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# The Rotation and Shear of a String.

## 1 Introduction

In general relativity the covariant derivative of a vector field can be decomposed into parts called the rotation, shear and so forth, see for example  and the appendix §6: these reduce to the same objects in newtonian fluid dynamics. This vector field can be thought of as being tangent to the world-line of a particle and so it is of particular interest what these objects are for a congruence of point particles whose motion has a lagrangian description. From a point particles lagrangian one can produce a spacetime metric stress which is proportional to the projection tensor and fills the whole spacetime. Clearly this stress cannot be of a single point particle, which must have a $`\delta `$-function stress to be point-like; how such stresses can be produced is addressed in section §6. For the simplest point particle actions, the spacetime metric stress cannot represent interacting or self-interacting particles. Particles and strings will self-interact via deviation equations, see roberts . As the spacetime metric stress fills a portion of the spacetime it is said to represent a congruence of particles, by anology with a ”congruence of curves” p.69. It is assumed that the best vector field describing a congruence of particles is also the best vector for an individual member of the congruence. It is not immediate what the best vector field to choose to constuct rotation and shear is: one could choose the unit vector field $`P^\mu /m`$, which would considerably simplify subsequent calculations; or one could choose the non-unit vector field $`\dot{x}^\mu `$, which has acceleration. Here it is suggested that the best choice is $`\dot{x}^\mu `$, as the conservation of the spacetime metric stress tensor then takes the simplest form. The analysis is then extended from the particles to strings and membranes. Two topics not looked at are: firstly boundary conditions, in fact only the rotation and shear of a part of the string are looked at, whether the whole object has these properties is left open; secondly its classification, the existence, or otherwise, of shear and rotation, can signify the classification, for example Petrov type, of the spacetime under consideration; this can be thought of as a classification of the covariant derivatives of the vector field: thus in the present case there could be a classification of the spacetime covariant derivative and the internal covariant derivative, and perhaps a mixture of the two. The treatment of the spacetime metric stress of a congruence of particles is generalized to the Nambu-Goto action in section §3.1, and for several membrane actions in section §4, all the time the notation used is succesively generalized. The spacetime metric stress of congruences of strings and membranes contains terms in both the spacetime metric and projection tensor, as does a perfect fluid. The relationship between the two is examined, the main difference being that membranes have much more complex projection tensors. The notation used is that of , except that $`p`$ is the dimensions of the brane, $`P`$ denotes the momentum, and $`𝒫`$ is the pressure, $`\gamma `$ is the internal metric, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ is used for the $`\gamma `$-equation of state.

## 2 A Congruence of Particles.

### 2.1 The Point Particle’s Action.

The coordinate space action of a point particle is

$$S=_{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}d\tau ,$$
(1)
for the simplest case of a non-interacting particle, the specific lagrangian is

$$=m\mathrm{},\mathrm{}=\sqrt{\dot{x}^2},\dot{x}^\alpha =\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }x^\alpha .$$
(2)
This is sometimes also called the non-linear form, and sometimes the determinant form. Varying the velocity $`\dot{x}^\alpha `$ one can interchange the variation and the covariant derivative

$$\delta \dot{x}^\alpha =\delta \frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }x^\alpha =\mathrm{D}\frac{\delta \mathrm{x}^\alpha }{\mathrm{d}\tau },$$
(3)
So that the variation of the action is

$$\delta S=\frac{}{\dot{x}^\mu }\delta x^\mu |_{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}_{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}d\tau \delta \mathrm{x}^\mu \frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }\frac{}{\dot{\mathrm{x}}^\mu }.$$
(4)
The first term of the varied action 4 can be made to vanish by using suitable boundary conditions, a simple choice is

$$\delta x^\mu \frac{}{\dot{x}^\mu }|_{\tau _1}=\delta x^\mu \frac{}{\dot{x}^\mu }|_{\tau _2}=0,$$
(5)
which are obeyed in the particular case

$$\delta x^\mu |_{\tau _1}=\delta x^\mu |_{\tau _2}=0.$$
(6)
The second term of the varied action 4 vanishes when the equations of motion

$$\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }\frac{}{\dot{x}^\mu }=0,$$
(7)
are obeyed. Substituting $`/\dot{x}^\mu `$ for the particular Lagrangian defined in 2 gives

$$m\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }\frac{\dot{x}^\mu }{\mathrm{}}\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}0$$
(8)
where in this and subsequent cases $`\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}`$ signifies that the equality holds only for a specific Lagrangian in this case 2. The covariant nature of $`\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{d}\tau `$ ensures that 8 is the geodesic equation.

### 2.2 Introducing Momenta and the Hessian.

The momentum and its absolute derivative are defined by

$$P_\mu \frac{\delta S}{\delta \dot{x}^\mu }=\frac{}{\dot{x}^\mu }\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}m\frac{\dot{x}^\mu }{\mathrm{}}.\dot{P}_\mu =\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }P_\mu ,$$
(9)
The boundary condition 5 can be expressed in terms of the momenta

$$\delta x^\mu P_\mu |_{\tau _1}=\delta x^\mu P_\mu |_{\tau _2}=0,$$
(10)
as can the equation of motion

$$\dot{P}^\mu =0.$$
(11)
The Hessian is defined as

$$W_{\mu \nu }\frac{\delta ^2S}{\delta \dot{x}^\mu \delta \dot{x}^\nu }=\frac{^2}{\dot{x}^\mu \dot{x}^\nu }\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}\frac{m}{\mathrm{}}h_{\mu \nu }$$
(12)
$`h_{\mu \nu }`$ is the projection tensor defined below 14. This equality suggests that the Hessian can be thought of as a generalized projection. For the particular Lagrangian 2 the geodesic equation 8 or 11 can be expressed in terms of the specific projection tensor

$$\dot{P}^\mu =W^{\mu \nu }\ddot{x}_\nu \stackrel{\text{2}}{=}\frac{m}{\mathrm{}}h^{\mu \nu }\ddot{x}_\nu =0,$$
(13)
where the specific projection tensor familiar from general relativity is

$`h^{\mu \nu }`$ $``$ $`g^{\mu \nu }{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{x}^\mu \dot{x}^\nu }{\dot{x}^2}}=g^{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{P^\mu \dot{x}^\nu }{m\mathrm{}}}=g^{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{P^\mu P^\nu }{m^2}},`$
$`h^{\mu \alpha }h_{\nu \alpha }`$ $`=`$ $`h_{.\nu }^\nu =g^{\mu \alpha }h_{\nu \alpha },`$
$`h^{\mu \nu }\dot{x}_\nu `$ $`=`$ $`0,h=d1`$ (14)
### 2.3 Some Standard Equations.

The spacetime metrical stress is

$$T^{\mu \nu }=\frac{2}{\sqrt{g}}\frac{\delta S}{\delta g_{\mu \nu }}=2\frac{x}{g_{\mu \nu }}+g^{\mu \nu }(x)(x),$$
(15)
and it is often taken to be the energy-momentum tensor corresponding to $`(x)`$ It is assumed that this tensor is conserved

$$T_{..;\nu }^{\mu \nu }=0,$$
(16)
For the point particle 2 the energy-momentum tensor is

$$T_{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{}^2W_{\mu \nu }\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}m\mathrm{}h_{\mu \nu }\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}m\mathrm{}g_{\mu \nu }P_\mu \dot{x}_\nu $$
(17)
The perfect fluid energy-momentum tensor Eq.3.8 is

$$T_{\mu \nu }=(\mu +𝒫)V_\mu V_\nu +𝒫g_{\mu \nu },=(\mu +𝒫)h^{\mu \nu }\mu g_{\mu \nu },V_\mu V^\mu =1,$$
(18)
in this case $`h^{\mu \nu }`$ is given by the first equality of 14 with $`V^\mu =\dot{x}^\mu /\mathrm{}`$. 18 can encompass the energy-momentum of many systems, such as scalar fields, essentially this is because of the freedom to choose an equation of state. When $`\mu =0`$ the perfect fluid 18 has energy-momentum tensor

$$T_{\mu \nu }=𝒫h_{\mu \nu },$$
(19)
comparing with the second equality of 17 the energy-momentum of a point particle can be thought of as a perfewct fluid with density $`\mu =0`$ and pressure

$$𝒫\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}m\mathrm{}.$$
(20)
From the properties of the projection tensor 14, 17 gives

$$\dot{x}^\nu T_{\mu \nu }\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}0,h^{\mu \alpha }T_{\alpha \nu }\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}m\mathrm{}h_{.\nu }^\mu $$
(21)
The first of these equations has as a consequence that one cannot usefully take a definition such as

$$P^\mu =V_\nu T^{\mu \nu },$$
(22)
as taking $`V^\nu `$ proportional to $`\dot{x}^\nu `$ gives $`P^\nu =0`$.

### 2.4 Derivatives of the Stress

Stress conservation 16 is explicitly

$$T_{..;\nu }^{\mu \nu }=\frac{m}{\mathrm{}}\left(\dot{x}^\alpha (\dot{x}_{.\alpha }^\mu \dot{x}_{\alpha .}^\mu )+\dot{x}^\mu \dot{x}_{.\alpha }^\alpha \frac{\dot{x}^\alpha \dot{x}^\beta }{\dot{x}^2}\dot{x}_{\alpha \beta }\dot{x}^\mu \right),$$
(23)
and is satisfied under the stringent condition

$$\dot{x}_{.;\beta }^\alpha =0.$$
(24)
The equation 24 can be thought of as

$$\dot{x}_{.;\beta }^\alpha =_\beta \frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }x^\alpha =\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }_\beta x^\alpha =\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }\left(\delta _\beta ^\alpha +\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\beta \gamma }^\alpha x^\gamma \right)=\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }\mathrm{\Gamma }_{\beta \gamma }^\alpha x^\gamma $$
(25)
implying that either the metric is flat or the coordinates are special. At first sight the first term in 23 looks as if it is related to the vorticity and the second term to the expansion of $`\dot{x}^\alpha `$; however $`\dot{x}^\alpha `$is not of unit size i.e. $`\dot{x}_\alpha \dot{x}^\alpha 1`$, or even constant vector, so that the identification is not straightforward, and the expression appears not to simplify. Simpification is more easily achieved with the mixed $`x,P`$ form of the stress, see the last equality of 17 to get the conservation equation

$$T_{..;\nu }^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}m\mathrm{}^\mu P_{.;\nu }^\mu \dot{x}^\nu +P_.^\nu \dot{x}_{.;\nu }^\nu $$
(26)
Taking the absolute derivative to be given by

$$\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }=\dot{x}^\nu _\nu ,$$
(27)
although it could be a function times this, the second term in 26 is the $`\tau `$ covariant derivative of $`P`$, i.e.

$$P_{.\nu }^\mu \dot{x}^\nu =\dot{P}^\mu ,$$
(28)
and this vanishes by the equations of motion 11. This term would still vanish if there was an additional function on the left of the right hand side of 27. The last term in 26 can be taken to be the expansion of $`x`$

$$\dot{x}_{.;\nu }^\nu =\stackrel{x}{\mathrm{\Theta }}.$$
(29)
Substituting 11, 16, 28 & 29 into 26 gives

$$m\mathrm{}^\mu =\stackrel{x}{\mathrm{\Theta }}P^\mu ,$$
(30)
which equates the expansion of $`x`$ to the change in the lenght $`\mathrm{}`$. Now

$$m\mathrm{}^\mu =^\mu ,$$
(31)
so that

$$^\mu =\stackrel{x}{\mathrm{\Theta }}P^\mu .$$
(32)
Expanding 30 for $`x`$ gives

$$\dot{x}_{.\alpha }^\alpha \dot{x}^\mu =\dot{x}_\alpha \dot{x}_{.\mu }^\alpha =\ddot{x}^\mu +2\dot{x}^\alpha \dot{x}_{[\mu \alpha ]},$$
(33)
which shows that the result 17 could not be directly obtained by differentiating the Lagrangian, neither does it follow immediateky from 23. Collecting together 30, 32 and 33 gives

$$^{;\mu }=m\mathrm{}^{;\mu }=\frac{m}{\mathrm{}}\dot{x}^\alpha \dot{x}_{.\mu }^\alpha =\frac{m}{\mathrm{}}(\ddot{x}2\dot{x}^\alpha \dot{x}_{[\mu \alpha ]})=\frac{m}{\mathrm{}}\dot{x}_{.\alpha }^\alpha \dot{x}^\mu =\stackrel{x}{\mathrm{\Theta }}P^\mu .$$
(34)
The preceeding way of requiring stress conservation occures in two parts seperately is not the same as the standard approach when a vector field is present, for example for a perfect fluid. There one requires $`V_\alpha T_{..;\beta }^{\alpha \beta }`$ and $`h_{.\beta }^\alpha T_{..;\gamma }^{\beta \gamma }`$ to vanish seperately. To see what happens if this is tried in the present case notice the form of stress conservation

$$T_{..;\nu }^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}m\mathrm{}_\nu h_{..}^{\mu \nu }m\mathrm{}h_{..;\nu }^{\mu \nu }$$
(35)
Transvecting with $`V^\mu `$ gives the second term equal to zero, substituting back into 35 gives the first term equal to zero, so that $`\mathrm{}`$ is a constant, which implies a very restricted system. The middle term of 26 is going to vanish by the equations of motion and 30 is just what remains, so that this method imposes no restriction on the system.

### 2.5 The Phase Space Action.

The phase space action is

$$S=_{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}d\tau _{\mathrm{ph}},_{\mathrm{ph}}\stackrel{\text{2}}{=}\dot{\mathrm{x}}\mathrm{P}+\lambda _1\sigma ^1.$$
(36)
this is sometimes called the first order form, and sometimes the Hamiltonian form. Varying with respect to $`\lambda `$, $`P^\alpha `$ and $`x^\alpha `$ gives

$`{\displaystyle \frac{\delta S}{\delta \lambda _1}}`$ $`=`$ $`P^2+m^2,{\displaystyle \frac{\delta S}{\delta P_\alpha }}=\dot{x}^\alpha +2\lambda _1P^\alpha ,`$ (37)
$`{\displaystyle _{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}}d\tau \mathrm{P}_\alpha \delta \dot{\mathrm{x}}^\alpha `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}}d\tau \left[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }}(\mathrm{P}_\alpha \delta \mathrm{x}^\alpha )\delta \mathrm{x}^\alpha {\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }}\mathrm{P}_\alpha \right]=\mathrm{P}_\alpha \delta \mathrm{x}^\alpha |_{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}{\displaystyle _{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}}d\tau \delta \mathrm{x}^\alpha \dot{\mathrm{P}}_\alpha ,`$
respectively. The first equality of the $`\delta x^\alpha `$ variation follows from 3. The first term of the $`\delta x^\alpha `$ variation is just the boundary condition 4 and so can be satisfied by 10. The second term of the $`\delta x^\alpha `$ variation gives the equation of motion 11.

At first sight the treatment of the energy-momentum is different from the coordinate space approach. The absense of the square root changes the first term by a factor of $`2`$ and the constraint gives an extra term so that by substituting

$$T^{\mu \nu }=2u^{[\mu }P^{\nu ]}2\lambda _1P^\mu P^\nu +g^{\mu \nu },$$
(38)
and this is the same as before 17. Note that the constraint contributes to the value of the stress 38, but not the Lagrangian 36

### 2.6 The Second Order Action

Removing $`P^\alpha `$ from the Lagaingian 36 using $`P^\mu =x^\mu /2\lambda _1`$ from 2.5 the Lagrangian reduces to its second order form

$$_2=\frac{1}{2}(\eta ^1\dot{x}^2\eta m^2),2\lambda _1=\eta .$$
(39)
Requiring that the variation of 39 with respect $`\eta `$ to vanish gives

$$\eta =\pm \frac{\sqrt{\dot{x}^2}}{m},$$
(40)
requiring the variation of 39 with repest to $`\dot{x}^\mu `$ to vanish gives

$$\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }\left(\frac{\dot{x}^\alpha }{\eta }\right)=0,$$
(41)
substituting the value of $`\eta `$ 40 gives the equation of motion 8. The energy-momentum tensor 15 is

$$T^{\mu \nu }=\frac{1}{\eta }\left(\dot{x}^\mu \dot{x}^\nu +\frac{1}{2}g^{\mu \nu }(\dot{x}^2m^2\eta ^2)\right),$$
(42)
substituting the value of $`\eta `$ 40 back into 42 gives the stress 17.

### 2.7 The Rotation and Shear of a Point Particle.

The identification of the preferred vector field as $`\dot{x}^\alpha `$ in §2.4 remains the same as the stresses $`T^{\mu \nu }`$ 17, 38, 42 and hence $`T_{..;\nu }^{\mu \nu }`$ are unaltered. Thus under the transformation $`\tau \tau ^{}`$ the preferred vector field just transforms as $`\frac{\mathrm{dx}^\alpha }{\mathrm{d}\tau }\frac{\mathrm{d}\tau ^{}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }\frac{\mathrm{dx}^\alpha }{\mathrm{d}\tau ^{}}`$.

Having identified the vector $`\dot{x^\alpha }`$, rather than say $`P^\alpha `$, as the preferred one, one can use the standard decomposition  and the appendix §6 to calculate the rotation and shear.

## 3 The String.

A point particle can be thought of as a minimal surface of zero dimension $`p=0`$, and a string a minimal surface of dimension one $`p=1`$, and a membrane a minimal surface of arbitrary $`p<d`$ the dimension of the spacetime. In this section the simplest string action and in the next section the simplest membrane action are investigated.

### 3.1 The Nambu-Goto Action.

The action of the string \[Eq.I.16 of \] can be taken in a form that corresponds to 1

$$S=_{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}_0^\pi d\tau d\sigma ,$$
(43)
where the standard specific Lagrangian is the Nambu-Goto Lagrangian

$$=\frac{𝒜}{2\pi \alpha ^{}},$$
(44)
the area $`𝒜`$ 45 is a generalization of the lenght $`\mathrm{}`$ 2

$$𝒜\sqrt{(\dot{x}x^{})^2\dot{x}^2x^2},$$
(45)
also in 43, $`\tau `$ is the evolution parameter, $`\sigma `$ is the kinematic parameter, $`\alpha ^{}`$ is the string tension, $`\dot{x}^\alpha =\mathrm{Dx}^\alpha /\mathrm{d}\tau `$, $`x^{}=\mathrm{Dx}^\alpha /\mathrm{d}\sigma `$. The velocities $`\dot{x}`$ and $`x^{}`$ can be varied in a similar manner to 3 to give the varied action

$`\delta S={\displaystyle _{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}}d\tau {\displaystyle _0^\pi }d\sigma \delta \mathrm{x}^\mu \left[{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }}{\displaystyle \frac{}{\dot{\mathrm{x}}^\mu }}+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\sigma }}{\displaystyle \frac{}{\mathrm{x}^\mu }}\right]`$
$`+{\displaystyle _0^\pi }d\sigma {\displaystyle \frac{}{\dot{\mathrm{x}}^\mu }}\delta \mathrm{x}^\mu |_{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}+{\displaystyle _{\tau _1}^{\tau _2}}d\tau {\displaystyle \frac{}{\mathrm{x}^\mu }}\delta \mathrm{x}^\mu |_{\sigma =0}^{\sigma =\pi }.`$ (46)
Choosing initial and final positions on the string to be fixed so that 6 is obeyed the second term vanishes. For open strings the third term vanishes when the edge condition c.f. eq.I.18 of

$$\frac{}{x^\mu }|_{\sigma =0}=\frac{}{x^\mu }|_{\sigma =\pi }$$
(47)
is obeyed. For closed strings $`x_\mu (\tau ,\sigma +2\pi )=x_\mu (\tau ,\sigma )`$ c.f. §II.7 of . The vanishing of the first term gives the string equation of motion

$$\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }\frac{}{\dot{x}^\mu }+\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\sigma }\frac{}{x^\mu }=0$$
(48)
### 3.2 Reduction to the Point Particle.

The theory of the string, a $`p=1`$ minimal surface, must somehow incorporate that of a $`p=0`$ minimal surface, which describes a point particle. To see how use the reduction equation

$$\frac{}{x^\alpha }=0,$$
(49)
the string equation of motion 48 takes the same form as 7. For the specific Lagrangian 44, the reduction equations

$$\dot{x}x^{}\stackrel{\text{44}}{=}0\&x^2\stackrel{\text{44}}{=}+1,$$
(50)
reduce the area $`𝒜`$ 45 to the lenght $`\mathrm{}`$ 2. The reduction equation

$$m=\frac{1}{2\pi \alpha ^{}}$$
(51)
equates the coupling constants so that the point particles equation of motion 8 is recovered.

### 3.3 Introducing Momenta.

One can define momenta

$$P_\mu ^\tau \frac{\delta S}{\delta \dot{x}^\mu }=\frac{}{\dot{x}^\mu },P_\mu ^\sigma \frac{\delta S}{\delta x^\mu }=\frac{}{x^\mu },$$
(52)
note that $`\tau \&\sigma `$ are superscripted not subscripted. These allow the edge condition 47 to be put in the form

$$P^{\mu \sigma }|_{\sigma =0}=P^{\mu \sigma }|_{\sigma =\pi },$$
(53)
and the equations of motion 48 to be put in the simple form

$$\dot{P}^{\tau \mu }+P^{\sigma \mu }=0,$$
(54)
where $`\dot{P}^{\tau \mu }=\mathrm{DP}^{\tau \mu }/\mathrm{d}\tau `$ and $`P^{\sigma \mu }=\mathrm{DP}^{\sigma \mu }/\mathrm{d}\sigma `$. For the specific Lagrangian 43 the momenta 52 are

$$2\pi \alpha ^{}𝒜P^{\tau \mu }\stackrel{\text{44}}{=}\dot{x}x^{}x^\mu x^2\dot{x}^\mu ,2\pi \alpha ^{}𝒜P^{\sigma \mu }\stackrel{\text{44}}{=}\dot{x}x^{}\dot{x}^\mu \dot{x}^2x^\mu ,$$
(55)
and using 50 the reduction equation 49 becomes

$$\dot{x}^2x^\mu =0,$$
(56)
and $`P^{\tau \mu }`$ reduces to $`P^\mu `$ 9 and $`P^{\sigma \mu }`$ vanishes. Inverting 55

$`𝒜\dot{x}^\mu =2\pi \alpha ^{}(\dot{x}^2P^{\tau \mu }+\dot{x}x^{}P^{\sigma \mu })=2\pi \alpha ^{}(P^{\sigma ^2}P^{\tau \mu }P^\tau P^\sigma P^{\sigma \mu }),`$
$`𝒜x^\mu =2\pi \alpha ^{}(x^2P^{\sigma \mu }+\dot{x}x^{}P^{\tau \mu })=2\pi \alpha ^{}(P^{\tau ^2}P^{\sigma \mu }P^\tau P^\sigma P^{\tau \mu }).`$ (57)
### 3.4 Introducing the Hessian.

The specific projection tensor is defined by

$`h^{\mu \nu }`$ $`\stackrel{\text{44}}{}`$ $`g^{\mu \nu }+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{𝒜^2}}\times \left(\dot{x}^2x^\mu x^\nu +x^2\dot{x}^\mu \dot{x}^\nu (\dot{x}x^{})(\dot{x}^\mu x^\nu +x^\mu \dot{x}^\nu )\right),`$
$`h`$ $`=`$ $`d2.`$ (58)
this projection tensor is a generalization of the familiar one in general relativity 14. It can be written in several forms using momenta only or, momenta and coordinates, the most convenient is

$$h^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{\text{44}}{=}g^{\mu \nu }+\frac{2\pi \alpha ^{}}{𝒜}\times (P^{\tau \mu }\dot{x}^\nu +P^{\sigma \mu }x^\nu ),$$
(59)
which corresponds to the middle equality of the first line of 14. The projection tensor 58 obeys the equations

$`h^{\mu \nu }\dot{x}_\nu ^{}`$ $`=`$ $`\dot{x}^\mu +{\displaystyle \frac{1}{𝒜^2}}\times \left((\dot{x}^2x^{}\dot{x}^{}\dot{x}x^{}\dot{x}\dot{x}^{})x^\mu +(x^2\dot{x}\dot{x}^{}\dot{x}x^{}x^{}\dot{x}^{})\dot{x}^\mu \right),`$
$`h^{\mu \nu }\underset{\nu }{\overset{}{x}}`$ $`=`$ $`0,h=d2,h^{\mu \alpha }h_{\nu \alpha }=h_{.\nu }^\mu ,`$ (60)
with $`=0\mathrm{or}^{}`$ and $`h^{\mu \nu }x\mathrm{"}`$ following by symmetry. The specific projection tensor allows the derivatives of the momenta to be expressed as

$$2\pi \alpha ^{}𝒜P^{\tau \mu }=h^{\mu \nu }(x^2\dot{x}_\nu ^{}\dot{x}x^{}x_\nu ^{})\pm \dot{x}x^{}x^\mu x^{}x^{}\dot{x}^\mu $$
(61)
with the top sign in the last two terms for $`=0`$ and the bottom sign for $`=^{}`$, and similarly for $`P^{\sigma \mu }`$. The Hessian is

$`W^{\tau \tau \mu \nu }`$ $`\stackrel{\text{44}}{=}`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{x^2h^{\mu \nu }}{2\pi \alpha ^{}𝒜}},W^{\sigma \tau \nu \mu }\stackrel{\text{44}}{=}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi \alpha ^{}𝒜}}(\dot{x}x^{}h^{\mu \nu }+\dot{x}^\nu x^\mu x^\nu \dot{x}^\mu )`$
$`W^{\sigma \sigma \mu \nu }`$ $`\stackrel{\text{44}}{=}`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{x}^2h^{\mu \nu }}{2\pi \alpha ^{}𝒜}},W^{\tau \sigma \nu \mu }\stackrel{\text{44}}{=}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi \alpha ^{}𝒜}}(\dot{x}x^{}h^{\mu \nu }+\dot{x}^\mu x^\nu \dot{x}^\nu x^\mu )`$ (62)
the equations of motion 54 become

$`2\pi \alpha ^{}𝒜(\dot{P}^{\tau \mu }+P^{\sigma \mu })`$ $`\stackrel{\text{44}}{=}`$ $`2\pi \alpha ^{}𝒜\left(\ddot{x}_\nu W^{\tau \tau \mu \nu }+x_\nu ^{\prime \prime }W^{\sigma \sigma \mu \nu }+\dot{x}_\nu ^{}(W^{\tau \sigma \mu \nu }+W^{\sigma \tau \mu \nu })\right)`$ (63)
$`\stackrel{\text{44}}{=}`$ $`h^{\mu \nu }(x^2\ddot{x}_\nu +\dot{x}^2x_\nu ^{\prime \prime }2\dot{x}x^{}\dot{x}^\nu )=0,`$
### 3.5 The Stress and Its Derivatives.

The energy-momentum 15 for 44 is

$$T_{\mu \nu }=\frac{𝒜}{2\pi \alpha ^{}}(2h_{\mu \nu }g_{\mu \nu }),T=\frac{(4d)𝒜}{2\pi \alpha ^{}},$$
(64)
and 64 is traceless in four dimensions. At first sight, using 18 for the perfect fluid equivalence of this energy-momentum one has

$$p=\mu =\frac{𝒜}{2\pi \alpha ^{}}$$
(65)
however this assumes that the $`h^{\mu \nu }`$’s 14 and 58 are the same which they are not. Choosing two interacting fluids with stress

$$T^{\mu \nu }=(\mu _1+p_1)V^\mu V^\nu +(\mu _2+p_2)W_\mu W_\nu +(p_1+p_2)g^{\mu \nu }+2\xi V_{(\mu }W_{\nu )}$$
(66)
and choosing non-unit vectors $`V^\mu =\dot{x}^\mu /𝒜`$, $`W^\mu =x^\mu /𝒜`$ the interaction parameter is

$$\xi =(\dot{x}x^{})\frac{𝒜}{\pi \alpha ^{}}$$
(67)
and there is one free function among the four $`\mu _1,\mu _2,p_1,p_2`$ letting it be $`p_2`$ gives

$$p_1=\frac{𝒜}{2\pi \alpha ^{}}p_2,\mu _1=p_2+(12x^2)\frac{𝒜}{2\pi \alpha ^{}},\mu _2=p_2\frac{\dot{x}^2𝒜}{\pi \alpha ^{}}.$$
(68)
For investigation of the stress’s derivatives it is easiest to work with the mixed form of the projection tensor 59 giving

$$T^{\mu \nu }=2(P^{\tau \mu }\dot{x}^\nu +P^{\sigma \mu }x^\nu )\frac{𝒜g^{\mu \nu }}{2\pi \alpha ^{}}.$$
(69)
Stress conservation 16 gives

$$T_{..;\nu }^{\mu \nu }=\frac{𝒜^\mu }{2\pi \alpha ^{}}2(\dot{P}^{\tau \mu }+P^{\sigma \mu }+\stackrel{\tau }{\mathrm{\Theta }}P^{\tau \mu }+\stackrel{\sigma }{\mathrm{\Theta }}P^{\sigma \mu })$$
(70)
where the absolute derivatives are taken to be given by

$$\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\tau }=\dot{x}^\nu _\nu ,\frac{\mathrm{D}}{\mathrm{d}\sigma }=x^\nu _\nu ,$$
(71)
and the expansions are

$$\stackrel{\tau }{\mathrm{\Theta }}=\dot{x}_{.\nu }^\nu ,\stackrel{\sigma }{\mathrm{\Theta }}=x_{.\nu }^\nu .$$
(72)
After using the equations of motion 54 stress conservation gives

$$𝒜^\mu =4\pi \alpha ^{}(\stackrel{\tau }{\mathrm{\Theta }}P^{\tau \mu }+\stackrel{\sigma }{\mathrm{\Theta }}P^{\sigma \mu })$$
(73)
which equates the expansion of $`x`$ to the change in the area, compare 21. Equations 72 suggest that there are two preferred vector fields $`\dot{x}^\mu `$ and $`x^\mu `$, however $`\tau `$ and $`\sigma `$ are not unique and can transform, so that mixtures of $`\dot{x}^\mu `$ and $`x^\mu `$ might be better preferred vector fields. The best way to approach this is through vector notation with $`a,b\mathrm{}=\tau ,\sigma `$, this can be achieved with not much more effort by using the Dirac membrane.

## 4 The Membrane.

### 4.1 The Action.

The membrane action is

$$S_D=_M\mathrm{d}^{\mathrm{p}+1}\xi \sqrt{\gamma }\stackrel{ˇ}{},\gamma _{\mathrm{ab}}=\mathrm{g}_{\mu \nu }_\mathrm{a}\mathrm{x}^\mu _\mathrm{b}\mathrm{x}^\nu ,\sqrt{\gamma }=(det\gamma _{\mathrm{ab}})^{\frac{1}{2}},$$
(74)
where $`=\sqrt{\gamma }\stackrel{ˇ}{}`$. Choosing

$`p`$ $`=`$ $`1,\stackrel{ˇ}{}=k={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\pi \alpha ^{}}},a,b\mathrm{}=\tau ,\sigma ,\mathrm{d}^2\xi =\mathrm{d}\tau \mathrm{d}\sigma ,`$ (75)
$`\gamma `$ $`=`$ $`det(\gamma _{ab})=𝒜^2,\gamma _{ab}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\dot{x}^2& \dot{x}x^{}\\ x^{}\dot{x}& x^2\end{array}\right),\gamma \gamma ^{ab}=\left(\begin{array}{cc}x^2& x^{}\dot{x}\\ \dot{x}x^{}& \dot{x}^2\end{array}\right),`$ (80)
this reduces to the Nambu-Goto action 44. The first fundamental form is defined by

$$\mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }\gamma ^{ab}x_a^\mu x_b^\nu ,\mathrm{}^{\mu \rho }\mathrm{}_{.\rho }^\nu =\mathrm{}^{\mu \nu },\mathrm{}_{.\rho }^\rho =\gamma _{.c}^c=x_{..}^{\rho c}x_{\rho c}=p+1,$$
(81)
which allows the generalization of the projection tensors 14 and 58 to be expressed as

$$h^{\mu \nu }\stackrel{\text{74}}{=}g^{\mu \nu }\mathrm{}^{\mu \nu },h=d1p.$$
(82)
Choosing

$$\stackrel{ˇ}{}_D=k,\stackrel{ˇ}{}_P=\frac{k}{2}\left\{\mathrm{}_{.\rho }^\rho (p1)\right\},\stackrel{ˇ}{}_C=k\left\{\frac{\mathrm{}_{.\rho }^\rho }{p+1}\right\}^{\frac{p+1}{2}},\stackrel{ˇ}{}=k_{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{}),$$
(83)
gives the Dirac  or determinant form which generalizes 2, the second order form generalizing 39, and conformal actions respectively. Rather than work with these three Lagrangians seperately it is often easier to work with $`_{\mathrm{}}`$, where $`_{\mathrm{}}(\mathrm{})`$ is a function of $`\mathrm{}_\rho ^\rho `$, as it includes all of them as special cases. Substituting $`\mathrm{}_\rho ^\rho =p+1`$ into the first three of these actions gives $`\stackrel{ˇ}{}_D=\stackrel{ˇ}{}_P=\stackrel{ˇ}{}_C=k`$

The spacetime metric stress 15 generalizing 17 and 63 is

$`T_{\mathrm{}}^{\mu \nu }`$ $`=`$ $`k\sqrt{\gamma }\left\{((p+1)_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{})h^{\mu \nu }(p_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{})g^{\mu \nu }\right\},`$
$`T`$ $`=`$ $`k\sqrt{\gamma }\left\{(d(p+1)^2)_{\mathrm{}}2(p+1)_{\mathrm{}}^{}\right\},`$ (84)
where $`_{\mathrm{}}^{}=_{\mathrm{}}/\mathrm{}_\rho ^\rho `$. This can be traceless for example for $`_{\mathrm{}}=(\mathrm{}_\rho ^\rho )^n`$ with $`2n=d(p+1)^2`$ The stresses for the first three lagrangians of 83 are

$$T_D^{\mu \nu }=k\sqrt{\gamma }\left\{(p+1)h^{\mu \nu }pg^{\mu \nu }\right\},T_P^{\mu \nu }=T_C^{\mu \nu }=k\sqrt{\gamma }\left\{(p+2)h^{\mu \nu }(p+1)g^{\mu \nu }\right\}.$$
(85)
The reason that $`T_P^{\mu \nu }`$ and $`T_C^{\mu \nu }`$ are different from $`T_D^{\mu \nu }`$ is that the contribution to the stress from the constraints has not been taken into account, see equation 38 for how this is done for the point particle. The stresses calculated with the internal metric are described in the next section §5. The spacetime metric stress 84 can be projected

$$h_{\mu \rho }T^{\rho \nu }=k\sqrt{\gamma }_{\mathrm{}}h_{.\mu }^\nu ,x_{\nu a}T^{\mu \nu }=k\sqrt{\gamma }(p_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{})x_{.a}^\mu .$$
(86)
The spacetime metric stress 84 is of the form of functions times $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ and $`h_{\mu \nu }`$ and so has a fluid anology, assuming that there is a fluid of a form generalizing 18

$$T^{\mu \nu }=(\mu +𝒫)h^{\mu \nu }\mu g_{\mu \nu },$$
(87)
which now has a much more complex projection tensor $`h_{\mu \nu }`$ given by 82. 84 gives the pressure and density

$$𝒫=k\sqrt{\gamma }_{\mathrm{}},\mu =k\sqrt{\gamma }(p_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{}),$$
(88)
and this has a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equation of state

$$𝒫=(\mathrm{\Gamma }1)\mu ,$$
(89)
with

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=\frac{(p+1)_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{}}{p_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{}},p_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{}0,$$
(90)
the $`p=0`$ case is more easily treated seperately, see 20. For $`p0`$ the projection tensor involves more than one vector field and so does not have a familiar general relativistic interpretation of being orthogonal to a moving observer. The $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$-equation of state usually has $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ a number rather than a function, in the present case this can be achieved using $`_{\mathrm{}}=(\mathrm{}_\rho ^\rho )^n`$ giving

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }=\frac{(p+1)^2+2n}{p(p+1)+2n},n=\frac{(p+1)(p\mathrm{\Gamma }(p+1))}{2(1\mathrm{\Gamma })}.$$
(91)
In general a system described by a set of vectors has a fluid anology when there exists an internal metric so that a surface with first fundamental form and projection can be defined.

The equation of motion resulting from varying 74 with respect to $`x`$ is

$$k_a\left\{\sqrt{\gamma }x^{\mu a}(_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{})\right\}=0.$$
(92)
Substituting $`_P`$ gives a constant times Polchinski eq.1.2.25. From now on assume $`_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{}0`$. The momenta are

$$P^{\mu a}\frac{\delta S}{\delta _ax_\mu }=\frac{}{_ax_\mu }=k\sqrt{\gamma }(_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{})x^{\mu a}$$
(93)
so that the equation of motion generalizing 54 is

$$_aP^{\mu a}=0.$$
(94)
In terms of the momenta 93 the first fundamental form 81 is

$$\mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }=\frac{P_a^\mu x^{\nu a}}{\sqrt{\gamma }(_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{})}$$
(95)
from this the projection tensor 82 can be constructed and it generalizes 59. The stress 84 can now be expressed as

$$T^{\mu \nu }=g^{\mu \nu }FP^{\mu a}x_a^\nu ,F\frac{p_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{}}{_{\mathrm{}}+2_{\mathrm{}}^{}}\mathrm{\Gamma }$$
(96)
with $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ given by 90 and this generalizes 69.

### 4.2 Derivatives of the Stress.

Covariantly differentiating with respect to $`x^\nu `$ gives the generalization of 70

$$T_{..;\nu }^{\mu \nu }=^\mu (FP^{\mu a}x_a^\nu )_\nu ,$$
(97)
where the absolute derivatives are

$$_a=_ax^\nu _\nu ,$$
(98)
and the $`p+1`$ expansions are

$$\stackrel{a}{\mathrm{\Theta }}=_ax_{.\nu }^\nu .$$
(99)
After using the equations of motion 94 stress conservation gives

$$^\mu =P^{\mu a}\left(F\stackrel{a}{\mathrm{\Theta }}+F_a\right),$$
(100)
for the Dirac Lagrangian $`F=p+1`$ and the second term on the right hand side vanishes. This equation 100 equates the spacetime derivative of the Lagrangian to the expansions of $`x^\mu `$, this generalizes 73 and 34. From 99 and 100 it is apparent that the best vector field for calculating shear and vorticity is

$$V^\mu =\underset{a=1}{\overset{p}{}}_ax^\mu .$$
(101)
using this vector one can use the standard decomposition , see also the appendix §6 below, to calculate the rotation and shear of a membrane.

## 5 Worldsheet Restriction.

Define the internal metric stress

$$T^{ab}\frac{1}{\sqrt{\gamma }}\frac{\delta S}{\delta \gamma _{ab}}=2\frac{\stackrel{ˇ}{}}{\gamma _{ab}}+\gamma ^{ab}\stackrel{ˇ}{}$$
(102)
then the restricted spactime stress is

$$\overline{T}^{\mu \nu }=x_a^\mu x_b^\nu T^{ab}$$
(103)
compare the equations Carter eq.6.3. $`\overline{T}^{\mu \nu }`$ is part of $`T^{\mu \nu }`$, unfortunately there does not seem to be a way of finding it using projections. Let $`n_\nu `$ be any normal to the membrane such that

$$n_\mu x_a^\mu =0,$$
(104)
then from 103

$$n_\mu \overline{T}^{\mu \nu }=0,$$
(105)
implying that the stress is restricted to the surface, and so is only part of $`T^{\mu \nu }`$. Any projection tensor constructed from $`n_\mu `$ is not the same as 82.

The restricted spacetime stress can be thought of in the following way. Taking the lagrangian corresponding to 74 to be $`\overline{}`$ the restricted action is

$$S=d^{p+1}\xi \sqrt{\gamma }\overline{}(\xi )$$
(106)
with $`\gamma `$ being given by the second equation of 74. In this case $`T^{\mu \nu }`$ contains a factor of a $`(dp)`$-dimensional $`\delta `$-function ensuring that it vanishes for all values of $`x`$ not on the worldsheet. What multiplies the $`\delta `$-function ia a quantity $`\overline{T}^{\mu \nu }`$, which can be defined by requiring that the change of the action under a small change of the metric is

$$\delta S=\frac{1}{2}d^{p+1}\xi \sqrt{\gamma }\overline{T}^{\mu \nu }\delta g_{\mu \nu }(X(\xi )),$$
(107)
compare Carter eq.6.2. and this variation again gives 103.

For the lagrangians 83

$`T_D^{ab}`$ $`=`$ $`k\gamma ^{ab},T_{\mathrm{}}^{ab}=2k_{\mathrm{}}^{}x_\rho ^ax^{\rho b}+k_{\mathrm{}}\gamma ^{ab},\overline{T}_{\mathrm{}}^{\mu \nu }=k(_{\mathrm{}}2_{\mathrm{}}^{})\mathrm{}^{\mu \nu }`$
$`T_P^{ab}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{k}{2}}\left(2x_\rho ^ax_\rho ^b\gamma ^{ab}(\mathrm{}_\rho ^\rho p+1)\right)`$
$`T_C^{ab}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{k}{p+1}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}_\rho ^\rho }{p+1}}\right)^{\frac{p1}{2}}\left((p+1)x^{\rho a}x_\rho ^b+\mathrm{}_\rho ^\rho \gamma ^{ab}\right)`$ (108)
The second of these is Polchinski eq.1.2.22 when $`p=1,k=1/\alpha ^{}`$. The traces of 108 are

$$T_{Da}^a=k(p+1),T_{Pa}^a=T_{Ca}^a=0.$$
(109)
After substituting $`\mathrm{}_\rho ^\rho =p+1`$ the conservation equations are

$$T_{D|b}^{ab}=0,T_{P|b}^{ab}=T_C^{ab}=k(x_\rho ^ax^{\rho b})_a,$$
(110)
In this case as the derivatives are with respect to the internal metric so there is no resulting spacetime vector field to use to construct spacetime rotation and shear.

## 6 Appendix

A vector field can be decomposed

$$V_{\mu ;\nu }=\omega _{\mu \nu }+\sigma _{\mu \nu }+\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{\Theta }h_{\mu \nu }\dot{V}_\mu V_\nu ,$$
(111)
where the vorticity tensor and vector are

$$\omega _{\mu \nu }=h_\mu ^\alpha h_\nu ^\beta V_{[\alpha ;\beta ]},\omega ^\mu =\frac{1}{2}\eta ^{\mu \nu \alpha \beta }V_\nu \omega _{\alpha \beta },$$
(112)
the expansion tensor and scalar are

$$\mathrm{\Theta }_{\mu \nu }=h_\mu ^\alpha h_\nu ^\beta V_{(\alpha ;\beta )},\mathrm{\Theta }=V_{.;\mu }^\mu ,$$
(113)
and the shear is

$$\sigma _{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{\Theta }_{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{3}h_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{\Theta },$$
(114)
## 7 Conclusion.

The vector 101, rather than say $`_{a=1}^pP^{\mu a}`$, produces conservation equations 97, terms of which can be removed by the equations of motion, leaving a simple relationship between the spacetime derivative of the Lagrangian and the expansion of 101: thus it is best for forming geometric objects, such as rotation and shear.

## 8 Acknowledgement

I would like to thank Tom Kibble for reading the paper and pointing out the references of Carter.


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# The Lightest Scalar Nonet as Higgs Bosons of Strong Interactions

## I Acknowledgements

Support from EU-TMR program, contract CT98-0169 is gratefully acknowledged. I thank J. Schechter, Syracuse for emphasizing that it should be the axial vectors which get mass through this mechanism.