text:
# Concerning the dual group of a dense subgroup

## 0. Terminology, Notation and Preliminaries

For $`X`$ a set and $`\kappa `$ a cardinal, we write $`[X]^\kappa =\{AX:|A|=\kappa \}`$.

For each space $`X=(X,𝒯)`$ we write

$$𝒦(X):=\{KX:K\text{ is }𝒯\text{-compact}\}.$$

All groups considered here, whether or not equipped with a topology, are Abelian groups written additively. The identity of a group $`G`$ is denoted $`0`$ or $`0_G`$, and the torsion subgroup of $`G`$ is denoted $`\mathrm{tor}(G)`$. The reals, rationals, and integers are denoted $``$, $``$, and $``$, respectively, and the “unit circle” group $`𝕋`$ is the group $`(\frac{1}{2},\frac{1}{2}]`$ with addition mod $`1`$. Except when we specify otherwise, these groups carry their usual metrizable topology.

The symbol $``$ denotes the set of positive prime integers.

The set of homomorphisms $`h:G𝕋`$, a group under pointwise operation, is denoted $`\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝕋)`$. For a subgroup $`A`$ of $`\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝕋)`$ we denote by $`(G,𝒯_A)`$ the group $`G`$ with the topology induced by $`A`$. Evidently $`(G,𝒯_A)`$ is a Hausdorff topological group if and only if $`A`$ separates points of $`G`$. The topology $`𝒯_A`$ is the coarsest topology on $`G`$ for which the homomorphism $`e_A:G𝕋^A`$ given by $`(e_A(x))_h=h(x)`$ ($`xG`$, $`hA`$) is continuous. When $`G=(G,𝒯)`$ is a topological group, the set of $`𝒯`$-continuous functions in $`\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝕋)`$ is a subgroup of $`\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝕋)`$ denoted $`\widehat{G}`$ or $`\widehat{(G,𝒯)}`$; in this case the topology $`𝒯_{\widehat{G}}`$ is the Bohr topology associated with $`𝒯`$, and $`(G,𝒯_{\widehat{G}})`$ is denoted $`G^+`$ or $`(G,𝒯)^+`$. When $`\widehat{(G,𝒯)}`$ separates points we say that $`G`$ is a maximally almost periodic group and we write $`G=(G,𝒯)\mathrm{𝐌𝐀𝐏}`$. Whether or not $`(G,𝒯)\mathrm{𝐌𝐀𝐏}`$, the closure of $`e[G]`$ in $`𝕋^{\widehat{G}}`$, denoted $`b(G)`$ or $`b(G,𝒯)`$, is the Bohr compactification of $`(G,𝒯)`$.

The Bohr compactification $`b(G)`$ of a topological group $`G`$ is characterized by the condition that each continuous homomorphism from $`G`$ into a compact Hausdorff group extends continuously to a homomorphism from $`b(G)`$. From this and the uniform continuity of continuous homomorphisms it follows that if $`D`$ is a dense subgroup of $`G`$ then $`b(D)=b(G)`$. It is conventional to suppress mention of the function $`e_{\widehat{G}}`$ and to write simply $`\widehat{G}=\widehat{G^+}`$. When $`G\mathrm{𝐌𝐀𝐏}`$ we write $`G^+b(G)𝕋^{\widehat{G}}`$, the inclusions being both algebraic and topological.

A group $`G`$ with its discrete topology is denoted $`G_d`$. For notational convenience, and following van Douwen , for every (Abelian) group $`G`$ we write $`G^\mathrm{\#}=(G_d)^+b(G_d)`$.

A subset $`S`$ of a topological group $`G`$ is said to be bounded in $`G`$ if for every nonempty open $`VG`$ there is finite $`FG`$ such that $`SF+V`$; $`G`$ is locally bounded \[resp., totally bounded\] if some nonempty open subset of $`G`$ is bounded \[resp., $`G`$ itself is bounded\]. It is a theorem of Weil  that each locally bounded group $`G`$ embeds as a dense topological subgroup of a locally compact group $`W(G)`$, unique in the obvious sense; the group $`W(G)`$ is compact if and only if $`G`$ is totally bounded. We denote by LCA \[resp., LBA\] the class of locally compact \[resp., locally bounded\] Hausdorff Abelian groups. The relation $`\mathrm{𝐋𝐂𝐀}\mathrm{𝐌𝐀𝐏}`$ is a well known consequence of the Gelfand-Raĭkov Theorem (cf. \[18, 22.17\]); since each subgroup $`SG\mathrm{𝐌𝐀𝐏}`$ clearly satisfies $`S\mathrm{𝐌𝐀𝐏}`$, we have in fact the relations $`\mathrm{𝐋𝐂𝐀}\text{LBA}\mathrm{𝐌𝐀𝐏}`$.

###### Lemma 0.1.

Let $`S`$ be a subgroup of $`G`$ LBA. Then

* $`S`$ is dual-embedded in $`G`$ in the sense that each $`h\widehat{S}`$ extends to an element of $`\widehat{G}`$;
* if $`h\widehat{S}`$ and $`xG\backslash \overline{S}^G`$, the extension $`k\widehat{G}`$ of $`h`$ may be chosen so that $`k(x)0`$.

It follows that for each subgroup $`S`$ of a group $`G\text{LBA}`$ the topology of $`S^+`$ coincides with the topology inherited by $`S`$ from $`G^+`$. This validates the following notational convention. For $`SG\mathrm{𝐋𝐁𝐀}`$, $`S`$ not necessarily a subgroup of $`G`$, we denote by $`S^+`$ the set $`S`$ with the topology inherited from $`G^+`$. When $`G`$ is discrete, so that $`G^+=G^\mathrm{\#}`$, we write $`S^\mathrm{\#}`$ in place of $`S^+`$ when $`SG`$.

###### Theorem 0.2.

(Glicksberg ). Let $`KG\mathrm{𝐋𝐁𝐀}`$. Then $`K𝒦(G)`$ if and only if $`K^+𝒦(G^+)`$. Hence if $`K𝒦(G)`$, then $`K`$ and $`K^+`$ are homeomorphic.

###### Theorem 0.3.

(Flor . See also Reid ). Let $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐁𝐀}`$ and let $`x_npb(G)=b(W(G))`$ with each $`x_nG^+(W(G))^+b(G)`$. Then

* $`p(W(G))^+`$, and
* not only $`x_np`$ in $`(W(G))^+b(G)`$ but also $`x_np`$ in $`W(G)`$.

###### Remark 0.4.

Strictly speaking, the papers cited above in connection with Theorems 0.2 and 0.3 deal with groups $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐂𝐀}`$. Our modest generalization to the case $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐁𝐀}`$ is justified by 0.2 and 0.3 as originally given and by these facts about $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐁𝐀}`$:

* $`G`$ is a (dense) topological subgroup of $`W(G)\mathrm{𝐋𝐂𝐀}`$;
* $`G^+`$ is a (dense) topological subgroup of $`(W(G))^+`$; and
* $`b(G)=b(W(G))`$.

In what follows, groups of the form $`\widehat{G}`$ will be given the compact-open topology. This is defined as usual: the family

$$\{U(K,ϵ):K𝒦(G),ϵ>0\}$$

is a base at $`0\widehat{G}`$, where for $`AG`$ one writes

$$U(A,ϵ)=\{h\widehat{G}:xA|h(x)|<ϵ\}.$$

We have noted already that for $`G\mathrm{𝐌𝐀𝐏}`$ the groups $`\widehat{G}`$ and $`\widehat{G^+}`$ are identical; that is, $`\widehat{G}=\widehat{G^+}`$ as groups. Our principal interest in Theorem 0.2 is that for $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐁𝐀}`$ it gives a topological consequence, as follows.

###### Corollary 0.5.

Let $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐁𝐀}`$. Then $`\widehat{G}=\widehat{G^+}`$ as topological groups. That is, the compact-open topology on $`\widehat{G}`$ determined by $`𝒦(G)`$ coincides with the compact-open topology on $`\widehat{G}`$ determined by $`𝒦(G^+)`$.

###### Acknowledgements 0.6.

We acknowledge with thanks several helpful conversations relating to §6 with these mathematicians: Adam Fieldsteel, Michael Hrušák, and Stevo Todorčević.

## 1. The Groups $`\widehat{G}`$ for $`G`$ Metrizable

If $`D`$ is a dense subgroup of an Abelian topological group $`G=(G,𝒯)`$ then every $`h\widehat{D}`$ extends (uniquely) to an element of $`\widehat{G}`$; and of course, each $`h\widehat{G}`$ satisfies $`h|D\widehat{D}`$. Accordingly, abusing notation slightly, we have $`\widehat{D}=\widehat{G}`$ as groups. Since groups of the form $`\widehat{G}`$ carry the compact-open topology, it is natural to inquire whether the identity $`\widehat{G}=\widehat{D}`$ is topological as well as algebraic. Informally: do $`𝒦(G)`$ and $`𝒦(D)`$ induce the same topology on the set $`\widehat{G}=\widehat{D}`$? The question provokes this definition.

###### Definition 1.1.

Let $`G`$ be an Abelian topological group.

* Let $`D`$ be a dense subgroup of $`G`$. Then $`D`$ determines $`G`$ (alternatively: $`G`$ is determined by $`D`$) if $`\widehat{G}=\widehat{D}`$ as topological groups.
* $`G`$ is determined if every dense subgroup of $`G`$ determines $`G`$.

###### Remarks 1.2.

* It is a theorem of Kaplan \[21, 2.9\] (cf. Banasczyzk \[4, 1.3\] and Raczkowski \[26, §3.1\] for alternative treatments, and Außenhofer  and \[3, 3.4\] for a generalization) that for each $`G`$ the family $`\{U(K,\frac{1}{4}):K𝒦(G)\}`$ is basic at $`0\widehat{G}`$. (For notational simplicity, henceforth we write $`U(K):=U(K,\frac{1}{4})\widehat{G}`$ for $`K𝒦(G)`$.) Thus the condition that a group $`G`$ is determined by its dense subgroup $`D`$ reduces to (i.e., is equivalent to) the condition that $`𝒦(D)`$ is cofinal in $`𝒦(G)`$ in the sense that for each $`K𝒦(G)`$ there is $`E𝒦(D)`$ such that $`U(E)U(K)`$.
* Let $`D`$ and $`S`$ be dense subgroups of a topological group $`G`$ such that $`DSG`$. Then since $`𝒦(D)𝒦(S)𝒦(G)`$, $`D`$ determines $`G`$ if and only if $`D`$ determines $`S`$ and $`S`$ determines $`G`$. In particular, a dense subgroup of a determined group is determined.
* The principal theorem in this corner of mathematics is the following result, obtained independently by Außenhofer \[3, 4.3\] and Chasco . This is the point of departure of the present inquiry.

###### Theorem 1.3.

Every metrizable, Abelian group is determined.

###### Discussion 1.4.

Is every topological group determined? Is every MAP group determined? Are there nonmetrizable, determined groups? Is every closed (or, open) subgroup of a determined group itself determined? Is the class of determined groups closed under passage to continuous homomorphisms? Continuous isomorphisms? The formation of products? These are some of the questions we address.

## 2. Determined Groups: $`G`$ vs. $`G^+`$

###### Lemma 2.1.

Let $`D`$ be a subgroup of $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐁𝐀}`$. Then $`D`$ is dense in $`G`$ if and only if $`D^+`$ is dense in $`G^+`$.

###### Corollary 2.2.

Let $`D`$ be a subgroup of $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐁𝐀}`$. Then $`D`$ determines $`G`$ if and only if $`D^+`$ determines $`G^+`$.

###### Theorem 2.3.

Let $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐁𝐀}`$. Then $`G`$ is determined if and only if $`G^+`$ is determined.

###### Theorem 2.4.

Let $`G`$ be an LBA group such that $`G^+`$ determines $`b(G)`$. Then

* $`G`$ is totally bounded (and hence $`G=G^+`$); and
* if also $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐂𝐀}`$ then $`G`$ is compact (and hence $`G=G^+=b(G)`$).

###### Corollary 2.5.

Let $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐁𝐀}`$. Then $`b(G)`$ is determined if and only if $`W(G)`$ is compact and determined; in this case $`W(G)=b(G)`$.

###### Corollary 2.6.

Let $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐂𝐀}`$. If $`G`$ is noncompact then $`G^+`$ does not determine $`b(G)`$ (and hence $`b(G)`$ is not determined).

###### Theorem 2.7.

Let $`G`$ be a closed subgroup of a product of LBA groups. Then a dense subgroup $`D`$ of $`G`$ determines $`G`$ if and only $`D^+`$ determines $`G^+`$. Thus $`G`$ is determined if and only if $`G^+`$ is determined.

## 3. Determined Groups: Some Examples

###### Theorem 3.1.

There are totally bounded, nonmetrizable, determined groups.

###### Proof.

Let $`G`$ be an arbitrary determined LBA group such that $`G`$ is not totally bounded. (Appealing to Theorem 1.3, one might choose $`G\{,,\}`$.) That $`G^+`$ is as required follows from three facts:

* $`G^+`$ is determined (Theorem 2.3);
* a group with a dense metrizable subgroup is itself metrizable \[6, Prop. IX §2.1.1\];
* $`b(G)`$ is not metrizable.

###### Theorem 3.2.

A nondetermined group may have a dense, determined subgroup.

###### Theorem 3.3.

The image of a nondetermined group under a continuous homomorphism may be determined.

###### Proof.

We see in Theorem 4.8 below that compact groups of weight $`𝔠`$ are nondetermined. Each such group maps by a continuous homomorphism onto either the group $`𝕋`$ or a group of the form $`((p))^\omega `$ ($`p`$) , and such groups are determined by Theorem 1.3. ∎

###### Discussion 3.4.

Obviously an LBA group with no proper dense subgroup is vacuously determined. We mention three classes of such groups.

* Discrete groups.
* Groups of the form $`G^\mathrm{\#}=(G_d)^+`$. (It is well known \[12, 2.1\] that every subgroup of such a group is closed.)
* $`\mathrm{𝐋𝐂𝐀}`$ groups of the type given by Rajagopalan and Subrahmanian . Specifically, let $`\kappa \omega `$, fix $`p`$, and topologize the group $`G:=((p^{\mathrm{}}))^\kappa `$ so that its subgroup $`H:=((p))^\kappa `$ in its usual compact topology is open-and-closed in $`G`$.

###### Theorem 3.5.

* A determined group may contain a nondetermined open-and-closed subgroup.
* There are non-totally bounded, nonmetrizable, determined LBA groups.

Although compact groups of the form $`K^\kappa `$ with $`\kappa 𝔠`$ are not determined, we see in Corollary 3.11 below that such groups do contain nontrivial determining subgroups.

###### Notation 3.6.

Let $`\{G_i:iI\}`$ be a set of groups, let $`S_iG_i`$, and let $`pG:=\mathrm{\Pi }_{iI}G_i`$. Then

* $`s(p)=\{iI:p_i0_i\}`$;
* $`_{iI}G_i=\{xG:|s(x)|<\omega \}`$; and
* $`_{iI}S_i=(\mathrm{\Pi }_{iI}S_i)(_{iI}G_i)`$.

In this context we often identify $`S_i`$ with the subset $`S_i\times \{0_{I\backslash \{i\}}\}`$ of $`G`$. In particular we write $`G_iG`$ and we identify $`\widehat{G_i}`$ with $`\{h|G_i:h\widehat{G}\}`$.

We use the following property to find some determining subgroups of certain (nondetermined) products.

###### Definition 3.7.

A topological group $`G`$ has the cofinally zero property if for all $`K𝒦(G)`$ there is $`F𝒦(G)`$ such that every $`hU(F)`$ satisfies $`h|K0`$.

###### Remark 3.8.

We record two classes of groups with the cofinally zero property.

* $`G`$ is a determining subgroup of a compact Abelian group. (There is $`F𝒦(G)`$ such that $`U(F)=\{0\}`$, so each $`hU(F)`$ satisfies $`h|K0`$ for all $`K𝒦(G)`$.)
* $`G`$ is a torsion group of bounded order. (Given $`K𝒦(G)`$, let $`n>4`$ satisfy $`nx=0`$ for all $`xG`$ and use Remark 1.2(a) to choose $`F𝒦(G)`$ such that $`U(F)U(K,\frac{1}{n})`$.)

###### Lemma 3.9.

Let $`\{G_i:iI\}`$ be a set of LBA groups with the cofinally zero property and let $`G=\mathrm{\Pi }_{iI}G_i`$. If $`D_i`$ is a dense, determining subgroup of $`G_i`$, then $`D:=_{iI}D_i`$ determines $`G`$.

###### Corollary 3.10.

Let $`\{G_i:iI\}`$ be a set of determined LBA groups with the cofinally zero property and let $`G=\mathrm{\Pi }_{iI}G_i`$. If $`D_i`$ is a dense subgroup of $`G_i`$, then $`_{iI}D_i`$ determines $`G`$.

###### Corollary 3.11.

Let $`\{G_i:iI\}`$ be a set of compact Hausdorff groups and let $`G=\mathrm{\Pi }_{iI}G_i`$. Then $`_{iI}G_i`$ determines $`G`$.

###### Theorem 3.12.

The image under a continuous homomorphism of a compact determined group is determined.

###### Remark 3.13.

It is easily checked that if a locally compact space $`X`$ is $`\sigma `$-compact then it is hemicompact, i.e., some countable subfamily $`\{K_n:n<\omega \}`$ of $`𝒦(X)`$ is cofinal in $`𝒦(X)`$ in the sense that for each $`K𝒦(X)`$ there is $`n<\omega `$ such that $`KK_n`$. It follows that if an LCA group $`G`$ is $`\sigma `$-compact (equivalently: Lindelöf) then $`w(\widehat{G})\omega `$, so $`\widehat{G}`$ in this case is determined by Theorem 1.3.

## 4. Nondetermined groups: Some Examples

The principal result of this section is that compact Abelian groups of weight $`𝔠`$ are nondetermined.

###### Lemma 4.1.

Let $`G`$ be an LBA group with a proper dense subgroup $`D`$ such that each $`K𝒦(D)`$ satisfies either

* $`K`$ is finite or
* $`K`$ is closed in $`D`$.

Then $`D`$ does not determine $`G`$.

We noted in Theorem 2.4(b) that if $`G^+`$ determines $`b(G)`$ with $`G\mathrm{𝐋𝐂𝐀}`$, then $`G`$ is compact (in fact $`G=G^+=b(G)`$). Lemma 4.1 allows a more direct proof in the case that $`G`$ is discrete.

###### Corollary 4.2.

Let $`G`$ be an infinite Abelian group. Then $`G^\mathrm{\#}`$ does not determine $`b(G_d)`$.

###### Lemma 4.3.

(). Let $`G`$ be an Abelian group.

* If $`A`$ is a point-separating subgroup of $`\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝕋)`$, then $`(G,𝒯_A)`$ is a totally bounded, Hausdorff topological group with $`\widehat{(G,𝒯_A)}=A`$;
* for every totally bounded Hausdorff topological group topology $`𝒯`$ on $`G`$ the subgroup $`A:=\widehat{(G,𝒯)}`$ of $`\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝒯)`$ is point-separating and satisfies $`𝒯=𝒯_A`$.

###### Discussion 4.4.

It is easily checked that for each Abelian group $`G`$ the set $`\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝕋)`$ is closed in the compact space $`𝕋^G`$. Thus $`\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝕋)`$, like every Hausdorff (locally) compact group, carries a Haar measure. Our convention here is that Haar measure is complete, so in particular every subset of a measurable set of measure $`0`$ is itself measurable (and of measure $`0`$).

Concerning Haar measure $`\lambda `$ on a LCA group $`G`$ we appeal frequently to the Steinhaus-Weil Theorem: If $`SG`$ is $`\lambda `$-measurable and $`\lambda (S)>0`$, then the difference set $`SS:=\{xy:x,yS\}`$ contains a nonempty open subset of $`G`$; thus $`S`$, if a subgroup of $`G`$, is open in $`G`$.

###### Lemma 4.5.

(\[13, 3.10\]). Let $`G`$ be an Abelian group, let $`\{x_n:n<\omega \}`$ be a faithfully index sequence in $`G`$, and let

$$S:=\{h\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝕋):h(x_n)0𝕋\}.$$

Let $`\lambda `$ be the Haar measure of $`\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝕋)`$. Then $`S`$ is a $`\lambda `$-measurable subgroup of $`\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝕋)`$, with $`\lambda (S)=0`$.

###### Theorem 4.6.

Let $`X`$ be a compact Hausdorff space such that $`|X|<2^\mathrm{}_1`$. Then

* () $`X`$ contains a closed, countably infinite subspace; and
* $`X`$ contains a nontrivial convergent sequence.

###### Theorem 4.7.

Let $`G`$ be an Abelian group such that $`|G|<2^\mathrm{}_1`$ and let $`A`$ be a dense subgroup of $`\mathrm{Hom}(G,𝕋)`$ such that either

* $`A`$ is non-Haar measurable, or
* $`A`$ is Haar measurable, with $`\lambda (A)>0`$.

Then $`(G,𝒯_A)`$ does not determine $`W(G,𝒯_A)`$.

###### Theorem 4.8.

Let $`G`$ be a compact, Abelian group such that $`w(G)𝔠`$. Then $`G`$ is not determined.

###### Proof.

(Outline) Step 1. $`𝕋^𝔠`$ is not determined. \[Proof. There is a nonmeasurable subgroup $`A`$ of $`𝕋`$ algebraically of the form $`_𝔠`$. Apply Theorem 4.7(i) to the (dense) subgroup $`e_A()`$ of $`𝕋^A=𝕋^𝔠`$.\]

Step 2. $`F^𝔠`$ is not determined ($`F`$ a finite Abelian group, $`|F|>1`$). \[Proof. We have $`b((_\omega F)_d)=F^𝔠`$, so Corollary 4.2 applies.\]

Step 3. There is a continuous isomorphism $`\varphi :GK^𝔠`$ with either $`K=𝕋`$ or $`K=F`$ as in Step 2, so Theorem 3.12 applies. ∎

###### Corollary 4.9 (CH).

Let $`G`$ be a compact Abelian group. Then $`G`$ is determined if and only if $`G`$ is metrizable.

###### Corollary 4.10 (CH).

Let $`\{G_i:iI\}`$ be a set of compact Abelian groups with each $`|G_i|>1`$, and let $`G=\mathrm{\Pi }_{iI}G_i`$. Then $`G`$ is determined if and only if $`|I|\omega `$ and each $`G_i`$ is determined.

We close this section with an example indicating that the intersection of dense, determining subgroups may be dense and nondetermining.

###### Theorem 4.11.

There are dense, determining subgroups $`D_i`$ ($`i=0,1`$) of $`𝕋^𝔠`$ such that $`D_0D_1`$ is dense in $`𝕋^𝔠`$ and does not determine $`𝕋^𝔠`$.

###### Proof.

Let $`Z`$ be a dense, cyclic, nondetermining subgroup of $`𝕋^𝔠`$, let $`A_i`$ ($`i=0,1`$) be dense, torsion subgroups of $`𝕋`$ such that $`A_0A_1=\{0_𝕋\}`$, and set $`D_i:=Z+_𝔠A_i𝕋^𝔠`$ ($`i=0,1`$). Then $`A_i`$ determines $`𝕋`$ by Theorem 1.3 so $`_𝔠A_i`$ determines $`𝕋^𝔠`$ by Lemma 3.9, so $`D_i`$ determines $`𝕋^𝔠`$ ($`i=0,1`$); but the dense subgroup $`Z=D_0D_1`$ of $`𝕋^𝔠`$ does not determine $`𝕋^𝔠`$. ∎

## 5. Concerning Topological Linear Spaces

###### Remark 5.1.

Let $`\kappa `$ be a cardinal number and denote by $`l_\kappa ^1`$ the space of real $`\kappa `$-sequences $`x=\{x_\xi :\xi <\kappa \}`$ such that $`x_1:=_{\xi <\kappa }|x_\xi |<\mathrm{}`$. The additive topological group $`l_\kappa ^1`$ respects compactness (cf. Remus and Trigos-Arrieta ).

The group $`\widehat{(l_\kappa ^1)^+}`$ is not discrete, so the Weil completion $`W((l_\kappa ^1)^+)`$ is another example of a compact nondetermined group.

###### Definition.

A topological group $`G`$ is (group) reflective if the evaluation mapping $`\mathrm{\Omega }_G:G\widehat{\widehat{G}}`$ defined by $`\mathrm{\Omega }_G(x)(h):=h(x)`$ for $`xG`$, $`h\widehat{G}`$ is a topological isomorphism of $`G`$ onto $`\widehat{\widehat{G}}`$.

###### Theorem 5.2.

Let $`G`$ be a noncomplete, reflective group and let $`R(G)`$ be its Raĭkov completion. Then $`R(G)\mathrm{𝐌𝐀𝐏}`$ and $`G`$ does not determine $`R(G)`$.

Example 5.4 infra illustrates Theorem 5.2.

###### Definition 5.3.

A reflexive locally convex vector space (LCS) in which every closed bounded subset is compact is called a Montel space.

Reflexivity and boundedness (Schaefer §I.5, §IV.5) are meant here in the sense of topological vector spaces. By a Montel group we mean the underlying (additive) topological group of a Montel space. Since by definition these are reflexive LCS, Montel groups are reflective as proven by Smith .

###### Example 5.4.

Kōmura  and Amemiya and Kōmura  construct by induction three different noncomplete Montel spaces, the completion of each being a “big product” of copies of $``$, and one of them being exactly $`^𝔠`$. These groups indicate that Theorem 5.2 is not vacuous. One of the groups constructed in  is separable. Thus in particular, again by Theorem 5.2, we see that $`^𝔠`$ has a countable dense subgroup which does not determine $`^𝔠`$.

The remarks above show again that the property of being determined is not $`𝔠`$-productive.

## 6. Cardinals $`\kappa `$ Such That $`\omega <\kappa 𝔠`$

It is well known (cf. for example \[24, 2.18\] or \[8, 8.2.4\]) that under Martin’s Axiom \[MA\] every cardinal $`\kappa `$ with $`\omega \kappa <𝔠`$ satisfies $`2^\kappa =𝔠`$. In particular under MA $`+\neg `$CH it follows from Theorem 4.6(b) that every compact Hausdorff space $`X`$ such that $`|X|<2^\mathrm{}_1=𝔠`$ contains a nontrivial convergent sequence. Malykhin and Šapirovskiĭ  have achieved a nontrivial extension of this result: Under MA, every compact Hausdorff space $`X`$ with $`|X|𝔠`$ contains a nontrivial convergent sequence.

###### Theorem 6.1 (MA).

Let $`G`$ be a group with $`|G|2^\omega `$, and let $`A`$ be a dense nonmeasurable subgroup of $`\widehat{G_d}`$. Then every compact subset of $`(G,𝒯_A)`$ is finite, so its completion $`W(G,𝒯_A)`$ is not determined.

If we denote by $`\lambda _G`$ the (completed) Haar measure on a LCA group $`G`$, let $`\lambda _G^{}`$ stand for the associated outer measure. The existence of a nonmeasurable subset $`X`$ of $`𝕋`$ (with $`|X|=𝔠`$) is well known, so the case $`\kappa =𝔠`$ of the following theorem generalizes the statement in Step 1 of the proof of Theorem 4.8.

###### Theorem 6.2.

Let $`\omega <\kappa 𝔠`$. If there is $`X[𝕋]^\kappa `$ such that $`\lambda _𝕋^{}(X)>0`$, then there is a nonmeasurable, free Abelian subgroup $`A`$ of $`𝕋`$ algebraically of the form $`A=_\kappa `$.

Responding to a question on a closely related matter, Stevo Todorčević  proposed and proved the above result for $`\kappa =\mathrm{}_1`$. His proof additionally yields that $`X\backslash \mathrm{tor}(𝕋)`$ can be broken into $`\omega `$-many pairwise disjoint independent sets, each of cardinality $`\mathrm{}_1`$.

For torsion groups of prime order, we obtain the following.

###### Theorem 6.3.

Let $`F`$ be a finite group of prime order $`p`$, and let $`\kappa _1,\kappa _2`$ be infinite cardinals such that $`\kappa _12^{\kappa _2}`$. If there is $`X[F^{\kappa _2}]^{\kappa _1}`$ such that $`\lambda _{F^{\kappa _2}}^{}(X)>0`$, then there is a nonmeasurable subgroup $`A`$ of $`F^{\kappa _2}`$ algebraically of the form $`A=_{\kappa _1}F`$.

###### Discussion 6.4.

For an ideal $``$ of subsets of a set $`S`$ we write as usual

$$\mathrm{non}()=\mathrm{min}\{|Y|:YS,Y\}.$$

Let $`F`$ be a finite group ($`|F|>1`$), let $`𝒩(𝕋)`$ and $`𝒩(F^\omega )`$ denote the $`\sigma `$-algebra of $`\lambda _𝕋`$\- and $`\lambda _{F^\omega }`$-measurable sets of measure zero. As with any two compact metric spaces of equal cardinality equipped with atomless (“continuous”) probability measures, the spaces $`𝕋`$ and $`F^\omega `$ are Borel-isomorphic in the sense that there is a bijection $`\varphi :𝕋F^\omega `$ such that the associated bijection $`\overline{\varphi }:𝒫(𝕋)𝒫(F^\omega )`$ carries the Borel algebra $`(𝕋)`$ onto the Borel algebra $`(F^\omega )`$ in such a way that $`\lambda _{F^\omega }(\overline{\varphi }(B))=\lambda _𝕋(B)`$ for each $`B(𝕋)`$. (See \[22, 17.41\] or \[32, 3.4.23\] for a proof of this “Borel isomorphism Theorem for measures”.)

###### Lemma 6.5.

The cardinals $`\mathrm{non}(𝒩(𝕋))`$ and $`\mathrm{non}(𝒩(F^\omega ))`$ are equal.

We write

$$\mathrm{non}(𝒩):=\mathrm{non}(𝒩(𝕋))=\mathrm{non}(𝒩(F^\omega )),$$

a definition justified by Lemma 6.5.

###### Theorem 6.6.

Let $`G`$ be a compact Abelian group such that $`w(G)\mathrm{non}(𝒩)`$. Then $`G`$ is nondetermined.

## 7. Questions

###### Question 7.1.

Is there a compact group $`G`$ with a countable dense subgroup $`D`$ such that $`w(G)>\omega `$ and $`D`$ determines $`G`$?

###### Question 7.2.

If $`\{G_i:iI\}`$ is a set of topological Abelian groups and $`D_i`$ is a dense determining subgroup of $`G_i`$, must $`_{iI}D_i`$ determine $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{iI}G_i`$? In particular, does $`_{iI}G_i`$ determine $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{iI}G_i`$? In particular, does $`_𝔠`$ determine $`^𝔠`$?

###### Discussion 7.3.

Consider the following cardinals:

* $`𝔪_𝕋:=`$ the least cardinal $`\kappa `$ such that $`𝕋^\kappa `$ is nondetermined;
* $`𝔪_f`$ \[resp., $`𝔪_f]:=`$ the least cardinal $`\kappa `$ such that some \[resp., each\] finite group $`F`$ has $`F^\kappa `$ nondetermined;
* $`𝔪_c`$ \[resp., $`𝔪_c]:=`$ the least cardinal $`\kappa `$ such that some \[resp., each\] compact abelian group of weight $`\kappa `$ is nondetermined;
* $`𝔪_p`$ \[resp., $`𝔪_p]:=`$ the least cardinal $`\kappa `$ such that some \[resp., each\] product of $`\kappa `$-many compact determined groups is nondetermined.

It follows from Theorems 1.3 and 6.6 that each $`𝔪_x`$, with the possible exception of $`𝔪_p`$, satisfies $`\mathrm{}_1𝔪_x\mathrm{non}(𝒩)`$. Further if $`\mathrm{non}(𝒩)=\mathrm{}_1`$, then all seven cardinals $`𝔪_x`$ are equal to $`\mathrm{}_1`$. The condition $`\mathrm{non}(𝒩)=\mathrm{}_1`$ is clearly consistent with CH, and it has been shown to be consistent as well with $`\neg `$CH (see for example ,  and \[20, Example 1, page 568\]), so in particular there are models of ZFC + $`\neg `$CH in which every compact (Abelian) group $`G`$ satisfies: $`G`$ is determined if and only if $`G`$ is metrizable. (Without appealing to the cardinal $`\mathrm{non}(𝒩)`$, Michael Hrušák  in informal conversation suggested the existence of models of ZFC + $`\neg `$CH in which $`\{0,1\}^\mathrm{}_1`$ is nondetermined.)

###### Question 7.4.

Are the various cardinal numbers $`𝔪_x`$ equal in ZFC? Are they equal to one of the familiar “small cardinals” conventionally noted in the Cichoń diagram (cf. , )? Is each $`𝔪_x=\mathrm{non}(𝒩)`$? Is each $`𝔪_x=\mathrm{}_1`$? Is each $`\mathrm{cf}(𝔪_x)>\omega `$?

We know of no models of ZFC in which $`𝕋^\mathrm{}_1`$, or some group of the form $`F^\mathrm{}_1`$ ($`F`$ finite, $`|F|>1`$), is determined, so we are forced to consider the possibility that the following questions have an affirmative answer.

###### Question 7.5.

Are the following (equivalent) statements theorems of ZFC?

* The group $`𝕋^\mathrm{}_1`$ and groups of the form $`F^\mathrm{}_1`$ ($`F`$ finite, $`|F|>1`$) are nondetermined.
* A compact abelian group $`G`$ is determined if and only if $`G`$ is metrizable.

The following question is suggested by those above.

###### Question 7.6.

Is there in ZFC a cardinal $`\kappa `$ such that a compact group $`G`$ is determined if and only if $`w(G)<\kappa `$?

###### Question 7.7.

Is it consistent with ZFC that $`𝔪_p=2`$? Is it consistent with ZFC that $`𝔪_p=\omega `$?

Question 7.7 has analogues in the context of groups which are not assumed to be compact, as follows.

###### Question 7.8.

In ZFC alone or in augmented axiom systems: Is the product of finitely many determined groups necessarily determined? If $`G`$ is determined, is $`G\times G`$ necessarily determined?


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# Untitled Document

## 1 Introduction

The phenomenon of the infrared multiple–photon excitation (IR MPE) and collisionless dissociation of polyatomic molecules was discovered in works . Numerous works were carried out later aimed to clearify the mechanism of this process. This interest was stimulated by the fact, that the widths both of laser radiation and molecule absorption lines are several orders of magnitude lower, than the anharmonicity of molecular vibrations. In the first work  the hypothesis of the existence of the so–called ”quasicontinuum” of vibrational states was proposed. Despite some argued criticism , this idea has got the broadest distribution.

In the recent years, however, the views on the nature of ”quasicontinuum” have changed dramatically. Earlier, it was accepted, that ”quasicontinuum” consists of a huge number of narrow lines arising as a result of coupling different vibrational states. Now it is widely believed , that the absorption line is unique, but it becomes very wide. The origin of the ”quasicontinuum” now is bounded up with intramolecular vibrational relaxation (IVR). This is a reasonable idea. The IVR process can be very fast (picosecond timescale). The corresponding Lorentzian width of the absorption line can be in this case comparable with anharmonisity of the molecular vibrations. The main disadvantage of this model is that it does not explain how the molecules can be excited in the field of low vibrational levels, where the IVR is absent and the absorption lines remain narrow. Experiments show, that excitation of molecules in this area occurs without essential difficulties, but the theory gives no satisfactory explanation of this fact.

In works  an idea was proposed, that the IR MPE process is a trivial result of absorption in the area of line wings, but untrivial is the nature of these wings. Practically, the possible role of line wings was not discussed in the literature earlier. It is, apparently, due to the fact, that appropriate estimations can easily be made. The lifetime of excited states of molecules due to spontaneous emission in the infrared region lays in the millisecond timescale. The natural width of line must to be smaller than $`100Hz`$. Even for the strongest molecular transitions, at the distance from the line center equal to the value of molecular angarmonicity, the Lorentzian countour of the natural width would have an absorption cross–section smaller then $`10^{25}cm^2`$. This cross–section cannot play any appreciable role in overcoming the angarmonicity of molecular vibrations.

However, such an estimation has not been tested in experiment earlier. It is possible to assume, that for some unknown reasons, intensity of real line wings is much higher, than the theory predicts. How high the intensity of line wings should be to explaine the observable effect of laser excitation of molecules? Rather correctly such information can be derived from the experimental results of works \[7-9\], where the depletion of rotational states of $`SF_6`$ molecules by TEA $`CO_2`$–laser radiation was studied in the conditions of molecular jet. The results of such processing are presented in Fig.1. Except for the usual narrow component of the line with a Doppler width $`30MHz`$, the wings, or more precisely speaking, a wide component of the line should exist with a cross–section $`\sigma 610^{20}cm^2`$ and with a Lorentzian full width at half medium $`2\mathrm{\Gamma }4.5cm^1`$. The relative integral intensity of this component is rather small, $`X0.2\%`$, but it is high enough for efficient excitation of molecules from all rotational states.

The purpose of the present work is an experimental testing the hypothesis of the existence of intense line wings. First of all, it is important to point out that the Lorentzian countor is rather flat and the wings of the line can manifest themselves as far natural wings of absorption bands. Numerous literature exists about the far wings of absorption bands for small and light molecules which are due to collisional broadening of the lines , but publications devoted to the far wings of absorption bands in the gas phase for heavy polyatomic molecules are absent. In the present work, for the first time, far natural wings of absorption bands are discovered for a number of polyatomic molecules. The experiments show, that the absorption cross–section in the region of these far band wings is independent on the gas pressure. Measuring the intensity of the far band wings allows to estimate the relative integral intensity of the line wings.

On the other hand, it is important to pay attention to the phenomenon of saturation of the absorption spectrum of polyatomic molecules by laser radiation at low gas pressure . It is well known, that for some molecules this saturation can be very pronounced, but for the others it is minimal . A satisfactory explanation of this distinction was not found. From the point of view of the discussed hypothesis, the distinction is due to the difference in relative intensities of the line wings: for the molecules with a large relative intensity of the line wings the saturation is minimal and vise versa.

So, the saturation degree of the absorption spectrum of polyatomic molecules can be used to estimate the relative integral intensity of the line wings. With this purpose, in the presented work, the saturation degree of the linear absorption spectra of a number of molecules by the TEA $`CO_2`$–laser radiation was investigated. The measurements were conducted in comparable conditions at low gas pressure and at average level of molecular excitation $`<n>0.1`$ quanta/molecule. It was supposed, that under these conditions the narrow component of the line is completely saturated, but the wide one is not. Then the measured saturation degree can be regarded as a rough estimation of the relative integral intensity of the line wings. Estimations of the line wings intensity obtained by two independent methods were compared with each other for a number of molecules.

## 2  Experimental

The TEA $`CO_2`$–laser with an additional low pressure cell inside the resonator was used. When a low pressure cell was switched on, the TEA $`CO_2`$–laser switched from the multimode regime to the single–mode one. Using a nitrogen free gas mixture allowed to obtain a pulse of generation with $`150ns`$ duration at half height without a ”tail”.

A piroelectric detector was used for measuring the laser radiation absopbtion at low gas pressure. The technique of experiments is similar to that described in . The piroelectric detector was placed inside the cell (pass lenght $`110cm`$) on the distance $`10mm`$ from the laser beam. Calibration of the detector’s sensitivity was carried out by measuring the attenuation of the transmitted beam at relatively high gas pressure ($`>100mTorr`$).

Measurements of the absorption cross–section in the region of the far band wings in some cases were carried out with an optico–acoustic detector (OAD). This detector was also used to study the influence of the buffer gas pressure on the intensity of the far band wings. In the last case, first of all, the dependence of the OAD sensitivity on the gas pressure was measured. The cell was filled with $`40`$ mTorr of hexafluoroacetone and it was irradiated by TEA $`CO_2`$ laser on 10R(12) line with energy $`1mj`$. Under these conditions, the amount of energy, absorbed in the cell, remains constant, and the dependence of the OAD signal on the buffer gas (nitrogen) pressure, becomes the dependence of the detector’s sensitivity on the gas pressure. Then the cell was filled with $`1Torr`$ of the substance to study ($`CF_2Cl_2,SiF_4`$) and $`1800Torr`$ of nitrogen was added. The energy of a pulse laser radiation was usually $`3070mj`$ and it’s wavelenghth was selected in the region, where the far band wings had sufficiently clean countor and the absorption cross–section in the range $`10^{21}10^{22}cm^2`$.

An IR–spectrophotometer with a stainless steel cell (pathlenth $`10cm`$ and gas pressure up to $`5atm`$) was used to study the absorption band profile for a number of molecules. Most of the used substances were commertially available and had been used without purification. Completely fluoreneted dimethylether was obtained by rectification of the products’ mixture after fluorenation of the dimethilether. The gas used in the experiments contained $`97\%`$ of the basic substance. As an impurity, $`(3\%)`$ of the $`CF_3H`$ was present.

## 3  Results

Typical results of the experimental study are presented in Figs. 2 and 3. These pictures show the saturation degree of linear absorption spectrum by pulse laser radiation of the $`SF_6`$ and $`(CF_3)_2CO`$ molecules. In the first case the saturation is very high, and in the second one it is minimal in full agreement with early results . At average level of excitation $`0.1`$ quanta/molecule, with 1 atm of buffer gas added, the measured absorption cross-section of the laser radiation practically coincides with the same cross-section ($`\sigma _0`$), obtained with a spectrophotometer.

Table 1 contains main results of these experiments.

Table 1.Determination of the saturation degree of the linear absorption spectrum of polyatomic molecules by pulse $`CO_2`$–laser radiation.

| N | Molecule | Laser | Fluence | Pressure | $`\sigma _m/\sigma _1`$ | $`<n>^{}`$ | $`\sigma _1/\sigma _0`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |  | line | $`mj/cm^2`$ | $`mTorr`$ |  |  | % |
| 1 | $`SF_6`$ | 10P(20) | 32 | 16 | 2.0 | 0.15 | 0.6 |
|  |  |  | 32 | 100 | 1.8 | 0.25 | 1.0 |
| 2 | $`SiF_4`$ | 9P(34) | 32 | 100 | 1.4 | 0.07 | 1.0 |
| 3 | $`CF_2Cl_2`$ | 10P(36) | 32 | 100 | 1.3 | 0.06 | 1.5 |
| 4 | $`CFCl_3`$ | 9R(30) | 32 | 100 | 1.4 | 0.07 | 4.0 |
| 5 | $`C_2F_3Cl`$ | 9R(6) | 32 | 100 | 1.4 | 0.15 | 12 |
|  |  |  | 32 | 16 | 1.3 | 0.35 | 7.0 |
| 6 | $`CH_3SiF_3`$ | 10R(26) | 32 | 100 | 1.3 | 0.55 | 11 |
|  |  |  | 3.2 | 100 | 1.4 | 0.09 | 17.5 |
| 7 | $`(CF_3)_2O`$ | 10R(20) | 32 | 16 | 1.05 | 1.0 | 80 |
|  |  |  | 3.2 | 100 | 1.05 | 0.1 | 90 |
| 8 | $`(CF_3)_2CO`$ | 10R(14) | 32 | 16 | 1.00 | 2.8 | 70 |
|  |  |  | 3.2 | 100 | 1.00 | 0.35 | 90 |
| 9 | $`C_6H_5SiF_3`$ | 10R(10) | 32 | 16 | 1.00 | 3.0 | $``$ 90 |
|  |  |  | 3.2 | 100 | 1.00 | 0.3 | $``$ 90 |

$`{}_{}{}^{}<n>=\sigma _1F/h\nu `$

The measured absorption cross-sections are usually greater for multimode laser radiation ($`\sigma _m`$) than for the singlemode one ($`\sigma _1`$) . Owing to limited sensitivity of the piroelectric detector the minimum used gas pressure was chosen 100 mTorr in some cases. For these cases, the obtained final value $`X=\sigma _1/\sigma _0`$ is overestimated by a factor of $`1.6`$.

In Fig.4, the spectral dependence of the absorption cross-section of $`SiF_4`$ molecules around the $`\nu _3`$ absorption bands is presented. The edges of the absorption band have approximately an exponential form, the slope beeng greater for the blue side, than for the red one. At the distance more, than 25–40 $`cm^1`$ from the band center, much more glantly sloping wings are observed. The curve (2) is a Loretzian profile with FWHM $`2\mathrm{\Gamma }=4.5cm^1`$, which passes through the point with minimal absorption cross-section in the given spectral range. So, we can see, that far band wings have a Lorentzian behavior.

In Fig.5 a spectral dependence of the absorption cross-section of $`SF_6`$ molecules is shown. In this rather typical case the far band wings are masked by intense combination bands.

The same results for the $`CF_2Cl_2`$ molecules are shown in Fig. 6. In the latter case the far band wings can be observed in rather limited spectral range $`9501000cm^1`$.

Fig.7 shows the spectrum of the $`(CF_3)_20`$ molecules. The basis of the spectral dependence well coordinate with a Lorentzian contour, which center coincides with the most intense absorption band. It can be seen also, that intensity of the Lorentzian contour in this case approximately two orders of magnitude higher, than for the cases of $`SiF_4`$ and $`SF_6`$ molecules, although the intensities of the strongest absorption bands are comparable for all these molecules.

The experiments have shown, that the absorption cross-section of the investigated molecules in the region of far wings of their absorption bands depends neither on it’s own gas pressure, nor on the buffer gas pressure (in the range 8– 800 Torr of nitrogen). It means, that the far wings of absorption bands are natural and have no relation to the collisional broadening of the lines.

The computed relative integral intensities of the line wings are listed in Table 2. It was supposed, that $`2\mathrm{\Gamma }=4.5cm^1`$ in all cases. For comparison, the final results of Table 1 are also shown here. It is visible,that the difference in relative integral intensities of the line wings reaches two orders of magnitude for different molecules. At the same time, the maximum deviation between the estimations, obtained by two independent methods, does not exceed three times. The intensity of the line wings is rather small for the molecules with one central atom and grows quickly with increasing the number of atoms and branching degree of the molecules.

Table 2.Evaluation of the relative integral intensity of the line wings.

| N | Molecule | X % | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|  |  | From the band wings | From the saturation degree |
| 1 | $`SiF_4`$ | 0.6 | 0.6 |
| 2 | $`SF_6`$ | 0.8 | 0.6 |
| 3 | $`CF_2Cl_2`$ | 1.6 | 0.9 |
| 4 | $`CFCl_3`$ | 2.3 | 2.5 |
| 5 | $`C_2F_3Cl`$ | 3.0 | 7.5 |
| 6 | $`CH_3SiF_3`$ | 11 | 11 |
| 7 | $`(CF_3)_2O`$ | 36 | 90 |
| 8 | $`(CF_3)_2CO`$ | 40 | 90 |
| 9 | $`C_6H_5SiF_3`$ | 50 | $``$ 90 |

## 4  Discussion

Close, although not so precise as from works \[7-9\], estimations of the parameters of the wide component of line for $`SF_6`$ molecules ($`\sigma 10^{19}cm^2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }<3cm^1`$) can be obtained by processing the experimental results of work . In this latter work the absorption of CW $`CO_2`$ -laser radiation by $`SF_6`$ molecules was studied in the molecular beam conditions, and the autors dealt practically only with the line wings.

A substantial difference exists between the estimations of the relative integral intensity of the line wings for $`SF_6`$ molecules, derived from works \[7-9\] $`(X0.2\%)`$ and obtained in the present work $`(X=0.60.8\%)`$. This is obviously due to the fact, that in the first case the molecules were located at a zero vibrational level, and the second estimation is obtained for the room temperature, when the majority of molecules is in different excited states. The strong temperature dependence of the laser radiation absorption by $`SF_6`$ molecules  allows to assume, that the intensity of line wings substantially grows with increasing the level of vibrational excitation of molecules. This is maybe the main physical reason of formation of ensembles of ”hot” and ”cold” molecules under action of the pulse $`CO_2`$ laser radiation .

It is visible from Table 2, that for the largest molecules a systematic underestimation exists when the intensity of the far band wings is used. This is maybe due to the real width of line wings for large molecules is smaller, than it was supposed in calculations. Such an assumption agrees with the results of experimental study of photodissociation of a number of molecular dimers in , where the the autors dealt generally with the same wings of lines. With increasing the molecular weight the spectral photodissociation width of the corresponding dimer usually decreases: for $`(C_2H_4)_2),(SiF_4)_2,and(SF_6)_2`$ the corresponding values are 12, 4.7, and $`1.5cm^1`$, accordingly.

The difference in absorption of the singlemode and multimode laser radiation has, obviously, common nature with a similar effect, observed earlier in works . This is possible only in the conditions, when the IVR process is absent in a molecule. Therefore, it can be expected, that in the $`(CF_3)_2CO`$ and $`C_6H_5SiF_3`$ molecules the fast IVR occurs already after the absorption of the first quantum of $`CO_2`$ laser radiation. More precisely this question could be clearified after studying the full spectrum of these molecules in the conditions of a free jet, when the IVR process can frequently be identified .

The results of the present work, combined with experimental data of works \[7-9, 17\], provide quite sufficient proof of existence of the intense line wings in polyatomic molecules. The nature of these wings can be related with breaking the mechanism of averaging the molecular inertia moment on the timescale of vibrational motion. The spectroscopic methods allow a high precision determination of the inertia moment of a molecule, this moment being an averaged inertia moment because it changes by $`510\%`$ on the timescale of vibrational motion . If one supposes that the mechanism of averaging the inertia moment can suffer periodic short–time breakings (destructions) by various vibrational modes, then we should get a clump of lines in the spectrum instead of a single narrow line. The width of this clump of lines must apparently be determined by the maximum amplitude of the molecule inertia moment variations due to vibrations. Such the objects have been intensively studied in the last years, and the autors tried to explain their nature by coupling of different vibrational modes . The very moment of breaking-up (destruction) can be considered as some short–life ”stressed” state of the molecule, which should be corresponded with some wide component in the line spectrum. So, while it is not clear, which effect is responsible for the spectral width of such a component, it is worth noting, that the width itself, retrieved from the experiments, is comparable to the period of vibrational motion of atoms in a molecule.

Molecular beam with a cryogenic bolometer is ideally suitable for the study of line wings. Narrow and powerful laser radiation interacts mainly with the line wings . Low rotational temperature in the beam results in that the width of the absorption band is comparable with or less than that of the line wings. Therefore, for precise determination of the width of the line wings it is not necessary to investigate very far wings of the absorption bands. The sensitivity of the apparatus can easily be calibrated using large polyatomic molecules like as hexafluoroacetone. Upon calibration, such an instrument can be used for measuring the intensity and the width of the line wings for most polyatomic molecules. Using one $`CO_2`$–laser, we can measure the line wing parameters for the $`10`$ transition. Having two $`CO_2`$–lasers, we can obtain the same information for the $`21`$ transition and even for the $`32`$ one ( if at the first step we make use of one of the twoquantum transitions, studied in  ).

## 5  Conclusion

The discussed experimental results quite clearly show the existence of intense line wings of unknown nature in polyatomic molecules. This line wings are interesting in itself. But it is also very important, that such kind of experiments  gives for the present day the only straightforward experimental proof of the strong time invariance violation in a photon-molecule interaction .

So, the task of experimental study of the line wings of polyatomic molecules has a grate importance. Unfortunately, the experimentalists are afraid to work with this interesting and unusual physical object.

Fig.1 Profile of absorption line of $`SF_6`$ molecules for the $`\nu _3`$ band $`10`$ transition.

Fig.2 Spectral dependence of the absorption cross-section of multimode laser radiation by $`SF_6`$ molecules. $`32mj/cm^2`$.

$`.16mTorrSF_6`$.

$`016mTorrSF_6+760TorrN_2`$.

Linear room temperature absorption spectrum of $`SF_6`$ molecules is also shown.

Fig.3 Spectral dependence of the absorption cross-section of multimode laser radiation by $`(CF_3)_2CO`$ molecules. $`32mj/cm^2`$.

$`.16mTorr(CF_3)_2CO`$.

$`0100mTorr(CF_3)_2CO+760TorrN_2`$.

The solid curve represent a linear room temperature absorption spectrum of $`(CF_3)_2CO`$ molecules.

Fig.4 Spectral dependence of the room temperature absorption cross-section of $`SiF_4`$ molecules.

1- spectrophotometer result.

2- Lorentzian profile with FWHM = $`4.5cm^1`$.

Fig.5 Spectral dependence of the room temperature absorption cross–section of $`SF_6`$ molecules.

1- spectrophotometer result.

2- Lorentzian profile with FWHM = $`4.5cm^1`$.

Fig.6 Spectral dependence of the room temperature absorption cross–section of $`CF_2Cl_2`$ molecules.

1- spectrophotometer result.

2- Lorentzian profile with FWHM = $`4.5cm^1`$.

Fig.7 Spectral dependence of the room temperature absorption cross–section of $`(CF_3)_2O`$ molecules.

1- spectrophotometer result.

2- Lorentzian profile with FWHM = $`4.5cm^1`$.


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# A Search for Radio Emission from Supernovae With Ages from About One Week to More Than 80 Years

## 1 INTRODUCTION

Supernovae have been observed visually and recorded for at least the last 1000 years (Clark & Stephenson (1982)) but only in this century have we been able to observe these bright, energetic events in a waveband other than the optical. The different supernovae (SNe) are classified into two main Supernova (SN) Types, I and II, distinguished by features in their optical spectra. The presence or absence of other optical features classify SNe into several sub-classifications, SNe Ia, Ib, Ic, and some other proposed sub-classes (e.g., the SNe IIn \[Schlegel (1990)\]). To understand SNe explosions and the mechanisms for the emission of radiation, it is helpful to have knowledge of the pre-SN progenitor system. While a basic understanding of the pre-SN progenitor stars has been achieved (e.g., Branch, Nomoto, & Filippenko 1991, Branch et al. (1995)), the specifics are still a matter of some debate (e.g., Nomoto et al. (1996)). Radio observations of SNe have been shown (e.g., Weiler et al. (1989)) to give insight into the pre-SN progenitor system.

The first discovery of radio emission, from SN 1970G in NGC 5457 (M101) (Gottesman et al. (1972), Allen et al. (1976)), introduced this new regime in which to study SNe. Modern detections of well-observed radio SNe include the Type II SNe 1978K in NGC 1313 (Ryder et al. (1993), Schlegel et al. (1999)), 1979C in NGC 4321 (Weiler et al. (1986), Weiler et al. (1991), Montes et al. (2000)), 1980K in NGC 6946 (Weiler et al. (1986), Weiler et al. 1992a , Montes et al. (1998)), 1981K in NGC 4258 (Weiler et al. (1986), Van Dyk et al. (1992), Lacey et al. (1999)), 1986J in NGC 891 (Rupen et al. (1987), Weiler, Panagia, & Sramek 1990), 1988Z in MCG +03-28-022 (Van Dyk et al. 1993b , Lacey et al. (1999)), and 1993J in NGC 3031 (M81) (Van Dyk et al. (1994)); the Type Ib SNe 1983N in NGC 5457 (Sramek, Panagia, & Weiler 1984, Cowan & Branch (1985)) and 1984L in NGC 991 (Panagia, Sramek, & Weiler 1986); and the Type Ic SNe 1990B in NGC 4568 (Van Dyk et al. 1993a ). Most of these SNe can now be considered as “intermediate-age” supernovae, originally defined by Cowan & Branch (1985) to have an age between 10 and 100 years old. These decades-old supernovae are observed in the radio much after a supernova fades in the optical, typically within two years, and before the earliest turn on of an SNR, predicted to take at least 100 years (see also Cowan, Roberts, & Branch 1994 and Stockdale et al. 2001a, b for further discussion). Many of the detected “intermediate-age” SNe whose ages are greater than 30 years include SNe 1970G (Cowan, Goss, & Sramek 1991; Stockdale et al. 2001a), 1968D in NGC 6946 (Hyman et al. (1995)), 1961V in NGC 1058 (Branch & Cowan (1985), Cowan, Henry, & Branch 1988, Stockdale et al. 2001b ) \[but there is some discussion on whether this was a SN explosion or the pulse of an LBV (e.g., Filippenko et al. (1995))\], 1957D & 1950B in NGC 5457 (M83) (Cowan et al. 1994, Cowan & Branch (1985), Cowan & Branch (1982)) and the probable radio SN 1923A (Eck et al. (1998)).

The investigation of radio emission from Supernova Remnants (SNRs) has been well studied due in part to the the strength, nature and longevity of the emission. (While a review of radio emission from SNRs is beyond the scope of this paper, a review of the emission from SNRs can be found in Weiler & Sramek (1988) and Matonick & Fesen (1997)). Some examples of well-known galactic SNRs include SNR 1006, Kepler’s SNR, and Tycho’s SNR as well as many extra-galactic SNRs (Green 1984). One particular radio SNR of interest is Cas A (Baars et al. (1977)), the remnant from an SN that exploded in approximately 1670. At about 300 years old, Cas A is significant to our study because it is the youngest radio SNR with a known age. It is therefore useful for comparison with observations of many of our older SNe in probing the relationship between radio SNe and SNRs.

Despite attempts to look for radio emission from all SN types, no Type Ia SNe have been detected (e.g., Eck et al. (1995), Sramek et al. (1993), Weiler et al. (1989)), and most Type II or Ib/c SNe (i.e., core-collapse SNe) have not been detected as radio emitters despite several searches (e.g., Eck et al. (1996), Sramek et al. (1993), Weiler et al. (1989)). However, when radio emission has been detected the Chevalier model (Chevalier \[1982a,b\], 1984) describes the radio emission and fits the data very well and may offer an explanation for the lack of detectable radio emission from every SN. In this model the radio emission is related to circumstellar matter. For older SNe that may be entering the SNR phase, theoretical models (Gull (1973)) and calculations (Cowsik & Sarkar (1984)) describe the radio emission as related to the amount of interstellar matter (among other parameters such as energy released in the explosion) instead of circumstellar matter, but the emission mechanisms in each case are similar. While the Gull model predicts a minimum time of about 100 years for a SNR to brighten, it is noteworthy that SN 1885A has not been detected in the radio (Crane et al. 1992) at an age of about 107 years.

In this paper, we present results of a long term survey to detect radio emission from SNe at ages from 7 days to almost 90 years old. Our results confirm the observed trend that most SNe at these ages do not show radio emission. In §2 we present our observations, and in §3 discuss our results as applied to the Chevalier model to derive (upper limits to) mass-loss rates. We then discuss our results in relation to others’ observations and work. In §4, we follow with conclusions. In Appendix A we present the results of our analysis of the non-SNe sources in our maps, and attempt to identify the sources when possible.

## 2 OBSERVATIONS

This series of observations began in an attempt to detect radio emission from intermediate-age SNe. If detected, a monitoring program could begin at the Very Large Array (VLA)111The VLA is a facility of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, which is operated by Associated Universities, Inc., under contract to the National Science Foundation. to trace the evolution from a radio supernova (RSN) into an SNR. Since there is very little data on the transition of RSNe to SNRs, these observations would help in understanding this phase of SN evolution.

All observations were taken at the VLA over a time span ranging from 1981 to 1995, and the SNe observed vary in distance and in ages at the time of observation. Tables 1-3 summarize relevant observational data for the SNe reported here. Table 1 gives parameters for each observation, and Table 2 shows distances assumed for each SN, most based on Cepheid observations in the parent galaxy or in a galaxy in the same group. Table 3 summarizes data on each SN, its parent galaxy, the age at the time of observation and the flux densities for detections or $`3\sigma `$ upper limits to detection. Table 4 presents the results of our analysis of the observational data (see §3.1 for discussion).

In addition to analyzing the region near the SNe sites, for completeness we analyzed the non-SNe sources to determine a probable identity based on superpositions with maps made at optical (H$`\alpha `$) wavelengths or on spectral indices, for example. Descriptions of the analyses of each map were appended to the paper as Appendix A to preserve the main focus of the paper on radio SNe. Table 5 lists the positions and fluxes for these non-SNe sources and a possible identity for each.

## 3 DISCUSSION

### 3.1 The Model

To gain insights into the pre-SN progenitor system via radio emission, we begin with the expression for the radio luminosity for Type II SNe based on the well-established Chevalier (1982a,b) mini-shell model. According to this model, the outward moving shock from the SN explosion encounters circumstellar material, compresses it and creates Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities. The magnetic fields locked in the material compress and amplify, accelerating free electrons. Synchrotron radiation results and is responsible for the luminosity we see. This luminosity has the form (following Chevalier \[1982b\])

$$L\left(\frac{\stackrel{}{M}}{w}\right)^{(\gamma 7+12m)/4}t^{(\gamma +56m)/2}m^{(5+\gamma )/2}U^{3(1m)}\nu ^{(\gamma 1)/2}e^{\tau _{\nu ,ff}}$$
(1)
where

$$\tau _{\nu ,ff}=C\left(\frac{\stackrel{}{M}}{w}\right)^{(53m)}t^{3m}\nu ^{2.1},$$
(2)
$`\stackrel{}{\text{M}}`$ is the mass-loss rate of the pre-SN progenitor in $`\text{ M}_{}\text{ yr}^1`$, $`w`$ is the wind speed in km s-1, $`\gamma `$ is the electron energy index, related to the radio spectral index, $`\alpha `$, by $`\gamma =2\alpha +1`$, $`t`$ is the time since explosion in days, $`m`$ is defined by the ratio $`(n3)/(n2)`$, and $`n`$ is the power law index for the ejecta density profile defined by $`\rho r^n`$. $`U`$ is a parameter that depends on the density of the supernova ejecta at a given ejecta speed, $`\tau _{\nu ,ff}`$ is the frequency dependent optical depth due to free-free absorption experienced by the radio emission as it escapes outward from the interaction region into the surrounding circumstellar material, and $`C`$ is a constant. Initially, the optical depth is large, depressing the emission, but as the shock moves out, the optical depth falls with circumstellar density and the radio emission peaks. Note that due to the frequency dependence of the optical depth, shorter wavelengths peak first. According to the model, after peaking the radio emission falls monotonically to undetectability. The radio emission may eventually rise again either from another phase of interaction with a denser layer of circumstellar material (e.g., SNe 1979C, 1987A) or from the onset of the SNR phase.

How does the model apply to different SN types? For core-collapse SNe (Type II, Ib/c) the interaction occurs between the outgoing shock and the pre-SN progenitor wind. For Type Ia SNe the interaction can take place between the outgoing shock front of the white dwarf explosion and the wind of a companion red giant (Boffi & Branch (1995), Eck et al. (1995)). For detectable radio emission, there must be enough circumstellar material (high enough $`\stackrel{.}{\text{M}}`$/w) to fuel the synchrotron emission, so for small $`\stackrel{.}{\text{M}}`$/w (of the progenitor or companion) no strong radio emission is expected.

For detected SNe, the data follow this “standard model” very well (e.g., Weiler et al. (1986), Weiler et al. (1990), Van Dyk et al. (1992)) albeit with occasional minor modifications such as periodicities folded into the model and interpreted (Weiler et al. (1991)) to better fit the data. Calculations by Chevalier (1998) indicate that synchrotron self-absorption may be important for SNe Ib/c and SN 1987A as well as for SN whose progenitors have low mass-loss rates. Ignoring this effect may cause an overestimate of mass-loss rates.

By knowing the luminosity, the frequency and the age of an observation we may predict the mass-loss rate of the pre-SN progenitor provided we can determine the other parameters. Since most of our observations are non-detections (i.e., upper limits to flux densities), we do not have the data to determine all the parameters with a fitting routine. However, we may salvage the data by scaling the Type II SNe data to the parameters of the well-known SN 1979C and scaling the Type I SNe data to SN 1983N, a Type Ib with similar (derived) properties to another Type Ib, SN 1984L (This procedure is similar to one used by Weiler et al. (1989) to estimate (upper limits to) mass-loss rates for many other radio SNe (see §3.2.1)). Of course calculations performed in this way must be taken only as rough estimates since every SN is not exactly like SNe 1979C or 1983N. We are effectively forcing every SN in our data set to look like either SN 1979C or SN 1983N, which has only limited validity, but the results can be useful where no data were previously available.

We determined the relevant parameters for the mass-loss rate calculations in the following manner. A reasonable parameter for Type II SNe is $`n=20`$ ($`m=0.94`$) (Eck et al. (1996)), and the radio spectral index for SN 1979C is $`\alpha =0.72`$ ($`\gamma =2.4`$) from Weiler et al. (1986). We may incorporate the constants $`K`$, $`U`$, and $`m^{(5+\gamma )/2}`$ into one constant and determine its value by substituting all other known parameters and solving. The constant $`C`$ can be determined by knowing the optical depth, age, frequency and mass-loss rate of an observation. Weiler et al. (1986) have fitted data for SN 1979C to determine their parameter $`K_2`$, representative of the optical depth at $`5`$ GHz and $`t=1`$ day. Additionally, we use the mass-loss rate calculated by Weiler et al. (1986) for SN 1979C to calculate $`C`$. The resulting luminosity equation is

$$L=1.8\times 10^{37}\left(\frac{\stackrel{}{M}}{w/10\text{ km s}^1}\right)^{1.7}\left(\frac{t}{\text{1 day}}\right)^{0.88}\left(\frac{\nu }{\text{5 GHz}}\right)^{0.7}e^{\tau _{\nu ,ff}}\text{ erg s}^1$$
(3)
where

$$\tau _{\nu ,ff}=2.6\times 10^{16}\left(\frac{\stackrel{}{M}}{w/10\text{ km s}^1}\right)^{2.18}\left(\frac{t}{\text{1 day}}\right)^{2.8}\left(\frac{\nu }{\text{5 GHz}}\right)^{2.1}.$$
(4)
For Type I SNe, the SN density power law index is typically $`n=7`$ ($`m=0.8`$), and for SN 1983N, Weiler et al. (1986) report $`\alpha =1.03`$ ($`\gamma =3.1`$). Determining the other constants in the same manner for Type II SNe results in a luminosity equation for SNe Type I

$$L=9.1\times 10^{36}\left(\frac{\stackrel{}{M}}{w/10\text{ km s}^1}\right)^{1.4}\left(\frac{t}{\text{1 day}}\right)^{1.6}\left(\frac{\nu }{\text{5 GHz}}\right)^{1.0}e^{\tau _{\nu ,ff}}\text{ erg s}^1$$
(5)
where

$$\tau _{\nu ,ff}=3.5\times 10^{17}\left(\frac{\stackrel{}{M}}{w/10\text{ km s}^1}\right)^{2.6}\left(\frac{t}{\text{1 day}}\right)^{2.4}\left(\frac{\nu }{\text{5 GHz}}\right)^{2.1}$$
(6)
We take the commonly assumed value for the wind speed, $`10\text{ km s}^1`$. For simplicity we use this wind speed for all SN Types although we note that for Types Ib/c, the wind speed may be higher. Calculated values for $`\stackrel{.}{\text{M}}`$ are shown in Table 4. In many cases the observation age has been calculated from the time of maximum brightness or from the time of discovery since data on the explosion date was not available, especially for the older SNe. Thus, the ages may be in error by about 30 days. For any SNe (in our survey) with observation ages older than that of SN 1983K ($``$ 1500 days) this amounts to an error in the ages of less than 2%. For the SNe with observation ages less than 1500 days, we were able to obtain data on the explosion date for a better calculation of the (upper limit to the) mass-loss rate.

For all but two of the upper limits, the observation age is large enough that the radio emission can be assumed to be fading (for the purposes of deriving a mass-loss rate.) However, observations for the Type Ia SNe 1986G and 1989B are at 10 and 14 days past explosion, respectively. It is possible that the radio emission at these ages could be rising (pre-peak) or falling (post-peak). This would result in two different derived mass-loss rates—a larger mass-loss rate corresponding to the optically thick case when the emission has not peaked yet and a smaller mass-loss rate corresponding to the optically thin case when the emission has already peaked (see Eck et al. (1995) for details and previously published results for a similar case of early observations of SN 1986G). For SNe Ia we may be able to test whether the progenitor system is a symbiotic (white dwarf accreting matter from the wind of a red giant companion) using early radio observations such as these. By comparing the range of derived mass-loss rates to the mass-loss rate expected from red giants in symbiotic systems ($`10^7`$ to $`10^5\text{ M}_{}\text{ yr}^1`$ \[Seaquist & Taylor 1990, Mürset et al. 1991\]) we may test the symbiotic scenario. Inspection of Table 4 reveals that the derived range of mass-loss rates for SNe 1986G and 1989B are in mild conflict with that expected for the symbiotic red giant companion (in agreement with original calculations by Eck et al.  for SN 1986G). These were probably not symbiotic systems.

#### 3.1.1 Model Assumptions

We now examine some of the assumptions in the Chevalier model and their possible effects on the derived luminosities and mass-loss rates. One of the key assumptions in the theory of the origin of the synchrotron radio luminosity concerns the efficiency of conversion of the thermal energy density of electrons into the magnetic energy density and relativistic electron energy density. It has been assumed that this value is constant at about $`1\%`$ (Chevalier 1982b ), but this assumption is being questioned based on observations of SN 1987A. Also inherent is the assumption that the density of the circumstellar wind material and the outer layers of the SN ejecta are described by time-independent power laws, $`\rho _{csm}r^2`$ and $`\rho _{SN}r^n`$. While the assumptions on the density profile of the SN ejecta have been shown to be good assumptions, some cases have shown evidence for a circumstellar power law density that looks different from the assumed form, i.e. $`\rho _{csm}r^{3/2}`$ (SN 1993J: Van Dyk et al. (1994)). This has been interpreted as a changing presupernova mass-loss rate. Other radio SNe have shown evidence for clumpiness in the pre-SN wind or non-spherical symmetry of the shock and a mix of internal absorbers and emitters along the line of sight (SNe 1986J: Weiler et al. (1990), SN 1988Z: Van Dyk et al. 1993b ). In these particular cases, the model was modified to better fit the data. Finally, if synchrotron self-absorption is important, the derived upper limits to mass-loss rates may be overestimated (Chevalier (1998)). Since these are only upper limits, we do not include these effects.

For detected SNe with enough data to form a light curve, mass-loss rates can be derived directly. Equation (16) from Weiler et al. (1986) gives an expression for the mass-loss rate as a function of several parameters, one of which, $`\tau _{ff}`$, the free-free optical depth, can be derived by fitting the data. Some common assumptions on the other parameters are $`v_{shock}=10^4\text{ km s}^1,v_{wind}=10\text{ km s}^1,\text{ and }T_e=10^4`$ K in the wind. How sensitive are the mass-loss rates to these values? While the functional form for the dependence of these parameters on the mass-loss rate is obvious from the expression from Weiler et al. (1986), there are other considerations. For example, Lundqvist & Fransson (1988) report that the assumption of a fully ionized wind may underestimate the mass-loss rate by a factor of 2 or more. To review this and some other considerations affecting the radio emission, we refer the reader to Lundqvist & Fransson (1988).

In the calculation of the (upper limits to) mass-loss rates for Type I SNe, we have assumed that the Type Ib/c and Type Ia SNe share model parameters. Despite the lack of detections of Type Ia SNe, we have followed Weiler et al. (1989) and performed calculations using this assumption in an effort to salvage our data on Type Ia SNe.

### 3.2 Comparisons

#### 3.2.1 Other Radio SN Searches

Montes et al. (1997) reported a detection of SN 1986E at an age of about 8 months. By scaling some of the parameters to those of SNe 1979C & 1980K and using the detection of SN 1986E as well as some tight upper limits, they derive a light curve and a subsequent mass-loss rate of $`>4.7\times 10^5\text{ M}_{}\text{ yr}^1`$. While our upper limits are consistent with their radio light curve (i.e., their derived radio light curve predicts the radio emission to be less than our upper limits at the epochs of our observation), our derived mass-loss rate appears to be in conflict, at $`<4.9\times 10^6\text{ M}_{}\text{ yr}^1`$, by an order of magnitude. However, there are several items to be noted in comparing the results of Montes et al. and the results found here. First, Montes et al. apparently derive the mass-loss rate using only the free-free absorption term (equation 2, here) while a somewhat different form has been used in our calculation, i.e., both equations 1 and 2. It is also noted that for most of the epochs of our observations, the mass-loss rate derives mainly from equation 1 since it is probable that optical depth is very small. Second, by using the Montes et al. detection and our parameters for Type II SNe, we find two mass-loss rates: one corresponding to the optically thick case ($`6.5\times 10^5\text{ M}_{}\text{ yr}^1`$) and one corresponding to the optically thin case ($`4.1\times 10^6\text{ M}_{}\text{ yr}^1`$). It is unclear whether SN 1986E is pre-peak (optically thick) or post-peak (optically thin) at the epoch of the Montes et al. observation and therefore unclear whether there is a conflict between our results and Montes et al. A calculation using the Montes et al. upper limits in the same manner restricts the mass-loss rates to be $`2.1\times 10^6\text{ M}_{}\text{ yr}^1<\stackrel{.}{\text{M}}<1.2\times 10^5\text{ M}_{}\text{ yr}^1`$ at the earliest epochs ($`<200`$ days) and $`\stackrel{.}{\text{M}}<4.4\times 10^6\text{ M}_{}\text{ yr}^1`$ at the later epochs ($`>200`$ days). Third, the epochs of Montes et al. observations and ours are separated by $`68`$ years. (It is unlikely that SN 1986E is still in an optically thick phase at the epochs of our observation since unreasonably high mass loss rates ($`>10^3\text{ M}_{}\text{ yr}^1`$) are required using our model parameters. Only the optically thin result has been quoted here).

Our upper limit to the pre-SN mass-loss rate for SN 1986E is consistent with the Montes et al. observation if the SN was in an optically thin phase at both epochs. If the SN was in an optically thick phase at the Montes et al. epoch, there appears to be a conflict between our model results and theirs, however there is some evidence for a changing pre-SN mass-loss rate in other SNe (e.g., SN 1993J Van Dyk et al. (1994)).

To analyze the sensitivity of the calculation to the model parameters, we calculate the mass-loss rate for all of the upper limits and observations of SN 1986E by scaling to the Montes parameters and by scaling to SN 1979C. For the same observation, the (upper limits to) mass-loss rates are lower by a factor of $`510`$ by scaling to SN 1979C versus scaling to SN 1986E. This indicates that the assumptions on parameters are important and that our results may only be accurate to within an order of magnitude, but again our results can be useful where no other data is available.

Brown & Marscher (1978) report radio upper limits to 46 SNe at two wavelengths and at ages varying from a few months to more than 70 years. Their sample contains many of the SNe in the present sample (SNe 1895B, 1909A, 1921B, 1921C, 1937F, 1951H, 1954J, 1959D, 1961V, 1969L, 1970G, 1972E and 1973R), but with relatively high upper limits (by today’s standards) in the range $`330`$ mJy; they reported no detections. By applying our models to their data on upper limits, we may derive upper limits to mass-loss rates similarly to what we have done with our own data. Despite some early observations from Brown & Marscher at less than a year after explosion, no upper limits to mass-loss rates were obtained that are lower than ours.

Weiler et al. (1989) first performed a procedure very similar to what we have done in calculating upper limits to mass-loss rates for 24 SNe observed by them at 6 cm, including SNe I and II. They calculate mass-loss rates by scaling all Type II to SNe 1979C & 1980K and all Type I to SN 1983N, but they do not include absorption effects (except for the fluxes from SNe 1979C & 1980K). At late times absorption is negligible, but it can be important at earlier epochs. By not including an absorption term, this could cause an underestimate in mass-loss rates. We calculate mass-loss rates for the 24 SNe in Weiler et al. (1989) and derive upper limits that are $`10\%60\%`$ greater than theirs for their Type II SNe. For the Type I SNe in Weiler et al. (1989), including absorption effects depresses the emission enough that any physically reasonable mass-loss rate would have produced emission below the flux density upper limits for many of their older, more distant SNe. For the closer Type I SNe observed early enough to restrict mass-loss rates, our upper limits to the mass-loss rates are greater than theirs. The $`10\%60\%`$ differences in the results from applying our model to Weiler et al. upper limits are likely mainly due to free-free absorption effects, but could also be due to parameter differences.

#### 3.2.2 Radio and optical emission

Can radio emission be predicted? Since radio emission is the result of shock-circumstellar matter interaction (radio SNe) or shock-interstellar matter (radio SNR) interaction, any evidence for circumstellar/interstellar interaction (in other wavebands) at SNe sites might be used as a predictor for radio emission.

Since most SNe have faded in the optical by an age of about 2 years, indications of optical emission beyond 2 years may be the result of some type of enhanced circumstellar interaction. There are 12 SNe that have been detected in the optical at an age of greater than 2 years. Of these, SN 1885A is the only Type Ia, with optical detection at 103 yrs (Fesen, Hamilton, & Saken 1989, Fesen (1997)). However, since SN 1885A has been detected in the optical via absorption, there is no evidence for circumstellar interaction, so we remove it from our group of 12. All other SNe with evidence for optical emission at ages greater than 2 years are core-collapse SNe: SN 1957D at 30-32 yrs (Long, Blair, & Krzeminski 1989), SN 1961V at 22-24 yrs (Goodrich et al. (1989)), SN 1970G at about 22 yrs (Fesen (1993)), SN 1978K at 12-20 years (Ryder et al. (1993), Chugai, Danziger & Della Valle 1995; Chu et al. 1999, Schlegel et al. (1999)), SN 1979C at 10 yrs (Fesen & Matonick (1993)), SN 1980K at 7-9 yrs (Fesen & Becker (1990)), SN 1985L at 12 yrs (Fesen (1998)), SN 1986E at 7-8 yrs (Cappellaro, Danziger, & Turatto 1995), SN 1986J at 4-7 yrs (Leibundgut et al. (1991)), SN 1987A at about 10 years (Sonneborn et al. (1998)), and SN 1988Z up to 8.5 years (Aretxaga et al. (1999)). Some of these SNe with optical recoveries have been observed to be radio emitters. SN 1987A has been detected in the radio at an age of about 10 yrs but at a flux level that would be undetectable at much greater distances. SNe 1957D and 1961V were recovered in the optical only after detection in the radio. (It is not clear whether SN 1961V was an SN or an LBV outburst \[Goodrich et al. (1989), Filippenko et al. (1995)\], although recent radio observations support a supernova interpretation Stockdale et al. 2001b). SN 1970G was optically recovered shortly after the last radio detection (Cowan et al. (1991)) which indicated a steep decline rate in the radio when combined with initial radio observations (Gottesman et al. (1972), Allen et al. (1976)). Schlegel et al. (1999) report fading radio emission from SN 1978K since 1992 and report observations that indicate the optical light curve approaching a constant apparent magnitude starting at about 10 years past explosion. Observations of SN 1979C indicated fading radio emission (albeit with approximate sinusoidal variations \[Weiler et al. 1992b \]) at the time of optical recovery, but more recent observations indicate that it is now brightening in the radio (Montes et al. (2000)). SN 1980K was optically recovered when the radio emission was fading, and recent radio results now indicate a sharper drop than previously reported (Montes et al. (1998)) despite continued optical detections (Fesen, Hurford, & Matonick 1995). There is no available radio data SN 1985L at an age of greater than 3 yrs, but 6 cm data indicated fading emission near that time (Van Dyk et al. (1998)). Although still fading from its initial rise, SN 1986J was emitting strongly in the radio at an age of 6 yrs. SNe 1885A (Crane, Dickel, & Cowan 1992) and 1986E (Eck et al. (1996)) do not show detectable radio emission near the time of optical recovery although SN 1986E did show one radio detection at an age of 8 months (Montes et al. (1997)). Observations of SN 1988Z show strong radio emission at an age of about 5 years (Van Dyk et al. 1993b ). Model fits to the data at 5 years imply post-peak radio emission at 2, 3.6, and 6 cm but not at 20 cm (Van Dyk et al. 1993b ). The optical light curve for SN 1988Z shows strong but generally fading optical emission (Aretxaga et al. (1999)) in this same epoch.

To summarize: of all 11 SNe (without SN 1885A) with optical recoveries, 9 show radio emission. Of these 9, only two (SNe 1979C and 1987A) show a rise in radio emission within a few years after optical recovery. It is unlikely that SNe 1979C and 1987A are entering a radio SNR phase at an age of only 10-20 yrs. Thus, optical recovery precedes an increase in radio emission while still in a RSN phase only for SNe 1979C and 1987A. Is optical recovery a good indicator (in general) of radio emission as the SN shock encounters circumstellar material? For a majority of the cases (9 out of 11), it would seem to be true. Support for a general correlation between late-time optical and radio emission is found in the behavior of SN 1957D, which showed a dramatic drop in the optical (Long, Winkler & Blair 1992) and contemporaneously in the radio (Cowan et al. 1994). A similar correlation was seen for SNe 1979C and 1980K between a leveling (SN 1979C) or drop (SN 1980K) in radio (Montes et al. 2000, 1998) and the behavior of the optical emission (Fesen et al. 1999). Although both radio and late-time optical emission (e.g., see Fesen et al. (1999) for discussion) may be indicative of enhanced circumstellar interaction, we caution that the emission mechanisms are different, as may be the regions where the emission originates. Clearly, further combined radio and optical studies will be required to understand better the long-term radio and optical correlations.

### 3.3 Luminosity-Age Plots

Figures 1 – 5 are plots of the radio luminosities for ($`3\sigma `$) upper limits versus age of observation for all of the SNe in our sample. The plots are separated by SN Type and wavelength. Each plot shows upper limits (as upside-down triangles), detections (larger unfilled polygons), and at least one SN of the same type with its model light curve (solid and dashed curves) and observational data (smaller unfilled circles). Because of its unknown SN type, SN 1945B (Liller (1990)) was included on both Type I and II SN plots. Although SNe 1950B and 1957D are both of unknown type, they are likely to be Type II SNe (Cowan et al. (1994), Eck et al. (1998)) and were included only in the Type II plots.

#### 3.3.1 Type II SNe

Inspection of the Type II plots at both 20 and 6 cm reveal that upper limits for SNe 1980D, 1984E & 1986E are below the data for SN 1979C but above the data for SN 1980K. Given that the radio emission from SN 1980K has fallen sharply, it is possible that most of the other upper limits (for the older SNe) have fluxes above that of SN 1980K. Recent data from Montes et al. (1998) indicate that radio emission from SN 1979C is now rising again instead of continuing to fade. The inconsistency of our upper limits and detections with the SN 1979C data and possible similarities with the SN 1980K data indicate that the Type II SNe in our survey have properties more like SN 1980K than SN 1979C. It also suggests that SN 1980K may be a more typical Type II radio emitter than SN 1979C.

#### 3.3.2 Type I SNe

The observation age of SN 1895B makes it interesting to consider. We may compare it with model curves (dashed curves) for the radio turn-on of a SNR as calculated by Cowsik & Sarkar (1984). The dashed curves correspond to their models c) (constant density piston) and d) (isothermal piston) and assume an explosion energy of $`10^{51}`$ ergs, $`0.5`$ solar masses of ejected material, an interstellar density of 1 baryon cm-1 and a spectral index, $`\alpha 1`$. It is clear that SN 1895B could be in the SNR phase, but the high upper limit does not exclude the possibility that it may still be fading as an RSN. At 6 cm, our data is very limited for Type I SNe. Since no Type Ia SNe have been detected in the radio, we cannot conclude much about the comparison of the upper limits and the SN 1983N light curve, except that our upper limits are below the light curve. For the 3.6 cm plot, no data was available for SN 1983N so we plot data and curves from the only other Type I SN with 3.6 cm data, the Type Ic SN 1990B. Without other radio light curves to compare our upper limits to, it is difficult to say anything with confidence about the upper limits (for the Type Ia SNe 1885A and 1989B) except that they are in mild conflict with the SN 1990B data.

## 4 CONCLUSIONS

We summarize the results of the analysis of the radio observations in our survey. Many of the conclusions found from analysis of our observations agree with and confirm conclusions found in other radio SNe papers (e. g. , Weiler et al. 1989). These observations increase the size of the data pool on radio observations of SNe and provide more data with which to test theories of radio emission from SNe.

1. Most SNe are not detectable radio emitters with current radio telescopes due to either large distances or intrinsically faint radio supernovae (or early enough observations).
2. No Type Ia SNe have been detected despite some early and/or deep observations (SNe 1885A \[Crane et al. (1992)\], 1895B, 1937C, 1986G, 1989B).
3. While most of the Type II SNe observed in our survey were not detected in the radio, we find that most of the detected ones (of all the SN types) are Type II SNe.
4. Assuming the Chevalier model, our flux upper limits imply a lack of circumstellar material (or fuel) for detectable radio emission. Radio emission is thus dependent on pre-SN mass-loss and on mass-loss history.
5. Using the Chevalier model for Type Ia SNe, one scenario for which we could get radio emission is the symbiotic-star progenitor scenario (Boffi & Branch (1995)). Our non-detections of SNe 1986G and 1989B indicate that the derived upper limits to mass-loss rates are in mild conflict with the mass-loss rates inferred from red giants in symbiotic systems. These SNe are probably not symbiotics. The other Type Ia SNe (SNe 1885A \[Crane et al. 1992\], 1895B, 1937C) have higher upper limits to the mass-loss rates so that we cannot discount the symbiotic-star scenario as a progenitor scenario.
6. By applying the Chevalier model to our Type II SNe observations, we see that no Type II SNe have been detected with a derived value for the mass-loss rate of $`\stackrel{.}{\text{M}}\stackrel{<}{_{}}10^6\text{ M}_{}\text{ yr}^1`$, implying a lack of circumstellar material. This value is very dependent on the scaling of the parameters of our SNe to those of the well-observed SN 1979C, and the uncertainty in our derived mass-loss rates may be as high as a factor of 10 due to dependencies on parameters (see SN 1986E).
7. The derived mass-loss rates can also have a dependence on the assumptions inherent in the Chevalier model. The effects of these assumptions on the radio luminosity are not trivial to calculate and warrant further study (e.g., see Lundqvist & Fransson  for an investigation of some of these effects).
8. There are 11 SNe with optical recoveries (indicating circumstellar interaction) at an age of greater than 4 years. Of the SNe with optical recoveries, 9 have been detected as radio emitters (and for 2 cases of these 9, the optical emission preceded a second rise of radio emission). This implies that radio emission may be associated with optical recovery.
9. Since the upper limits for Type II SNe in our survey are more consistent with SN 1980K than with SN 1979C, these Type II SNe in our survey may have radio properties more similar to SN 1980K than SN 1979C.

Finally, we note that despite more than two decades of theoretical and observational work in radio supernovae, radio emission from supernovae is not completely understood. As the intermediate-age radio supernovae are followed, we hope to explore further the transition of radio supernovae into supernova remnants. More sensitive observations of young and intermediate-age SNe, as well as more theoretical work, are needed to help us fully understand the origin and evolution of RSNe.

We would like to thank the anonymous referees for helpful comments and suggestions, Schuyler Van Dyk for sharing his optical H$`\alpha `$ maps with us, Paul Hodge for providing positions of H II regions, Bill Romanishin for observing and reducing optical data on NGC 3627 for us, Kurt Weiler for helpful discussions, W. Miller Goss for providing the raw data on SN 1951H, Pat Crane for the upper limit on SN 1885A and Doug Roberts for help on the data analysis using AIPS. This work has been supported in part by NSF grants AST-9986974 and AST-9618332 at the University of Oklahoma. This research has made use of the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) which is operated by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.

## Appendix A. Non-Supernova Radio Sources

To ensure completeness, but not take away from the focus of the paper, we have included this appendix as a description of the analysis of the non-SN radio sources in our maps. The non-supernova radio sources detected in our observations are listed in Table 5. Selected maps with more than 3 sources can be found in Figures 6 to 9. All peak fluxes and positions were determined by using AIPS (Astronomical Image Processing System provided by the NRAO) to fit the source to a two-dimensional Gaussian on top of a linearly sloping background. The fit to sources $`ϵ`$ and $`\pi `$ in NGC 3627 failed to report an uncertainty in flux, so we report the rms noise as representative of the flux uncertainty.

Many sources have been identified as H II regions via superposition onto H$`\alpha `$ maps or via comparison with published positions of H II regions, but some caution must be exercised. Without a spectral index to verify the thermal nature of the radiation from these sources, we can only tentatively identify the radio emission as originating in the H II regions. (Consider the case of SN 1957D whose emission was initially non-thermal. Later measurements indicated that the emission is thermal and is believed to have faded below that of an associated H II region \[Cowan et al. (1994)\].)

##### NGC 1058

Radio detection of SN 1961V has been reported by Cowan et al. (1988), Cowan & Branch (1985), and Cowan et al. (1991). An H$`\alpha `$ map from Cowan et al. (1988) was available for comparison with our sources, but $`\alpha `$ had a position outside ($`>4^{}`$ from galaxy center) the H$`\alpha `$ field of view. On the other hand, $`\beta `$ was within the field of view for the H$`\alpha `$ map but did not correspond to any H$`\alpha `$ emission region.

##### NGC 2403

A contour map of the radio sources in NGC 2403 can be seen in Figure 6. We detected 15 sources with a signal-to-noise of $`5\sigma `$ or greater. Turner & Ho (1994) report 6 cm radio observations of NGC 2403, including 7 sources whose positions lie within $`1^{\prime \prime }`$ to $`5^{\prime \prime }`$ of a corresponding source found in our 20 cm map. However, spectral index calculations were not possible since none of the mutually observed sources had the same beamsize and none were unresolved. Examination of integrated fluxes reveals that source $`\beta `$ is consistent with thermal emission.

A map of H II regions from Sivan et al. (1990) superimposed onto our radio map reveals that $`\beta `$ lies directly over a group of H II regions (including No. 293 in Sivan et al. (1990)). Source $`\beta `$ is likely a group of H II regions. The same positional coincidence with a radio source and an H II region(s) is found for sources $`\gamma `$, $`\delta `$, $`ϵ`$, $`\rho `$, $`\theta `$, $`\omega `$, $`\eta `$, $`\chi `$ and $`\xi `$. They are likely H II regions as well. We find that the luminosities of these sources is comparable to H II regions identified in Cowan et al. (1994).

Comparison with reported SNRs in NGC 2403 by Matonick & Fesen (1997) reveals that source $`\mu `$ has a peak position very close to that of SNRs No. 6 & 7. At a distance of 3.2 Mpc to NGC 2403 (see Table 2), $`\mu `$ is about 50 pc from both SNRs No. 6 & 7. Since SNR No. 7 has a reported diameter of 60 pc, it is very possible that $`\mu `$ is identified with this SNR. More radio observations are recommended to confirm this identification.

##### NGC 3169

The first source in the list has a position that is coincident with the central regions of NGC 3169. The emission is probably associated with the center of the galaxy.

##### NGC 3627

Prior observations of NGC 3627 were found in Hummel et al. (1987) (1.49 GHz), Crane (1977) (2.7 & 8.1 GHz), Zhang, Wright, & Alexander (1993) (CO and H I) and Hodge (1974) (optical H II). Source $`\alpha `$ has a non-thermal spectral index and a position within the uncertainty ($`10^{\prime \prime }`$) for the galactic center. It lies directly over the CO peak in the center of the galaxy from Zhang et al. (1993) and is probably associated with the galactic center. Hummel et al. observe a source $`<0\text{.}^{\prime \prime }5`$ from $`\alpha `$ with an integrated flux over the inner $`2^{\prime \prime }`$ of $`15\pm 2`$ mJy. We measure the integrated flux over approximately the same region to be $`12.5\pm 0.1`$ mJy.

H$`\alpha `$ observations taken on the 18-inch telescope at University of Oklahoma by W. Romanishin (1997) reveal an emission region lying over $`\beta `$.

Hodge (1974) reports observations of H II regions expressed as offsets and plots them relative to the galactic center. If we superpose $`\alpha `$ with the position for the galactic center on the plot, we find that $`\beta `$ lies directly over two H II regions (No. 12 & 13 in Hodge) indicating that $`\beta `$ may be an H II region. Source $`\gamma `$ has no counterpart in Hodge (1974).

Source $`ϵ`$ has a position that is coincident with the position of an H II region (No. 47) reported by Hodge (1974). This coincidence assumes that the center of the galaxy is at $`\alpha `$. Examination of the fluxes at two wavelengths indicates that the emission from $`ϵ`$ is non-thermal. This probably indicates that there is an SNR nearby or possibly associated with the H II region. If we again assume that $`\alpha `$ is the center of the galaxy, we find that $`\pi `$ lies $`4^{\prime \prime }`$ from the position of an H II region (No. 50), so it is not clear whether $`\pi `$ is associated with an H II region or not.

##### NGC 4214

A contour map of most of the sources in this galaxy can be seen in Figure 7. There were at least 8 radio sources in this irregular galaxy with one ($`\eta `$) apparently composed of a number of smaller sources. Using an H$`\alpha `$ map of the galaxy provided by Van Dyk (1997) and superposing our radio map with it, we can attempt to identify probable H II regions. Sources $`\alpha `$, $`\beta `$, $`\gamma `$, $`ϵ`$ and $`\eta `$ have excellent positional coincidences with H$`\alpha `$ emitting regions and are all probably H II regions. Hartmann, Geller, & Huchra (1986) list positions of H II regions, and their source H59 lies $`3^{\prime \prime }`$ from the peak position of source $`\rho `$. This source is likely to be an H II region. In addition, the Hartmann et al. (1986) source H48 lies $`3^{\prime \prime }`$ from the strongest source in the $`\eta `$ complex. H54 & H55 lie close ($`5\text{.}^{\prime \prime }5`$ and $`2^{\prime \prime }`$, respectively) to the peak positions of $`\beta `$ and $`\alpha `$ to make their identification probable.

##### NGC 4302

Analysis of the sources in this galaxy were originally reported in Eck et al. (1996).

##### NGC 4688

Superposition of the Digital Sky Survey (DSS) R-band image onto our radio map reveals no source coincident with the only prominent radio feature in our map.

##### NGC 5128

We report measurements of the radio bright center of NGC 5128 (Cen A) at 6 and 2 cm. The integrated fluxes are $`6.1`$ Jy and $`0.38`$ Jy at 6 and 2 cm, respectively and the resulting spectral index is $`\alpha _2^6=2.5`$.

##### NGC 5457 (M 101), S

A map of the (southern) region surrounding NGC 5455 and containing many of the sources can be seen in Figure 8. SN 1970G is visible as a prominence pointing to the northwest from $`\alpha `$. Source $`\alpha `$ has a flat spectral index and an excellent positional coincidence with NGC 5455, a known H II region. Sources $`\delta `$ and $`\omega `$ have spectral indices between $`0.0`$ and $`0.1`$ indicating they are likely H II regions as well. If we compare the positions of our sources with those of H II regions found by Hodge et al. (1990), we find positional coincidences (within the uncertainties) for $`\psi `$, $`\rho `$, $`\theta `$, $`ϵ`$ and $`\delta `$. These are also probable H II regions. Comparison of the positions of SNRs in M 101 reported by Matonick & Fesen (1997) with our sources reveals no positional coincidences.

##### NGC 5457 (M 101), E

A map of the eastern region of M 101 (containing the site of SN 1951H) can be seen in Figure 9. Prominent features include emission regions from the H II regions NGC 5461 & 5462. Superposition of the radio map with H$`\alpha `$ maps found in Israel, Goss, & Allen (1975) reveals that sources $`\kappa `$, $`\eta `$, $`\varphi `$, and $`\chi `$ in NGC 5461 lie over H$`\alpha `$ emission regions. The same positional coincidence is found for $`\gamma `$, $`ϵ`$, $`\delta `$, $`\beta `$ and $`\alpha `$ in NGC 5462. All of these are probable H II regions. The positions of our sources can be compared to H II regions observed by Hodge et al. (1990). We find that $`\pi `$, $`\eta `$, $`\varphi `$, $`\gamma `$, $`ϵ`$ and $`\alpha `$ have peak positions that are within the uncertainties for the H II regions. In addition, $`\lambda `$, $`\kappa `$, $`\chi `$, $`\delta `$, $`\beta `$ and $`\theta `$ have peak positions within twice the uncertainties of a particular H II region. The Hodge et al. (1990) data indicate that these sources may be H II regions.

Both comparisons indicate that $`\kappa `$, $`\eta `$, $`\varphi `$, $`\chi `$, $`\pi `$, $`\gamma `$, $`ϵ`$, $`\delta `$, $`\beta `$ and $`\alpha `$ are all probable H II regions.

Comparison with SNRs in M 101 from Matonick & Fesen (1997) shows no SNRs coincident with positions of any of our sources in the eastern region of M 101.

##### IC 4182

There are two prominent sources ($`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$) in the west side of the radio map. Comparison with the VLA survey Faint Images of the Radio Sky and Twenty-centimeters (FIRST) \[Becker, White, & Helfand 1995\] reveals two sources in that survey with peak positions within $`2\text{.}^{\prime \prime }5`$ and $`1\text{.}^{\prime \prime }0`$ of $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$, respectively. These are very likely to be the same sources. Willis, Oosterbaan, & de Ruiter (1976) conducted a Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT) survey including IC 4182 and observe two sources whose positions are within $`3^{\prime \prime }`$ and $`11^{\prime \prime }`$ of $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$, respectively, although the peak fluxes are somewhat larger.