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# Compton Scattering from the Deuteron and Extracted Neutron Polarizabilities

## Abstract

Differential cross sections for Compton scattering from the deuteron were measured at MAX-lab for incident photon energies of 55 MeV and 66 MeV at nominal laboratory angles of $`45^{}`$, $`125^{}`$, and $`135^{}`$. Tagged photons were scattered from liquid deuterium and detected in three NaI spectrometers. By comparing the data with theoretical calculations in the framework of a one-boson-exchange potential model, the sum and difference of the isospin-averaged nucleon polarizabilities, $`\alpha _N+\beta _N=17.4\pm 3.7`$ and $`\alpha _N\beta _N=6.4\pm 2.4`$ (in units of $`10^4`$ fm3), have been determined. By combining the latter with the global-averaged value for $`\alpha _p\beta _p`$ and using the predictions of the Baldin sum rule for the sum of the nucleon polarizabilities, we have obtained values for the neutron electric and magnetic polarizabilities of $`\alpha _n=8.8\pm 2.4`$(total) $`\pm 3.0`$(model) and $`\beta _n=6.52.4`$(total) $`3.0`$(model), respectively.

The electric ($`\alpha `$) and magnetic ($`\beta `$) polarizabilities of the nucleon characterize the second-order response of its internal structure to applied electric and magnetic fields, respectively. Since the polarizabilities manifest themselves in two-photon processes, an excellent method to measure them is via Compton scattering experiments.

The most recent global average Olmos01  for the difference of the proton polarizabilities is

$$\alpha _p\beta _p=10.5\pm 0.9(\mathrm{stat}+\mathrm{syst})\pm 0.7(\mathrm{model}),$$
(1)
in units of $`10^4`$ fm3 (which will be used throughout this paper). The sum of the nucleon polarizabilities is usually obtained indirectly via the predictions of the Baldin sum rule. A recent re-evaluation of this sum rule LL00  gives

$`\alpha _p+\beta _p`$ $`=`$ $`14.0\pm 0.3,`$ (2)
$`\alpha _n+\beta _n`$ $`=`$ $`15.2\pm 0.5.`$ (3)
Electromagnetic scattering of low-energy neutrons in the electric fields of heavy nuclei was used to extract $`\alpha _n`$ (see Ref. aleks66  and the references therein). There have been many attempts to measure $`\alpha _n`$ using this method aleksandr ; Sch91 ; Koe95 ; Eni97 , but the final conclusion regarding its value has remained unclear. Note that this method does not constrain $`\beta _n`$.

Scattering real photons from neutrons bound in nuclei is another way to measure the neutron polarizabilities. The use of a deuterium target permits the theoretical uncertainties in the interpretation of the experimental data to be minimized. Both the reactions $`\gamma d\gamma np`$ (quasi-free) and $`\gamma d\gamma d`$ (elastic) can be considered. The suggestion to exploit the quasi-free kinematic region was made in Refs. levchuk94 ; wissmann98 . An advantage of this approach is that it can be carefully tested by comparing measured quasi-free proton cross sections with available free-proton data. The method has been used in a series of experiments at MAMI rose90 ; wissmann99 ; kossert02  and SAL kolb00 . The values for the neutron polarizabilities found in these experiments are in agreement with each other; however, the sizes of the quoted errors differ markedly. The most accurate values to date have recently been reported in Ref. kossert02  as

$`\alpha _n`$ $`=`$ $`12.5\pm 1.8(\mathrm{stat}){}_{0.6}{}^{+1.1}(\mathrm{syst})\pm 1.1(\mathrm{model}),`$ (4)
$`\beta _n`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2.7}1.8(\mathrm{stat}){}_{1.1}{}^{+0.6}(\mathrm{syst})1.1(\mathrm{model}).`$ (5)
The anti-correlated errors in Eqs. (4) and (5) are due to the application of the sum-rule result (3). In view of the model errors contained in Eqs. (4) and (5), confirmation of these values is of great importance.

Elastic photon scattering from the deuteron provides a third experimental method for determining the neutron polarizabilities. While only the isospin-averaged nucleon polarizabilities $`\alpha _N=(\alpha _p+\alpha _n)/2`$ and $`\beta _N=(\beta _p+\beta _n)/2`$ can be measured, this is not a major problem since the proton values are rather accurate (see Eqs. (1) and (2)). Although the first such measurements of elastic $`\gamma d`$ scattering were performed many years ago (see Ref. tenore65  and the references therein), only two recent experiments at Illinois at Eγ = 49 and 69 MeV Lucas94  and at SAL at Eγ = 94 MeV Horn00  have been precise enough to reveal the effect of the nucleon polarizabilities. However, the values for $`\alpha _N\beta _N`$ extracted from these measurements are inconsistent. With the use of the theoretical model LL00 , a value of $`2.6\pm 1.8`$ was obtained in Ref. Horn00  that together with Eq. (1) gives $`\alpha _n\beta _n5.3\pm 3.8`$. But to describe the data from Ref. Lucas94 , one needs to increment $`\alpha _N\beta _N`$ to $`7.9\pm 3.8`$, thus giving $`\alpha _n\beta _n=5.3\pm 7.6`$. The former value is far from theoretical estimates of this quantity based on dispersion relations, which crudely predict that $`\alpha _n\beta _n\alpha _p\beta _p`$ (see Refs. Lvov93 ; petr81 ; HN94 ). It also contradicts the results obtained from quasi-free neutron Compton scattering (see Eqs. (4) and (5)).

In this Letter, we report a new measurement of the differential cross section for deuteron Compton scattering performed at MAX-lab. The near-continuous, 95 MeV electron beam from the MAX I stretcher ring was used to produce tagged photons, in the energy range 50-72 MeV, with an FWHM energy resolution of $``$330 keV and a flux of about $`3\times 10^5`$ MeV-1s-1 Lin90 ; Adl97 . The post-bremsstrahlung electrons were momentum analysed in a magnetic spectrometer using two 32 scintillator hodoscopes located along the focal plane. They were placed such that the central tagged-photon energies were 55 MeV and 66 MeV. The photon beam was incident upon a scattering chamber containing liquid deuterium in a cylindrical cell (length 160 mm and diameter 48 mm) Gle93  made from 125 $`\mu `$m thick Kapton foil.

Scattered photons were detected in three spectrometers, each containing a central NaI detector 25.4 cm in diameter and with depths of either 25.4 or 35.5 cm, placed at nominal lab angles of 45, 125, and 135 at a distance of approximately 0.4 m from the target. The resulting solid angle (together with the detection efficiency) was precisely determined via GEANT simulations. The energy resolution of the NaI spectrometers ranged from 6 to 8% at a photon energy of 60 MeV. The gain stability of the NaI detectors was continuously monitored and instabilities were corrected for using a Light Emitting Diode (LED) system Lun02 . In turn, the stability of the LED system was monitored and verified by examining the location of the cosmic peak on a run-by-run basis. The data acquisition was started by an event in any one of the NaI detectors, which provided gates for charge integrating ADCs (Analog to Digital Converter) and start signals for TDCs (Time to Digital Converter) used for time-of-flight (TOF) measurements. The stop signals for the TDCs came from the focal-plane detectors. In order to monitor the number of pile-up events in the NaI crystals, a 250 MHz Flash ADC was used. Less than 1% of the events were affected by pile-up.

Data were collected over 8 weeks, divided typically into two-week run periods. For each run period, tagging efficiencies ($``$20%) were measured using a Pb/SCIFI detector Her90 . In addition, the responses of the NaI spectrometers were measured by placing them directly in the reduced intensity photon beam. For each detector, the aforementioned GEANT simulations were phenomenologically broadened to match the measured responses. This broadening was then folded into second-stage simulations of the in situ responses and solid angles Lun02 . A typical result is shown by the dashed line in Fig. 1.

This missing energy ($`E_{\mathrm{miss}}`$) spectrum was obtained by summing over a 10 MeV interval centered at 55 MeV. $`E_{\mathrm{miss}}`$ was defined as the difference between the tagged-photon energy (corrected for the Compton scattering energy shift) and the energy registered in the NaI detector. The subtraction of random events was performed using two independent methods: one used the TOF between the scattered photons and the post-bremsstrahlung electrons, while the other employed the non-physical ($`E_{\mathrm{miss}}<`$ 0) region of the energy spectrum. An average normalization factor was employed which resulted in a 4% systematic uncertainty in the extracted cross sections. The experimental data were fitted within the region of interest (ROI) considering the contributions of elastically scattered photons from liquid deuterium, from the Kapton cell and the scattering chamber windows, and from ice (H2O) which built up on the cell during the run period. The contribution from the cell and windows was calculated using known differential cross sections for carbon and oxygen Lud91 ; Hag95 ; Pro98 . The contribution from ice was fitted using data from the largest detector at the backward angles and extrapolated to the other detector angles. The careful quantification of the experimental background due to the empty target and ice resulted in an average improvement in the $`\chi ^2`$ of the fit functions of 20% for the backward detector angles. The observed contributions correspond to ice-layer thicknesses of about 100 $`\mu `$m per cell endcap. The contribution from inelastic scattering (which begins at $`E_{\mathrm{miss}}`$ = 2.2 MeV) was kept to less than 3% via the narrow ROI.

The systematic uncertainties for the experiment ($``$8%) arise from the tagging efficiency (5%), the product of the solid angle and the detection efficiency (4%), the random background subtraction (4%), the contamination of the ROI by inelastic photon scattering (3%), and the target thickness (2%).

Results for the center-of-mass (CM) cross sections are given in Table 1 and displayed in Fig. 2. Earlier results from Illinois Lucas94  and SAL Horn00  are also shown. Since the Illinois data were obtained at slightly different photon energies (49 MeV and 69 MeV), we extrapolated them to our energies using the theoretical model presented in Ref. LL00 . Good agreement with the Illinois data is clearly demonstrated.

The polarizabilities of the nucleon have been determined using the theoretical model presented in Ref. LL00 . In this model, apart from effects due to the one-body $`\gamma `$$`N`$ interaction (which contain the effects due to the polarizabilities), two-body effects due to the $`NN`$ interaction and related Meson-Exchange Currents (MEC) have been included via a series of one-boson exchanges which constitute the Bonn potential. After making a two-parameter fit to the data in Table 1 with the use of this model, we obtain for the sum and difference of the isospin-averaged nucleon polarizabilities

$`\alpha _N+\beta _N`$ $`=`$ $`17.4\pm 3.7(\mathrm{stat}+\mathrm{syst}),`$ (6)
$`\alpha _N\beta _N`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}6.4}\pm 2.4(\mathrm{stat}+\mathrm{syst}),`$ (7)
with $`\chi ^2/N_{\mathrm{dof}}=7.5/(182)`$. The quoted uncertainties are the statistical and systematic uncertainties taken in quadrature. The obtained sum $`\alpha _N+\beta _N`$ is in agreement with the values given in Eqs. (2) and (3). This indicates that the systematic uncertainties (including the model uncertainty) are well understood.

Having extracted $`\alpha _N`$ and $`\beta _N`$, we invoked the accurate proton values for $`\alpha _p`$ and $`\beta _p`$ to derive the neutron polarizabilities. In doing this, we relied on the precise sum-rule prediction (3) rather than on our result (6). Making use of Eqs. (1)–(3) and (7), we obtain

$`\alpha _n`$ $`=`$ $`8.8\pm 2.4(\mathrm{stat}+\mathrm{syst}),`$ (8)
$`\beta _n`$ $`=`$ $`6.52.4(\mathrm{stat}+\mathrm{syst}).`$ (9)
If all currently available data (Illinois, SAL, and Lund) are fit using the theoretical model of Ref. LL00 , the following “global values” may be inferred:

$`\alpha _N+\beta _N`$ $`=`$ $`16.7\pm 1.6(\mathrm{tot}),`$ (10)
$`\alpha _N\beta _N`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4.8}\pm 2.0(\mathrm{tot}),`$ (11)
with $`\chi ^2/N_{\mathrm{dof}}=38/(292)`$. Thus, using the Baldin sum rule and Eq. (1),

$`\alpha _n`$ $`=`$ $`7.2\pm 2.1(\mathrm{tot}),`$ (12)
$`\beta _n`$ $`=`$ $`8.12.1(\mathrm{tot}).`$ (13)
Here both statistical and systematic uncertainties have been combined, the latter being taken into account through a rescaling of measured cross sections within their normalization uncertainties.

Model uncertainties in the extracted values of the polarizabilities can be partly understood by comparing different calculations of d$`\sigma `$/d$`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ LL00 ; chen98 ; kara99 ; bean99 ; grie02 ; bean02 . Fig. 2 shows the three most recent predictions LL00 ; grie02 ; bean02  at fixed $`\alpha _N`$ = 11.9 and $`\beta _N`$ = 5.5 as given by (6) and (7). At the energies and angles of the present experiment, there is reasonable agreement between the potential model of Ref. LL00  and the $`𝒪(p^4)`$ Chiral Perturbation Theory (ChPT) results of Ref. bean02 . At the SAL energy and angles, this agreement is poorer. Agreement with the $`𝒪(p^3)`$ ChPT calculation of Ref. grie02  is worse.

Within the framework of the potential model used here, the main uncertainties which contribute to the extraction of the polarizabilities arise from evaluations of the MEC and seagull terms. The majority of these uncertainties may be collected into the Thomas-Reiche-Kuhn sum rule enhancement parameter $`\kappa `$ which determines the magnitude of the seagull contribution LL00 . Depending on the $`NN`$ potential used (Paris, Bonn, OBEPR, Argonne v18, Nijm93, or CD-Bonn) the value of $`\kappa `$ varies from 0.44 to 0.51. This leads to variations in the differential cross section of about 4% which result in variations in the extracted value of $`\alpha _N`$ of about $`\pm `$1.5. We adopt this as an estimate of the model uncertainty in $`\alpha _N`$. Accordingly, the model uncertainty in the derived value of $`\alpha _n`$ is about $`\pm `$3. The model uncertainty in $`\beta _n`$ is anticipated to be smaller than that in $`\alpha _n`$, as the changes in $`\kappa `$ given above affect $`\beta _N`$ to a smaller degree.

The values obtained for $`\alpha _n`$ and $`\beta _n`$ are in reasonable agreement with those found in quasi-free Compton scattering from the neutron (see Eqs. (4) and (5)). However, we observed the tendency of the technique of elastic Compton scattering from the deuteron to give smaller values for $`\alpha _n\beta _n`$ than did the technique of quasi-free scattering. Predictions for $`\alpha _n`$ in the framework of ChPT at $`𝒪(p^4)`$ BKM93 , the heavy baryon ChPT model with the $`\mathrm{\Delta }`$-isobar included hemmert98 , and the so-called “covariant dressed K-matrix model” kondr01  give values of 13.0 $`\pm `$ 1.5, 16.4, and 12.7, respectively. All are somewhat larger than our value. The situation concerning $`\beta _n`$ is less clear. Resonable agreement with ChPT results of 7.8 $`\pm `$ 3.6 BKM93  and 9.1 hemmert98  is demonstrated. Ref. kondr01  suggests a noticably smaller value of 1.8.

In summary, differential cross sections for deuteron Compton scattering have been measured at MAX-lab. The data were used to extract neutron polarizabilities in a model-dependent analysis. The extracted values for $`\alpha _n`$ and $`\beta _n`$ are consistent with those obtained from the Illinois data Lucas94 ; however, they are inconsistent with those resulting from an analysis of the higher energy SAL data Horn00 . The present analysis thus confirms the previous observations LL00 ; bean99  that the available models cannot reconcile data obtained at photon energies of about 60 MeV with those obtained at about 100 MeV.

This project was supported by the Swedish Research Council, the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, the Crafoord Foundation, the Swedish Institute, the Wenner-Gren Foundation, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The participation of the Göttingen group in the experiment was supported by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.


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# Electronic structure of multiquantum giant vortex states in mesoscopic superconducting disks

## I Introduction

Superconducting vortices are topological singularities in the order parameter . In a bulk system each vortex carries a single flux quantum, while vortices with multiple flux quanta are not favorable energetically . In small superconductors, however, the situation may be different. Today’s nanotechnology can provide valuable insight into the nature of mesoscopic superconductors, whose linear dimensions can be comparable to the coherence length or the inter-vortex distance of the Abrikosov lattice. The following question then arises naturally: does single-quantum vortex matter survive the limit of decreasing sample size? More than thirty years ago, Fink and Presson gave the intriguing answer “not always” in their pioneering work  on a related system: a thin cylinder in parallel field. They have shown it theoretically, within the framework of the phenomenological Ginzburg-Landau (GL) theory, and also provided experimental evidence  for the existence of an enormous superfluid eddy current on the surface of a thin cylinder. They called this state a giant vortex state. While the work of Fink and Presson was largely forgotten for the next several decades, it nevertheless anticipated the present excitement in the field of nanoscale superconductivity. With recent advances in the controlled fabrication and study of nanometer-scale superconductors, the concept of giant vortex has been brought back to focus by Moshchalkov and coworkers a few years ago . Their experiments on mesoscopic squares and square rings have indeed revealed that small superconductors do not always favor many-vortex states reminiscent of the Abrikosov vortex lattice. The measured H-T phase boundaries of these small structures were explained in terms of giant vortex states in the GL picture . Subsequent experiments on submicron disks  have further shown the existence of giant vortex states inside the phase boundaries. Within the GL framework  some of the abrupt changes in the magnetization observed have been attributed, e.g., to the collapse of a multi-vortex state into a giant vortex, or to transitions among different giant vortex states.

This new phase of vortex matter has a single vortex occupying the sample, carrying multiple fluxoid  quanta. Such a state has no immediate analogue in bulk systems, and would only be similar to vortex states predicted for artificially patterned structures . Moshchalkov et al.  have also suggested that giant vortex states can cause the peculiar paramagnetic Meissner effect seen in granular and mesoscopic superconductors , through the compression of the flux trapped in the sample. This effect has been seen experimentally in mesoscopic systems by Geim and coworkers . As it is apparent from these recent experiments, mesoscopic superconductors exhibit novel quantum phenomena that are not observable in bulk systems. Studying their unique properties is crucial not only for potential applications but also for better understanding of nanoscale superconductivity.

Despite the fact that the existence of giant vortex states has been indicated more than three decades ago, and that their counterpart in nanoscale superconductors has been under intense scrutiny in recent years, there has been no microscopic, self-consistent theoretical study of its electronic structure. In this paper we report the results of such a microscopic and self-consistent study of multiquantum giant vortex states in $`s`$-wave superconducting disks of submicron size,***After the completion of this work, we became aware of the recent results of A. S. Mel’nikov and V. M. Vinokur , in which the possible application of mesoscopic disks as quantum switches is studied. This work discusses the tunneling density of states in the core of giant vortices in terms of quasiclassical calculations. using the Bogoliubov-de Gennes (BdG) formalism . The spectroscopic properties we have obtained for such vortex states can be probed directly by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). Although GL studies give a good qualitative picture for a wide range of parameters, quantitatively reliable results are limited to the range relatively close to the critical temperature and magnetic field. Furthermore, analyzing the system from a microscopic point of view is essential to understanding superconductivity on such a small scale. Latest experimental efforts aimed at STM imaging of mesoscopic vortex matter have focused on $`\mathrm{NbSe}_2`$ samples , since direct STM images of vortex states have been obtained only on high-quality single crystals of $`\mathrm{NbSe}_2`$  and $`\mathrm{Bi}_2\mathrm{Sr}_2\mathrm{CaCuO}_{8+\delta }`$ . These compounds are highly two-dimensional and easy to cleave in situ, providing very clean surfaces – a key ingredient for successful STM imaging. Thus, anticipating STM measurements, we present in this paper self-consistent BdG results with parameters corresponding to submicron $`\mathrm{NbSe}_2`$ disks.

## II Formulation

We consider an $`s`$-wave superconducting disk of radius $`R`$ under a magnetic field perpendicular to the disk area, with a vortex carrying $`m`$ fluxoid quanta formed in the center. The system has cylindrical symmetry and it is described using cylindrical coordinates $`(r,\theta ,z)`$. In accordance with the experiments  we assume the disk thickness to be much smaller than the penetration depth. Consequently, the order parameter is assumed to be uniform in the field direction ($`\widehat{z}`$), and the current density $`𝐣`$ as well as the vector potential $`𝐀`$ has no $`z`$ component . In the gauge which removes the phase of the order parameter , i.e., $`\mathrm{\Delta }(𝐫)=|\mathrm{\Delta }(r)|`$, we can write down the radial part of the BdG equations  as

$`\sigma _z{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m_e}}[({\displaystyle \frac{d^2}{dr^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dr}}).`$ (1)
$`+.{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2}}\{l\sigma _z({\displaystyle \frac{e}{\mathrm{}c}}r\stackrel{~}{A}_\theta (r)+{\displaystyle \frac{m}{2}})\}^2]\widehat{\psi }_n(r)`$ (2)
$`+\sigma _z(U(r)\mu )\widehat{\psi }_n(r)+\sigma _x|\mathrm{\Delta }(r)|\widehat{\psi }_n(r)=ϵ_n\widehat{\psi }_n(r),`$ (3)
where

$$\widehat{\psi }_n(r)=\left(\begin{array}{c}u_n(r)\\ v_n(r)\end{array}\right)$$
(4)
is the radial quasiparticle amplitude. Here $`\sigma _x`$ and $`\sigma _z`$ are the Pauli matrices, $`m_e`$ is the electron mass, and $`\mu `$ the chemical potential. The angular momentum quantum number $`l`$ is an integer when $`m`$ is even, and a half odd integer when $`m`$ is odd . The single-particle potential $`U(r)`$ can incorporate the lattice potential and inhomogeneity effects due to impurities and sample boundaries. To study quantum size and interference effects, we consider a clean sample and take $`U(r)=0`$ inside the disk, while including the periodic lattice potential in terms of the effective masses, $`m_r`$ and $`m_z`$. Furthermore, we take $`m_zm_r`$, as justified for highly anisotropic materials such as $`\mathrm{NbSe}_2`$, and neglect the dependence of Eq. (3) on the motion along the $`z`$ direction.

In principle, due to finite thickness of the sample, the vector potential must depend on not only $`r`$ but also $`z`$, so that $`𝐀=A_\theta (r,z)\widehat{\theta }`$, and $`\stackrel{~}{A}_\theta (r)`$ in (3) is an average of $`A_\theta (r,z)`$ over the disk height $`L`$ :

$$\stackrel{~}{A}_\theta (r)=\frac{1}{L}_{L/2}^{L/2}𝑑zA_\theta (r,z).$$
(5)
However, for typical experimental parameters  the lateral sample size is much larger than the thickness, and we therefore consider the case where the vector potential is independent of the $`z`$ coordinate; $`A_\theta (r,z)A_\theta (r)`$. The order parameter and the current density $`𝐣j_\theta (r)\widehat{\theta }`$ are given in terms of the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of Eq. (3) as

$`|\mathrm{\Delta }(r)|=g{\displaystyle \underset{ϵ_n\mathrm{}\omega _D}{}}u_n(r)v_n^{}(r)(12f_n)`$ (6)
$`j_\theta (r)={\displaystyle \frac{e\mathrm{}}{m_r}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r}}{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}[(l{\displaystyle \frac{m}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{e}{\mathrm{}c}}rA_\theta (r))|u_n(r)|^2f_n.`$ (7)
$`.(l+{\displaystyle \frac{m}{2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{e}{\mathrm{}c}}rA_\theta (r))|v_n(r)|^2(1f_n)],`$ (8)
where $`g`$ is the coupling strength for the electron-electron attraction, $`\omega _D`$ is the Debye frequency, and $`f_nf(ϵ_n)`$ is the Fermi distribution function. The vector potential is given in turn by the current density through the Maxwell equation $`\times \times 𝐀=(4\pi /c)𝐣`$. We first solve Eq. (3) with initial guesses for $`|\mathrm{\Delta }(r)|`$ and $`A_\theta (r)`$ and recalculate them from Eqs. (6) and (8), and repeat the process until self-consistency is acquired. The local tunneling density of states and the differential conductance  can then be calculated by

$`N(r,E)={\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}[|u_n(r)|^2\delta (Eϵ_n).`$ (9)
$`+.|v_n(r)|^2\delta (E+ϵ_n)]`$ (10)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{dI(r,V)}{dV}}{\displaystyle \underset{n}{}}[|u_n(r)|^2f^{}(ϵ_neV).`$ (11)
$`+.|v_n(r)|^2f^{}(ϵ_n+eV)].`$ (12)
Clearly, the differential tunneling conductance (12) is a direct probe of the local density of states, $`N(r,E)`$, provided that the temperature is low enough. In the following we will present some results for the experimentally observable differential conductance at low temperatures, but may refer to it as the local tunneling density of states (LDOS). We choose the parameters corresponding to $`\mathrm{NbSe}_2`$: we take $`m_r=2m_e`$, $`E_F=37.3\mathrm{meV}`$, $`\mathrm{}\omega _D=3.0\mathrm{meV}`$, and set the coupling strength so that the bulk gap $`\mathrm{\Delta }_01.12\mathrm{meV}`$.

The results are shown for disk radius $`R=500\mathrm{nm}`$. We have investigated the size range of $`R=200600\mathrm{nm}`$ and have found qualitatively same features in the LDOS.

## III Results

In Fig. 1 we show the differential conductance for a vortex with (a) $`m=4`$ and (b) $`m=5`$ flux quanta, as a function of voltage $`V`$ and radial distance $`r`$ from the disk center, for temperature $`T=1K`$ For data to be shown for energies well above the gap energy, fast $`1/k_F`$ oscillations have been removed by means of Fourier transform. In actual observations these fast oscillations will not be resolved.. In both cases, prominent sharp peaks can be seen near the vortex core and for low voltages – four peaks in the former and five in the latter. Generally speaking, the number of low-bias conductance peaks corresponds to the winding number $`m`$ of the order parameter, which gives rise to $`m`$ peaks near the center . This feature is in accordance with the index theorem established by Volovik  for the Caroli-de Gennes-Matricon bound states in a vortex core. According to this theorem, the quasiparticle spectrum of a vortex with winding number $`m`$ has $`m`$ branches of bound states, which cross zero energy as a function of angular momentum. These quasiparticle branches also explain the evolution of the $`m`$ rows of conductance peaks as one moves away from the core, as seen in Fig. 1, with decreasing number of peaks one by one . In contrast to the singly quantized case , one can see directly that as energy increases, more states with higher angular momenta contribute to the density of states.

We illustrate this in Fig. 2, where a spatial map of the LDOS is taken for various fixed values of $`V`$. Clearly, with increasing bias voltage the density of states is redistributed from the core towards the sample boundaries. Fig. 1 also reveals the presence of the so-called zero mode, i.e., a peak around zero energy at the vortex core for odd $`m`$, and its absence for even $`m`$. The existence of a zero mode is, quite generally, linked to a sign change in the order parameter as a function of some generalized coordinate . The zero-bias peak is a signature of bound states for quasiparticles trapped by the sign change. Here, in the given gauge, the order parameter changes sign at the vortex core when $`m`$ is odd, while it does not when $`m`$ is even.

The low-bias peaks and zero modes discussed above are general characteristics of the LDOS associated with the winding number of the order parameter. In addition to these, however, we have found novel features in the LDOS that are unique to giant vortex states in submicron disks. They are the oscillations seen above the gap energy in Figs. 1 and 2(c) and more clearly in the contour plot of Fig. 3. These oscillations are similar in origin to the so-called Tomasch oscillations discovered in a superconductor-normal metal junction  and reflect “standing waves” arising from the interference of quasiparticle states. This interference effect is a direct consequence of strong confinement experienced by the superconducting quasiparticles due to the small system size. We dedicate the remainder of this paper to detailed discussions of this effect.

When a vortex holds multiple flux quanta $`m`$, the order parameter vanishes around the center over a certain area – the larger the $`m`$ is, the larger the area . As the distance from the center increases, the order parameter increases and recovers to its bulk value eventually. In the case of $`\mathrm{NbSe}_2`$, due to the short coherence length, the recovery happens relatively quickly. This results in a well-defined superconducting region with the constant order parameter $`\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ within the disk. At the disk boundaries, however, the order parameter is forced to vanish and as a result, exhibits Friedel-like oscillations around its bulk value near the surfaces. These oscillations have the largest amplitudes at the boundaries and decay roughly over the coherence length scale. Moreover, the smaller the system size, the larger these amplitudes relative to the bulk value. The quasiparticles confined in the disk experience scattering by this large change in the order parameter at the surfaces. An electron-like quasiparticle is reflected back as a hole-like one and vice versa, and the Tomasch effect results from the interference between the electron-like and hole-like states in the superconducting region . The momenta of electron-like and hole-like quasiparticles for energy $`E`$ are $`k^\pm =\frac{\sqrt{2m_r}}{\mathrm{}}\sqrt{E_F\pm \mathrm{\Omega }}k_F\pm \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\mathrm{}v_F}`$, respectively, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\sqrt{E^2|\mathrm{\Delta }(r)|^2}`$ with $`|\mathrm{\Delta }(r)|\mathrm{\Delta }_0`$ and $`k_F`$ is the Fermi momentum. At a given distance $`d`$ from the surface, the LDOS oscillations in energy are determined by  $`\frac{E_n}{\mathrm{\Delta }_0}\sqrt{1+n^2\left(\frac{\pi \mathrm{}v_F}{\mathrm{\Delta }_0d}\right)^2},`$ where $`n`$ is an integer, and $`\frac{\pi \mathrm{}v_F}{\mathrm{\Delta }_0}151.15\mathrm{nm}`$ for $`\mathrm{NbSe}_2`$. Furthermore, the interference can be seen in the LDOS also as a function of coordinate (distance from the surface) for a given energy $`E`$. The period of the oscillations in this case is given by $`\delta d\frac{\pi \mathrm{}v_F}{\mathrm{\Delta }_0}\frac{1}{\sqrt{(E/\mathrm{\Delta }_0)^21}}.`$ The oscillation periods obtained in our numerical results, as seen in Fig. 3, are in quantitative agreement with these analytical expectations.

In a superconductor with short coherence length, if the winding number $`m`$ and, consequently, the “normal core” area is very large, the Tomasch effect may arise also from the vortex core, as in a normal-superconductor junction. For submicron $`\mathrm{NbSe}_2`$ disks with $`m`$ up to five, however, we have found that the LDOS is dominated by the Tomasch oscillations coming from the surfaces. Indeed, we have confirmed the LDOS oscillations characteristic of the Tomasch effect in terms of model calculations in one and two dimensions, where the BdG equations are solved without iteration with a step-function order parameter: $`\mathrm{\Delta }(r)=0(r<R/2);\mathrm{\Delta }_0(r>R/2)`$. In this case the Tomasch effect coming from the normal-superconductor interface governs the LDOS structure, so that the oscillation period in energy (see $`E_n`$ above) becomes larger as one approaches the interface (i.e., here $`d`$ is the distance from the interface). Apart from this and enhanced amplitudes due to a larger change in the order parameter, the LDOS shows the same qualitative features as seen above (compare Figs. 3 and 4).

## IV Conclusions

We have presented detailed, self-consistent calculations of the microscopic electronic structure of giant vortex states. We believe that the most direct experimental evidence for the existence of giant vortices can be provided by STM measurements of the local density of states in sub-micron superconductors capable of sustaining such vortex configurations. We have provided a spatial map of the tunneling density of states for multi-quantum giant vortex states, and have identified several signatures that can be used to identify them with STM. We have found that under extreme confinement the quantum interference arises among quasiparticle states and leads to experimentally observable Tomasch oscillations in the local density of states.

## V Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Prof. A. A. Abrikosov, Dr. G. W. Crabtree, Dr. W. K. Kwok, Prof. F. Marsiglio, and Dr. O. Tchernyshyov for enlightening discussions. One of us (B. J.) would like to thank Prof. W. Tomasch for comments and discussions on the presented results. This research was supported by U.S. DOE, Office of Science, under contract No. W-31-109-ENG-38, and by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

Reprint requests should be addressed to B. J., e-mail: bjanko@nd.edu.