text:
# Polarization-squeezed light formation in a medium with electronic Kerr nonlinearity

## I Introduction

Knowledge of the quantum properties of the polarization of light is essential when treating issues concerning Einstein-Podolski-Rosen (EPR) paradox  or Bell’s inequality . The quantum analysis of the light polarization is generally based on Stokes parameters associated with Hermitian Stokes operators . We call a quantum state to be a polarization-squeezed (PS) state if it has the level of quantum fluctuations of one of the quantum Stokes parameters smaller than the level corresponding to the coherent state . Such a state can be generated by using the optical parametric amplification ($`\chi ^2`$) . Recently, effective methods of PS state formation using Kerr-like media ($`\chi ^3`$) and optical solitons in fibers have been proposed . In the Kerr medium the self-phase modulation (SPM) occurs, leading to quadrature squeezing with preservation of the photon statistics .

It was noted in  that a quantum treatment of SPM of ultrashort light pulses (USPs) must account for the additional noise related to the nonlinear absorbtion. The study of the nonlinear propagation in Raman active media  accounts for the quantum and thermal noises as a fluctuating addition to the relaxation nonlinearity in the interaction Hamiltonian. However, if we deal with USPs propagation, for instance through fused-silica fibers, the electronic motion on $`1`$ fs time scale contributes with about $`80`$% to the Kerr effect while Raman oscillators give only $`20`$% contribution . An attempt to develop the quantum theory of pulse SPM has been undertaken in , where the electronic Kerr nonlinearity is modelled as a Raman-like one. The electronic nonlinearity was considered correctly with the interaction Hamiltonian  and the momentum operator  in the normally ordered form.

If two-mode radiation with orthogonal polarization and/or different frequencies propagates through a Kerr medium, then the cross-phase modulation (XPM) and parametric interaction can also occur. The approach in  has been extended for the combined SPM–XPM of USPs in , by considering the spectra of fluctuations of quadratures. Notice that, for interacting solitons in a Kerr medium with anomalous dispersion ($`k^{^{\prime \prime }}<0`$), the XPM induces the transient photon-number correlations while SPM answers for the intrapulse ones .

The experimental realization of the polarization squeezing implies the spatial overlapping of an orthogonally polarized strong coherent beam with squeezed vacuum on a 50 : 50 beamsplitter  or the interference of two independent quadrature-squeezed USPs produced in a fiber Sagnac interferometer . The last series of experiments  involve both the temporal and spatial overlaps of two orthogonally polarized quadrature-squeezed USPs. From the theoretical point of view, the quantum fluctuations of Stokes parameters in the case of the nonlinear propagation in an isotropic Kerr medium were introduced by the study of the light polarization . The time-independent quantum treatment of two-mode interaction  predicted the possibility of forming the PS state in anisotropic Kerr media.

In this letter we report on the theoretical computation of the spectra of fluctuations of the Stokes parameters in the case of two orthogonally polarized propagating USPs in an anisotropic electronic Kerr medium. We employ simultaneously the SPM for quadrature squeezing and the XPM for the PS state formation and its control. The estimations are done in the frame of the quantum theory for SPM-XPM of USPs developed in . The response time of the electronic Kerr nonlinearity is accounted and the dispersion of linear properties is described in the first approximation of the dispersion theory. We begin with a brief description of the model introduced in  and based on the momentum operators for the pulse fields. For consistency, we present some elements of the algebra of time-dependent Bose operators. By using such algebra we get the average values, the correlation functions, and the spectra of quantum fluctuations of Stokes parameters. Our concluding remarks close the paper.

## II Quantum theory of combined SPM-XPM effect in electronic Kerr medium

The quantum theory developed in  is based on the following momentum operators:

$`\widehat{G}_{\mathrm{spm}}^{(j)}(z)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{}\beta _j{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}dt{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^t}H(tt_1)\widehat{𝐍}[\widehat{n}_j(t,z)\widehat{n}_j(t_1,z)]dt_1,`$ (1)
$`\widehat{G}_{\mathrm{xpm}}(z)`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{\beta }{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}}dt{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^t}H(tt_1)[\widehat{n}_1(t,z)\widehat{n}_2(t_1,z)+\widehat{n}_1(t_1,z)\widehat{n}_2(t,z)]dt_1,`$ (2)
where $`j`$ is the pulse number, $`\beta _j`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }`$ are nonlinear coefficients ($`\beta _j=\mathrm{}\omega _0k_0n_{2(j)}/8n_0V`$ ) ($`j=1,2`$), $`\widehat{𝐍}`$ is the normal ordering operator, $`H(t)`$ is the nonlinear response function \[$`H(t)0`$ at $`t0`$ and $`H(t)=0`$ at $`t<0`$\], $`\widehat{n}_j(t,z)=\widehat{A}_j^+(t,z)\widehat{A}_j(t,z)`$ is the “photon number density” operator in the cross-section $`z`$ of the medium, and $`\widehat{A}_j(t,z)`$ and $`\widehat{A}_j^+(t,z)`$ are the photon anihilation and creation Bose operators with the commutation relations $`[\widehat{A}_j(t_1,z),\widehat{A}_k^+(t_2,z)]=\delta _{jk}\delta (t_2t_1)`$. The thermal noise is neglected and the expressions (1) and (2) are averaged over the thermal fluctuations. We assume that the Kerr effect is produced by the electronic motion with characteristic time $`\tau _r1`$ fs. In our approach the pulse duration $`\tau _p`$ is much greater than the relaxation time $`\tau _r`$, and the Kerr medium is lossless and dispersionless; that is, the pulses frequencies are off resonance.

In general, the induced third-order polarization $`P^{(3)}`$ of the medium at the frequency $`\omega `$ is: $`P_i^{(3)}(\omega )=_j[\chi _{1122}^{(3)}E_i(\omega )E_j(\omega )E_j^{}(\omega )+\chi _{1212}^{(3)}E_j(\omega )E_i(\omega )E_j^{}(\omega )+\chi _{1221}^{(3)}E_j(\omega )E_j(\omega )E_i^{}(\omega )]`$ . Since the first two terms in $`P^{(3)}`$ involve operator products accounted in (1) and (2), the last term introduces products of the form $`\widehat{A}_1^{+^2}\widehat{A}_2^^2+\widehat{A}_2^{+^2}\widehat{A}_1^^2`$ which are neglected since they are connected with the parametrical interaction. The conditions (also assumed here) under which such terms can be neglected were discussed in , where it was noted that the parametric interaction can be neglected if $`\mathrm{\Delta }z1`$ and the phase mismatch $`\mathrm{\Delta }=2(k_2k_1)`$ is large, namely $`|\mathrm{\Delta }|>\mathrm{min}\{\stackrel{~}{\beta }|\mathrm{A}_1(0)|,\stackrel{~}{\beta }|\mathrm{A}_2(0)|\}`$. Here $`\stackrel{~}{\beta }=8\pi \omega ^2(\chi _{1122}^{(3)}+\chi _{1212}^{(3)}+\chi _{1221}^{(3)})/c^2(k_1+k_2)`$, and $`k_j=(\omega /c)n_j`$. Note that for circularly polarized modes the last term in $`P^{(3)}`$ is absent, which is valid in isotropic Kerr media where modes obey only SPM and XPM. For elliptically polarized fields the last term in $`P^{(3)}`$ induces the circular birefringence $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_c=(2\pi /n_0)2\chi _{1221}^{(3)}(|E_+(\omega )|^2|E_{}(\omega )|^2)`$ . However, for the successful experimental overlapping of the two quadrature-squeezed USPs a birefringence compensator is required . In general, $`\mathrm{\Delta }n_c`$ can be neglected when USPs propagate along some symmetry directions .

Since in our case the Kerr effect is of an electronic origin, in the absence of one- and two-photon and Raman resonances, $`H(t)`$ can be chosen as $`H(t)=(1/\tau _r)\mathrm{exp}\left(t/\tau _r\right)`$ at $`t0`$ . Then with (1) and (2) the space-evolution equation for $`\widehat{A}_1(t,z)`$ in the moving coordinate system ($`z=z^{^{}}`$, $`t=t^{^{}}z/u`$, where $`t^{^{}}`$ is the running time and $`u`$ is the group velocity),

$$\frac{\widehat{A}_1(t,z)}{z}[\widehat{O}_1(t)+\widehat{\stackrel{~}{O}}_2(t)]\widehat{A}_1(t,z)=0,$$
(3)
has the solution given by

$$\widehat{A}_1(t,z)=e^{\widehat{O}_1(t)+\widehat{\stackrel{~}{O}}_2(t)}\widehat{A}_{0,1}(t).$$
(4)
Here $`\widehat{O}_j(t)=i\gamma _jq[\widehat{n}_{0,j}(t)]`$, $`\widehat{\stackrel{~}{O}}_j(t)=i\stackrel{~}{\gamma }q[\widehat{n}_{0,j}(t)]`$, $`\gamma _j=\beta _jz`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }=\stackrel{~}{\beta }z`$, $`\widehat{n}_{0,j}(t)=\widehat{A}_{0,j}^+(t)\widehat{A}_{0,j}(t)`$ is the “photon number density” operator at the entrance into the medium $`z=0`$, and $`q[\widehat{n}_{0,j}(t)]=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}h(t_1)\widehat{n}_{0,j}(tt_1)𝑑t_1`$, where $`h(t)=H(|t|)`$. $`\widehat{A}_2(t,z)`$ can be derived by changing the indexes $`12`$ in (4). In comparison with the so-called nonlinear Schrödinger equation, used in the quantum theory of optical solitons (see  and refs. therein), in (3) the pulse dispersion spreading in the medium is absent. This approach corresponds to the first approximation of the dispersion theory . Note that the structure of $`q[\widehat{n}_{0,j}(t)]`$ is like that of the linear response in the quantum description of a USP spreading in the second-order approximation.

The statistical features of pulses at the output of the medium can be evaluated by using the algebra of time-dependent Bose operators . In such algebra we have

$`\widehat{A}_{0,j}(t_1)e^{\widehat{O}_j(t_2)}=e^{\widehat{O}_j(t_2)+𝒟_j(t_2t_1)}\widehat{A}_{0,j}(t_1),\widehat{A}_{0,j}(t_1)e^{\widehat{\stackrel{~}{O}}_j(t_2)}=e^{\widehat{\stackrel{~}{O}}_j(t_2)+\stackrel{~}{𝒟}(t_2t_1)}\widehat{A}_{0,j}(t_1),`$ (5)
where $`𝒟_j(t_2t_1)=i\gamma _jh(t_2t_1)`$, $`\stackrel{~}{𝒟}(t_2t_1)=i\stackrel{~}{\gamma }h(t_2t_1)`$, $`2\gamma _j`$ is the nonlinear phase shift per photon for the $`j`$-th pulse, and $`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }`$ is the nonlinear coupling coefficient. By using the theorem of normal ordering , one obtains the average values of the Bose operators over the initial coherent summary state $`|\alpha _0(t)=|\alpha _{0,1}(t)|\alpha _{0,2}(t)`$:

$`e^{\widehat{O}_j(t)}`$ $`=`$ $`e^{i\varphi _j(t)\mu _j(t)},e^{\widehat{\stackrel{~}{O}}_j(t)}=e^{i\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_j(t)\stackrel{~}{\mu }_j(t)},`$ (6)
$`e^{\widehat{O}_j(t_1)+\widehat{O}_j(t_2)}`$ $`=`$ $`e^{i[\varphi _j(t_1)+\varphi _j(t_2)][\mu _j(t_1)+\mu _j(t_2)]𝒦_j(t_1,t_2)},`$ (7)
$`e^{\widehat{\stackrel{~}{O}}_j(t_1)+\widehat{\stackrel{~}{O}}_j(t_2)}`$ $`=`$ $`e^{i[\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_j(t_1)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_j(t_2)][\stackrel{~}{\mu }_j(t_1)+\stackrel{~}{\mu }_j(t_2)]\stackrel{~}{𝒦}_j(t_1,t_2)}.`$ (8)
The parameters $`\varphi _j(t)=2\gamma _j\overline{n}_{0,j}(t)`$, $`\mu _j(t)=\gamma _j^2\overline{n}_{0,j}(t)/2`$ are connected with SPM of the $`j`$-th pulse and $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_j(t)=2\stackrel{~}{\gamma }\overline{n}_{0,j}(t)`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_j(t)=\stackrel{~}{\gamma }^2\overline{n}_{0,j}(t)/2`$ with the pulses’ XPM. Here $`\varphi _j(t)`$ ($`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_j(t)`$) is the nonlinear phase addition caused by SPM (XPM). The eigenvalue $`\alpha _{0,j}(t)`$ of the annihilation operator $`\widehat{A}_{0,j}(t)`$ over the coherent state $`|\alpha _{0,j}(t)`$ can be written as $`\alpha _{0,j}(t)=|\alpha _{0,j}(t)|e^{i\phi _j(t)}`$, where $`\phi _j(t)`$ is the linear phase of the $`j`$-th pulse. Then $`|\alpha _{0,j}(t)|^2=\widehat{n}_{0,j}(t)\overline{n}_{0,j}(t)`$. For simplicity let $`\overline{n}_{0,j}(t=0)\overline{n}_{0,j}`$. We separate the time dependence in $`|\alpha _{0,j}(t)|`$ by introducing the pulse’s envelope $`r_j(t)`$ so that $`|\alpha _{0,j}(t)|=|\alpha _{0,j}(0)|r_j(t)`$ with $`r_j(0)=1`$. In (7)-(8), $`𝒦_j(t_1,t_2)=\mu _{0,j}r_j^2(t_1+\tau /2)g(\tau )`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{𝒦}_j(t_1,t_2)=\stackrel{~}{\mu }_{0,j}r_j^2(t_1+\tau /2)g(\tau )`$ are the temporal correlators, where $`\mu _{0,j}=\gamma _j\overline{n}_{0,j}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\mu }_{0,j}=\stackrel{~}{\gamma }\overline{n}_{0,j}`$, $`g(\tau )=(1+|\tau |/\tau _r)h(\tau )`$, and $`\tau =t_2t_1`$.

## III Quantum Stokes parameters and their average values, polarization degree

In classical optics the polarization state is visualized as a Stokes vector on the Poincaré sphere and is characterized by the four classical Stokes parameters $`\{S_k\}_{k=0,3}`$. Since $`S_0`$ defines the total intensity of pulse field, $`\{S_k\}_{k=1,3}`$ characterize light polarization and form a Cartesian axis system. Each point on the sphere corresponds to a definite polarization state, whose variation is characterized by the motion of the point on the sphere. In quantum optics, $`\{S_k\}_{k=0,3}`$ are replaced by the operators $`\{\widehat{S}_k\}_{k=0,3}`$ which obey: $`[\widehat{S}_0,\widehat{S}_i]=0`$, $`[\widehat{S}_i,\widehat{S}_j]=2i\epsilon _{ijk}\widehat{S}_k`$. We define the quantum Stokes parameters as: $`\widehat{S}_0(t,z)=_{j=1}^2\widehat{n}_j(t,z)`$, $`\widehat{S}_1(t,z)=\widehat{n}_1(t,z)\widehat{n}_2(t,z)`$,

$`\widehat{S}_2(t,z)`$ $`=`$ $`\widehat{A}_2^+(t,z)\widehat{A}_1(t,z)+\widehat{A}_1^+(t,z)\widehat{A}_2(t,z),`$ (9)
$`\widehat{S}_3(t,z)`$ $`=`$ $`i[\widehat{A}_2^+(t,z)\widehat{A}_1(t,z)\widehat{A}_1^+(t,z)\widehat{A}_2(t,z)],`$ (10)
where in our case $`\widehat{A}_j(t,z)`$ is given by (4) and $`\widehat{A}_j^+(t,z)`$ is its Hermitian conjugate. By using Eqs. (5)-(6) we compute the average values of $`\{\widehat{S}_k(t,z)\}_{k=0,3}`$ on the coherent summary state $`|\alpha _0(t)`$. Finally, we get: $`\widehat{S}_0(t,z)=_{j=1}^2\overline{n}_{0,j}(t)`$, $`\widehat{S}_1(t,z)=\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)`$, and

$`\widehat{S}_2(t,z)`$ $`=`$ $`2[\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)]^{1/2}e^{[\mathrm{\Delta }_1(t)+\mathrm{\Delta }_2(t)]}\mathrm{cos}[\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_2(t)\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1(t)],`$ (11)
$`\widehat{S}_3(t,z)`$ $`=`$ $`2[\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)]^{1/2}e^{[\mathrm{\Delta }_1(t)+\mathrm{\Delta }_2(t)]}\mathrm{sin}[\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_2(t)\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1(t)],`$ (12)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_j(t)=\mu _j(t)+\stackrel{~}{\mu }_j(t)`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_j(t)=\varphi _j(t)\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_j(t)+\phi _j(t)`$. By measurements, one obtains a set of measurable quantities associated with the operators (9) and (10). However, the presence of quantum fluctuations results in an uncertainty for the measured quantities. The fluctuation uncertainty of each $`\widehat{S}_k(t,z)`$ can be associated with a particular region of uncertainty on the Poincaré sphere. In the case of the nonlinear propagation, the ball-region of uncertainty, specifically for the coherent state of light, changes to the ellipsoid of uncertainty .

In classical optics the polarization degree $`𝒫`$ is the ratio of the intensity of the polarized part of the radiation $`I_{\text{pol}}`$ to the total intensity $`I_{\text{tot}}`$, and is connected with the classical Stokes parameters by $`𝒫=/S_0`$, where $``$ is the radius of the classical Poincaré sphere, $`^2=_{k=1}^3S_k^2`$. Since for completely polarized light $`𝒫=1`$, for partially polarized light $`0<𝒫<1`$. The definition of the quantum polarization degree follows the classical one: $`𝒫(t,z)=(t,z)/\widehat{S}_0(t,z)`$, where $`^2(t,z)=_{k=1}^3\widehat{S}_k(t,z)^2`$. With the expressions (11)-(12) we have

$$𝒫(t,z)=\{14\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)[\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)+\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)]^2(1e^{2[\mathrm{\Delta }_1(t)+\mathrm{\Delta }_2(t)]})\}^{1/2}.$$
(13)
Since in real-life situations $`\mathrm{\Delta }_1(t)+\mathrm{\Delta }_2(t)1`$, we have $`𝒫(t,z)1`$. Indeed, a recent study  investigated the nonlinear behavior of $`𝒫(t,z)`$ for the nonclassical states of light and revealed that the deviation of $`𝒫(t,z)`$ from $`1`$ is a pure quantum effect. Note that the results (11)-(13) are similar to the ones obtained in .

## IV Correlation functions and spectra of quantum Stokes parameters

Since the Kerr medium is assumed to be lossless and dispersionless, the operators $`\widehat{S}_0(t,z)`$ and $`\widehat{S}_1(t,z)`$, as well as their dispersions, are conserved. Therefore, we focus our attention to the quantum fluctuations of $`\widehat{S}_2(t,z)`$ and $`\widehat{S}_3(t,z)`$ by defining their correlation functions as

$`R_{S_k}(t_1,t_2)=\widehat{S}_k(t_1,z)\widehat{S}_k(t_2,z)\widehat{S}_k(t_1,z)\widehat{S}_k(t_2,z)(k=2,3).`$ (14)
The correlation functions (14) can be analytically computed by using Eqs. (5) and (7)-(8). Here we simply write down the result for $`R_{S_2}(t,t+\tau )`$ in the approximation $`\gamma _j,\stackrel{~}{\gamma }1`$:

$`R_{S_2}(t,t+\tau )`$ $`=`$ $`\delta (\tau )+h(\tau )[\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)\varphi _2(t)\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)\varphi _1(t)]\mathrm{sin}2[\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1(t)\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_2(t)]`$ (15)
$`+`$ $`g(\tau )\{\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)[\varphi _2^2(t)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_2^2(t)]+\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)[\varphi _1^2(t)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_1^2(t)]\}\mathrm{sin}^2[\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1(t)\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_2(t)],`$ (16)
where for simplicity we denote $`t_1=t`$, $`t_2=t+\tau `$. In the absence of SPM \[$`\varphi _j(t)=0`$\] and XPM \[$`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_j(t)=0`$\] of pulses, Eq. (16) gives us the correlation function for the coherent state $`R_{S_2}^{coh}(t,t+\tau )=\delta (\tau )`$, as expected. The spectral densities of quantum fluctuations of $`\widehat{S}_k(t,z)`$ can be evaluated by using Wiener-Khintchine theorem: $`S_{S_k}(\omega ,t)=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}R_{S_k}(t,t+\tau )e^{i\omega \tau }𝑑\tau `$. Allowing for a small change of the envelope during the relaxation time we obtain

$`S_{S_2}(\mathrm{\Omega },t)`$ $`=`$ $`1+2L(\mathrm{\Omega })[\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)\varphi _2(t)\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)\varphi _1(t)]\mathrm{sin}2[\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1(t)\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_2(t)]`$ (17)
$`+`$ $`4L^2(\mathrm{\Omega })\{\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)[\varphi _2^2(t)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_2^2(t)]+\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)[\varphi _1^2(t)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_1^2(t)]\}\mathrm{sin}^2[\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_1(t)\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Phi }}_2(t)],`$ (18)
where $`L(\mathrm{\Omega })=1/(1+\mathrm{\Omega }^2)`$, and $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\omega \tau _r`$ is the reduced frequency. The spectral density (18) depends on the relaxation time $`\tau _r`$ and quasi-statically changes with time. Besides, the second term on r.h.s. of Eq. (18) indicates that the quantum fluctuations of $`\widehat{S}_2(t,z)`$ can be less than those corresponding to the coherent state $`S_{S_2}^{coh}(\mathrm{\Omega },t)=1`$. The correlation function of $`\widehat{S}_3(t,z)`$, as well as its spectrum, can be easily obtained by shifting (16) and (18) in phase with $`\pi /2`$.

For an arbitrary $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=\omega _0\tau _r`$, at which the linear phase difference between incoming pulses

$`\mathrm{\Delta }\phi (t)_{\mathrm{opt}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\mathrm{arctan}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)\varphi _2(t)\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)\varphi _1(t)}{L(\mathrm{\Omega }_0)\{\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)[\varphi _2^2(t)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_2^2(t)]+\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)[\varphi _1^2(t)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_1^2(t)]\}}}\right)`$ (20)
$`+\varphi _1(t)\varphi _2(t)\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_1(t)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_2(t),`$
is optimized, the expression (18) reaches the minimum value:

$`S_{S_2}(\mathrm{\Omega }_0,t)`$ $`=`$ $`1+2L^2(\mathrm{\Omega }_0)\{\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)[\varphi _2^2(t)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_2^2(t)]+\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)[\varphi _1^2(t)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_1^2(t)]\}`$ (23)
$`2L(\mathrm{\Omega }_0)([\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)\varphi _2(t)\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)\varphi _1(t)]^2`$
$`+L^2(\mathrm{\Omega }_0)\{\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)[\varphi _2^2(t)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_2^2(t)]+\overline{n}_{0,2}(t)[\varphi _1^2(t)+\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_1^2(t)]\}^2)^{1/2}.`$
To characterize the deviation of $`S_{S_2}(\mathrm{\Omega },t)`$ from the coherent level, we define the normalized spectral variance $`S_{S_2}^{}(\mathrm{\Omega },t)=[S_{S_2}(\mathrm{\Omega },t)1]/\overline{n}_{0,1}(t)`$. In the case of the suppression of quantum fluctuations $`1S_{S_2}^{}(\mathrm{\Omega },t)<0`$. Let us investigate the $`S_{S_2}^{}(\mathrm{\Omega },t)`$ by choosing the linear phase difference between pulses to be optimal at a defined reduced frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$, and change the intensity of one pulse (the control pulse) in comparison with the intensity of the other one. Such dependence of $`S_{S_2}^{}(\mathrm{\Omega },t)`$ at $`t=0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }=0`$ on the maximum nonlinear phase addition $`\varphi _{0,1}\varphi _1(t=0)`$ in case the linear phase difference is optimal at $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=1`$, is displayed in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively.

Thus, at $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0`$ the increase of the control pulse intensity produces a uniform suppression of quantum fluctuation of $`\widehat{S}_2(t,z)`$ for any $`\varphi _{0,1}>1`$. At $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=1`$ the increase of the control pulse intensity produces the suppression basically in the domain $`\varphi _{0,1}<1`$. The normalized spectral variance $`S_{S_2}^{}(\mathrm{\Omega },t)`$ at $`t=0`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0`$, and fixed $`\varphi _{0,1}=2`$, is presented in Fig. 3.

Now the suppression in $`\widehat{S}_2(t,z)`$ is maximal at $`\mathrm{\Omega }0`$. Summarizing, the choice of the linear phase difference allows us to obtain the spectra with the form of interest, and the increase of the control pulse intensity can effectively control the suppression of quantum fluctuations of quantum Stokes parameters.

One can also control the suppression of quantum fluctuations of $`\widehat{S}_2(t,z)`$ by increasing the nonlinear coefficient $`\gamma _2`$ in comparison with $`\gamma _1`$. This is equivalent to the increase of the Kerr electronic nonlinearity for one pulse $`n_{2(2)}`$ in comparison with the one for another pulse $`n_{2(1)}`$ ($`\gamma _j=\beta _jz`$). The variance $`S_{S_2}^{}(\mathrm{\Omega },t)`$ at $`t=0`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=0`$ for various relations between nonlinear coefficients $`\gamma _1`$ and $`\gamma _2`$ is displayed in Fig. 4 in the simplest case of pulses with the same intensity.

In this case, the increase of $`\gamma _2`$ in comparison with $`\gamma _1`$ suppresses the quantum fluctuations of $`\widehat{S}_2(t,z)`$ basically at low frequencies, $`\mathrm{\Omega }0`$ . A similar dependence, but at $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=1`$, is shown in Fig. 5.

Now, the squeezing takes place essentially at $`\mathrm{\Omega }1`$ ($`\omega 1/\tau _r`$).

Note the experimentally obtained squeezing of $`2.8`$ dB in $`\widehat{S}_2`$ reported in . The calculations in  use quantum noise operators and do not account for the finite relaxation time of the Kerr nonlinearity. However, the relaxation time, which was accounted here, is of a fundamental importance since it determines the level of quantum fluctuations of Stokes operators below the level corresponding to the coherent state \[see Eq. (18)\]. Besides, we indicated the optimal strategy for the successful generation of the PS state in the electronic Kerr medium.

## V Conclusion

We investigated the formation of polarization-squeezed light in a nonlinear medium with electronic Kerr nonlinearity. The correlation functions and corresponding spectra of quantum Stokes parameters $`\widehat{S}_2`$ and $`\widehat{S}_3`$ were considered. We shown that, by adjusting the linear phase difference between pulses, the maximum suppression of the quantum fluctuations of $`\widehat{S}_2`$ or $`\widehat{S}_3`$ can be realized at the spectral component of interest. It is established that the increase of the intensity of the control pulse can be employed to suppress the quantum fluctuations of $`\widehat{S}_2`$. We find that the increase of one nonlinear coefficient ($`\gamma _2`$) in comparison with another one ($`\gamma _1`$) produces a substantial suppression of quantum fluctuations of $`\widehat{S}_2`$.


format: text

text:
# Dynamical Behavior of dilaton in de Sitter space

## I introduction

Recently an accelerating universe has proposed to be a way to interpret the astronomical data of supernova. The inflation is employed to solve the cosmological flatness and horizon puzzles arisen in the standard cosmology. Combining this observation with the need of inflation leads to that our universe approaches de Sitter geometries in both the infinite past and the infinite future. Hence it is very important to study the nature of de Sitter (dS) space and the dS/CFT correspondence. However, there exist difficulties in studying de Sitter space. First there is no spatial infinity and global timelike Killing vector. Thus it is not easy to define the conserved quantities including mass, charge and angular momentum appeared in asymptotically de Sitter space. Second the dS solution is absent from string theories and thus we do not have a definite example to test the dS/CFT correspondence. Finally it is hard to define the $`S`$-matrix because of the presence of the cosmological horizon.

Accordingly most of works on de Sitter space were concentrated on the massive scalar propagation and its quantization. Also the bulk-boundary relation for the scalar was introduced to study the dS/CFT correspondence. Hence it is important to find a model which can accommodate the de Sitter space solution. In this work we introduce an interesting model which is motivated from the low-energy string action in (2+1)-dimensions. This model includes a nontrivial scalar so-called the dilaton***Previously we are interested in anti de Sitter black hole like the BTZ black hole. In the BTZ black hole and the three-dimensional black string, the role of the dilaton was discussed in ref.. . Actually we will use the dilaton to investigate the nature of the cosmological horizon in de Sitter space.

It is known that the cosmological horizon is very similar to the event horizon in the sense that one can define its thermodynamic quantities using the same way as is done for the black hole. Two important quantities to understand the black hole are the Bekenstein-Hawking entropy and the absorption cross section (greybody factor). The former specifies intrinsic property of the black hole itself, while the latter relates to the effect of spacetime curvature surrounding the black hole. We emphasized here the greybody factor for the black hole arises as a consequence of scattering off the gravitational potential surrounding the event horizon. For example, the low-energy $`s`$-wave greybody factor for a massless scalar has a universality such that it is equal to the area of the horizon for all spherically symmetric black holes. This can be obtained by solving the wave equation explicitly. The entropy for the cosmological horizon was first discussed in literature. However, there exist a few of the wave equation approaches to find the greybody factor for the cosmological horizon. A similar work for the four-dimensional Schwarzschild-de Sitter black hole appeared in but it focused mainly on obtaining the temperature of the eternal black hole. Also the absorption rate for the four-dimensional Kerr-de Sitter black hole was discussed in.

In this paper we compute the absorption cross section of the dilaton in the background of three-dimensional de Sitter (dS3) space with the cosmological horizon. For this purpose we first confine the wave equation only to the southern diamond where the time evolution of waves is properly defined even if this area does not include spatial infinity. And then we solve the wave equation to find the greybody factor in the low-energy and low-temperature limits.

The organization of this paper is as follows. In section II we briefly review our model inspired from the low-energy string action and its Kerr-de Sitter solution. We introduce the perturbation to study the cosmological horizon in the background of Kerr-de Sitter space in section III. In section IV we perform the potential analysis to check whether the de Sitter solution is or not stable. In section V we calculate the absorption cross section for $`j=1,2`$-angular modes of the dilaton explicitly. Finally we discuss our results in section VI.

## II Kerr-de Sitter solution

We start with the low-energy string action in string frame

$$S_{ls}=d^3x\sqrt{g}e^\mathrm{\Phi }\left\{R+(\mathrm{\Phi })^2+\frac{8}{k}\frac{1}{12}H^2\right\},$$
(1)
where $`\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is the dilaton, $`H_{\mu \nu \rho }=3_{[\mu }B_{\nu \rho ]}`$ is the Kalb-Ramond field, and $`k`$ the cosmological constant. This action was widely used for studying the BTZ black hole and the black string. Although $`k`$ was originally proposed to be positive, here we assume to extend it to be negative for our purpose. The equations of motion lead to

$`R_{\mu \nu }_\mu _\nu \mathrm{\Phi }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}H_{\mu \rho \sigma }H_\nu ^{\rho \sigma }`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (2)
$`^2\mathrm{\Phi }+(\mathrm{\Phi })^2{\displaystyle \frac{8}{k}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}H^2`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (3)
$`_\mu H^{\mu \nu \rho }+(_\mu \mathrm{\Phi })H^{\mu \nu \rho }`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (4)
The Kerr-de Sitter solution to Eqs.(2)-(4) is found to be

$`\overline{H}_{txr}=i{\displaystyle \frac{2r}{\mathrm{}}},\overline{\mathrm{\Phi }}=0,k=2\mathrm{}^2,`$ (5)
$`\overline{g}_{\mu \nu }=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}(Mr^2/\mathrm{}^2)& J/2& 0\\ J/2& r^2& 0\\ 0& 0& f^2\end{array}\right)`$ (9)
with the metric function $`f^2=Mr^2/\mathrm{}^2+J^2/4r^2`$. The above Kerr-de Sitter solution is obtained from the BTZ black hole  by replacing both $`M`$ and $`\mathrm{}^2`$ by $`M`$ and $`\mathrm{}^2`$. The metric $`\overline{g}_{\mu \nu }`$ is singular at $`r=r_\pm `$,

$$r_\pm ^2=\frac{M\mathrm{}^2}{2}\left\{1\pm \left[1+\left(\frac{J}{M\mathrm{}}\right)^2\right]^{1/2}\right\}$$
(10)
with $`M=(r_+^2+r_{}^2)/\mathrm{}^2=(r_+^2r_{()}^2)`$ and $`J=2r_+r_{()}/\mathrm{}`$. For convenience we introduce $`r_{()}^2r_{}^2>0`$ due to $`r_{}^2<0`$ in Kerr-de Sitter space. We note that in (2+1)-dimensions, there is no black hole horizon for Kerr-de Sitter space because the black hole degenerates to a conical singularity at the origin $`r=0`$. This singularity gives rise to some difficulties to analyze the wave equation in the southern diamond of Kerr-de Sitter space. In this work we consider the cosmological horizon $`r_c=r_+`$ with interest. For convenience, we list the Hawking temperature $`T_c`$, the area of the cosmological horizon $`𝒜_c`$, and the angular velocity at the horizon $`\mathrm{\Omega }_c`$ as

$$T_c=(r_+^2+r_{()}^2)/2\pi \mathrm{}^2r_+,𝒜_c=2\pi r_+,\mathrm{\Omega }_c=J/2r_+^2.$$
(11)
For $`J=0`$ case, one finds de Sitter solution which gives us with $`r_+=\mathrm{}`$ and $`r_{}=0`$

$$M=1,J=0,T_c=1/2\pi \mathrm{},𝒜_c=2\pi \mathrm{},\mathrm{\Omega }_c=0.$$
(12)
## III  Perturbation around Kerr-de Sitter solution

To study the propagation of all fields in Kerr-de Sitter space specifically, we introduce the small perturbation fields

$$H_{t\varphi r}=\overline{H}_{t\varphi r}+_{t\varphi r},\mathrm{\Phi }=0+\phi ,g_{\mu \nu }=\overline{g}_{\mu \nu }+h_{\mu \nu }$$
(13)
around the background solution of Eq.(9). For convenience, we introduce the notation $`\widehat{h}_{\mu \nu }=h_{\mu \nu }\overline{g}_{\mu \nu }h/2`$ with $`h=h_\rho ^\rho `$. And then one needs to linearize Eqs.(2)-(4) to obtain

$`\delta R_{\mu \nu }(h)\overline{}_\mu \overline{}_\nu \phi {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\overline{H}_{\mu \rho \sigma }_\nu ^{\rho \sigma }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\overline{H}_{\mu \rho \sigma }\overline{H}_{\nu \alpha }^\sigma h^{\rho \alpha }`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (14)
$`\overline{}^2\phi {\displaystyle \frac{1}{6}}\left\{2\overline{H}_{\mu \rho \sigma }^{\mu \rho \sigma }3\overline{H}_{\mu \rho \sigma }\overline{H}^{\alpha \rho \sigma }h_\alpha ^\mu \right\}`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (15)
$`\overline{}_\mu ^{\mu \nu \rho }(\overline{}_\mu h_\beta ^\nu )\overline{H}^{\mu \beta \rho }+(\overline{}_\mu h_\beta ^\rho )\overline{H}^{\mu \beta \nu }(\overline{}_\mu \widehat{h}_\alpha ^\mu )\overline{H}^{\alpha \nu \rho }+(_\mu \phi )\overline{H}^{\mu \nu \rho }`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (16)
where the Lichnerowicz operator $`\delta R_{\mu \nu }(h)`$ is given by

$`\delta R_{\mu \nu }={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\overline{}^2h_{\mu \nu }+\overline{R}_{\sigma (\nu }h_{\mu )}^\sigma \overline{R}_{\sigma \mu \rho \nu }h^{\sigma \rho }+\overline{}_{(\nu }\overline{}_{|\rho |}\widehat{h}_{\mu )}^\rho .`$ (17)
These are the bare perturbation equations. It is desirable to examine whether we make a choice of perturbation and gauge which can simplify Eqs.(14)-(16) significantly. For this purpose we wish to count the physical degrees of freedom. A symmetric traceless tensor has D(D+1)/2–1 in D-dimensions. D of them are eliminated by the gauge condition. Also D–1 are eliminated from our freedom to take further residual gauge transformations. Thus gravitational degrees of freedom are D(D+1)/2–1–D–(D–1)=D(D–3)/2. In three dimensions we have no propagating degrees of freedom for $`h_{\mu \nu }`$. Also two-form $`B_{\mu \nu }`$ has no physical degrees of freedom for D=3. Hence the physical degree of freedom in the Kerr-de Sitter solution is just the dilaton $`\phi `$.

Considering the $`t`$ and $`\varphi `$-symmetries of the background spacetime Eq.(9), we can decompose $`h_{\mu \nu }`$ into frequency ($`\omega `$) and angular ($`j=0,1,2,\mathrm{}`$) modes in these variables

$$h_{\mu \nu }(t,\varphi ,r)=e^{i\omega t}e^{ij\varphi }H_{\mu \nu }(r).$$
(18)
For simplicity, one chooses the same perturbation as in Eq.(18) for Kalb-Ramond field and dilaton as

$`_{t\varphi r}(t,\varphi ,r)`$ $`=\overline{H}_{t\varphi r}(t,\varphi ,r)=\overline{H}_{t\varphi r}e^{i\omega t}e^{ij\varphi }\stackrel{~}{}(r),`$ (19)
$`\phi (t,\varphi ,r)`$ $`=e^{i\omega t}e^{ij\varphi }\stackrel{~}{\phi }(r).`$ (20)
Since the dilaton is only a propagating mode, we are interested in the dilaton equation (15). Note that Eq.(14) is irrelevant to our analysis, because it belongs to the redundant relation. Eq.(15) can be rewritten as

$`\overline{}^2\phi +{\displaystyle \frac{4}{l^2}}(h2)=0.`$ (21)
If we start with full six degrees of freedom of Eq.(18), we should choose a gauge. Conventionally, we choose the harmonic gauge ($`\overline{}_\mu \widehat{h}^{\mu \rho }=0`$) to describe the propagation of gravitons in D$`>`$3 dimensions. It turns out that a mixing between the dilaton and other fields of $`h,`$ is not disentangled completely with the harmonic gauge condition. Here we focus on the propagation of the dilaton $`\phi `$. Fortunately if we introduce the dilaton gauge ($`\overline{}_\mu \widehat{h}^{\mu \rho }=h^{\mu \nu }\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\mu \nu }^\rho `$), this difficulty may be resolved. Actually this gauge was designed for the dilaton propagation. We attempt to disentangle the last term in Eq.(21) by using both the dilaton gauge and Kalb-Ramond equation (16). Each component ($`\rho =t,\varphi ,r`$) of the dilaton gauge condition gives rise to

$`t`$ $`:`$ $`(_r+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}})h^{tr}i\omega h^{tt}+ijh^{t\varphi }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}i\omega h\overline{g}^{tt}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}ijh\overline{g}^{t\varphi }=0,`$ (22)
$`\varphi `$ $`:`$ $`(_r+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}})h^{\varphi r}i\omega h^{\varphi t}+ijh^{\varphi \varphi }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}i\omega h\overline{g}^{\varphi t}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}ijh\overline{g}^{\varphi \varphi }=0,`$ (23)
$`r`$ $`:`$ $`(_r+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}})h^{rr}i\omega h^{rt}+ijh^{r\varphi }{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(_rh)\overline{g}^{rr}=0.`$ (24)
And each component ($`\nu ,\rho `$) of the Kalb-Ramond equation (16) leads to

$`t\varphi :`$ $`_r(\phi +h_t^th_\varphi ^\varphi )+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{rf^2}}\left(M+{\displaystyle \frac{3r^2}{\mathrm{}^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{J^2}{4r^2}}\right)h_r^r+i\omega h_r^tijh_r^\varphi =0,`$ (25)
$`tr:`$ $`ij(\phi +h_t^th_r^r){\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}h_\varphi ^r+2f^2h_r^\varphi _rh_\varphi ^r+i\omega h_\varphi ^t=0,`$ (26)
$`\varphi r:`$ $`i\omega (\phi +h_\varphi ^\varphi h_r^r)+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}h_t^r{\displaystyle \frac{2rf^2}{\mathrm{}^2}}h_r^t+_rh_t^r+ijh_t^\varphi =0.`$ (27)
Solving six equations (22)-(27), one finds an important constraint

$$_\mu (2\varphi +2h)=0,\mu =t,\varphi ,r$$
(28)
which leads to $`h2=2\phi `$. This means that $`h`$ and $``$ belong to the redundant field if one chooses the perturbations along Eqs.(18)-(20). It confirms that our counting for degrees of freedom is correct. We note that the harmonic gauge with the Kalb-Ramond equation (16) leads to the same constraint as in Eq.(28). As a result, Eq.(21) becomes a decoupled dilaton equation

$$\overline{}^2\phi +\frac{8}{\mathrm{}^2}\phi =0$$
(29)
which can be rewritten explicitly as

$`\left[f^2_r^2+\left\{{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}(_rrf^2)\right\}_r{\displaystyle \frac{Jj\omega }{r^2f^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\omega ^2}{f^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{(M+r^2/\mathrm{}^2)}{r^2f^2}}j^2\right]\stackrel{~}{\phi }+{\displaystyle \frac{8}{l^2}}\stackrel{~}{\phi }=0,`$ (30)
It is noted that if the last term is absent, Eq.(30) corresponds to the wave equation of a free scalar in Kerr-de Sitter space. Comparing this dilaton equation with the massive scalar equation

$$\overline{}^2\varphi _mm^2\varphi _m=0,$$
(31)
it seems that the dilaton propagates on Kerr-de Sitter space with the tachyonic mass $`m_\phi ^2=8/\mathrm{}^2`$. However, this observation is not the whole of story in de Sitter space.

## IV stability analysis for de Sitter space

It is not easy to solve the wave equation Eq.(30) of the dilaton on the southern diamond including the cosmological horizon ($`r=r_c`$) and the origin ($`r=0`$). The main difficulty comes from the fact that the black hole horizon degenerates to give a conical singularity at $`r=0`$. In other words, the Kerr-de Sitter solution represents a spinning point mass $`M`$ in de Sitter space. This makes it hard to express the solution to the wave equation on the southern diamond in terms of the hypergeometric function. Then we cannot calculate the dilaton absorption cross section to test the cosmological horizon. Hence, hereafter, we confine ourselves to the pure de Sitter solution with $`J=0`$. Then the origin is just that of the coordinate and thus there is nothing to worry about singularity on the southern diamond. Even though we give up the Kerr-de Sitter background, we can study the nature of de Sitter space using the dilaton.

Eq.(30) reduces to the differential equation for $`r`$

$$(1r^2)\stackrel{~}{\phi }^{\prime \prime }(r)+(\frac{1}{r}3r)\stackrel{~}{\phi }^{}(r)+\left(\frac{\omega ^2}{1r^2}\frac{j^2}{r^2}m_\phi ^2\right)\stackrel{~}{\phi }(r)=0,m_\phi ^2=8$$
(32)
where the prime () denotes the differentiation with respect to its argument and for simplicity we take $`\mathrm{}`$ to be 1. The original equation from (30) with $`J=0,\mathrm{}1`$ takes the same form as in Eq.(32) if $`r/\mathrm{}\stackrel{~}{r},\omega \mathrm{}\omega ,m_\phi \mathrm{}m_\phi `$. This information will be used for obtaining the absorption cross section in section V. From Eq.(32) it is obscure to know how the dilaton wave propagates in the southern diamond. In order to show it clearly, we must transform the wave equation into the Schrödinger-like equation by introducing a tortoise coordinate $`r^{}`$. Then we can get information through the potential analysis. We introduce $`r^{}=g(r)`$ with $`g^{}(r)=1/r(1r^2)`$ to transform Eq.(32) into the Schrödinger-like equation with the energy $`E=\omega ^2`$

$$\frac{d^2}{dr^2}\phi +V_\phi (r)\stackrel{~}{\phi }=E\stackrel{~}{\phi }$$
(33)
with the potential

$$V_\phi (r)=\omega ^2+r^2(1r^2)\left[m_\phi ^2+\frac{j^2}{r^2}\frac{\omega ^2}{1r^2}\right].$$
(34)
Considering $`r^{}=g(r)=g^{}(r)𝑑r`$, one finds

$$r^{}=\mathrm{ln}r\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{ln}(1r^2),e^{2r^{}}=\frac{r^2}{1r^2},r^2=\frac{e^{2r^{}}}{1+e^{2r^{}}}.$$
(35)
Here we confirm that $`r^{}`$ is a tortoise coordinate such that $`r^{}\mathrm{}(r0)`$, whereas $`r^{}\mathrm{}(r1)`$. Let us express the potential as a function of $`r^{}`$

$$V_\phi (r^{})=\omega ^2+\frac{e^{2r^{}}}{(1+e^{2r^{}})^2}\left[m_\phi ^2+\frac{1+e^{2r^{}}}{e^{2r^{}}}j^2(1+e^{2r^{}})\omega ^2\right].$$
(36)
First of all we mention that this potential is the energy-dependent potential. Let us consider the low-energy limit of $`\omega ^21`$. For $`m_\phi ^2=8,j=0,\omega =0.1`$, the shape of this takes a potential well near $`r^{}=0`$. Due to the potential well, this potential induces an exponentially large dilaton which is obviously contradicted to the genuine small value of the perturbation. Hence the $`j=0(s)`$-mode of the dilaton seems to be unstable. Naively speaking, this means that the cosmological horizon in our model does not truly exist. However we have some ambiguity to define this $`s`$-mode in de Sitter space. Hence it is not clear from $`s`$-mode analysis that the cosmological horizon is unstable.

For $`j0`$-modes with the low-energy of $`\omega ^21`$, one finds that $`V_\phi (r^{}=0)=8+j^2/2+\omega ^2/2`$. Hence for $`j=1,2,3`$-modes one finds the potential wells, which confirm that the cosmological horizon is unstable. For $`j4`$-modes the potential well disappears. In addition one finds the potential step with its height $`\omega ^2+j^2`$ on the left-hand side. All potentials decrease exponentially to zero as $`r^{}`$ increases on the right-hand side. This means that we always develop a well-defined wave near the cosmological horizon of $`r^{}=\mathrm{}`$. But near $`r^{}=\mathrm{}(r=0)`$ it is not easy to develop the genuine waves. It is expected that the scattering to give a finite absorption cross section will occur if $`E=\omega ^2V_\phi (r^{})`$. This case is possible if $`\omega ^2j^2`$. This means that the relevant scattering in de Sitter space may be arisen if the frequency of the external field is larger than its angular momentum quantum number. This corresponds to the low-temperature limit of $`\omega >T_c`$. In this case the scattering can be defined even for $`j=1,2,3`$ cases.

## V absorption cross section

The absorption coefficient by the cosmological horizon is defined by the ratio of the outgoing flux at $`r=0`$ to the outgoing flux at $`r=r_c`$ as

$$𝒜=\frac{_{out}(r=r_c)}{_{out}(r=0)}.$$
(37)
Up to now we do not insert the curvature radius $`\mathrm{}`$ of dS3 space. The correct absorption coefficient can be recovered by replacing $`\omega (m_\phi )`$ with $`\omega \mathrm{}(m_\phi \mathrm{})`$. Here we do not repeat the procedure of the flux computation but refer ref.. Then the dilaton absorption cross section in three dimensions is defined by

$$\sigma _{abs}=\frac{𝒜}{\omega }=\left[\frac{A_r^2+B_i^2}{A_rB_i}\right]\frac{\mathrm{}}{j}|\alpha _{\omega \mathrm{},j}|^2$$
(38)
where

$$|\alpha _{\omega \mathrm{},j}|^2=\frac{|\mathrm{\Gamma }(1+j)|^2|\mathrm{\Gamma }(i\omega \mathrm{})|^2}{|\mathrm{\Gamma }[2+j/2+i\omega \mathrm{}/2)]|^2|\mathrm{\Gamma }[j/2+i\omega \mathrm{}/2]|^2}.$$
(39)
We observe that $`s(j=0)`$-mode cross section is ill-defined because $`_{out}(r=0)=0`$ for $`j=0`$. Furthermore the normalization factor of $`\left[\frac{A_r^2+B_i^2}{A_rB_i}\right]`$ is not fixed by the theory. In order to obtain the explicit form, let us calculate $`|\alpha _{\omega \mathrm{},j}|^2`$ according to values of the angular momentum quantum number $`j`$. One finds

$`\sigma _{abs,j}^{dil}`$ $`=`$ $`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{A_r^2+B_i^2}{A_rB_i}}\right]{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}}{j}}{\displaystyle \frac{(j!)^2\pi }{\omega \mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}[\pi \omega \mathrm{}]}}{\displaystyle \frac{16}{((2+j)^2+(\omega \mathrm{})^2)(j^2+(\omega \mathrm{})^2)}}`$ (41)
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{1}{|\mathrm{\Gamma }(j/2+i\omega \mathrm{}/2)|^2|\mathrm{\Gamma }(j/2+i\omega \mathrm{}/2)|^2}}.`$
For $`j=1`$, this takes the form

$`\sigma _{abs,j=1}^{dil}`$ $`=`$ $`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{A_r^2+B_i^2}{A_rB_i}}\right]{\displaystyle \frac{8𝒜_{ch}}{\pi ^2\omega \mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}[\pi \omega \mathrm{}]}}`$ (43)
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{\left(\mathrm{cosh}[\pi \omega \mathrm{}/2]\right)^2}{(9+(\omega \mathrm{})^2)(1+(\omega \mathrm{})^2)}}`$
with the area of the cosmological horizon $`𝒜_{ch}=2\pi \mathrm{}`$. In order to get a definite expression for the absorption cross section, let us consider the low-energy scattering with small $`E=(\omega \mathrm{})^21`$ (for example, $`\omega \mathrm{}=0.1`$). Noting the temperature of the cosmological horizon $`T_c=\frac{1}{2\pi \mathrm{}}`$, this limit implies $`\omega <T_c`$. On the other hand, there exists the low-temperature limit of $`(\omega \mathrm{})^21(\omega >T_c)`$. In the low-energy limit of $`\omega \mathrm{}<1`$, $`j=1`$-mode reduces to

$$\sigma _{abs,j=1}^{dil,\omega \mathrm{}<1}=\left[\frac{A_r^2+B_i^2}{A_rB_i}\right]\frac{8}{9\pi ^3}\frac{𝒜_{ch}}{(\omega \mathrm{})^2}.$$
(44)
On the other hand, its low-temperature limit is given by

$$\sigma _{abs,j=1}^{dil,\omega \mathrm{}>1}=\left[\frac{A_r^2+B_i^2}{A_rB_i}\right]\frac{8}{\pi ^2}\frac{𝒜_{ch}}{(\omega \mathrm{})^5}.$$
(45)
For $`j=2`$, this leads to

$`\sigma _{abs,j=2}^{dil}`$ $`=`$ $`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{A_r^2+B_i^2}{A_rB_i}}\right]{\displaystyle \frac{16𝒜_{ch}}{\omega \mathrm{}\mathrm{sinh}[\pi \omega \mathrm{}]}}`$ (47)
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{\left(\mathrm{sinh}[\pi \omega \mathrm{}/2]\right)^2}{(16+(\omega \mathrm{})^2)(4+(\omega \mathrm{})^2)(\pi \omega \mathrm{}/2)^2}}.`$
In the low-energy limit of $`\omega \mathrm{}<1`$, this reduces to

$$\sigma _{abs,j=2}^{dil,\omega \mathrm{}<1}=\left[\frac{A_r^2+B_i^2}{A_rB_i}\right]\frac{1}{16\pi }\frac{𝒜_{ch}}{(\omega \mathrm{})^2}.$$
(48)
But its low-temperature limit is given by

$$\sigma _{abs,j=2}^{dil,\omega \mathrm{}>1}=\left[\frac{A_r^2+B_i^2}{A_rB_i}\right]\frac{64}{\pi ^2}\frac{𝒜_{ch}}{(\omega \mathrm{})^7}.$$
(49)
## VI discussion

We calculate the absorption cross section of the dilaton which propagates on the southern diamond of three-dimensional de Sitter space. One of the striking results is that the low-energy $`s(j=0)`$-wave absorption of the dilaton is not defined properly. This mainly rests on being unable to calculate its finite flux at $`r=0`$. This contrasts sharply to the cases found in the symmetric black holes whose $`s`$-wave cross sections are well-defined and proportional to the area of the event horizon.

On the other hand, the $`j0`$-angular modes of the dilaton can be used for exploring the dynamical aspects of the cosmological horizon. We expect from the black hole analysis that the low-energy limit ($`\omega R0`$) of the $`l0`$-angular mode absorption cross section is proportional roughly to $`(\omega R)^{4l}`$ for the D=7 black hole which is induced from D3-branes. For D=5 black hole, it is proportional to $`(\omega r_o)^{2l}`$. However, one finds from Eqs.(44) and (48) that those for $`j0`$ in the low-energy limit of $`\omega \mathrm{}<1`$ are given by $`(\omega \mathrm{})^2`$ which implies that the absorption cross section is greater than the area of the cosmological horizon. This is not the case what we want to get. From the potential analysis in section IV, it conjectures that for $`j=1,2,3`$ cases, the low-energy absorption cross section with $`E=(\omega \mathrm{})^21`$ is meaningless because these become the unstable case. This implies that to obtain the finite absorption cross section, $`\omega \mathrm{}`$ should be large such as $`\omega \mathrm{}>j`$. This corresponds to the low-temperature limit of $`\omega >T_c`$. The low-temperature limit is meaningful in de Sitter space since its cross section appears less than $`𝒜_{ch}`$. For example, we find from Eqs.(45) and (49) that the absorption cross sections takes $`\sigma _{abs,j}^{dil,\omega \mathrm{}>1}(\omega \mathrm{})^{(2j+3)}`$ roughly. This is consistent with the potential analysis. According to the this, the potential height is proportional to $`\omega ^2+j^2`$ which implies that the absorption cross section decreases as $`j`$ increases. On the other hand, the free scalar absorption cross section takes the same form $`(\omega \mathrm{})^2`$ as in the dilaton in the low-energy limit, while it is given by $`\sigma _{abs,j}^{free,\omega \mathrm{}>1}(\omega \mathrm{})^{(2j+1)}`$ in the low-temperature limit. As a result, we confirm that the low-temperature limit (not the low-energy limit) of $`j0`$-angular mode absorption cross section will be used to test the cosmological horizon in de Sitter space. This contrasts sharply to the fact that the low-energy $`s`$-mode plays an important role to test the black hole event horizon.

In conclusion, to get information about the cosmological horizon, we have to inject the test field with high frequency into the de Sitter background.

Finally we mention that the AdS bulk absorption cross section can be also calculated from the two-point function of CFT defined on the boundary if one assumes the AdS/CFT correspondence using the boundary-bulk Green function. Hence we propose that our results for the dS bulk space can be recovered from the Euclidean CFT by making use of the dS/CFT correspondence  and the corresponding boundary-bulk Green function.

## Acknowledgement

This work was supported in part by the Brain Korea 21 Program of Ministry of Education, Project No. D-1123.


text:
# References

Coloured conical emission via second-harmonic generation

S. Trillo,\[†\] C. Conti

Istituto Nazionale di Fisica della Materia (INFM)-RM3,

Via della Vasca Navale 84, 00146 Roma, Italy

P. Di Trapani, O. Jedrkiewicz, J. Trull \[‡\]

INFM and Dept. of Chemical, Physical and Mathemetical Sciences,

University of Insubria, Via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy

G. Valiulis

Dept. of Quantum Electronics, Vilnius University,

Building 3 Sauletekio Avenue 9, bldg. 3, LT-2040, Vilnius, Lithuania

G. Bellanca

Dept. of Engineering, University of Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44100 Ferrara, Italy

## Abstract

We predict that the combination of space and time modulational instabilities occurring via parametric wave-mixing in quadratic media leads to coloured conical emission. This phenomenon should be observed under conditions usually employed in second-harmonic generation experiments.

Modulational instability (MI) stands for the exponential growth of periodic, long-wavelength perturbations occurring either in time (i.e., temporal break-up ), or space (filamentation, e.g. Ref. ), due to interplay of Kerr nonlinearity and group-velocity dispersion (GVD) or diffraction, respectively. MIs occur also in quadratic media, in the form of parametric instabilities of two-color pump beams, encompassing both the cases of propagation invariant solutions (i.e., eigenmodes ), and periodic pump evolutions  as in, e.g. unseeded second-harmonic generation (SHG). Filamentation has been observed both in unseeded and seeded SHG geometries, in 1+2 (bulk) and 1+1 (planar waveguides) dimensions , while temporal MI have not been observed yet. On this ground, one might naturally wonder about the coupling of spatial and temporal degrees of freedom, as occurs, e.g., in self-focusing of short pulses. In this letter, our purpose is to show that, in the presence of both dispersion and diffraction, spatio-temporal MI in quadratic bulk samples cannot be simply seen as the mere superposition of filamentation and temporal break-up. Rather, it leads to a new phenomenon, namely coloured conical emission (CCE), where rings of different colours are expected to grow exponentially on top of both pump far-fields. As we show CCE via SHG has specific features which make it different from that earlier predicted for Kerr media . It differs also from other space-time phenomena characteristic of SHG, such as snake instabilities , where the spatial breakup of SHG solitons associated with temporal MI does not lead to substantial modifications of the beam angular spectra, which remain confined nearly on-axis.
Although the phenomenon of CCE implies component which travel off-axis, the angles usually involved are rather small and it is reasonable to use the following paraxial dimensionless model for SHG in noncritical configuration (i.e., no spatial walk-off)

$`i`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{u_1}{z}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _1}{2}}_{}^2u_1{\displaystyle \frac{\beta _1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{^2u_1}{t^2}}+u_2u_1^{}=0,`$
$`i`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{u_2}{z}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\sigma _2}{2}}_{}^2u_2+i\delta {\displaystyle \frac{u_2}{t}}{\displaystyle \frac{\beta _2}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{^2u_2}{t^2}}+\delta ku_2+{\displaystyle \frac{u_1^2}{2}}=0,`$
Here, the (cw plane-wave) fields are conveniently normalized in terms of their total intensity $`I_t`$ to yield $`|u_2|^2+|u_1|^2/2=1`$. Accordingly the real-world distance $`Z=zZ_{nl}`$ is fixed by the nonlinear length scale $`Z_{nl}=(\chi I_t)^1`$, where $`\chi =k_0(2\eta _0/n_1^2n_2)^{1/2}d_{eff}`$ . The normalized retarded time $`t=(TZ/V_{g1})/T_0`$ and the Laplacian $`_{}^2=_x^2+_y^2`$, where $`(x,y)=(X,Y)/R_0`$, are given in terms of temporal and transverse scales, $`T_0=(|k_1^{\prime \prime }|Z_{nl})^{1/2}`$ and $`R_0=(Z_{nl}/k_1)^{1/2}`$, respectively. Moreover $`\sigma _m=k_1/k_m`$, $`m=1,2`$ (we set $`\sigma _2=\frac{1}{2}`$), $`\beta _m=k_m^{\prime \prime }/|k_1^{\prime \prime }|`$, $`k_m^{\prime \prime }=d^2k/d\omega ^2|_{m\omega }`$ are GVDs, $`\delta k=(k_22k_1)Z_{nl}`$ is the phase mismatch, and $`\delta =Z_{nl}/Z_w`$ stands for group-velocity mismatch (GVM), $`Z_w=T_0(1/V_{g2}1/V_{g1})^1`$ being the walk-off length ($`V_{gm}=dk/d\omega |_{m\omega }^1`$).

Let us consider propagation-invariant solutions of Eqs. (S0.Ex2), i.e. cw plane-wave eigenmodes $`u_m=u_{m0}^\pm \mathrm{exp}(im\beta z)`$, $`m=1,2`$, where $`u_{20}^\pm =\beta =\left[\delta k\pm (\delta k^2+12)^{1/2}\right]/6`$, $`u_{10}^{\pm 2}=2[1|u_{20}^\pm |^2]`$, the upper and lower sign standing for in-phase ($`\varphi =\mathrm{arg}(u_22u_1)=0`$, existing for $`\mathrm{}<\delta k2`$) and out-of-phase ($`\varphi =\pi `$, $`\mathrm{}>\delta k2`$ ) modes, respectively . We study the stability of these waves by inserting in Eqs. (S0.Ex2) the fields

$$u_m(r,t,z)=[u_{m0}+a_m(r,t,z)]\mathrm{exp}(im\beta z),m=1,2,$$
(2)
where $`u_{m0}=u_{m0}^\pm `$, and we consider a radially symmetric perturbation:

$$a_m(r,t,z)=f_m^+(r,t)\mathrm{exp}(\lambda z)+f_m^{}(r,t)^{}\mathrm{exp}(\lambda ^{}z).$$
(3)
After linearization, we obtain a system of four partial differential equations in the unknowns $`f_{1,2}^\pm (r,t)`$. Without loss of generality, we introduce the Fourier-Bessel transform of $`f_m^\pm `$, $`F_m^\pm (K,\mathrm{\Omega })=\left[f_m^\pm (r,t)\right]`$, which permits to express the perturbation amplitudes through the inverse transform $`f_m^\pm =^1\left[F_m^\pm \right]`$, as a superposition of conical $`J_0`$ Bessel waves  of transverse wavevector $`K=[K_x^2+K_y^2]^{1/2}`$ and frequency $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, as

$$f_m^\pm (r,t)=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}_0^{\mathrm{}}F_m^\pm (K,\mathrm{\Omega })J_0\left(Kr\right)e^{i\mathrm{\Omega }t}K𝑑K𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }.$$
(4)
In terms of the vector $`F=[F_1^+F_1^{}F_2^+F_2^{}]^T`$ of transformed amplitudes, the linearized system becomes algebraic and takes the form

$`\left(\begin{array}{cccc}\mathrm{\Omega }_1+i\lambda & u_{20}& u_{10}& 0\\ u_{20}& \mathrm{\Omega }_1i\lambda & 0& u_{10}\\ u_{10}& 0& \mathrm{\Omega }_2\delta \mathrm{\Omega }+i\lambda & 0\\ 0& u_{10}& 0& \mathrm{\Omega }_2+\delta \mathrm{\Omega }i\lambda \end{array}\right)F=0,`$ (9)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m\beta _m\mathrm{\Omega }^2/2\sigma _mK^2/2m\beta +(m1)\delta k`$. The compatibility condition for this $`4\times 4`$ system gives the dispersion relation $`\lambda =\lambda (K,\mathrm{\Omega })`$. The eigenvalues $`\lambda `$ have cumbersome expressions, except for vanishing GVM ($`\delta =0`$ ), for which we find (set $`2f_0=u_{20}^22u_{10}^2\mathrm{\Omega }_1\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$, $`f_1=(\mathrm{\Omega }_1\mathrm{\Omega }_2u_{10}^2)^2u_{20}^2\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2`$),

$$\lambda =\lambda (K,\mathrm{\Omega })=\pm \sqrt{f_0\pm \sqrt{f_0^2f_1}},$$
(10)
Instabilities sets in when at least one of the four eigenvalues $`\lambda `$ in Eq. (10) have a positive real part, thus causing the perturbation to grow exponentially with gain $`g=g(\mathrm{\Omega },K)=2\mathrm{R}\mathrm{e}(\lambda )`$. Two qualitatively different regimes are found depending on the sign of GVD. In Fig. 1 we display the typical spectral gain curve obtained in the anomalous GVD regime ($`\beta _{1,2}=1`$). As shown, the gain is relatively narrowband, and its axisymmetric feature ($`g`$ peaks at $`\mathrm{\Omega }^2+K^2=\mathrm{constant}`$) reflects the fact that space and time play indeed the same role. Conversely, when the GVD is normal, perturbations with large wavevector (angle) $`K`$ and detuning $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, can be amplified. Three different branches of growing perturbations exist even when the collinear process is phase-matched ($`\delta k=0`$), as shown in Fig.2(a). This type of spatio-temporal MI entails CCE, which can be regarded as the amplification process of a superposition of Bessel $`J_0`$ beams characterized by progressively larger values of of angle-frequency ($`K\mathrm{\Omega }`$) pairs. The peak gain \[obtained in a wide bandwidth of high frequencies $`K\mathrm{\Omega }`$, see Fig.2(a)\], is displayed in Fig.2(b) and decreases monotonically for large $`|\delta k|`$ for both eigenmodes.
The underlying physics of CCE involve multiple three-photon processes. Pump photons at $`2\omega `$ travelling on-axis decay into photon pairs at frequency $`\omega \delta \omega `$ and $`\omega +\delta \omega `$ travelling off-axis with opposite angles. These in turn can produce off-axis photons at $`2\omega \pm \delta \omega `$ via sum-frequency mixing with on-axis pump photons at $`\omega `$. In the limit $`\delta k=\pm 2`$ where the pump degenerate into the single component $`u_{20}^\pm =\pm 1`$ ($`u_{10}^\pm =0`$), only the downconversion process takes place, and we can write the longitudinal projection (the transverse one is identically satisfied) of the noncollinear phase-matching condition as $`k_z(2\omega )k_z(\omega +\delta \omega )k_z(\omega \delta \omega )=0`$. In the paraxial approximation $`k_z(\omega \pm \delta \omega )=[k(\omega \pm \delta \omega )^2k_t^2]^{1/2}k(\omega \pm \delta \omega )k_t^2/2k_1`$ ($`k_t`$ is the real-world tranverse wavenumber) and by expanding $`k(\omega \pm \delta \omega )=k_1\pm V_{g1}^1\delta \omega +k_1^{\prime \prime }\delta \omega ^2/2`$, the phase-matching condition yields

$$k_1^{\prime \prime }\delta \omega ^2k_1^1k_t^2=\mathrm{\Delta }k.$$
(11)
In terms of dimensionless frequencies $`K=k_tR_0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\delta \omega T_0`$, Eq. (11) reads as $`\mathrm{\Omega }^2K^2=\pm 2`$, which turns out to be in perfect agreement with the locus $`(K\mathrm{\Omega })`$ of peak gain as obtained from Eq. (10).
Remarkably we find that CCE is robust against the presence of GVM. In fact for $`\delta 0`$ CCE occurs also in the ideal GVD-free limit ($`\beta _{1,2}=0`$). The relative magnitude of GVM and GVD depends, however, on the intensity $`I_t`$. For instance, in a LBO crystal pumped at $`\lambda _0=1\mu `$m ($`k_1^{\prime \prime }=0.045`$ ps2/m, $`k_2^{\prime \prime }=0.25\mathrm{ps}^2`$/m) with $`I_t=50\mathrm{GW}/\mathrm{cm}^2`$ ($`Z_{nl}=0.6`$ mm), we find $`Z_w=0.12`$ mm which yields $`\delta =5.4`$. Figure 3 shows the different gain branches for this case, when the crystal operates in the large mismatch limit $`k_22k_1=30\mathrm{cm}^1`$ ($`\delta k=1.8`$). The dimensional gain $`G=g/Z_{nl}`$ is reported against real-world angles $`\theta \mathrm{sin}\theta =K/(k_1R_0)`$ and wavelength detunings $`\mathrm{\Delta }\lambda =\lambda _0^2\mathrm{\Omega }/(2\pi cT_0)`$.
Though we have considered perturbations growing on top of the SHG eigenmodes, CCE can occur also from different launching conditions entailing exchange of energy between $`\omega `$ and $`2\omega `$ pump beams. This case is similar to spatial or temporal MI occurring in unseeded SHG, and can be analyzed by means of Floquet techniques . In this letter, we rather present numerical evidence for such phenomenon, by integrating Eqs. (1) in 1+1+1D, setting $`_y=0`$. As an example Fig.4 shows the spectral content of the two fields after propagation ($`z=15`$), as obtained when only the pump beam $`u_1`$ is launched at $`z=0`$, on top of white noise. As shown, CCE favours the amplification of spatio-temporal frequencies which closely follow the spectral gain \[see Fig.2(a)\]. Due to the large bandwidth of the process we have also found that CCE takes place from short pulse, narrow beam excitations, a case which will be discussed elsewhere.
We end up by emphasizing that CCE in SHG exhibits important differences with respect to CCE in true Kerr media. First, SHG makes CCE accessible in materials which are virtually GVD-free, and, in the large mismatch limit, for both signs of effective Kerr nonlinearity in the same physical material. However, the major importance of CCE stems from the fact that it can trigger the formation of novel spatio-temporal propagation-invariant wavepackets of Eqs. (1), i.e. $`u_m(r,t,z)=q_m(r,t)\mathrm{exp}(im\beta z)`$ . In the normal GVD regime, $`q_m(r,t)`$ exist for $`\beta <0`$ in the form of a polichromatic superposition of $`J_0`$ beams , so-called nonlinear X-waves , which exist also in the linear limit . In SHG when the $`J_0`$ perturbations are amplified at the expense of an out-of-phase pump beam, they develop the right sign of nonlinear phase-shift ($`\beta <0`$) for the formation of a nonlinear X-wave. Viceversa, in Kerr media, where nonlinear X-waves also exist, cw plane-waves and localized wavepackets experience opposite nonlinear phase-shifts, and such mechanism is unlikely to take place.
In summary we have shown that spatio-temporal MI of propagation-invariant as well as dynamically evolving pump beams in SHG gives rise to conical emission, which might play an important role in the space-time dynamics. Such phenomenon is intrinsic to quadratic materials and should not be confused with other recently reported mechanisms of conical emission .

Financial support from MIUR (PRIN project), INFM (PAIS project), UNESCO, MEC (Spain), and Lithuanian Science and Studies Foundation (grant T-491), is gratefully acknowledged. The work of C.C. is supported by the Fondazione Tronchetti Provera.

Fig. 1. MI gain $`g(\mathrm{\Omega },K)`$ in the anomalous GVD regime for the in-phase eigenmode at phase-matching $`\delta k=0`$.

Fig. 2. Normal GVD regime ($`\beta _{1,2}=1`$): (a) Level plot of conical emission gain $`g(\mathrm{\Omega },K)`$ for $`\varphi =0`$ eigenmode (similar plot holds for $`\varphi =\pi `$); (b) Peak value of $`g`$ vs. $`\delta k`$.

Fig. 3. Level plot of CCE dimensional gain $`G`$ for the in-phase eigenmode in a LBO crystal (see text for data).

Fig. 4. Spectrally selective amplification of white noise seen at $`z=15`$ from unseeded collinearly phase-matched SHG \[$`\delta k=0`$ in Eqs. (1)\] pumped by a cw plane-wave pump at $`\omega `$: (a) $`|u_1(K,\mathrm{\Omega })|`$; (b) $`|u_2(K,\mathrm{\Omega })|`$.


text:
# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

The study of fluctuations in particle physics already has a long history going back to early cosmic-ray observations . Białas and Peschanski proposed to study non-statistical fluctuations in multi-particle production by the method of factorial moments

$`F_q(M)`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{M}}{\displaystyle \underset{m=1}{\overset{M}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{n_m(n_m1)\mathrm{}(n_mq+1)}{n_m^q}},`$ (1)
where a region $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$ in 1-, 2- or 3-dimensional phase space is divided into $`M`$ cells, $`n_m`$ is the multiplicity in the $`m`$th cell, and $`\mathrm{}`$ denotes vertically averaging over the event sample. There are a large variety of experiments showing that $`F_q(M)`$ possess an anomalous scaling behavior

$`F_q(M)`$ $``$ $`(M)^{\varphi (q)}(M\mathrm{}),`$ (2)
Note that in e+e- collisions the fluctuations or power-law scaling exist in 3-dimensional phase space and the dynamical fluctuations has been proved to be isotropic . This means that the multi-hadron final states in these collisions are self-similar fractal.

Since the fractal property of the multi-hadron final states in e+e- collisions has been established, the next step is to study this fractal system in more detail. The aim of the present paper is to perform the L$`\stackrel{´}{\mathrm{e}}`$vy stability and multi-fractal spectrum analysis for the fractal system of the multi-hadron final states in e+e-— collisions at the Z0 energy — $`\sqrt{s}=91.2`$ GeV using Monte Carlo method.

## 2 Measurement of intemittency $`\varphi (q)`$

In our Monte Carlo simulation a total number of 200000 events of e+e- collisions at 91.2 GeV are produced by JETSET 7.4 generator. The primary produced partons considered is a quark-antiquark pair, moving back to back in the rest frame. This implies a cylindrical symmetry about the quark direction. An appropriate frame to study the development of the $`q\overline{q}`$ system is therefore the thrust frame , the appropriate variables are ($`y,p_t,\phi `$).

In order to avoid the influence of a non-flat distribution of the variables $`y`$, $`p_t`$, and $`\phi `$ on the investigation of the dynamical fluctuations, all variables are transformed into their corresponding cumulant forms .

$$x(y)=\frac{_{y_a}^y\rho (y)𝑑y}{_{y_a}^{y_b}\rho (y)𝑑y},x(p_t)=\frac{_{p_{ta}}^{p_t}\rho (p_t)𝑑p_t}{_{p_{ta}}^{p_{tb}}\rho (p_t)𝑑p_t},x(\phi )=\frac{_{\phi _a}^\phi \rho (\phi )𝑑\phi }{_{\phi _a}^{\phi _b}\rho (\phi )𝑑\phi }.$$
(3)
The results for the three dimensional FM defined in Eq.(1) are shown in Fig.1. After omitting the first point  to eliminate the influence of momentum conservation , the three dimensional $`27`$ order ln$`F_q`$’s versus ln$`M`$ data are fitted very well by a straight line

$$\mathrm{ln}F_q=\varphi (q)\mathrm{ln}M+b,$$
(4)
where $`\varphi (q)`$ is the intemittency index. The resulting parameters and the corresponding $`\chi ^2/`$DF are listed in table I.

Table I The fit parameters of 3-D FM for the Jetset7.4

| order $`q`$ | $`\varphi \left(q\right)`$ | $`b`$ | $`\chi ^2`$/DF |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2 | $`0.191\pm 0.001`$ | $`0.304\pm 0.003`$ | 57/9 |
| 3 | $`0.588\pm 0.003`$ | $`0.914\pm 0.009`$ | $`27/9`$ |
| 4 | $`1.135\pm 0.009`$ | $`1.690\pm 0.023`$ | $`20/9`$ |
| 5 | $`1.784\pm 0.024`$ | $`2.554\pm 0.061`$ | $`7/9`$ |
| 6 | $`2.435\pm 0.091`$ | $`3.289\pm 0.237`$ | $`4/8`$ |
| 7 | $`3.223\pm 0.197`$ | $`4.221\pm 0.519`$ | $`3/4`$ |

The results show power-law scaling when phase space is partitioned isotropically, indicating the existence of self-similar (isotropic) dynamical fluctuations. Thus the multi-hadron final states in e+e- collisions at $`\sqrt{s}=91.2`$ GeV is a self-similar fractal.

Fig.1 The three-dimensional $`27`$ order factorial moments as functions of the partition number $`M`$

## 3 L$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$vy index

As a self-similar fractal system, the multi-particle final states in high energy collisions can be charactered by an important parameter — the L$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$vy stability index $`\mu `$. This parameter tells us the behavior of elementary fluctuations at the tail. It is also known as the degree of multi-fractality, $`\mu `$ = 0 for mono-fractals, $`\mu <1`$ corresponds to the so-called ”calm” singularities, while $`\mu >1`$ correspond to the ”wild” singularities.

The intermittency index $`\varphi (q)`$ is related to the anomalous dimension $`d_q`$  as

$`\varphi (q)=(q1)d_q,`$ (5)
and the later is expressible by the L$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$vy index $`\mu `$  as

$`d_q={\displaystyle \frac{C_1}{\mu 1}}{\displaystyle \frac{q^\mu q}{q1}}(C_1=\mathrm{const}),`$ (6)
or in terms of the intermittency index

$`\varphi (q)=\varphi (2){\displaystyle \frac{q^\mu q}{2^\mu 2}}.`$ (7)
Fig.2 The intermittency index $`\varphi _q`$ as a function of order $`q`$.

Solid curve is from Eq.(9), dashed curve is from Eq.(8).

According to the L$`\stackrel{´}{\mathrm{e}}`$vy stability theory, the L$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$vy index $`\mu `$ is confined to $`0\mu 2`$, and the Central Limiting limit corresponds to $`\mu 2`$. In this limit Eq.(7) passes to

$`\varphi (q)=\varphi (2){\displaystyle \frac{q(q1)}{2}}.`$ (8)
Note that Eq.(8) is valid for any real value of $`q`$, including $`q0`$, while Eq.(7) in the present form is inapplicable to $`q0`$. An analytical continuation of Eq.(7), which is valid for $`q0`$ and will, in the limit $`\mu 2`$, pass to Eq.(8) in the whole region of $`q`$ is

$`\varphi (q)=\varphi (2){\displaystyle \frac{(q^2)^{\mu /2}q}{2^\mu 2}}.`$ (9)
The distribution of $`\varphi (q)`$ versus $`q`$ is shown in Table.I and Fig 2. We fit it to Eq.(7), shown as solid curve in the figure. This curve has been extrapolated to $`q<1`$ using Eq.(9). Also shown in the figure is the result from Eq.(8) (dashed curve), which corresponds to the Central Limiting case. Note that the $`q<1`$ part is needed for getting the multi-fractal spectrum to the right of its maximum, cf. Fig.3.

The L$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$vy index $`\mu `$ for the hadronic system in $`e^+e^{}`$ collision at $`\sqrt{s}=91.2`$ GeV obtained from the fit is

$`\mu =1.701\pm 0.043.`$ (10)
This value of $`\mu `$ lies in the region  in consistent with L$`\stackrel{´}{\mathrm{e}}`$vy stability. Since $`\mu `$ is greater than unity, the multi-fractal corresponds to ”wild” singularities.

## 4 Multi-fractal spectrum and R$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$nyi dimensions

The multi-fractal method is a widely used tool in many branches of physics and science in general . The R$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$nyi dimension $`D_q(1d_q)`$ and multi-fractal spectrum $`f(\alpha )`$ are often used to study the multi-fractal. The $`D(q)`$ (also denoted as $`D_q`$) depends on order $`q`$, being a decreasing function of $`q`$ for multi-fractals in general. The R$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$nyi dimension is sometimes called as generalized dimension. The multi-fractal spectral function $`f(\alpha )`$ and the R$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$nyi dimension (generalized dimension) $`D(q)`$ for hadronic system are related to intermittency index $`\varphi (q)`$ as

$`\tau (q)=q1\varphi (q),\alpha (q)={\displaystyle \frac{d\tau (q)}{dq}},`$
$`f(\alpha )=q\alpha \tau (q),D(q)={\displaystyle \frac{\tau (q)}{(q1)}}.`$ (11)
Where $`D(q)|_{q=0}=D_0=D_F`$ is the fractal dimension, $`D(q)|_{q=1}=D_I`$ is the information dimension and $`D(q)|_{q=2}=D_2=\alpha (2)f(\alpha (2))=\nu `$ is the correlation dimension.

The continuous order index $`\varphi (q)`$ are calculated by Eq.(9). Then the R$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$nyi dimension $`D(q)`$ and multi-fractal spectrum $`f(\alpha )`$ are calculated using Eq.(11) with $`q`$ = -1 to 6.8, step 0.2. The $`D(q)`$ versus $`q`$ and the $`f(\alpha )`$ versus $`\alpha `$ are shown in fig.3(a) and (b).

Fig.3 (a) The R$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$nyi dimension $`D(q)`$ as a function of order $`q`$

(b) The multi-fractal spectrum f($`\alpha `$) as a function of $`\alpha `$

It can be seen from Fig.3 that, the R$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$nyi dimension $`D(q)`$ decreases from 1.17 to 0.437 as the order $`q`$ increases from $`1`$ to 6.8 which means that there is a multi-fractal behavior in multi-production at e+e- collisions. The multi-fractal spectrum $`f(\alpha )`$ is lying between $`2.10`$ and 1 in the above-mentioned $`\alpha `$ region, having a maximum at $`q=0`$, $`\alpha `$ = 1.169$`\pm 0.011`$. The corresponding fractal dimension is $`D_F=f(\alpha (0))=D(0)=1.003\pm 0.001`$.

The tangents to the curve $`f(\alpha )=\alpha `$ with slopes $`\mathrm{d}f(\alpha )/\mathrm{d}\alpha =1`$ and 2 determine the points $`\alpha (1)=0.882\pm 0.006`$ and $`\alpha (2)=0.701\pm 0.006`$, indicating that the information dimension of the system is $`D_I=D(1)=0.882\pm 0.006`$, and the correlation dimension is $`\nu `$ = 2$`\alpha (2)f(\alpha (2))=D(2)=0.787\pm 0.012`$.

The R$`\stackrel{´}{\mathrm{e}}`$nyi dimensions $`D(q)`$ could also be directly calculated using Eq.(11). The resulting values are listed in Table II together with those obtained from the Multi-fractal spectrum as described above. It can be seen that the consistency is good.

Table II The R$`\stackrel{´}{\mathrm{e}}`$nyi dimensions obtained from two different methods

| method | $`D_F(D(0))`$ | $`D_I(D(1))`$ | $`\nu _2(D(2))`$ |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Equation (11) | $`1.000\pm 0.000`$ | $`0.881\pm 0.027`$ | $`0.788\pm 0.003`$ |
| Multi-fracltal spectrum | $`1.003\pm 0.001`$ | $`0.882\pm 0.006`$ | $`0.787\pm 0.012`$ |

## 5 Conclusions

A self-similar multi-fractal analysis using MC method in e+e- collisions at $`\sqrt{s}`$ = 91.2 GeV is performed basing on the measurement of factorial moments. The L$`\stackrel{´}{\mathrm{e}}`$vy stability analysis is carried out and the L$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$vy index in found to be $`\mu =1.701\pm 0.043`$ consistent with L$`\stackrel{´}{\mathrm{e}}`$vy stability. The multi-fractal spectrum $`f(\alpha )`$ are presented which is a convex curve with a maximum at $`q=0.`$, $`\alpha =1.169\pm 0.011`$. The R$`\stackrel{´}{e}`$nyi dimensions $`D(q)`$ are obtained both from their relation with the intermittency indies $`\varphi (q)`$ and from the multi-fractal spectrum. The results are in good consistence.


text:
# Around Poincare duality in discrete spaces

## 1 Generic

This paper is a sequel to 111so please print it and staple both in the same folder…. There we saw how a family of discrete noncommutative spaces, namely those with intersection matrix

$$q_{ij}^{(n)}=\left(\begin{array}{ccccc}1& 1& & 0& 1\\ 1& 1& 1& & 0\\ & 1& \mathrm{}_n& 1& \\ 0& & 1& 1& 1\\ 1& 0& & 1& 1\end{array}\right)$$

can be arranged to get a one dimensional commutative space, the circle $`S^1`$, in the limit $`n\mathrm{}`$.

But also we noticed, just solving for the null eigenvectors of $`q_{ij}`$, that the intersection matrix is degenerated for size $`n`$ multiple of six, then putting in question Poincare Duality.

Here we will examine some answers to this small nuisance.

The first one, obviously, is to reject such sizes. We have still subsequences going to infinity with non degenerate $`q`$, so we can build the limit without the multiples of 6. This was the approach of the previous paper, but one would like to get a generic procedure, instead of a case-by-case approach.

For the same reason, one worries about the next easier procedure: modify the intersection matrix to get a nondegenerate product while keeping the grading sign. One possibility is to use an simpler spectral triple, at the cost of losing the spatial homogeneity of this one, and even here we need to control possible degenerated forms. It is safer to increase the dimension of the Hilbert spaces in the diagonal, $`H_{ii}`$, to 3 or bigger dimension, so the diagonal elements change from $`1`$ to $`3`$, and Poincare duality works. Again, this method is not generic enough, but it is interesting because it forces a increase in the number of particles, just as in happens in Connes-Lot models. On other hand, it sounds strange that even if $`m_{ij}`$ is diagonal and the algebraic structure does not differ, we have Poincare duality in the later case and degeneracy in the former.

Next step could be fine tuning of Poincare Duality definition. Since the review in , Connes has preferred to take as primary definition the existence of an element $`\beta KR_n(A^0A)`$ such that

$$\beta _A\mu =1_{A^0},\mu _{A^0}\beta =1_A$$

(where $`\mu KR^n(AA^0)`$ is got from our familiar Fredholm module).

Perhaps we can not win enough space with this shift of mind: It seems that in our case this definition implies the same isomorphism that the intersection matrix reflects. I have only seen an sketch of proof in the PhD thesis of H. Emerson. Also, it is remarked by Moscovici that rational Poincare Duality based in the intersection form is weaker than Poincare duality based in the KK-bifunctor.

## 2 Specific

To further investigate what is happening inside, lets fix $`n=6`$. The degeneracy space is spanned by the vectors $`(1,1,0,11,0)`$ and $`(0,1,1,0,1,1)`$.

We could see it in this way: Suppose an element of $`KK(𝐂,A)`$ is given by the projector $`(1,1,0,0,0,0)`$. The product with the intersection matrix drives us to $`(0,0,1,0,0,1)`$. But take now the projector $`(0,0,0,1,1,0)`$: it gives us the same element $`(0,0,1,0,0,1)`$ in $`KK(A^0,𝐂)`$. So given this element in the K-homology, we can not say which one was the original: Duality is bounded to fail if we only kept the information of the intersection matrix.

Technically, the map between Ramond-Ramond fields and D-Branes… er, between K-theory and K-homology, is given by Kasparov product through the $`\mu `$ element. Regretly, the product is a very complicated operation, described only by a few high level mathematicians. At least, I have been unable to find detailed examples in the (still too modern) bibliography.

Readers of this paper will know that an element of $`KK^0(A,B)`$ is given by an A-B $`C^{}`$ bimodule, graded, and an bounded operator F. We can get F from an unbounded Dirac operator, D, with F=sign(D). And a third alternative exists, the use of asymptotic morphism. This variety of viewpoints has its origin in the difficulty to calculate the $`F`$ operator in the product. For a couple of algebras, $`aKK(A,B)`$ and $`bKK(B,C)`$ respectively, Kasparov product $`_B`$ is built from the graded tensor product of subjacent Hilbert spaces, with a new operator $`F=F_aF_b`$ which I can not explain how to calculate. For the moment, I will try at the level of the graded tensor only. This is no so bad because F is defined up homotopy and modulo compact operators. In fact, the current formulation of classification theorems for finite spectral triples  is able to avoid any specific value of F.

Our algebra is $`A=𝐂^6`$. Let $`aKK(𝐂,A)`$ be based in the graded space $`H^+=(p_1Ap_2A),H^{}=(p_4Ap_5A)`$. The Dirac element $`\mu KK(AA^0,𝐂)`$ is based in our old pal, the space $`E_{ij}`$ with grading $`\mathrm{\Gamma }E_{ij}=`$sign($`q_{ij}`$)$`E_{ij}`$. And $`aa^0AA^0`$ acts in this space multiplying by $`a_ia_j^0`$.

With all this data, we only need to promote $`KK(𝐂,A)`$ to $`KK(A^0,AA^0)`$ with a trivial direct product and than compose the Kasparov groups. The resulting space, in $`KK(A^0,𝐂)`$ has elements

$$H_{16}H_{21}H_{12}H_{23}H_{44}H_{55}$$

in the positive grading, and elements

$$H_{11}H_{22}H_{43}H_{54}H_{45}H_{56}$$

in the negative grading.

Under the action of $`A^0`$, each part has the same number of vectors in the positive and negative gradings. So the product with the K-theory will give in every case an element homotopic to zero.

In general, we see that a projector $`p_i`$ of positive grading will give three vectors in the product space: $`H_{i,i1},H_{i,i+1}`$ in the positive side, $`H_{i,i}`$ in the negative. For the projectors described by $`(1,1,0,0,0,0)`$ and $`(0,0,0,1,1,0)`$ we have respectively Hilbert spaces

$$(H_{12}H_{16}H_{23}H_{21})(H_{11}H_{22})$$

and

$$(H_{45}H_{43}H_{54}H_{56})(H_{44}H_{55})$$

If we only look at the action of $`A^0`$, we are still in the same situation: both spaces are the same, some information has been lost, and Kasparov product $`\beta _{A^0}`$ is unable to bring us back to the original element.

But if we could remember the origin of each vector then we could go back to the right one: the first projector gives the space $`H_{23}H_{16}`$ and the second one gives $`H_{43}H_{56}`$. But if we want to distinguish between both spaces, the $`A^0`$ action is not enough: we need to give again a role to the Fredholm operator F (or to its ”unbounded” counterpart, the Dirac operator).

A way to restrict the homotopies of F could be searched in the ambiguity of the Dirac operator. As we told in , the limit procedure has an angular freedom, we can define $`m_{l1l,ll}=(1/n)\mathrm{sin}\theta `$, $`m_{ll,l+1l}=(1/n)\mathrm{cos}\theta `$ and we still get the same continuous limit. If we study the index of $`D`$ as $`\theta `$ varies, Index Theorem works and it is conserved. But we can notice that the symmetric derivative, $`\theta =\pi /4`$, corresponds to a crossing of eigenvalues: just at that point, a pair of eigenvectors of $`D`$ cross the zero. This could justify us to avoid the symmetric point and to choose a nonsymmetric value for $`\theta `$. Suppose you choose $`\theta <\pi /4`$. Then we have a distinction between the Hilbert subspaces $`H_{i1,i}`$ and $`H_{i+1,i}`$. This is more patent if we move to just the backward derivative, $`\theta =0`$, where one of the subspaces is directly in the nullspace of $`D`$.

Really the extreme cases $`0`$ and $`\pi /2`$ amount to reduce the spectral triple to a simpler one, so they are no so desiderable. It should be better to kept just a slight asymmetry and to do the Kasparov product keeping this Dirac operator all the way. Thus our conclusion is that more work is needed in Kasparov products to define suitable dualities in finite algebras.

## 3 Worth mentioning

* When taking the $`n\mathrm{}`$ limit, one needs more groups beyond the $`KK^0`$. Fortunately they are directly produced by entering Clifford algebras into play, and we get the needed generators in our limit. (for the role of Clifford algebras in the real spectral triples, and all the reduction and unreduction game, see the book ).
* It could be interesting to build a relative KK doing contractions of two points to one. It could be interesting also to see all the sequence of discrete spaces as different formulations of discrete derivatives. And if we are really, really interested in this play one should investigate if the Hopf algebra of Connes-Moscovici has a role linking spaces of different size, then aiming to go from a bare series to a renormalized one.
* If you remember the diagonalization procedure of the previous paper, you could note that the vectors $`E_{ij}+E_{ji}`$ are in the kernel of the Dirac operator, while the vectors $`E_{ij}E_{ji}`$ are just the piece one needs to counterweight the $`1/n`$ divergence of D, then getting a finite contribution for the one-dimensional derivative. Note also that the $`E_{ii}`$ vectors, for the same reason, induce a divergent derivative, which is controlled because it goes to an imaginary part: we have ”finite $`+i`$ infinite”.
* If the renormalization process forces the survival of some vestige of the approximation procedure, then we will have a spectre of Connes-Lot particles in the continuum. In some sense this is a low-profile approach to the big project of studying quantum groups and general diffeomorfism. Note also that a residual Dirac operator reflects, via Lichnerowitz, a curvature, and then it is a way to proof that the spectrum of particles is bounded away from zero, at least for the particular case coming from discretization and renormalization.
* Of course the physical interest of getting asymmetry into the Dirac operator is because we need diferent masses and mixes in the generations of particles.