 | 6, 4, -2 |
| $`E_7`$ | 18 | 56 | 56 | 3/2 | 27, 9, -1, -3 |

(A.29)
These $`K`$ matrix are characterised by:

$$K_{\mu \nu }=g\{\begin{array}{cc}1\hfill & \text{if}\mu \nu =1/3,\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{otherwise}.\hfill \end{array}\mu ,\nu \mathrm{𝟐𝟕},g\{\begin{array}{cc}1\hfill & \text{if}\mu \nu =1/2,\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{otherwise}.\hfill \end{array}\mu ,\nu \mathrm{𝟓𝟔}.$$
(A.30)
8. $`E_r`$ with the roots i.e., $`=\mathrm{\Delta }`$:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | I Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`E_6`$ | 12 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 72 | 2 | 24, 6, 0, -6 |
| $`E_7`$ | 18 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 126 | 2 | 36, 12, 8, 0, -6 |
| $`E_8`$ | 30 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 240 | 2 | 60, 24, 12, 0, -6 |
| $`E_r`$ | $`h`$ | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`D`$ | 2 | $`2h`$, (h-6) \[$`r`$\], $`(h/3+2)`$\[$`(r1)(r+2)/2`$\], |
|  |  |  |  |  | 0 \[$`(Dr(r+1))/2`$\], -6 \[$`D/2r`$\] |

(A.31)
9. $`F_4`$ with the long roots i.e., $`=\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | I Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`F_4`$ | 12 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 24 | 2 | $`12(g_L+g_S)`$, $`12g_S`$, $`4(g_Lg_S)`$, 0, $`6g_L`$ |

(A.32)
10. $`G_2`$ with the long roots i.e., $`=\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | I Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`G_2`$ | 6 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }_L`$ | 6 | 2 | $`6(g_L+g_S)`$, $`3(g_Lg_S)`$, -3$`(g_L+g_S)`$, $`6(g_L+g_S)`$ |

(A.33)
11. $`H_r`$ with the roots i.e., $`=\mathrm{\Delta }`$:

| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | I Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`H_3`$ | 10 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 30 | 1 | 10, 4, 3, 0, -2, -5 |
| $`H_4`$ | 30 | $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | 120 | 1 | 30, 15, 10, 0, -5 |

(A.34)
These $`K`$ matrices for $`H_3`$ and $`H_4`$ are characterised by:

$$K_{\alpha \beta }=g\{\begin{array}{cc}1\hfill & \text{if}\alpha \beta =1,i.e.,\alpha =\beta ,\hfill \\ 1/2\hfill & \text{if}\alpha \beta =1/2,\hfill \\ (3\pm \sqrt{5})/4\hfill & \text{if}\alpha \beta =(1\sqrt{5})/4,\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{otherwise}.\hfill \end{array}$$
(A.35)
12. $`I_2(m)`$ in the $`m`$ dimensional representation consisting of the vertices of the regular $`m`$-gon $`=R_m`$:

$`R_m`$ $`=`$ $`\{\sqrt{2}(\mathrm{cos}(2k\pi /m+t_0),\mathrm{sin}(2k\pi /m+t_0))𝐑^2|k=1,\mathrm{},m\},`$ (A.36)
$`t_0`$ $`=`$ $`0,(\pi /2m),\text{for}m\text{even}(\text{odd}).`$
| $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ | $`h`$ | $``$ | $`D`$ | $`\mu ^2`$ | I Spec($`K`$) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| $`I_2(2n+1)`$ | $`2n+1`$ | $`R_{2n+1}`$ | $`2n+1`$ | 2 | $`2(2n+1)`$, 0\[$`2n2`$\], -(2n+1) |
|  |  |  |  |  | $`2n(g_0+g_e)`$, $`(1)^nn(g_0g_e)`$, |
| $`I_2(2n)`$ | $`2n`$ | $`R_{2n}`$ | $`2n`$ | 2 | I 0\[$`2n6`$\], -n$`(g_o+g_e)`$, |
|  |  |  |  |  | I $`(1)^n2n(g_0g_e)`$ |

(A.37)