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# Position-velocity diagrams of ionized gas in the inner regions of disk galaxiesBased on observations carried out at European Southern Observatory (ESO N.58, A-0564), at the Multiple Mirror Telescope, which is a joint facility of the Smithsonian Institution and the University of Arizona, and at the Isaac Newton Telescope operated by the Isaac Newton group at the La Palma island at the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias.

## 1 Introduction

It is now commonly accepted that supermassive black holes (SMBHs hereafter) are nearly ubiquitous in elliptical galaxies and bulges. According to the standard paradigm, they should constitute the relics of the intense quasar activity that occurred in the early phase of galaxy evolution (see Ho 1999 for a review). The study of SMBHs has greatly benefited from the high resolution capabilities of the spectrographs onboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Nowadays about 40 galaxies, belonging to different morphological types are known to harbor a SMBH. Their masses, $`M_{}`$, range from $`10^6`$ to $`10^{10}`$ M and have been derived from the analysis of the stellar orbital structure or from the dynamics of gaseous circumnuclear Keplerian disks (CNKD), using both optical and radio observations (see Kormendy & Gebhardt 2001 and Merritt & Ferrarese 2001b for both the object list and a discussion of the accuracy of $`M_{}`$ determinations).

The census of SMBHs is now large enough to probe the links between $`M_{}`$ and the global properties of the host galaxies. $`M_{}`$ correlates with the luminosity, $`L_{\mathrm{𝑠𝑝ℎ}}`$, and velocity dispersion, $`\sigma `$, of the spheroidal component of the host galaxy (Kormendy & Richstone 1995; Magorrian et al. 1998; Ferrarese & Merritt 2000; Gebhardt et al. 2000a) . A lively debate is ongoing about the slope of the $`M_{}\sigma `$ relation (Merritt & Ferrarese 2001a), although with its neglegible scatter it is a tighter correlation than the $`M_{}L_{\mathrm{𝑠𝑝ℎ}}`$ relation. The consistency of $`M_{}`$ in active and quiescent galaxies has been discussed by different authors. Gebhardt et al. (2000b) and Ferrarese et al. (2001) showed that SMBH masses from reverberation mapping agree with the $`M_{}\sigma `$ relation. Similarly, McLure & Dunlop (2001, 2002) found that the values of $`M_{}`$ inferred from $`L_{\mathrm{𝑠𝑝ℎ}}`$ for a large sample of quasars and Seyfert galaxies agree with those inferred from $`\sigma `$ measurements.

Elliptical and disk galaxies seem to follow the same $`M_{}L_{\mathrm{𝑠𝑝ℎ}}`$ and $`M_{}\sigma `$ correlations, suggesting a close connection between the processes leading to the growth of central SMBHs and the formation of galaxy spheroids, whether they are ellipticals, classical bulges or pseudobulges (Kormendy 2001). Morever, $`M_{}`$ does not correlate with disks as it does with spheroids. To date, however, dynamical SMBH detections are available for only a dozen disk galaxies, and, therefore, the addition of new $`M_{}`$ determinations for S0’s and spirals is highly desirable.

Over the course of the last few years, we have undertaken a vast program aimed at detecting CNKDs in disk galaxies using ground-based spectroscopic observations. Our goal is to measure upper limits for SMBH masses by using HST spectra to constrain them further (Bertola et al. 1998). Here we present a survey of the ionized-gas kinematics of the inner regions of 23 disk galaxies. The study complements the recent results regarding rapidly rotating gaseous nuclear disks in Rubin, Kenney & Young (1997) and Sofue et al. (1998). The paper is organized as follows: in Sect. 2 we give an overview of the global properties of the sample galaxies and discuss observations and data reduction. In Sect. 3 we derive the position-velocity (PV) diagrams of the emission lines for each sample galaxy, suggesting a scheme for their classification. In Sect. 4 we present our conclusions. Relevant properties and the PV diagram of individual galaxies are discussed in the appendix.

## 2 Sample selection, spectroscopic observations and data reduction

All the observed galaxies are bright ($`B_T13.5`$) and nearby ($`V_{}<5800`$ $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$) with an intermediate-to-high inclination ($`45^{}i80^{}`$). The Hubble morphological types of the sample galaxies range from S0 to Sd and 5 objects are barred or weakly barred (RC3). The galaxies have been chosen to have strong emission lines. An overview of their basic properties is given in Tab. 1. In Fig. 1 we show the absolute magnitude distribution for the galaxies in our sample. The distribution brackets the M value for spiral galaxies taken from Marzke et al. (1998) for $`H_0=75`$ $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$.

The long-slit spectroscopic observations of our sample galaxies were carried out at the 4.5-m Multiple Mirror Telescope (MMT) in Arizona (USA), at the 3.6-m ESO Telescope at La Silla (Chile), and at the 2.5-m Isaac Newton Telescope (INT) at La Palma (Spain). Details about the instrumental setup and the seeing of each observing run are summarized in Tab. 2.

At the beginning of each exposure, the slit was centered on the galaxy nucleus and aligned along the galaxy major axis using the guide TV camera. The slit orientation and the exposure times are given in Tab. 3. A comparison-lamp spectrum was obtained before and after each object integration to allow an accurate wavelength calibration. Quartz-lamp and twilight-sky flatfields were taken to map pixel-to-pixel sensitivity variations and large-scale illumination patterns.

Using standard MIDAS111MIDAS is developed and maintained by the European Southern Observatory. routines, the spectra were bias subtracted, flatfield corrected, cleaned for cosmic rays, and wavelength calibrated. Cosmic rays were identified by comparing the counts in each pixel with the local mean and standard deviation (based on the Poisson statistics of the photons are using the gain and readout noise of the detector). We corrected the data by interpolating a suitable value.

The instrumental resolution was derived as the mean of the Gaussian FWHMs measured for a number of unblended arc-lamp lines (12 in the MMT and INT spectra and 30 in the ESO spectra), which were distributed over the whole spectral range of a wavelength-calibrated comparison spectrum. The mean FWHM of the arc-lamp lines, as well as the corresponding instrumental velocity dispersion, are given in Tab. 2. Finally, the spectra were aligned and coadded using the centers of their stellar continua as reference. In the resulting spectra, the contribution from the sky was determined by interpolating along the outermost $`10^{\prime \prime }20^{\prime \prime }`$ at the edges of the slit, where galaxy light was negligible. The sky level was then subtracted.

## 3 Position-velocity diagrams

### 3.1 Galaxy continuum subtraction

We subtracted the stellar continua from the spectra to study the two-dimensional shape of the emission lines. Without a large library of stellar (or even galaxy) absorption-line spectra obtained with the same observing setup of the spectra of the sample galaxies we were unable to apply the technique of template subtraction for an optimal correction for the starlight contamination (e.g. Ho et al. 1997).

The galaxy continua have been removed from MMT spectra by applying the technique outlined by Bender, Saglia & Gerhard (1994). The following procedure was applied to the each row of the galaxy spectrum. First we fit a sixth-to-tenth-order polynomial to the observed spectrum and calculated the rms variation, $`\sigma `$, of the spectrum around the polynomial. Then, the fit was repeated including only those pixels with values falling within $`1\sigma `$ to $`0\sigma `$ of the first fit in order to avoid both emission and strong absorption lines. The new polynomial fit was adopted as the galaxy continuum and subtracted from the observed spectrum. We were prevented from adopting the same method for the INT and ESO spectra because of their shorter wavelength range. Our major concern, with the stellar continuum subtraction was avoiding the creation of spurious features. For this reason we adopted a very simple but robust approach. Specifically, we made the reasonable assumption that the underlying observed stellar profile is the same at all wavelengths in the small observed range. An average profile was determined in regions free from emission-line flux and this same profile, properly scaled and subtracted from all the columns of the spectrum. The stellar continuum under the emission features was approximated by linear interpolation.

For our purposes, the above techniques give a satisfactory approximation of the galaxy continuum in the spectral range centered on the relevant emission lines we measure, specifically \[O III\]$`\lambda 5007`$, \[N II\]$`\lambda 6583`$, and H$`\alpha `$ for the MMT, INT and ESO spectra, respectively. In Fig. 2 we show the continuum-subtracted spectra of the sample galaxies as well as the isodensity contour plots (i.e. the PV diagram) of the emission lines we measure.

### 3.2 Measuring the position-velocity diagrams

The PV diagrams plotted in Fig. 2 show the variety of two-dimensional shapes of the optical emission lines in the inner regions of disk galaxies. This finding is in agreement with the earlier results of Rubin et al. (1997) and Sofue et al. (1998). We suggest a classification of these PV diagrams based on the comparison of the velocity gradients, velocity dispersions and fluxes measured at different distances from the center. Our goal is to identify galaxies hosting a CNKD.

We measured the line-of-sight velocity, $`V`$, of the ionized gas at $`r\pm 1^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`r\pm 4^{\prime \prime }`$ by fitting a Gaussian to the relevant emission line. The central wavelength of the Gaussian fit was converted to velocity in the optical convention and then the standard heliocentric correction was applied to obtain $`V`$. The radii, $`r\pm 1^{\prime \prime }`$, used for measuring the inner velocity gradient $`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑖𝑛}}`$, are dictated by the spatial resolution limit imposed by seeing on our data ($`0\stackrel{}{.}8\mathrm{FWHM}1\stackrel{}{.}5`$). Choosing the smallest possible radii according to the seeing limit assures us that if a central mass concentration is present, the observed inner velocity gradient is maximized. The outer velocity gradient, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}`$, measured at $`r\pm 4^{\prime \prime }`$, serves as a reference. In fact, for each sample galaxy the radius of influence, $`\theta _{}`$, of the possible central mass concentration predicted using the $`M_{}\sigma `$ relation (Merritt & Ferrarese 2001a, see Tab. 1) is $`\theta _{}4^{\prime \prime }`$. Therefore, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}`$ is essentially determined by the contribution of galaxy stellar component to the potential.

We checked that velocity gradients did not significatively change if the $`\mathrm{\Delta }V`$ are computed from the difference of line-of-sight velocity distribution maxima instead of the centers of the fitting Gaussian fit. Moreover, to test the robustness of our measurements and to estimate the associated uncertainties, we compute $`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑖𝑛}}`$ at $`r_{\mathrm{𝑖𝑛}}\pm 0\stackrel{}{.}7\mathrm{and}\mathrm{at}\pm 1\stackrel{}{.}3`$ and we compute $`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}`$ at $`r_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}\pm 3^{\prime \prime }\mathrm{and}\mathrm{at}\pm 5^{\prime \prime }`$, respectively. The errors on $`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑖𝑛}}`$ have been estimated from the maximum difference between the values measured at $`\pm 0\stackrel{}{.}7`$ and $`\pm 1\stackrel{}{.}3`$ with respect to those measured at $`\pm 1^{\prime \prime }`$. Similarly, the errors on $`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}`$ have been estimated from the maximum difference between the values obtained at $`\pm 3^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`\pm 5^{\prime \prime }`$ with respect to those measured at $`\pm 4^{\prime \prime }`$. The measured values of $`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑖𝑛}}`$ and $`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}`$ are given in Tab. 4.

The inner-to-outer velocity gradient ratio $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is independent of galaxy inclination and has been adopted to indicate which galaxies are characterized by rapidly-rotating gas in the inner regions. However, to allow a direct comparison of their absolute values, we plotted the inner velocity gradients as a function of the corresponding outer velocity gradients in Fig. 3, after correcting for galaxy inclination and distance given in Tab. 1. NGC 980, NGC 2179, NGC 2683, NGC 3031 and NGC 7782 are clearcut cases of galaxies characterized by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }\pm \mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Gamma }>2`$.

To characterize the velocity-dispersion and surface-brightness radial profiles of each gaseous disk, we measured the velocity dispersion and integrated flux of the ionized gas in the galaxy center and at $`r\pm 4^{\prime \prime }`$, using a Gaussian fit to the line adopted for the velocity measurements. The FWHM of Gaussian fit was corrected for instrumental FWHM and converted into the velocity dispersion, $`\sigma `$. The formal error of the fit has been adopted as the error on the central value of velocity dispersion, while the errors on the outer values have been estimated using the maximum difference between the measurements obtained at $`\pm 3^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`\pm 5^{\prime \prime }`$ with respect to those at $`\pm 4^{\prime \prime }`$. The integrated flux was assumed to be the area of the Gaussian fit and the associated error was estimated from Poisson statistics. We considered only the central-to-outer integrated-flux ratio since spectra were not flux calibrated. This process results in line fluxes of different objects observed with different setups that are not directly comparable. The measured values of the velocity dispersion and the central-to-outer integrated-flux ratio are given in Tab. 4. The central velocity dispersions are shown as a function of the outer velocity dispersions in Fig. 3. NGC 980, NGC 2179, and NGC 3031 exhibit the sharpest rises in observed velocity dispersion towards their centers.

### 3.3 A classification of the position-velocity diagrams

We propose an operational classification of the PV diagrams of Fig. 2 based on the properties we measured in Sect. 3.2 and based on the analogy between the shapes of the PV diagrams we observed and the shapes predicted for the spectrum of a ionized thin gaseous disk, under the assumption that the gas moves in circular orbits, in the plane of the galaxy. Although the model assumptions may not be accurate in practice, the classification is useful to identify the effects of rapid gas rotation. We do not pretend to draw any general conclusions on the phenomenology of PV diagrams from such a classification; it is just a tool adopted to select the sample galaxies which possibly host CNKDs.

Under the model assumptions, two parameters are crucial in determining the observed shape of the PV diagrams; they are the value of the central mass concentration and the steepness of the intrinsic surface-brightness distribution of the gaseous disk. To investigate the change in the PV diagrams resulting from these two effects, we have used the IDL modeling software developed in Bertola et al. (1998). We refer the reader to that paper for further details on the model. A slit width and a seeing FWHM of 1″ have been adopted, with a spectrograph velocity scale of 10 km s-1 pixel-1 and a spatial scale of $`0\stackrel{}{.}3`$ pixel-1. The underlying galaxy potential is assumed to result in a rigid rotation of 0.4 km s-1 pc-1 in the plane of the disk, which is “observed” at 60 inclination ($`i=90^{}`$ corresponding to edge-on). A distance of 17 Mpc was adopted for the modeling, corresponding to the distance of the Virgo cluster.

The predicted effect on the PV diagram from an increase of the central mass concentration is presented in the upper panels of Fig. 4. In this case, we assume an exponential the surface-brightness profile superposed on a constant term: $`I(R)=I_0+I_1\mathrm{exp}(R/R_I)`$, with $`I_0=1`$ and $`I_1=5`$ (in arbitrary units) and $`R_I=1\mathrm{}`$, where the central mass is given by $`M_{}=0,10^8,10^9`$ M in panels (a), (b) and (c) respectively.

The PV change that results from a variation in the brightness of a central unresolved source is shown in the bottom panels of Fig. 4. In these panels the adopted surface-brightness profile is assumed to be an essentially unresolved Gaussian superposed on a constant term: $`I(R)=I_0+I_1\mathrm{exp}[R^2/(2\sigma _I^2)]`$, with $`I_0=1`$, $`\sigma _I=0\stackrel{}{.}3`$ and $`I_1=0,20,100`$ (in arbitrary units) in panel (a), (b) and (c) respectively.

By comparing the models of Fig. 4 with the observed PV diagrams, and inspecting the measured values of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, $`\sigma _0/\sigma _{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}`$ and $`F_0/F_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}`$ we identify three different types of PV diagrams (see Fig. 5).

Type I. This type of PV diagrams suggests the presence of two distinct kinematical gaseous components. This results from the sharp increase of $`\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r`$ towards small radii, which indicates the presence of a rapidly rotating gas in the innermost region of the galaxy. The inner-to-outer velocity gradient ratio is $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>2`$ and the intensity distribution along the line shows two symmetric peaks with respect to the center.
The PV diagram of the Sa galaxy NGC 2179 (Fig. 5) can be considered the prototype of this class. As we showed in Bertola et al. (1998), the peculiar shape and intensity distribution of this PV diagram can be modeled as a unique gaseous component that is rotating in the combined potential of a central mass concentration embedded in an extended stellar disk. Therefore the galaxies that exhibit this kind of PV diagram (NGC 980, NGC 2179, and NGC 7782) are good candidates to host a CNKD rotating around a central mass concentration. They are ideal targets for HST spectroscopic follow-up to constrain the mass of the possible SMBH. A good estimate of this mass requires that the innermost kinematical points be within the radius of influence (e.g. Merritt & Ferrarese 2001b). The three galaxies meet this criterion, since the expected angular extension of the radii of influence of their SMBHs are comparable to the pixel size of the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph ($`\theta _{}0\stackrel{}{.}05`$). An increase in the velocity dispersion ($`\sigma _0150`$ $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$), associated with a large increase in the velocity gradient (as in NGC 980 and NGC 2179) is expected in the presence of a nuclear mass concentration. It could result from differential motion within the aperture or from intrinsic turbulence in the gaseous disk. On the other hand, an increase in velocity dispersion that is not associated with an increase in the velocity gradient may indicate that the gas is not in a disk. However, a central mass concentration may still be the cause of this increase in the velocity dispersion.

Type II. This class of PV diagram is characterized by a single velocity component which is in rigid-body rotation, as indicated by $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1`$. $`\sigma _0/\sigma _{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}1`$ and $`F_0/F_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}1`$ are characteristic of these PV diagrams too.
We consider the PV diagram of the Sa galaxy NGC 5064 to be the prototypical example of this kind of PV diagram (Fig. 5). In Bertola et al. (1998), we pointed out that in this galaxy either the unresolved Keplerian part of the gaseous disk does not result in a detectable contribution or the central mass concentration is lower than $`5\times 10^7`$ M. Therefore we suggest that galaxies exhibiting this type of PV diagram (see Tab. 4) may harbor low-mass SMBHs, although high spatial resolution spectroscopy and dynamical modelling of the stellar kinematics are required to distinguish this possibility from the effects of a peculiar gas distribution.

Type III. PV diagrams of this type are characterized by an apparently broad nuclear emission-line component superimposed on a normal velocity curve. This results from the sharp increase of the line flux toward the center, as indicated by $`F_0/F_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}>1`$.
The best example of this type of PV diagram is that of the S0 NGC 2768 (Fig. 5). Most of the sample galaxies exhibit a PV diagram belonging to this class because of a selection effect. They have been observed because of their strong emission lines.

The classification and the peculiarities of the PV diagrams of all the sample galaxies are discussed in the appendix.

## 4 Discussion and conclusions

In Bertola et al. (1998) we demonstrated that it is possible to detect the signature of a CNKD in the emission-line PV diagrams obtained from ground-based spectroscopy of nearby galaxies. In addition, we showed that once properly modelled, this technique can lead to reliable upper-limits for the central mass concentration. Using these results, and to identify new galaxies hosting a CNKD, we obtained long-slit spectra along the major axes of 23 nearby disk galaxies, measuring the PV diagrams of the ionized-gas components from the emission lines.

To achieve our goal, we analyzed these emission-line PV diagrams by measuring the values of the velocity gradient, the velocity dispersion, and the integrated flux of the ionized gas at different radii, and by comparing the shape of the observed emission lines with that predicted for a thin disk of gas moving in circular orbits in the galaxy plane. This classification allowed us to recognize the possible presence of a CNKD in 3 of our objects. Recently, Rubin et al. (1997) and Sofue et al. (1998) discussed the kinematics of rapidly-rotating gas disks observed in the central few hundred parsecs of S0’s and spiral galaxies. By combining our sample with their samples, we find that the PV diagrams of 9 out 54 galaxies exhibit a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }>2`$, which is indicative of a CNKD. The fact that in the majority of these cases CNKDs have not been observed means that not all of these galaxies enough gas detectable and rotating Keplerian orbits. Therefore, we estimated that the frequency of CNKDs, measured from ground-based spectroscopy of emission-line disk galaxies, is $`20\%`$. This result is consistent with the findings of Sarzi et al. (2001), which are based on HST spectroscopy. Indeed, they found a gaseous disk with a well-ordered velocity field suitable for dynamical modelling at HST resolution in only 4 of the 23 randomly selected emission-line disk galaxies they observed.

The analysis of ground-based PV diagrams allows identification of those galaxies that are good candidates for hosting a CNKD rotating around a central mass concentration, and are therefore are good candidates for follow-up HST spectroscopy. It is worth noting that in this way it is possible to improve the present low success rate of HST programs aimed at estimating SMBH masses in nearby bulges by modelling nuclear gas kinematics. Although the SMBH mass hosted by the candidates selected by ground-based observations are expected to lie in the high-mass end of the M$`{}_{}{}^{}\sigma `$ diagram because of the resolution limits imposed on their PV diagrams by seeing, these candidates are required to elucidate the relationship for disk galaxies, which are underrepresented relative to elliptical galaxies in the sample of galaxies studied so far.

###### Acknowledgements.

We thank Betsy Gillespie for reading the manuscript. This research has made use of the Lyon-Meudon Extragalactic Database (LEDA) and Digitized Sky Survey (DSS).

## Appendix A Notes on individual galaxies

The PV diagrams of the sample galaxies are plotted in Fig. 2 and their classifications according to the criteria proposed in Sect. 3.3 are given in Tab. 4. In this section, we describe the most important properties of the sample galaxies and discuss the classification of their PV diagrams. The values of the velocities and the velocity dispersions include no corrections for inclination.

NGC 470. This intermediate-type spiral hosts either two nested bars (Wozniak et al. 1995) or a bar with a triaxial bulge (Friedli et al. 1996). The velocity gradient and velocity dispersion of the \[O III\]$`\lambda 5007`$ line do not significantly change moving from the nuclear to the outer regions, while its integrated flux increases towards the center. We classify the PV diagram of NGC 470 as Type III.

NGC 772. According to the dynamical modelling of Pignatelli et al. (2001), the velocity of the ionized gas traces the circular speed in gravitational equilibrium. The PV diagram of NGC 772 derived from the \[O III\]$`\lambda 5007`$ emission line is classified as Type III since the integrated flux of the emission line in the nucleus is greater than that measured in the outer regions.

NGC 949. As in the previous case, also the Type III classification of the PV diagram of NGC 949 results from the increase of the integrated flux of the \[O III\]$`\lambda 5007`$ line toward the center.

NGC 980. In the PV diagram of this S0 galaxy, a tilted and bright component appears to be superimposed on a normal rotation curve. The increase of both the velocity gradient and the velocity dispersion toward the center are indicative of the kinematics of a CNKD and give this PV diagram its Type I classification. This is also the case for NGC 2179 and NGC 7782.

NGC 1160. The PV diagram of this Scd spiral is characterized by a constant velocity gradient and a constant integrated flux for the \[O III\]$`\lambda 5007`$ line. This makes its Type II classification straightforward.

NGC 2179. The PV diagram of NGC 2179 is the prototype of the Type I class. The two-dimensional shapes of the emission lines are such that they gives the erroneous impression of two distinct velocity components. One apparent velocity component has the form of a highly tilted straight line rising from zero velocity in the galaxy center (i.e., a faster-rising rotation curve). The other component is a less-tilted straight line (i.e., a slower-rising rotation curve) superimposed on the first. Both lines naively appear to imply solid-body rotation in the inner parts of this galaxy; both lines culminate as the radius increases to almost the same maximum velocity; the slower-rising rotation curve shows a flat portion in its outer regions. Rather than being of two different physical origins, we have shown that properly accounting for the seeing, slit width, and pixel size effects, these two apparently solid-body rotation curves can be modelled as the velocity field of a thin gaseous disk rotating in the combined gravitational potential of central point-like mass and an extended stellar disk (see Bertola et al. 1998 for details).

NGC 2541. The bright central component in this PV diagram is characterized by the same velocity dispersion measured in the outer parts of the disk. This is typical of Type III diagrams.

NGC 2683. According to Merrifield & Kuijken (1999), the PV diagram of NGC 2683 has a ‘figure-of-eight’ shape produced by the presence of two kinematically distinct gaseous components. This feature is barely visible in our PV diagram because of the lower S/N ratio of the spectrum. Although the properties of the PV diagram of NGC 2683 are similar to those of NGC 980, NGC 2179 and NGC 7782, it does not warrant a Type I classification. Indeed in NGC 2683 we are observing two gas components which are spatially distinct and superimposed along the line of sight because of the high inclination of the galaxy ($`i=78^{}`$). They are generated by the presence of a non-axisymmetric potential (Kuijken & Merrifield 1995; Bureau & Athanassoula 1999).

This is not the case for NGC 980, NGC 2179 and NGC 7782, which are less inclined ($`i=58^{},47^{}`$ and $`58^{}`$, respectively) and unbarred, exhibiting unique gaseous components.

NGC 2768. The presence of a definite outer envelope with subtle dust patches surrounding the bulge (see panels 38 and 53 in CAG) supports the S0 classification of this galaxy, which appears as an E6$``$ in RC3. The kinematical decoupling between the ionized gas and the stars, detected by Bertola, Buson & Zeilinger (1992), has been interpreted as a result of the presence of gas orbiting in a polar ring (Möllenhoff, Hummel & Bender 1992; Fried & Illinghworth 1994). The inner velocity gradient is higher than the outer one which is one of the lowest we measured ($`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}`$$`=0.09`$ $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{pc}^1`$). The constant velocity dispersion and the steep increase of \[N II\]$`\lambda 6583`$ flux in the center imply a Type III classification for this PV diagram.

NGC 2815. The presence of the spectrum of broad emission lines in the nuclear region of NGC 2815 with wings which are very close each to other makes the subtraction of the galaxy continuum critical. Indeed, residual continuum is still visible in the PV diagram derived from the H$`\alpha `$ line; it gives the erroneous impression that the PV diagram shape is similar to that of NGC 2179. We classify this PV diagram as Type III class because of its constant velocity gradient and large central-to-outer integrated-flux ratio.

NGC 2841. According to Sil’Chenko, Vlasyuk & Burenkov (1997) the ionized gas is rotating orthogonally with respect to the galaxy plane in the inner $`5^{\prime \prime }`$. Alternatively, Sofue et al. (1998) reported that the central portion of the PV diagram derived from the H$`\alpha `$ and \[N II\]$`\lambda 6583`$ lines is slightly tilted in the direction of the galactic rotation, suggesting the presence of a rapidly rotating nuclear disk. Our PV diagram exhibits a complex and asymmetric shape that could be related to these different kinematic components. However, we do not measure a significant variation of the velocity gradient or the velocity dispersion with radius. The line flux increases slightly toward the center. These features are similar to those of PV diagrams included in the Type III class, and make it difficult to associate with the central component to a fast-rotating disk as by indicated Sofue et al. (1998).

NGC 3031. HST H$`\alpha `$ imaging reveals the presence of a nuclear gaseous disk (Dereveux, Ford & Jacoby 1997) similar in size and shape to the CNKD of M87 (see Macchetto et al. 1997 and references therein). The disk is rotating around a SMBH with $`M_{}=3\times 10^6`$ M, according to determinations based on stellar kinematics (Bower et al. 1996) and broad-line emission (Ho, Filippenko & Sargent 1996). The spatial and spectral resolution of our spectrum allow us only to detect the presence of a broad and bright central component in the PV diagram. In fact, it exhibits the highest central-to-outer integrated-flux ratio of our sample, which warrants a Type III classification. From the available spectrum, it is difficult to claim that NGC 3031 is hosting a CNKD even though we measure a remarkably large $`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑖𝑛}}`$ ($`=3.4`$ $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{pc}^1`$) and a large inner-to-outer velocity-gradient ratio ($`\mathrm{\Gamma }=3.0`$).

NGC 3281. The ionized-gas kinematics measured by Rubin et al. (1985) and Corsini et al. (1999) extends out to about $`50^{\prime \prime }`$ from the nucleus but in our spectrum the emission is confined in the innermost $`5^{\prime \prime }`$. The inner velocity gradient is steeper than the outer one and this early-type spiral has one of the highest central-to-outer flux ratios of the whole sample. Even if the emission is not extended we consider the PV diagram of NGC 3281 to be of Type III because of its intense nuclear emission.

NGC 3368. From NIR photometry, Jungwiert, Combes & Axon (1997) identified a possible double-barred structure within this Sab spiral. Although the PV diagram seems to have a two-component structure, the constant velocity gradient and steep increase of the integrated flux of the \[O III\]$`\lambda 5007`$ line toward the center suggest a Type III classification.

NGC 3521. The PV diagram of this intermediate-type spiral has been recently measured by Sofue et al. (1998) from the H$`\alpha `$ and the \[N II\]$`\lambda 6583`$ emission lines. They interpreted the central component observed in the \[N II\]$`\lambda 6583`$ line as an indication of the presence of a fast rotating gaseous disk in the nucleus. We suggest that this feature, which is clearly visible also in the PV diagram we derived from the \[O III\]$`\lambda 5007`$ emission line, results from the increase of the line flux rather than the velocity gradient. Morever, the velocity dispersion does not change with radius. Therefore it is Type III diagram.

NGC 3705. The Type III classification of this PV diagram mostly results from the centrally-peaked radial profile of the integrated flux of the \[O III\]$`\lambda 5007`$ line, which gives the impression of a steep central component superimposed on a slowly-rotating component.

NGC 3898. The ionized-gas distribution and kinematics of this Sa galaxy have recently been studied in detail by Pignatelli et al. (2001). They found that in the innermost region ($`|r|8^{\prime \prime }`$) of NGC 3898, the ionized gas is rotating more slowly than the circular velocity predicted by dynamical modelling based on stellar kinematics and photometry. The fingerprint of such a ‘slowly-rising’ rotation curve (according to Kent 1988 definition) can be recognized in the decrease of the velocity gradient at smaller radii. The two-component shape of the PV diagram results from the bright nuclear emission and not the increase of velocity gradient or the velocity dispersion. This is a Type III PV diagram and its similarity to the PV diagram of NGC 4419 is remarkable.

NGC 4419. The spectrum and consequently the PV diagram of NGC 4419 are similar to those of NGC 3898. The spectra show the same strong and broad H$`\alpha `$ absorption and the PV diagrams are characterized by the same bright central component. They have also similar inner-to-outer velocity gradient and dispersion ratios and both belong to the Type III class. As NGC 3898 also NGC 4419 is one of the bulge-dominated spirals displaying a slowly-rising rotation curve of the ionized gas discussed by Kent (1988).

NGC 4698. This Sa galaxy shows a remarkable orthogonal geometrical and kinematical decoupling between the inner portion of the bulge and galaxy disk (Bertola et al. 1999). The asymmetric shapes of the H$`\alpha `$ and \[N II\] lines are seen at a simple visual inspection of the spectrum, and they are more evident in the PV diagram obtained from the \[N II\]$`\lambda 6583`$ line. Although we measured an increase of the velocity gradient towards the center, we note that NGC 4698 has the shallowest outer gradient of all the sample galaxies ($`(\mathrm{\Delta }V/\mathrm{\Delta }r)_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}`$$`=0.05`$ $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{pc}^1`$). This gradient corresponds to the central plateau measured in the ionized-gas rotation curve by Bertola & Corsini (2000). The Type III classification has been assigned to this PV diagram on the basis of its high central-to-outer integrated-flux ratio.

NGC 5064. The PV diagram of NGC 5064 is the prototype of the Type II class. It is useful to compare the emission-line spectrum of NGC 5064 to that of NGC 2179, because both spectra have been obtained with same setup and observing conditions. In contrast with NGC 2179, the emission-line spectrum of NGC 5064 does not show any peculiar features; there is only one component in the central region. The velocity increases linearly with radius until it reaches about $`200`$ $`\mathrm{km}\mathrm{s}^1`$, $`4^{\prime \prime }`$ from the center. The velocity dispersion and the integrated flux of the H$`\alpha `$ line remain almost constant in this radial range.

NGC 7320. The spectrum we obtained for this late-type spiral, which belongs to Stephan’s Quintet is of poor quality. The \[O III\]$`\lambda 5007`$ line shows a bright knot at about $`5^{\prime \prime }`$ from the center resulting in the observed $`F_0/F_{\mathrm{𝑜𝑢𝑡}}=0.3`$. The Type II classification of the PV diagram is based on the constant inner-to-outer velocity gradient and velocity dispersion.

NGC 7331. The presence of a SMBH ($`M_{}10^8`$ M) in the center of NGC 7331 has been debated by different authors (Afanasiev, Morozov & Levi 1989; Bower et al. 1993; Mediavilla et al. 1997; Sil’Chenko 1999). The debate centers on observations of the distribution and kinematics of ionized gas. Our PV diagram is similar to that of NGC 772. We measure an increase of the integrated flux of the \[O III\]$`\lambda 5007`$ line at smaller radii, along with constant velocity gradient and to slight increase of the velocity dispersion. The PV diagram of NGC 7331 is of Type III.

NGC 7782. The inner region of this PV diagram is characterized by a sharp increase of the velocity gradient, as confirmed by the large inner-to-outer velocity-gradient ratio we measure. The \[O III\]$`\lambda 5007`$ line exhibits a bright nuclear component and it velocity dispersion rapidly decreases with radius. The properties of the PV diagram of NGC 7782 are close to those of NGC 2179 leading to the Type I classification. The nuclear ionized-gas kinematics of NGC 7782 is indicative of a CNKD.


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# Proper and admissible topologies in the setting of closure spaces

## 1. Čech closure spaces

An operator $`u:𝒫(X)𝒫(X)`$ defined on the power set $`𝒫(X)`$ of a set $`X`$ satisfying the axioms:

* $`u(\mathrm{})=\mathrm{}`$,
* $`Au(A)`$ for every $`AX`$,
* $`u(AB)=u(A)u(B)`$ for all $`A,BX`$,

is called a Čech closure operator and the pair $`(X,u)`$ is a Čech closure space. For short, the space will be noted by $`X`$ as well, and called a closure space.

A subset $`A`$ is closed in the closure space $`(X,u)`$ if $`u(A)=A`$ holds. It is open if its complement is closed. The empty set and the whole space are both open and closed.

The interior operator $`\mathrm{int}_u:𝒫(X)𝒫(X)`$ is defined by means of the closure operator in the usual way: $`\mathrm{int}_u=\mathrm{c}u\mathrm{c}`$, where $`\mathrm{c}:𝒫(X)𝒫(X)`$ is the complement operator. A subset $`U`$ is a neighbourhood of a point $`x`$ (subset $`A`$) in $`X`$ if $`x\mathrm{int}_uU(A\mathrm{int}_uU)`$ holds. We denote by $`𝒩(x)`$ the collection of all neighbourhoods (the neighbourhood system) at the point $`x`$. By (C3), the intersection of two (and thus finitely many) neighbourhoods at $`x`$ is a neighbourhood at $`x`$ again. The condition (C1) is equivalent to $`\mathrm{int}_uX=X`$, that is to $`X𝒩(x)`$ for every $`xX`$, and $`\mathrm{int}_uAA`$ for every $`AX`$ is equivalent to (C2).

In a closure space $`(X,u)`$ a family $`𝒰(x)𝒩(x)`$ is a neighbourhood (local) base at a point $`x`$ if the following axioms are satisfied:

* $`𝒰(x)\mathrm{}`$ for every $`xX`$,
* $`xU`$ for every $`U𝒰(x)`$,
* $`U_1,U_2𝒰(x)(U𝒰(x))UU_1U_2`$.

A family $`𝒰(x)𝒩(x)`$ is a neighbourhood (local) subbase at a point $`x`$ if the conditions (Nb1) and (Nb2) are fulfilled.

If a collection $`\{𝒰(x)xX\}`$ of filters on $`X`$ satisfies the conditions (Nb1)–(Nb3), then there is exactly one closure operator $`u`$ for $`X`$ such that $`𝒰(x)`$ is a neighbourhood base at $`x`$ for each $`xX`$. The operator $`u`$ is defined by:

$$u(A)=\{xXU𝒰(x)UA\mathrm{}\}.$$

Let $`(X,u_1)`$ and $`(X,u_2)`$ be closure spaces. The closure $`u_1`$ is coarser than the closure $`u_2`$, or $`u_2`$ is finer than $`u_1`$, denoted by $`u_1u_2`$, if $`u_1(A)u_2(A)`$ for every $`AX`$. So defined relation $``$ is a partial order on the set of all closure spaces.

Let $`\{u_\alpha \}`$ be a collection of closure operators on a set $`X`$. The infimum (meet) and supremum (join) operators for $`\{u_\alpha \}`$ are the operators $`u_0=u_\alpha `$ and $`u=u_\alpha `$ respectively, defined by: $`𝒰_0(x)=_\alpha 𝒩_\alpha (x)`$ is a neighbourhood base (system) and $`𝒰(x)=_\alpha 𝒩_\alpha (x)`$ is a neighbourhood subbase at $`xX`$, for $`u_0`$ and $`u`$ respectively.

Many topological notions can be defined in the class of closure spaces by means of neighbourhoods.

Let $`\mathrm{M}`$ be a directed set and $`(x_\mu )_{\mu \mathrm{M}}`$ a net in $`(X,u)`$. The net $`(x_\mu )`$ converges to a point $`xX`$ if for every neighbourhood $`U`$ of $`x`$ there is a $`\mu \mathrm{M}`$ such that for every $`\mu ^{}\mathrm{M}`$, $`\mu ^{}\mu x_\mu ^{}U`$. Similarly, $`x`$ is an accumulation point of the net $`(x_\mu )`$ if for every neighbourhood $`U`$ of $`x`$ and every $`\mu \mathrm{M}`$ there is a $`\mu ^{}\mathrm{M}`$ such that $`\mu ^{}\mu `$ and $`x_\mu ^{}U`$. For every point $`x`$ the neighbourhood system $`𝒩(x)`$ is a filter on $`X`$ such that $`x𝒩(x)`$. Moreover it is a set directed by the inverse inclusion $``$ and every net $`(x_U)_{U𝒩(x)}`$ with $`x_UU`$, converges to $`x`$.

Let $`(X,u)`$ and $`(Y,v)`$ be two closure spaces. A function $`f:(X,u)(Y,v)`$ is continuous at $`xX`$ if “close points are mapped into close ones”, that is if the following holds

$$AXxu(A)f(x)v(f(A)).$$

This condition is equivalent to:

* the inverse image of every neighbourhood of $`f(x)`$ is a neighbourhood of $`x`$;
* for every net $`(x_\mu )`$ that converges to $`x`$, the net $`(f(x_\mu ))`$ converges to $`f(x)`$;
* if $`x`$ is an accumulation point of a net $`(x_\mu ),f(x)`$ is an accumulation point of the net $`(f(x_\mu ))`$.

A function $`f:(X,u)(Y,v)`$ is continuous if it is continuous at every point of $`X`$. This condition is equivalent to:

* $`f(u(A))v(f(A))`$ for every $`AX`$;
* $`u(f^1(B))f^1(v(B))`$ for every $`BY`$.

The product of a family $`\{(X_\alpha ,u_\alpha )\alpha \mathrm{A}\}`$ of closure spaces, denoted by $`\mathrm{\Pi }(X_\alpha ,u_\alpha )`$, is the set $`X=\mathrm{\Pi }_{\alpha \mathrm{A}}X_\alpha `$ endowed with the closure operator $`u`$ defined by means of neighbourhoods: for every $`xX`$ the family

$$𝒰(x)=\{\pi _\alpha ^1(V)\alpha \mathrm{A},V𝒩_\alpha (x_\alpha )\}$$

is a neighbourhood subbase at $`x`$ in $`(X,u)`$. Here $`\pi _\alpha `$ are the projections, while $`𝒩_\alpha (x_\alpha )`$ is the neighbourhood system at $`x_\alpha =\pi _\alpha (x)`$ in $`X_\alpha `$. There exists exactly one closure operator $`u`$ such that $`𝒰(x)`$ is a local subbase at $`x`$ in $`(X,u)`$ for every $`xX`$. Canonical neighbourhoods of $`x`$ are of the form $`_{i=1}^k\pi _{\alpha _i}^1(V_i)`$.

The projections are continuous as well as the restrictions of continuous functions. The composition of two continuous mappings is continuous and a mapping $`f:(X,u)\mathrm{\Pi }(Y_\alpha ,v_\alpha )`$ is continuous at $`xX`$ if and only if each composition $`\pi _\alpha f`$ is continuous at $`x`$. Also the product $`f:\mathrm{\Pi }(X_\alpha ,u_\alpha )\mathrm{\Pi }(Y_\alpha ,v_\alpha )`$ of a family $`\{f_\alpha \}`$ of continuous mappings is continuous.

A well-known example of a Čech closure operator which is not a Kuratowski closure operator in general, is the so called $`\theta `$-closure. It was defined by Veličko  in the following way: Let $`(X,𝒯)`$ be a topological space and let $`AX`$. A point $`xX`$ is in the $`\theta `$-closure of $`A`$, denoted by $`\mathrm{cl}_\theta A`$ (or $`𝒯\mathrm{cl}_\theta A`$), if each closed neighbourhood of $`x`$ intersects $`A`$. Neighbourhood bases in $`(X,\mathrm{cl}_\theta )`$ consist of closed neighbourhoods (or closures of open neighbourhoods) in $`(X,𝒯)`$ at every point $`x`$.

Let $`(X,𝒯)`$ be the product space of a family $`\{(X_\alpha ,𝒯_\alpha )\}`$ of topological spaces. The $`\theta `$-closure space of $`(X,𝒯)`$ is the product of the $`\theta `$-closure spaces of $`(X_\alpha ,𝒯_\alpha )`$, i.e. $`(X,𝒯\mathrm{cl}_\theta )=\mathrm{\Pi }(X_\alpha ,𝒯_\alpha \mathrm{cl}_\theta )`$.

A function $`f:(X,𝒯)(Y,𝒱)`$ is $`\theta `$-continuous at $`xX`$ if for every neighbourhood $`V`$ of $`f(x)`$ there is a neighbourhood $`U`$ of $`x`$ such that $`f(\overline{U})\overline{V}`$. A function $`f:(X,𝒯)(Y,𝒱)`$ is $`\theta `$-continuous if it is $`\theta `$-continuous at each of its points. Every continuous function is $`\theta `$-continuous, but the converse does not hold in general.

$`\theta `$-continuity is not a continuity concept in the class of topological spaces, but it is in the class of Čech closure spaces. Namely,

###### Proposition.

A function $`f:(X,𝒯)(Y,𝒱)`$ is $`\theta `$-continuous if and only if the function $`f:(X,𝒯\mathrm{cl}_\theta )(Y,𝒱\mathrm{cl}_\theta )`$ is a continuous mapping of (Čech) closure spaces.

Hence the following characterizations of $`\theta `$-continuity:

###### Proposition.

A function $`f:(X,𝒯)(Y,𝒱)`$ is $`\theta `$-continuous if and only if:

1. $`f(𝒯\mathrm{cl}_\theta A)𝒱\mathrm{cl}_\theta f(A)`$ for every $`AX`$;
2. $`𝒯\mathrm{cl}_\theta f^1(B)f^1(𝒱\mathrm{cl}_\theta B)`$ for every $`BY`$.

The next statement follows from the definitions and the properties of $`\theta `$-closure.

###### Proposition.

Let $`X,Y,Z`$ be topological spaces. A function $`g:Z\times XY`$ is $`\theta `$-continuous if and only if the function $`g:(Z,\mathrm{cl}_\theta )\times (X,\mathrm{cl}_\theta )(Y,\mathrm{cl}_\theta )`$ is continuous.

A closure space $`(X,u)`$ is:

* regular if for each point $`x`$ and each subset $`A`$ such that $`xu(A)`$, there exist neighbourhoods $`U`$ of $`x`$ and $`V`$ of $`A`$ such that $`UV=\mathrm{}`$;
* compact if each net in $`(X,u)`$ has an accumulation point.

A closure space $`(X,u)`$ is regular if and only if for each point $`x`$ and each neighbourhood $`U`$ of $`x`$, there is a neighbourhood $`U_1`$ of $`x`$ such that $`u(U_1)U`$.

Compactness can be characterized by means of covers. \[2, 41 A.9. Theorem\] An interior cover of $`(X,u)`$ is a cover $`\{G_\alpha \}`$ such that the collection $`\{\mathrm{int}_uG_\alpha \}`$ covers $`X`$. The space is compact if and only if every interior cover has a finite subcover.

We give the following

###### Definition.

A collection $`\{G_\alpha \}`$ is an interior cover of a set $`A`$ in $`(X,u)`$ if the collection $`\{\mathrm{int}_uG_\alpha \}`$ covers $`A`$. A subset $`A`$ is compact if every interior cover of $`A`$ has a finite subcover.

All notions not explained here can be found in .

## 2. Proper and admissible topologies in the setting of closure spaces

Let $`X,Y`$ and $`Z`$ be three nonempty sets. For every function $`g:Z\times XY`$ there is a function $`\mathrm{E}(g)`$ or $`g^{}`$ from $`Z`$ to $`Y^X`$, the set of all functions from $`X`$ to $`Y`$, defined by $`(g^{}(z))(x)=g(z,x)`$. The mapping $`\mathrm{E}:Y^{Z\times X}(Y^X)^Z`$ is called the exponential function. By $`\epsilon `$ we denote the evaluation mapping from $`Y^X\times X`$ to $`Y`$ defined by $`\epsilon (f,x)=f(x)`$.

If $`X,Y`$ and $`Z`$ are topological or closure spaces, in particular sets of continuous functions can be considered. Now on $`Y^X`$ will mean the set of all continuous functions from $`X`$ to $`Y`$. The set $`Y^X`$ can be endowed with different topologies. The question is: Find the topologies on the set of functions such that

1. $`\mathrm{E}(g)=g^{}(Y^X)^Z`$ for every $`gY^{Z\times X}`$, that is, for every continuous $`g:Z\times XY`$ the function $`g^{}`$ is continuous; and conversely,
2. $`gY^{Z\times X}`$ for every $`g^{}(Y^X)^Z`$, that is, for every continuous $`g^{}:ZY^X`$ the function $`g`$ is continuous.

Following the definitions and notations used by Arens and Dugundji , Kuratowski  and Iliadis and Papadopoulos  for the sets of continuous functions defined in the setting of topological spaces, we give the following definitions.

###### Defintion 1.

Let $`(X,u)`$ be a closure space and $`(A_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ be a net in $`𝒫(X)`$. The upper limit of the net $`(A_\lambda )`$, denoted by $`\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}A_\lambda `$, is the set of all points $`xX`$ such that for every $`\lambda _0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ and every neighbourhood $`U`$ of $`x`$ in $`X`$, there is a $`\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`\lambda \lambda _0`$ and $`A_\lambda U\mathrm{}`$. (See, for example,  and .)

###### Defintion 2.

Let $`(X,u)`$ and $`(Y,v)`$ be closure spaces and $`Y^X`$ be the collection of all continuous functions $`f:(X,u)(Y,v)`$. A closure operator $`\sigma `$ on $`Y^X`$ is called proper (splitting) if for any closure space $`(Z,w)`$

* $`g:(Z,w)\times (X,u)(Y,v)`$ is continuous $`E(g)=g^{}:(Z,w)(Y^X,\sigma )`$ is continuous;

$`\sigma `$ is called admissible (jointly continuous) if for every space $`(Z,w)`$

* $`g^{}:(Z,w)(Y^X,\sigma )`$ is continuous $`g:(Z,w)\times (X,u)(Y,v)`$ is continuous.

Let $`f,f_\lambda Y^X`$, $`\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }`$, where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is a directed set. The net $`(f_\lambda )`$ converges continuously to $`f`$, denoted by $`f_\lambda \stackrel{cc}{f}`$, if

* the net $`f_\lambda (x_\mu )`$, $`(\lambda ,\mu )\mathrm{\Lambda }\times \mathrm{M}`$, converges to $`f(x)`$ in $`(Y,v)`$ whenever the net $`(x_\mu )`$ converges to $`x`$ in $`(X,u)`$.

The convergence of a net $`(f_\lambda )`$ to $`f`$ in the space $`(Y^X,\sigma )`$ will be denoted by $`f_\lambda \stackrel{\sigma }{f}`$.

The next results follow from definitions and the proofs are analogous to the corresponding for the topological case. (See  and ).

###### Theorem 1.

A closure operator $`\sigma `$ on $`Y^X`$ is admissible if and only if the evaluation mapping $`\epsilon :(Y^X,\sigma )\times (X,u)(Y,v)`$ is continuous.

###### Theorem 2.

Let $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ be a net in $`Y^X`$. The net $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ converges continuously to $`fY^X`$ if and only if for every $`xX`$ and every neighbourhood $`V`$ of $`f(x)`$ there is a neighbourhood $`U`$ of $`x`$ and a $`\lambda _0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`f_\lambda (U)V`$ for all $`\lambda \lambda _0`$.

###### Theorem 3.

Let $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ be a net in $`Y^X`$. The net $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ converges continuously to $`fY^X`$ if and only if the following holds:

* $`\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}f_\lambda ^1(B)f^1(v(B))`$ for every subset $`B`$ in $`Y`$.

###### Proof.

Let $`f_\lambda \stackrel{cc}{f}`$, $`BY`$ and $`x\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}f_\lambda ^1(B)`$. For every neighbourhood $`V`$ of $`f(x)`$, by Theorem 2, there is a neighbourhood $`U`$ of $`x`$ and a $`\lambda _0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`f_\lambda (U)V`$ for all $`\lambda \lambda _0`$. By the assumption, there is a $`\lambda ^{}\lambda _0`$ such that $`f_\lambda ^{}^1(B)U\mathrm{}`$. It follows that $`f_\lambda ^{}(U)B\mathrm{}`$. Thus

$$(V𝒩(f(x)))VB\mathrm{}$$

implies $`f(x)v(B)`$, hence $`xf^1(v(B))`$.

For the converse, let $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ be a net in $`Y^X`$ such that the condition (4) holds. For every $`xX`$ and every neighbourhood $`V`$ of $`f(x)`$,

$$f(x)\mathrm{int}_vV=\mathrm{c}(v(\mathrm{c}(V)))\text{ implies }f(x)v(V^\mathrm{c}).$$

Thus $`xf^1(v(V^\mathrm{c}))`$ implies $`x\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}f_\lambda ^1(V^\mathrm{c})`$. Hence

$$\begin{array}{ccc}(U𝒩(x))(\lambda _0\mathrm{\Lambda })(\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda })\lambda \lambda _0\hfill & \hfill & f_\lambda ^1(V^\mathrm{c})U=\mathrm{}\hfill \\ & \hfill & V^\mathrm{c}f_\lambda (U)=\mathrm{}.\hfill \end{array}$$

Thus

$$(U𝒩(x))(\lambda _0\mathrm{\Lambda })(\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda })\lambda \lambda _0f_\lambda (U)V.$$

By Theorem 2, $`f_\lambda \stackrel{cc}{f}`$. ∎

###### Remark.

In Theorem 3 the condition “for every $`BY`$” can be replaced by: for every $`B=V^\mathrm{c}`$, where $`V`$ is a neighbourhood basic element.

###### Corollary 1.

Let $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ be a net in $`Y^X`$ and $`Y`$ be a topological space. The net $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ converges continuously to $`fY^X`$ if and only if the following holds:

* $`\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}f_\lambda ^1(B)f^1(B)`$ for every closed subset $`B`$ in $`Y`$.

###### Proof.

Let a net $`(f_\lambda )`$ converges continuously to $`fY^X`$ and $`B`$ be a closed set in $`Y`$. By (4),

$$\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}f_\lambda ^1(B)f^1(\overline{B})=f^1(B).$$

Conversely, suppose that (4\*) holds and let $`B`$ be a subset in $`Y`$. By (4\*), for the closed subset $`\overline{B}`$, $`\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}f_\lambda ^1(\overline{B})f^1(\overline{B})`$, and by isotony of the upper limit, $`\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}f_\lambda ^1(B)\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}f_\lambda ^1(\overline{B})`$. Hence the statement. ∎

###### Theorem 4.

Let $`\sigma `$ and $`\sigma ^{}`$ be two closure operators on $`Y^X`$.

1. If $`\sigma ^{}`$ is finer than $`\sigma `$ and $`\sigma ^{}`$ is proper, then $`\sigma `$ is proper.
2. If $`\sigma \sigma ^{}`$ and $`\sigma `$ is admissible, then $`\sigma ^{}`$ is admissible.
3. If $`\sigma `$ is proper and $`\sigma ^{}`$ is admissible, then $`\sigma \sigma ^{}`$.
4. If there is a closure operator on $`Y^X`$ which is both proper and admissible, it is unique.

###### Proof.

(3). If $`\sigma ^{}`$ is admissible, the evaluation mapping

$$\epsilon :(Y^X,\sigma ^{})\times (X,u)(Y,v)$$

is continuous by Theorem 1. Since $`\sigma `$ is proper, for $`Z=(Y^X,\sigma ^{})`$, the identity

$$\epsilon ^{}=1_{Y^X}:(Y^X,\sigma ^{})(Y^X,\sigma )$$

is continuous, hence $`\sigma ^{}`$ is finer than $`\sigma `$. ∎

###### Corollary 2.

Let $`\{\sigma _\alpha \}`$ be a collection of closure operators on $`Y^X`$.

1. If $`\sigma _\alpha `$ is proper for every $`\alpha `$, then the infimum and supremum, $`\sigma _\alpha `$ and $`\sigma _\alpha `$, are proper.
2. If $`\sigma _\alpha `$ is admissible for every $`\alpha `$, then the supremum, $`\sigma _\alpha `$ is admissible as well.

###### Proof.

For the nontrivial part of (1), let $`\sigma _\alpha `$ be proper for every $`\alpha `$. That is, for any space $`(Z,w)`$, continuity of $`g:(Z,w)\times (X,u)(Y,v)`$ implies $`g^{}:(Z,w)(Y^X,\sigma _\alpha )`$ is continuous. In order to prove continuity of $`g^{}:(Z,w)(Y^X,\sigma _\alpha )`$, for any $`zZ`$ and every neighbourhood $`G`$ of $`g^{}(z)`$, there are finitely many $`G_i𝒩_{\alpha _i}(g^{}(z))`$ such that $`G_iG`$. By continuity of $`g^{}:(Z,w)(Y^X,\sigma _\alpha )`$, for every $`i`$ there is a $`W_i𝒩(z)`$ such that $`g^{}(W_i)G_i`$. Then

$$W=W_i𝒩(z)$$

and

$$g^{}(W)g^{}(W_i)G_iG$$

holds. Thus $`g^{}:(Z,w)(Y^X,\sigma _\alpha )`$ is continuous at $`z`$. ∎

###### Theorem 5.

A closure operator $`\sigma `$ on $`Y^X`$ is proper (splitting) if and only if continuous convergence of a net implies its convergence in $`(Y^X,\sigma )`$, and it is admissible (jointly continuous) if and only if the reverse holds, that is, convergence of a net in $`(Y^X,\sigma )`$ implies its continuous convergence.

###### Theorem 6.

A closure operator $`\sigma `$ on $`Y^X`$ is:

1. proper if and only if continuity of a mapping $`g:Z\times (X,u)(Y,v)`$ implies continuity of the mapping $`g^{}:Z(Y^X,\sigma )`$ for every topological space $`Z`$ being either a $`\mathrm{T}_1`$-space having at most one non-isolated point or the Sierpinski space;
2. admissible if and only if the reverse holds, that is, continuity of a mapping $`g^{}:Z(Y^X,\sigma )`$ implies continuity of the mapping $`g:Z\times (X,u)(Y,v)`$ for every topological space $`Z`$ being either a $`\mathrm{T}_1`$-space having at most one non-isolated point or the Sierpinski space.

###### Corollary 3.

In Theorem 6 the conditions on the space $`Z`$ can be replaced by: $`Z`$ is a topological space having at most one non-isolated point.

In the sequel the finest proper topology on $`Y^X`$, which exists by Corollary 2, is characterized by means of convergence classes and upper limits, analogously to the topological situation. (Cf. .)

Let $`𝒞(\sigma )`$ be the convergence class of the closure space $`(Y^X,\sigma )`$, that is

$$𝒞(\sigma )=\{((f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }},f)f_\lambda ,fY^X\text{ and }f_\lambda \stackrel{\sigma }{f}\}.$$

It can be easily seen that $`𝒞(\sigma )`$ satisfies the following axioms: (cf. \[2, 35 A.2. Theorem\] and \[8, 2.9 Theorem\])

If $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ is a net such that $`f_\lambda =f`$ for every $`\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }`$, then $`(f_\lambda )`$ converges to $`f`$, that is, $`((f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }},f)𝒞(\sigma )`$;

If a net $`(f_\lambda )`$ converges to $`f`$, so does each subnet of $`(f_\lambda )`$, i.e. if $`((f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }},f)𝒞(\sigma )`$, then $`((g_\mu )_{\mu \mathrm{M}},f)𝒞(\sigma )`$ for every subnet $`(g_\mu )`$ of $`(f_\lambda )`$;

If a net $`(f_\lambda )`$ does not converge to $`f`$, then there is a subnet $`(g_\mu )`$ of $`(f_\lambda )`$ no subnet of which converges to $`f`$, i.e. $`((f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }},f)𝒞(\sigma )`$, then there is a subnet $`(g_\mu )`$ of $`(f_\lambda )`$ such that $`((h_\nu )_{\nu \mathrm{N}},f)𝒞(\sigma )`$ for every $`(h_\nu )`$ subnet of $`(g_\mu )`$.

###### Proof.

(iii). Let $`(f_\lambda )`$ be a net in $`Y^X`$, $`fY^X`$ such that $`((f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }},f)𝒞(\sigma )`$. It means that

$$(G_0𝒩(f))(\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda })(\lambda ^{}\mathrm{\Lambda })\lambda ^{}\lambda f_\lambda ^{}G_0.$$

Thus there is a cofinal subset $`\mathrm{M}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`f_\mu G_0`$ for every $`\mu \mathrm{M}`$. $`(f_\mu )_{\mu \mathrm{M}}`$ is a subnet of $`(f_\lambda )`$, no subnet of which converges to $`f`$. ∎

The space $`(Y^X,\sigma )`$ is topological if and only if its convergence class satisfies the axiom of (ITERATED LIMITS). (Cf. \[8, 2.9 Theorem\] and \[2, 15 B.13. and 35 A.3. Theorems\].)

Denote by $`𝒞^{}`$ the class of all pairs $`((f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }},f)`$ such that $`(f_\lambda )`$ is a net in $`Y^X`$ which converges continuously to $`fY^X`$, i.e.

$$𝒞^{}=\{((f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }},f)f_\lambda ,fY^X\text{ and }f_\lambda \stackrel{cc}{f}\}.$$

By Theorem 5, $`\sigma `$ is proper if and only if $`𝒞^{}𝒞(\sigma )`$ and it is admissible if and only if the reverse inclusion holds: $`𝒞(\sigma )𝒞^{}`$.

###### Theorem 7.

The class $`𝒞^{}`$ satisfies the axioms (CONSTANTS), (SUBNETS) and (DIVERGENCE).

###### Proof.

For (CONSTANTS) and (SUBNETS) is clear.

(DIVERGENCE). Let $`(f_\lambda )`$ be a net in $`Y^X`$, $`fY^X`$ and let

$$((f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }},f)𝒞^{}.$$

By Theorem 3 there is a subset $`BY`$ such that $`\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}f_\lambda ^1(B)`$ is not contained in $`f^1(v(B))`$. Let

$$x\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}f_\lambda ^1(B)f^1(v(B)).$$

Let $`𝒩(x)`$ be the set of all neighbourhoods of $`x`$ directed by inverse inclusion and let $`\mathrm{M}=\mathrm{\Lambda }\times 𝒩(x)`$. If $`\mu =(\lambda ,U)\mathrm{\Lambda }\times 𝒩(x)`$, let $`\phi :\mathrm{M}\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ be defined by $`\phi (\mu )\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`\phi (\mu )=\phi (\lambda ,U)\lambda `$ and $`f_{\phi (\mu )}^1(B)U\mathrm{}`$. The net $`(g_\mu )_{\mu \mathrm{M}}`$, where $`g_\mu =f_{\phi (\mu )}`$, is a subnet of $`(f_\lambda )`$.

Let $`(h_\nu )`$ be a subnet of $`(g_\mu )`$ and $`\psi :\mathrm{N}\mathrm{M}`$ be the corresponding map. In order to prove that $`((h_\nu )_{\nu \mathrm{N}},f)𝒞^{}`$, let $`\nu _0\mathrm{N}`$ and $`U𝒩(x)`$. If $`\psi (\nu _0)=(\lambda _0,U_0)\mathrm{M}`$, set $`\widehat{U}=U_0U𝒩(x)`$ and $`\mu _0=(\lambda _0,\widehat{U})`$. There is $`\nu _1\mathrm{N}`$ such that $`\nu _1\nu _0`$ and $`\nu \nu _1\psi (\nu )\mu _0`$. For any $`\nu \nu _1`$ and $`\psi (\nu )=(\lambda ,\stackrel{~}{U})`$ we have

$$h_\nu ^1(B)U=f_{\phi (\psi (\nu ))}^1(B)Uf_{\phi (\psi (\nu ))}^1(B)\widehat{U}f_{\phi (\psi (\nu ))}^1(B)\stackrel{~}{U}\mathrm{}.$$

It means that $`x\overline{\underset{\mathrm{N}}{lim}}h_\nu ^1(B)`$ and hence $`\overline{\underset{\mathrm{N}}{lim}}h_\nu ^1(B)`$ is not contained in $`f^1(v(B))`$. Thus the axiom (DIVERGENCE) is satisfied. ∎

###### Corollary 4.

$`𝒞^{}`$ is the convergence class of the finest proper topology on $`Y^X`$ if and only if $`𝒞^{}`$ satisfies the axiom (ITERATED LIMITS).

###### Theorem 8.

A subset $`G`$ in $`Y^X`$ is open in the finest proper topology if and only if for every $`fG`$ and for every net $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ in $`Y^X`$ such that (4) holds, there exists a $`\lambda _0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`f_\lambda G`$ for every $`\lambda \lambda _0`$.

###### Proof.

($``$:) Let $`\tau `$ be the collection of subsets in $`Y^X`$ with the given property.

$`\tau `$ is a topology on $`Y^X`$: for $`G_1,G_2\tau `$, $`fG_1G_2`$ and a net $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ satisfying (4), there are $`\lambda _1,\lambda _2\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`f_\lambda G_i`$ for all $`\lambda \lambda _i`$, $`i=1,2`$. Then $`f_\lambda G_1G_2`$ for all $`\lambda \lambda _0=\mathrm{max}\{\lambda _1,\lambda _2\}`$. It follows that $`G_1G_2\tau `$. Similarly, if $`\{G_\alpha \}\tau `$ and $`G=_\alpha \{G_\alpha \}`$, let $`fG`$ and $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ be a net which satisfies (4). There is an $`\alpha _0`$ such that $`fG_{\alpha _0}`$, and since (4) holds, there exists a $`\lambda _0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`f_\lambda G_{\alpha _0}G`$ for every $`\lambda \lambda _0`$. Thus $`G\tau `$.

$`\tau `$ is proper: let $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ be a net such that $`f_\lambda \stackrel{cc}{f}`$. By Theorem 3, $`\overline{\underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{lim}}f_\lambda ^1(B)f^1(v(B))`$ for every subset $`B`$ in $`Y`$. Let $`fG\tau `$. By the assumption, there exists a $`\lambda _0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`f_\lambda G`$ for every $`\lambda \lambda _0`$, that is $`f_\lambda \stackrel{\tau }{f}`$. By Theorem 5, $`\tau `$ is proper.

$`\tau `$ is the finest proper topology: let $`\sigma `$ be a proper topology on $`Y^X`$ and $`H\sigma `$. Let $`fH`$ and a net $`(f_\lambda )_{\lambda \mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ satisfy (4). By Theorem 3, $`f_\lambda \stackrel{cc}{f}`$. Since $`\sigma `$ is proper, $`f_\lambda \stackrel{\sigma }{f}`$. By definition of convergence, there exists a $`\lambda _0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`f_\lambda H`$ for every $`\lambda \lambda _0`$. By definition of $`\tau `$, $`H\tau `$. Thus $`\sigma \tau `$.

($``$:) Let a subset $`G`$ in $`Y^X`$ be open in the finest proper topology $`\tau `$, let $`fG`$ and $`(f_\lambda )`$ be a net satisfying (4). By Theorem 3, $`f_\lambda \stackrel{cc}{f}`$. Since $`\tau `$ is proper, $`f_\lambda \stackrel{\tau }{f}`$. By definition of convergence, there exists a $`\lambda _0\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`f_\lambda G`$ for every $`\lambda \lambda _0`$. ∎

In order to give nontrivial examples of admissible and proper topologies and to get results analogous to Theorems 4.1 and 4.21 in , we consider the following sets. Let

$$𝒱=\{VY|\mathrm{int}_vV\mathrm{}\}.$$

For $`AX`$ and $`V𝒱`$, set

$$(A,V)=\{fY^X|f(A)V\}.$$

Let $`𝒜`$ be a family of subsets of $`X`$. The collection

$$\{(A,V)|A𝒜,V𝒱,V=\mathrm{int}_vV\},$$

is a subbase for a topology on $`Y^X`$, which will be called the $`𝒜`$-topology.

Let $`𝒞`$ be an interior cover of $`X`$. The collection

$$\{(u(K),V)|V𝒱\text{ and }KX\text{ is such that }u(K)C\text{ for some }C𝒞\},$$

is a subbase for a topology on $`Y^X`$, which will be called the $`𝒞`$-topology.

###### Theorem 9.

Let $`(X,u)`$ be a regular closure space and $`(Y,v)`$ be arbitrary. For every interior cover $`𝒞`$ of $`X`$, the $`𝒞`$-topology is admissible.

###### Proof.

By Theorem 1, it is enough to prove that the evaluation mapping is continuous. Let $`fY^X`$, $`xX`$ and $`V𝒩(f(x))`$, $`f(x)=\epsilon (f,x)`$. By continuity of $`f`$, the set $`U=f^1(V)𝒩(x)`$. Choose a $`C𝒞`$ so that $`x\mathrm{int}_uC`$. Then $`UC𝒩(x)`$ and by regularity of $`X`$, there is a $`U_1𝒩(x)`$ such that

$$x\mathrm{int}_uU_1U_1u(U_1)UC.$$

For the subbasic element $`(u(U_1),V)`$ in the $`𝒞`$-topology, $`\epsilon ((u(U_1),V),U_1)V`$ since for every $`f_1(u(U_1),V)`$ and each $`xU_1`$, $`\epsilon (f_1,x_1)=f_1(x_1)V`$. ∎

###### Theorem 10.

Let $`(X,u)`$ and $`(Y,v)`$ be closure spaces and $`𝒜`$ be a collection of compact subsets in $`(X,u)`$. The $`𝒜`$-topology is always proper.

###### Proof.

Let $`g:(Z,w)\times (X,u)(Y,v)`$ be a continuous function. In order to prove continuity of the mapping $`g^{}:(Z,w)(Y^X,\sigma )`$, where $`Y^X`$ is endowed with the $`𝒜`$-topology, let $`zZ`$ and $`f=g^{}(z)`$. For a subbasic element $`(K,V)`$ containing $`f`$, where $`K`$ is a compact set in $`X`$,

$$f(K)=g(\{z\}\times K)\mathrm{int}_vV=V.$$

By continuity of $`g`$,

$$(xK)g(z,x)\mathrm{int}_vVV𝒩(g(z,x))$$

implies

$$(xK)(W_x𝒩(z))(U_x𝒩(x))g(W_x\times U_x)V.$$

$`(xK)U_x𝒩_x`$ implies $`\{U_xxK\}`$ is an interior cover of the compact set $`K`$, so there is a finite subcover $`\{U_{x_i}i=1,\mathrm{}k\}`$. Set $`W=_{i=1}^kW_{x_i}`$. Then $`W𝒩(z)`$. It follows that

$$g(W\times K)g(\underset{i=1}{\overset{k}{}}(W_{x_i}\times U_{x_i}))V.$$

Thus

$$(z^{}W)g(z^{},K)Vg^{}(W)(K,V).$$

## 3. Some special cases including $`\theta `$-closure

### 3.1.

Let $`(X,u)`$ be a closure space and $`(Y,𝒱)`$ be a topological space. A function $`f:(X,u)(Y,𝒱)`$ is continuous if and only if the function $`f:(X,\widehat{u})(Y,𝒱)`$ between topological spaces is continuous, where $`\widehat{u}`$ is the topological modification of the closure operator $`u`$. In that case the problem is reduced to the topological case since $`Y^X=C((X,\widehat{u}),Y)`$ and the topological modification of the product of closure spaces is the product of topological modifications.

### 3.2.

It was already remarked that $`\theta `$-continuous functions are continuous functions of the corresponding Čech closure spaces. Compact sets in $`(X,\mathrm{cl}_\theta )`$ are (quasi-)H-closed (g-H-closed) in $`(X,𝒰)`$. Thus Theorems 3.1–3.6 and 4.2 in  are special cases of Theorems 2, 1, 4, 5 and 10 respectively.

If $`(Y,𝒱)`$ is regular, the $`\theta `$-topology $`𝒱_\theta =𝒱`$. Then for a topological space $`(X,𝒰)`$, a function $`f:(X,𝒰)(Y,𝒱)`$ is $`\theta `$-continuous if and only if $`f:(X,\mathrm{cl}_\theta )(Y,𝒱)`$ is continuous, which is equivalent to $`f:(X,𝒰_\theta )(Y,𝒱)`$ be continuous \[2, Thm 16.B.4\]. Note that the topological modification of $`𝒰\mathrm{cl}_\theta `$ is $`𝒰_\theta `$, the topology of $`\theta `$-open sets in $`(X,𝒰)`$.

### 3.3.

A large number of continuous-like mappings between topological spaces is known in the literature. Recently, Georgiou and Papadopoulos  considered some of them and investigated splitting and jointly continuous topologies on the sets of these functions. Let us remark that all these examples and the main results are special cases of our subjects of investigations. For, let $`(X,𝒰)`$ and $`(Y,𝒱)`$ be topological spaces. It follows from the definitions that a function $`f:(X,𝒰)(Y,𝒱)`$ is:

* strongly $`\theta `$-continuous (cf. ) at a point $`x`$ (on the set $`X`$) if and only if $`f:(X,𝒰\mathrm{cl}_\theta )(Y,𝒱)`$ is continuous at $`x`$ (on the set $`X`$);
* super-continuous (cf. ) at $`x`$ (on the set $`X`$) if and only if $`f:(X,𝒰_s)(Y,𝒱)`$ is continuous at $`x`$ (on the set $`X`$), where $`𝒰_s`$ is the semi-regularization topology of $`𝒰`$ (see  for example);
* weakly continuous (cf. ) at $`x`$ (on the set $`X`$) if and only if $`f:(X,𝒰)(Y,𝒱\mathrm{cl}_\theta )`$ is continuous at $`x`$ (on the set $`X`$);
* weakly $`\theta `$-continuous (cf. ) at a point $`x`$ (on $`X`$) if and only if $`f:(X,𝒰_s)(Y,𝒱\mathrm{cl}_\theta )`$ is continuous at $`x`$ (on $`X`$).

Also $`\theta `$-convergence of a net $`(x_\mu )`$ in $`(X,𝒰)`$ means convergence of $`(x_\mu )`$ in the corresponding closure space $`(X,𝒰\mathrm{cl}_\theta )`$, while weak $`\theta `$-convergence of a net $`(x_\mu )`$ in $`(X,𝒰)`$ is convergence of $`(x_\mu )`$ in $`(X,𝒰_s)`$.

Similarly, $`\theta `$-continuous convergence (respectively: strongly $`\theta `$-continuous convergence, weakly $`\theta `$-continuous convergence, weakly continuous convergence and super continuous convergence) of a net $`(f_\lambda )`$ in $`Y^X`$ is continuous convergence of $`(f_\lambda )`$ for the corresponding closure spaces. Thus we are concerned with a change of topology, better to say: change of closure operator, technique. So the main results in  and  are special cases of the above Theorems 1–10.