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# A quasi-Hopf algebra freeness theorem

## 1. Introduction

Kaplansky’s first conjecture  asked whether a Hopf algebra $`H`$ is always free over any Hopf subalgebra $`K`$. While this is false in the infinite-dimensional case, as shown by Oberst and Schneider , it is true when $`H`$ is finite-dimensional. This is the content of the celebrated Nichols-Zoeller theorem . More generally, Nichols and Zoeller prove that Hopf modules in the category $`_K^H`$ are always free as $`K`$-modules, provided again that $`H`$ is a finite-dimensional Hopf algebra and $`K`$ a Hopf subalgebra. The Nichols-Zoeller theorem is an indispensable tool in the study of finite-dimensional Hopf algebras.

In the present paper, we will prove the essentially the same results for quasi-Hopf algebras in place of Hopf algebras. Quasi-Hopf algebras were introduced by Drinfeld . By definition, a quasibialgebra $`H`$ is an algebra and a non-coassociative coalgebra, whose lack of coassociativity is controlled by an invertible element $`\varphi HHH`$, the associator; more precisely, comultiplication is coassociative up to conjugation by $`\varphi `$. The “meaning” of the definition is already explained in Drinfeld’s paper: The axioms are such that the category $`{}_{H}{}^{}`$ of modules over $`H`$ is a monoidal category with respect to the diagonal module structure on the tensor product of $`H`$-modules, taken over the base field $`k`$. The rather complicated axioms for a quasiantipode are designed so that one can define a dual $`H`$-module for any finite-dimensional $`H`$-module.

The question for a Nichols-Zoeller theorem for quasi-Hopf algebras was brought to the author’s attention by Robert Fischer. We shall prove that a quasi-Hopf algebra $`H`$ is a free module over any quasi-Hopf subalgebra $`K`$. This is by definition a subalgebra and (non-coassociative) subcoalgebra such that $`KKK`$ contains the associator $`\varphi `$. Interesting examples of quasi-Hopf algebra inclusions in this sense have recently been studied by Masuoka . We note that in Masuoka’s examples, which are generalizations of bicrossproduct constructions, $`H`$ is a free $`K`$-module by construction. The same is true for the embedding of a finite-dimensional quasi-Hopf algebra in its Drinfeld double, cf. .

We will also prove a quasi-Hopf version of the freeness result of Nichols and Zoeller on Hopf modules. However, we will not use this result to prove freeness of $`H`$ over $`K`$. In fact the freeness of $`H`$ over $`K`$ will be proved in the more general situation that $`K`$ is a subalgebra of $`H`$, which has some structure of quasi-Hopf algebra with its own associator that needs not coincide with that of $`H`$. Natural examples of such a situation come immediately to mind: If $`K`$ and $`F`$ are quasi-Hopf algebras, then $`KF:=H`$ is a quasi-Hopf algebra, containing $`K`$ as a subalgebra and subcoalgebra, but with its associator not contained in $`KKK`$, unless the associator of $`F`$ is trivial. (Incidentally, $`H`$ is of course a free $`K`$-module in this situation.)

Our proofs will follow the original proofs of Nichols and Zoeller, or more precisely the account in Montgomery’s book , quite closely. A lemma on modules over Frobenius algebras, in particular, will retain its key rôle in the proof. The main obstacle for the generalization is the constant use of Hopf module categories like $`_K^H`$, and of structure theorems for Hopf modules. Note that the said Hopf module category is not defined when $`H`$ is a quasi-Hopf algebra, since then $`H`$ need not be a coalgebra.

These difficulties can be overcome by considering suitable Hopf module categories that have been defined by Hausser and Nill . The point is that while a quasibialgebra is not a coalgebra, one can still define Hopf bimodule categories $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{H}`$. This is surprising at first sight, but the definition by Hausser and Nill turns out to be simply the definition of an $`H`$-comodule — but within the monoidal category $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{}`$ of $`H`$-bimodules, in which $`H`$ is a coalgebra after all. This categorical viewpoint on Hopf modules was stressed and used in . Hausser and Nill also proved a structure theorem for Hopf modules in $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{H}`$, generalizing the well-known structure theorem for Hopf modules in $`_H^H`$ with an ordinary Hopf algebra $`H`$.

## 2. Preliminaries

Throughout the paper, we work over some base field $`k`$. Tensor products, algebras and the like are over $`k`$.

### 2.1. Quasi-Hopf algebras

We recall the definition and some basic facts concerning quasibialgebras, quasi-Hopf algebras, and their relation to monoidal categories. General references are Drinfeld’s original paper , and Kassel’s book .

A quasibialgebra $`H=(H,\mathrm{\Delta },\epsilon ,\varphi )`$ consists of an algebra $`H`$, algebra maps $`\mathrm{\Delta }:HHH`$ and $`\epsilon :Hk`$, and an invertible element $`\varphi H^3`$, the associator, such that

(2.1)
$$(\epsilon H)\mathrm{\Delta }(h)=h=(H\epsilon )\mathrm{\Delta }(h),$$

(2.2)
$$(H\mathrm{\Delta })\mathrm{\Delta }(h)\varphi =\varphi (\mathrm{\Delta }H)\mathrm{\Delta }(h),$$

(2.3)
$$(HH\mathrm{\Delta })(\varphi )(\mathrm{\Delta }HH)(\varphi )=(1\varphi )(H\mathrm{\Delta }H)(\varphi )(\varphi 1),$$

(2.4)
$$(H\epsilon H)(\varphi )=1$$

hold for all $`hH`$. We will write $`\mathrm{\Delta }(h)=:h{}_{(1)}{}^{}h_{(2)}`$, $`\varphi =\varphi ^{(1)}\varphi ^{(2)}\varphi ^{(3)}`$, and $`\varphi ^1=\varphi ^{(1)}\varphi ^{(2)}\varphi ^{(3)}`$.

If $`H`$ is a quasibialgebra, then the category $`{}_{H}{}^{}`$ of left $`H`$-modules is a monoidal category in the following way: For $`V,W{}_{H}{}^{}`$ the tensor product $`VW`$ is an $`H`$-module by $`h(vw)=h{}_{(1)}{}^{}vh{}_{(2)}{}^{}w`$. The base ring $`k`$ is an $`H`$-module via $`\epsilon `$. The canonical morphisms $`VVkkV`$ are $`H`$-linear for $`V{}_{H}{}^{}`$. The map

$$\mathrm{\Phi }:(UV)Wuvw\varphi ^{(1)}u\varphi ^{(2)}v\varphi ^{(3)}wU(VW)$$

for $`H`$-modules $`U,V,W`$ is $`H`$-linear as a consequence of (2.2), and satisfies Mac Lane’s pentagon axiom for a monoidal category as a consequence of (2.3).

We denote $`H`$ with the opposite multiplication, coopposite comultiplication, or both, by $`H^{\mathrm{op}}`$, $`H^{\mathrm{cop}}`$, and $`H^{\mathrm{bop}}`$, respectively. If $`(H,\varphi )`$ is a quasibialgebra, so is $`(H^{\mathrm{op}},\varphi ^1)`$, $`(H^{\mathrm{cop}},\varphi ^{(3)}\varphi ^{(2)}\varphi ^{(1)})`$, and hence also $`(H^{\mathrm{bop}},\varphi ^{(3)}\varphi ^{(2)}\varphi ^{(1)})`$. If $`(B,\psi )`$ is another quasibialgebra, then $`HB`$ is a quasibialgebra with associator $`\varphi ^{(1)}\psi ^{(1)}\varphi ^{(2)}\psi ^{(2)}\varphi ^{(3)}\psi ^{(3)}`$.

A quasiantipode $`(S,\alpha ,\beta )`$ for a quasibialgebra $`H`$ consists of an algebra antiautomorphism $`S`$ of $`H`$, and elements $`\alpha ,\beta H`$, such that

$`S(h{}_{(1)}{}^{})\alpha h_{(2)}`$ $`=\epsilon (h)\alpha ,`$ $`h{}_{(1)}{}^{}\beta S(h{}_{(2)}{}^{})`$ $`=\epsilon (h)\beta ,`$
$`\varphi ^{(1)}\beta S(\varphi ^{(2)})\alpha \varphi ^{(3)}`$ $`=1,`$ $`S(\varphi ^{(1)})\alpha \varphi ^{(2)}\beta \varphi ^{(3)}`$ $`=1`$
hold in $`H`$, for $`hH`$. A quasi-Hopf algebra is a quasibialgebra with a quasi-antipode. If $`H`$ is a quasi-Hopf algebra, then so are $`H^{\mathrm{op}}`$, $`H^{\mathrm{cop}}`$, and $`H^{\mathrm{bop}}`$; for later use we note that the underlying map of the antipode of $`H^{\mathrm{op}}`$ is $`S^1`$. Let $`H`$ be a quasi-Hopf algebra. If $`V`$ is a finite-dimensional left $`H`$-module, then $`V^{}`$, the dual vector space, becomes an left $`H`$-module with the action induced by the transpose of the original action of $`H`$ via the antipode, that is, by setting $`h\phi ,v=\phi ,S(h)v`$, for $`hH`$, $`\phi V^{}`$, and $`vV`$, where $`,`$ denotes evaluation. Together with suitable evaluation and coevaluation maps

$$\mathrm{ev}:V^{}Vk,\mathrm{db}:kVV^{}$$

the object $`V^{}`$ is a dual object to $`V`$ in the monoidal category of $`H`$-modules.

### 2.2. Hopf modules

Let $`H`$ be a quasibialgebra. Then it is impossible to define a comodule over $`H`$, since $`H`$ is not a coassociative coalgebra. It is also impossible to define a Hopf module category $`_H^H`$ with one module and one comodule structure.

However, there is a definition of Hopf modules in $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{H}`$, which can be viewed as a special case of the theory of (co)algebras and (co)modules within monoidal categories. For a development of this theory, in which many of the elementary facts and constructions of ordinary ring theory can be carried over to quite arbitrary abstract monoidal categories replacing the category of abelian groups or $`k`$-modules, we refer the reader to . We have applied this point of view on Hopf modules over quasi-Hopf algebras in ; it allows us to get away without lengthy calculations involving associators and the explicit use of the quasibialgebra axioms in many cases.

The axioms of a quasibialgebra imply that $`H`$ is a coassociative coalgebra within the monoidal category $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{}`$ of $`H`$-$`H`$-bimodules: The associator morphism in $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{}{}_{H^{\mathrm{op}}H}{}^{}`$ is given by

$$\mathrm{\Phi }:(UV)Wuvw\varphi ^{(1)}u\varphi ^{(1)}\varphi ^{(2)}v\varphi ^{(2)}\varphi ^{(3)}w\varphi ^{(3)}U(VW),$$

so that coassociativity of $`H`$ as a coalgebra in $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{}`$ is in fact the same as (2.2).

Now one can define Hopf modules over $`H`$, as first introduced by Hausser and Nill , as follows:

###### Definition 2.1.

Let $`H`$ be a quasibialgebra. A Hopf module $`M{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{H}`$ is a right $`H`$-comodule within the monoidal category $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{}`$ of $`H`$-bimodules. Explicitly, $`M`$ is an $`H`$-$`H`$-bimodule equipped with a map $`\delta :MMH`$, $`\delta (m)=m{}_{(0)}{}^{}m_{(1)}`$, satisfying $`m{}_{(0)}{}^{}\epsilon (m{}_{(1)}{}^{})=m`$ and

$$(M\mathrm{\Delta })\delta (m)\varphi =\varphi (\delta H)\delta (m)$$

for all $`mM`$, where the multiplication by $`\varphi `$ now takes place in the $`HHH`$-bimodule $`MHH`$.

More generally, let $`KH`$ be a quasi-Hopf subalgebra. Then $`H`$ is also a coalgebra in $`{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{}`$, and we define the Hopf module category $`{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{H}`$ to be the category of $`H`$-comodules within $`{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{}`$.

We note that Hopf module categories like $`{}_{K}{}^{H}_{K}^{},{}_{K}{}^{H}_{K}^{H}`$ can be defined in the same way.

The interpretation of Hopf modules as comodules within some monoidal category gives an immediate supply of constructions of and with such objects. We refer the reader to  for examples rather than giving explicit details on the following uses of the general principle:

###### Remark 2.2.

Let $`H`$ be a quasibialgebra and $`K`$ a quasi-Hopf subalgebra.

1. Whenever $`P{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{}`$, and $`M{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{H}`$, then $`{}_{}{}^{}P_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}M_{}^{}{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{H}`$. Here and below the dots are supposed to indicate that $`MP`$ is endowed with the diagonal left and right $`K`$-module structures, and the right $`H`$-comodule structure induced by that of $`P`$, but taken within the monoidal category $`{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{}`$ with its nontrivial associator isomorphism. Explicitly, this means that the comodule structure is given by

$`PM`$ $`(PM)H,`$
$`pm`$ $`\varphi ^{(1)}p\varphi ^{(1)}\varphi ^{(2)}m{}_{(0)}{}^{}\varphi _{}^{(2)}\varphi ^{(3)}m{}_{(1)}{}^{}\varphi _{}^{(3)}.`$
2. As a special case, for any $`P{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{}`$ we have $`{}_{}{}^{}P_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{H}.`$ This is the cofree right $`H`$-comodule generated by $`P`$ within the monoidal category $`{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{}`$.
3. Again as a special case, one can consider $`{}_{}{}^{}V{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{H}`$ for any $`V{}_{K}{}^{}`$.
4. As in any monoidal category, there is a notion of cotensor product of a right and a left $`H`$-comodule within $`{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{}`$, that is, a cotensor product $`M_HN{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{}`$ for $`M{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{H}`$ and $`N{}_{K}{}^{H}_{K}^{}`$. About this construction, we shall only need to know that

$$M\underset{H}{}({}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}P_{}^{})MP$$

as $`K`$-$`K`$-bimodules, for any $`M{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{H}`$ and $`P{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{}`$. Here, $`{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}P_{}^{}{}_{K}{}^{H}_{K}^{}`$ is a left-right switched version of the construction in (2).

The structure theorem for Hopf modules over quasi-Hopf algebras proved by Hausser and Nill \[4, Prop.3.11.\] says that, for a quasi-Hopf algebra $`H`$, the Hopf modules in $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{H}`$ constructed in part (3) of LABEL:remzeug.nme 2.2 are the only ones there are:

###### Theorem 2.3.

Let $`H`$ be a quasi-Hopf algebra. Then the functor

$${}_{H}{}^{}V{}_{}{}^{}V{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{H}$$

is a category equivalence. In particular, every Hopf module in $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{H}`$ is a free right $`H`$-module.

We take the liberty to refer to  for another proof.

The main application of Hopf module theory in  is the development of an integral theory for quasi-Hopf algebras. In particular, Hausser and Nill \[4, Thm.4.3\] show the existence of a cointegral $`\lambda H^{}`$ for any finite-dimensional quasi-Hopf algebra $`H`$, which is nondegenerate and hence makes $`H`$ a Frobenius algebra. Since the fact that $`H`$ is Frobenius is of key importance for the Nichols-Zoeller result, we shall sketch a short proof of this fact for completeness:

###### Theorem 2.4.

Let $`H`$ be a finite-dimensional quasi-Hopf algebra. Then there exists a non-degenerate linear form $`\lambda H^{}`$, so that $`H`$ is a Frobenius algebra.

(Nondegeneracy means that $`H\times H(g,h)\lambda (gh)k`$ is a nondegenerate bilinear form.)

###### Proof.

Since $`H`$ is a quasi-Hopf algebra, so is $`H^{\mathrm{op}}`$, and hence $`H^{\mathrm{op}}H`$. This implies that for each $`V{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{}{}_{H^{\mathrm{op}}H}{}^{}`$ the dual space $`V^{}`$ becomes a dual object for $`V`$ within the monoidal category $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{}`$, with module structures induced by the antipode of $`H^{\mathrm{op}}H`$. More precisely, the $`H`$-$`H`$-bimodule structure on $`V^{}`$ is given by

$$g\phi h,v=\phi ,S(g)vS^1(h)$$

for $`vV`$, $`\phi V^{}`$, and $`g,hH`$, where $`,`$ denotes evaluation. It is easy to check (and a very special case of \[13, Cor.3.7.\]) that when an object $`V`$ of a monoidal category $`𝒞`$ is a left comodule over some coalgebra $`C𝒞`$, and has a dual $`V^{}`$, then $`V^{}`$ is a right $`C`$-comodule. For example, since $`H`$ is a left $`H`$-comodule within the monoidal category $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{}`$, its dual $`H^{}`$ is a right $`H`$-comodule (whose structure map we will not need to know), that is, an object of $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{H}`$. It follows from LABEL:strukthm.nme 2.3 that there is a (one-dimensional) left $`H`$-module $`V`$ and an isomorphism

$$\psi :{}_{}{}^{}V{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}H^{}$$

of Hopf modules in $`{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{H}`$. Since $`\psi `$ is a right $`H`$-module map, it has the form $`\psi (vh)=\psi _0(v)h`$ for some $`\psi _0:VH^{}`$. Let $`vV\{0\}`$, and set $`\lambda :=\psi _0(v)`$. Then it follows that

$$Hh(\lambda h:g\lambda (S^1(g)h))H^{}$$

is an isomorphism. Therefore, $`\lambda `$ is nondegenerate and $`H`$ is Frobenius. ∎

## 3. Nichols-Zoeller for quasi-Hopf algebras

In this section we prove the quasi-Hopf algebra version of the Nichols-Zoeller theorem. The proof follows quite precisely the course taken in the ordinary Hopf case, where we rely on the account given in Montgomery’s book . However, one has to take special care whenever a Hopf module argument comes in, due to the fact that Hopf modules have a delicate definition. In particular, the relevant Hopf module categories used in the original proof do not exist in the quasi-Hopf case; luckily, the actual objects in consideration can be located in Hopf module categories which do exist.

###### Theorem 3.1.

Let $`K`$ be a finite-dimensional quasi-Hopf algebra, and $`W`$ a finitely generated right $`K`$-module. Suppose there exists a finitely generated faithful right $`K`$-module $`V`$ such that $`WVW^{dimV}`$ as right $`K`$-modules. Then $`W`$ is free over $`K`$.

###### Proof.

Since $`K`$ is Frobenius, we can apply \[9, Prop.3.1.2\] which tells us that it is enough to show that some power of $`W`$ is free. Also, we can apply \[9, Lem.3.1.2\] to conclude that there is $`r>0`$ such that $`W^rFE`$ with $`F`$ a free $`K`$-module and $`E`$ a $`K`$-module that is not faithful, and also there is $`s>0`$ such that $`V^sF^{}E^{}`$ with $`F^{}`$ free and $`E^{}`$ not faithful. Since $`W^rV^s(WV)^{rs}W^{rsdimV}`$, we can replace $`W`$ by $`W^r`$ and $`V`$ by $`V^s`$, and assume that $`WFE`$ and $`VF^{}E^{}`$.

So far, everything proceeded as in . Now we consider $`{}_{}{}^{}K_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}V{}_{K}{}^{K}_{K}^{}`$ by applying part (3) of 2.2 to $`K^{\mathrm{bop}}`$. By the version of LABEL:strukthm.nme 2.3 for $`K^{\mathrm{bop}}`$, this is a free left $`K`$-module, hence $`{}_{}{}^{}K{}_{}{}^{}VK^t`$ as left $`K`$-modules, where $`t:=dimV`$. Since $`F`$ is free, it follows that $`FVF^t`$. Now

$$F^tE^tW^tWV(FV)(EV)F^t(EV),$$

and the Krull-Schmidt theorem implies

$$E^tEVE(F^{}E^{})(EF^{})(EE^{}).$$

Since $`E`$ is not faithful, neither is $`E^t`$, and hence neither is $`EF^{}`$. But $`EF^{}`$ is free, which finally implies that $`E=0`$ and hence $`W`$ is free. To see that $`EF^{}`$ is free, it is in turn sufficient to see that $`EK`$ is free, which follows from LABEL:strukthm.nme 2.3, since we can consider $`E_{}{}_{}{}^{}K_{}^{}{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{K}`$ by part (3) of LABEL:remzeug.nme 2.2. ∎

We arrive immediately at the quasi-Hopf version of the Nichols-Zoeller theorem, for the more general situation advertised in the introduction.

###### Theorem 3.2.

Let $`H`$ be a finite-dimensional quasi-Hopf algebra, and let $`KH`$ be a subalgebra that admits a quasi-Hopf algebra structure. Then $`H`$ is a free (say, right) $`K`$-module.

###### Proof.

Consider the faithful right $`K`$-module $`H`$. By LABEL:auxthm.nme 3.1 it suffices to show that $`HHH^{dimH}`$ as right $`K`$-module. But $`H_{}{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{H}{}^{}_{H}^{H}`$ by part (2) of LABEL:remzeug.nme 2.2, so that we can apply LABEL:strukthm.nme 2.3 to conclude that $`HH`$ is indeed a free right $`H`$-module. ∎

To prepare for an application to semisimple quasi-Hopf algebras, modelled on \[9, Cor.3.2.3\], we will prove a result of Panaite characterizing semisimple quasi-Hopf algebras in terms of integrals; our proof will utilize Hopf modules.

###### Theorem 3.3 (Panaite ).

A finite-dimensional quasi-Hopf algebra $`H`$ is semisimple if and only if it contains a left integral $`tH`$ with $`\epsilon (t)0`$ (one might then as well assume that $`\epsilon (t)=1`$). Here, an integral is an element satisfying $`ht=\epsilon (h)t`$ for all $`hH`$.

###### Proof.

If $`H`$ is semisimple, the epimorphism $`\epsilon :Hk`$ of left $`H`$-modules splits, which is the same as the existence of an integral $`t`$ with $`\epsilon (t)=1`$.

On the other hand, assume that $`\epsilon :Hk`$ splits as an $`H`$-module map. Then for any $`V{}_{H}{}^{}`$ the epimorphism $`HV\stackrel{\epsilon V}{}V`$ splits. $`{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}V{}_{H}{}^{H}_{H}^{}`$ is a Hopf module, hence a free left module by LABEL:strukthm.nme 2.3, which shows that $`V`$ is projective. ∎

###### Corollary 3.4.

Let $`H`$ be a finite-dimensional semisimple quasi-Hopf algebra. Let $`KH`$ be a subalgebra and (non-coassociative) subcoalgebra that has an associator making it a quasi-Hopf algebra.

Then $`K`$ is also semisimple.

###### Proof.

By LABEL:Pan.nme 3.3, $`H`$ contains a left integral $`t`$ with $`\epsilon (t)0`$. Since $`H`$ is a free left $`K`$-module, we can copy word-by-word the proof of \[9, Lem.2.2.2.2)\] and conclude that $`K`$ also contains such an integral. By LABEL:Pan.nme 3.3 again $`K`$ is semisimple. ∎

We now turn to the more general version of the original Nichols-Zoeller theorem stating that every Hopf module in $`_K^H`$ is free as a $`K`$-module. We shall show the same for such objects in $`{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{H}`$ that are finitely generated $`K`$-modules. In order that the indicated Hopf modules be defined in the first place, it will be necessary to assume that $`K`$ is a subquasibialgebra of $`H`$. The weaker assumption in LABEL:freeforalg.nme 3.2 would not be sufficient for this purpose.

###### Theorem 3.5.

Let $`H`$ be a finite-dimensional quasi-Hopf algebra and $`KH`$ a quasi-Hopf subalgebra. Then every Hopf module $`M{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{H}`$ that is finitely generated as a $`K`$-module, is free as left $`K`$-module.

###### Proof.

By part (2) of LABEL:remzeug.nme 2.2 we can consider $`{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{H}{}^{H}_{H}^{}`$, and by LABEL:strukthm.nme 2.3 it follows that $`{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}V_{}`$ for some right $`H`$-module $`V`$. (In fact $`V=H_{\mathrm{ad}}`$, which is of no importance here.)

Now we consider $`{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{K}{}^{H}_{K}^{}`$ instead, where we still have the same isomorphism, of course. We conclude that, calculating with cotensor product within the monoidal category $`{}_{K}{}^{}_{K}^{}`$ as indicated in part (4) of LABEL:remzeug.nme 2.2

$`{}_{}{}^{}M_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}`$ $`{}_{}{}^{}M_{}^{}\underset{H}{}({}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}{}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{})`$
$`M\underset{H}{}({}_{}{}^{}H_{}^{}V_{})`$
$`{}_{}{}^{}M_{}^{}V_{}`$
Forgetting about the right module structure, we conclude $`MHM^{dimV}`$ as left $`K`$-modules, and apply LABEL:auxthm.nme 3.1 to conclude that $`M`$ is a free $`K`$-module. ∎


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# Inhomogeneous Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and Mutual Ion Diffusion

## I Introduction

Inhomogeneous big bang nucleosynthesis (IBBN) has been studied in several papers . In IBBN the baryon density is assumed to be inhomogeneous during nucleosynthesis. The inhomogeneity could be the result of a first-order phase transition occurring before BBN, or of some unknown physics possibly connected with inflation.

The effects on light element production depend strongly on the length scale of the inhomogeneity. It is well known that there is a so-called “optimal scale”, at which the production of $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ is reduced with respect to the homogeneous case, due to differential diffusion of protons and neutrons.

The first studies on IBBN concentrated on the reduced $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ production and disregarded dissipative phenomena other than diffusion. Later works consider also other transport phenomena. The collective hydrodynamic expansion of the high-density regions was first addressed by Alcock et al. . Jedamzik and Fuller  give a detailed study of dissipative processes at temperatures ranging from $`T100`$ GeV to $`T1`$ keV, including diffusion, hydrodynamic expansion, and photon inflation.

The mutual diffusion of isotopes, however, has to our knowledge not been properly accounted for previously. Diffusion of one ion species is not restricted by collisions with another species, if both are moving into same direction with same fluid velocity. On the other hand, momentum transfer is enhanched between two fluid components flowing into opposite directions.

Accurate treatment of transport phenomena has become increasingly important, since several estimations on the primordial $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ abundance indicate a low primordial $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}/\mathrm{H}`$, which is difficult to accomodate in standard big bang nucleosynthesis (SBBN). Lithium is produced quite late in nucleosynthesis, and its yield is therefore particularly sensitive to the late-time transport phenomena such as ion diffusion and hydrodynamic expansion of the overdense regions.

In this work we study inhomogeneous big bang nucleosynthesis with emphasis on ion transport. We treat the primordial plasma as a fluid, and handle the dissipation of the baryon inhomogeneity through hydrodynamic equations. This allows us to take into account the effects of mutual diffusion. We discuss the hydrodynamics of the primordial plasma Section II. In Section III we present results from numerical simulations. In the last two sections we compare the predicted isotope yields with observations and give our conclusions.

Throughout this paper we use the natural unit system where $`c=\mathrm{}=k_B=1`$.

## II Dissipation of baryon inhomogeneity

### A Ions

Consider the evolution of a density fluctuation in the baryonic component of the primordial plasma. We are interested in the temperature range $`T10`$ MeV-1 keV. We treat each isotope as a separate fluid. We write down the hydrodynamic equations for isotope $`i`$:

$`{\displaystyle \frac{n_i}{t}}`$ $`=`$ $`(n_i𝐯_i)+{\displaystyle \frac{n_i}{t}}|_{\mathrm{reac}}`$ (1)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{𝐪_i}{t}}`$ $`=`$ $`Tn_i+{\displaystyle \underset{ji}{}}𝐅_{ij}+𝐅_{ie}n_iZ_ie𝐄`$ (2)
Here $`n_i`$ and $`𝐪`$ denote, respectively, the number and momentum density of isotope $`i`$. We have ignored second-order terms in fluid velocity $`𝐯_i`$, which is assumed to be small. We use the non-relativistic formula for pressure $`P=nT`$ and assume that temperature is nearly homogeneous. As pointed out in , the fluctuations in temperature are of the order of the baryon-to-photon ratio $`10^9`$.

The last term in Eq. (1) represents production or destruction of ions via nuclear rections. Terms $`𝐅_{ie}`$ and $`𝐅_{ij}`$ represent momentum transfer due to collisions on electrons or other fluid components. The last term in Eq. (2) represents an electric field, which is present if there is a departure from local charge neutrality. In the following we evaluate explicit formulae for the collision terms $`𝐅`$.

Scattering between non-relativistic particles.

The momentum transfer between two non-relativistic fluid components close to thermal equilibrium is given by

$`𝐅_{kj}=`$ $`n_kn_j{\displaystyle 𝐝^\mathrm{𝟑}𝐩_k𝐝^\mathrm{𝟑}𝐩_j\times }`$ (3)
$`f_k(𝐩_k)f_j(𝐩_j)|𝐮_j𝐮_k|\sigma _{kj}^\mathrm{t}(p_{jk})𝐩_{jk},`$ (4)
where $`f_k(𝐩)`$ is the momentum distribution of particle $`k`$, such that $`n_kf_k(𝐩)`$ gives the phase space density, $`𝐮_j𝐮_k`$ is the relative velocity, $`𝐩_{jk}`$ is the center-of-mass momentum, and

$$\sigma _{kj}^\mathrm{t}=\frac{d\sigma _{kj}}{d\mathrm{\Omega }}(1\mathrm{cos}(\theta ))𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }.$$
(5)
is the transport cross section. Assuming a small deviation from the Maxwellian distribution $`f_k^0`$,

$$f_k(𝐩)=f_k^0(𝐩)\left(1+\frac{𝐯_k𝐩}{T}\right),$$
(6)
where $`𝐯_k=u_k`$ is the fluid velocity, we obtain

$$𝐅_{kj}=n_kn_jS_{kj}(𝐯_k𝐯_j).$$
(7)
where

$$S_{kj}=\frac{8}{3}\left(\frac{2T\mu }{\pi }\right)^{1/2}\stackrel{~}{\sigma }_{kj}(T).$$
(8)
Here $`\mu `$ is the reduced mass and the thermally averaged cross section is given by

$$\stackrel{~}{\sigma }_{kj}(T)=\frac{1}{(2\mu T)^3}_0^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{k^2}{2\mu T}\right)k^5\sigma _{kj}^\mathrm{t}(k)𝑑k,$$
(9)
where $`k`$ is the center-of-mass momentum.

Let us apply the above results to neutron-proton and ion-ion scattering. At low energies (below a few MeV) the neutron-proton interaction is dominated by s-wave scattering. The cross section is given by

$$\sigma _{np}(k)=\frac{\pi a_s^2}{(a_sk)^2+(1\frac{1}{2}r_sa_sk^2)^2}+\frac{3\pi a_t^2}{(a_tk)^2+(1\frac{1}{2}r_ta_tk^2)^2}$$
(10)
with $`a_s=23.71`$ fm, $`a_t=5.432`$ fm, $`r_s=2.73`$ fm, and $`r_t=1.749`$ fm. At zero-energy limit the cross section approaches the value 20440 mbarn. The thermally averaged cross section (9) can be evaluated numerically.

The transport cross section for Coulomb scattering between nonrelativistic ions is given by

$$\sigma ^\mathrm{t}=4\pi (Z_iZ_j\alpha )^2\frac{\mu ^2}{k^4}\mathrm{\Lambda }$$
(11)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the Coulomb logarithm . The thermal cross section (9) becomes $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma }=\pi (Z_iZ_j\alpha )^2\mathrm{\Lambda }/(2T^2)`$. We then have

$$S_{\mathrm{ij}}=\frac{4\pi }{3}\left(\frac{2\mu _{ij}T}{\pi }\right)^{1/2}\frac{(Z_iZ_j\alpha )^2\mathrm{\Lambda }}{T^2}.$$
(12)
Scattering on electrons.

The collisional force excerted on a heavy particle $`k`$ moving with velocity $`𝐯_k`$ through a thermal background of light particles $`j`$ is given by

$$𝐅_{kj}=n_k𝐝^\mathrm{𝟑}𝐩\rho _j(𝐩)\frac{|𝐩|}{E}\sigma _{kj}^\mathrm{t}(𝐩)𝐩=\frac{1}{b_{kj}}n_k𝐯_k.$$
(13)
This equation relates the force to the mobility $`b_{kj}`$ . Here $`\rho _j(𝐩)`$ is the phase space density of particle $`j`$ in the frame of particle $`k`$. Assuming a thermal distribution $`\rho _j^0`$ for particle $`j`$ in laboratory frame, we have $`\rho _j(𝐩)=\rho _j^0(E+𝐩𝐯)`$, and

$$b_{ne}^1=𝐝^\mathrm{𝟑}𝐩\frac{d\rho _j^0(E)}{dE}\frac{p^3}{3E}\sigma _{kj}^\mathrm{t}(𝐩).$$
(14)
Neutrons interact with electrons through their magnetic moment. The transport cross section is

$$\sigma _{ne}^\mathrm{t}=3\pi \frac{\alpha ^2\kappa ^2}{m_n^2}=8.07\times 10^4\text{ mbarn}.$$
(15)
where $`\kappa =1.91`$ is the anomalous magnetic moment of the neutron. Using MB statistics for electrons we obtain for the mobility

$$b_{ne}^1=\frac{8}{3}\left(\frac{2m_eT}{\pi }\right)^{1/2}\frac{K_{2.5}(z)}{K_2(z)}\sigma _{ne}^\mathrm{t}n_e.$$
(16)
where $`K`$ are modified bessel functions.

The differential cross section for a relativistic electron scattering on an ion with charge $`Z`$ is given by the Mott formula

$$\frac{d\sigma }{d\mathrm{\Omega }}=\frac{(Z\alpha )^2E_e^2}{4k^4\mathrm{sin}^4(\theta /2)}\left(1\beta ^2\mathrm{sin}^2(\theta /2)\right).$$
(17)
where the factor $`1\beta ^2\mathrm{sin}^2(\theta /2)`$ is the relativistic spin correction. This gives the transport cross-section

$$\sigma _{ie}^\mathrm{t}(k)=4\pi (Z\alpha )^2\frac{m_e^2+k^2}{k^4}\mathrm{\Lambda }.$$
(18)
where $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is the Coulomb logarithm. Using again MB statistics we obtain

$$b_{ie}^1=\frac{4\pi T}{3}\frac{(z^2+2z+2)}{K_2(z)e^z}\frac{(Z_i\alpha )^2\mathrm{\Lambda }n_e}{m_e^2}.$$
(19)
### B Electrons

Thermal electron-positron pairs annihilate at temperatures $`T`$1 MeV-20 keV. The remaining electrons must be treated as one fluid component.

For non-relativistic electrons we have

$`{\displaystyle \frac{n_e}{t}}`$ $`=`$ $`(n_e𝐯_e)`$ (20)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{𝐪_e}{t}}`$ $`=`$ $`Tn_e+𝐅_{e\gamma }+n_ee𝐄.`$ (21)
The term $`𝐅_{e\gamma }`$ represents Thomson scattering on background photons ,

$$𝐅_{e\gamma }=b_{e\gamma }^1n_e𝐯_e=\frac{4}{3}\sigma _Tϵ_\gamma n_e𝐯_e,$$
(22)
where $`\sigma _T=665`$ mbarn is the Thomson cross section and $`ϵ_\gamma `$ is the energy density of background photons.

Note that formula (22) is exactly valid only well after electron-positron annihilation, when photon mean free path is large compared with the inhomogeneity scale. Around $`T20`$ keV photons are still connected to the plasma. For precise treatment of this transition period, photons should be included as one fluid component.

Ions diffusing out from the high-density regions leave behing a negative net charge. That gives rise to an electric field, which forces electrons to move so as to restore the electrical neutrality . Electrons are thus dragged along with ions. The motion of ions is restricted by the Thomson drag force (22), which acts on them indirectly through the electric field.

If we assume spherical symmetry, the electric field at a given location is determined by the total charge contained in the spherical region closer to the symmetry center. The rate of change of the field is then determined by the flux of charge through the sphere,

$$\frac{(e𝐄)}{t}=4\pi \alpha \left(n_e𝐯_e\underset{i}{}n_iZ_i𝐯_i\right).$$
(23)
The five differential equations (1), (2), (20), (21), and (23), together with the formulae for momemtum transfer terms, form the basis of our hydrodynamic simulations.

### C Diffusion approximation

It is interesting to look at how our hydrodynamic treatment relates to the common diffusion approximation, where the evolution of inhomogeneity is presented by a differential equation of the form

$$\frac{n}{t}=(Dn).$$
(24)
Consider the steady-state solution of Eq. (2) in absence of an electric field,

$$Tn_i\underset{ji}{}n_in_jS_{ij}(𝐯_i𝐯_j)b_{ie}^1n_i𝐯_i=0$$
(25)
If we ignore the motion of particle species other than $`i`$ ($`v_j0`$ for $`ji`$), equation (25) and the continuity equation (1) together lead to a diffusion equation of the form (24), with diffusion constants given by $`D_{ie}=b_{ie}T`$ for scattering on electrons, and $`D_{ij}=T/(n_jS_{ij})`$ for scattering between nuclei.

We note here that the neutron-proton and neutron-electron diffusion constants calculated this way coincide with those given in . Also the proton-electron constant is in agreement at the limit $`\mathrm{\Lambda }1`$.

The diffusion equation describes well the motion of a fluid if the background fluid is stationary, so that its mutual motion can be ignored. We refer to this as the approximation of independent diffusion. This approximation is valid in the case of diffusion of neutrons, which are much more mobile than the ions and electrons they scatter on. The diffusion equation also describes well the motion of ions at high temperatures ($`T20`$ keV), where the dominant scattering process for ions is Coulomb scattering on background electrons. Due to their large number the electrons can be regarded as a stationary background. At lower temperatures the situation is more complicated. Ions gain or lose momentum in collisions on other ion components, which move with comparable fluid velocities. Thus the mutual motion of the fluid components cannot be neglected. The situation is further complicated by electron drag: electrons are dragged along with ions so that charge neutrality is maintained.

## III Simulations

We have written an inhomogeneous nucleosynthesis code where a nuclear reaction network is coupled to hydrodynamic equations. We assume spherical symmetry and use a non-uniform radial grid of 64 cells. The grid is adjusted according to the density profile so that the cells are smallest where the gradient of the baryon density is largest. We assume a simple initial geometry with a step-like density profile. The inner part of the simulation volume has a high baryon density $`\eta _h`$, and the outer part a low density $`\eta _l`$. The initial conditions are determined by four parameters: the volume fraction $`f_v`$ of the high-density region, density contrast $`R=\eta _h/\eta _l`$, the average density $`\eta =f_v\eta _h+(1f_v)\eta _l`$, and the radius of the simulation volume $`r`$. We give $`r`$ in comoving units in meters at $`T=1`$ keV temperature. One meter at $`T=1`$ keV corresponds to $`4.26\times 10^6`$ m today. The baryon density is given as the baryon-to-photon ratio $`\eta `$, which is related to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b`$ through $`\eta _{10}=10^{10}\eta =274\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2`$.

The code evolves 21 variables in each grid zone: the concentration and momentum density of $`e`$, $`n`$, $`p`$, D, 3H, $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$, $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$, 6Li, $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$, and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$, and the electric field. These variables are evolved by solving a set of $`21\times 64`$ stiff differential equations in time steps proportional to the age of the universe. This involves the solution of a band diagonal linear system of rank 1344 at every time step. The nuclear reaction rates include those given in the NACRE compilation . The simulation is started at $`T=10`$ MeV and ends at $`T=1`$ keV, or when all nuclear reactions have ceased. The final output consist of the average concentrations of $`p`$, D, $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$ (including $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{H}`$), $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$, 6Li, and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ (including $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$).

For comparison we also made a set of simulations where we mimicked the approximation of independent diffusion. We removed from the matrix all elements corresponding to mutual diffusion, i.e, terms that represent dependence of $`𝐪_i/t`$ on $`𝐯_{ji}`$. We also forced a steady-state solution. The electron drag was taken into account by adding to the momentum loss of an ion with charge $`Z_i`$ the Thomson force that would act on $`Z_i`$ electrons moving with the same velocity. This approach can be written as

$`{\displaystyle \frac{n_i}{t}}=(n_i𝐯_i)+{\displaystyle \frac{n_i}{t}}|_{\mathrm{reac}}`$ (26)
$`Tn_i{\displaystyle \underset{ji}{}}n_in_jS_{ij}𝐯_ib_{ie}^1n_i𝐯_ib_{e\gamma }^1Z_in_i𝐯_i=0.`$ (27)
### A Separation of elements

Figure 1 shows the light element abundances plotted against temperature, for simulation parameters $`r=10^7`$ m, $`\eta _{10}=6`$, and $`f_v=0.01`$. We compare results from a complete simulation, and from a simulation where we used the approximation (27). The complete simulation shows a second burst of nucleosynthesis at $`T2010`$ keV, leading to destruction of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$, D, and $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{H}`$.

This can be understood as follows. Diffusion of electrons is inefficient at temperatures $`T1`$ keV due to the frequent Thomson scattering on background photons. Thomson drag then resists the diffusion of ions which must drag electrons with them to maintain electrical neutrality. However, if we divide the motion of ions into two components, one that obeys the condition $`_in_i𝐯_iZ_i=0`$ and thus carries no charge, and one that does carry charge, only the latter is resisted by Thomson drag. Protons and helium ions, for instance, are allowed to diffuse into opposite directions in such a way that the total charge flux vanishes. This leads to a separation of elements. Heavier elements tend to get enriched in the high-density regions, while protons diffuse out. The nucleosynthesis process in the high-density region is enhanced by the increased concentration of heavier nuclei. This effect is responsible for the modified nucleosynthesis yields that our simulations show.

In Fig. 2 we show the isotope yields as a function of inhomogeneity length scale, for $`f_v=0.01`$ and $`\eta _{10}=6`$. Again, we show results both for a complete simulation (solid lines) and for a simulation with same parameters but with the approximation of independent diffusion. The complete simulation shows a clear decrease in the abundances of D, $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{H}`$, and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$, as compared to the diffusion approximation. Also the yields of $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ are reduced, but not as clearly. The yield of $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ is hardly affected.

Lithium is destroyed via reaction $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}(p,a){}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$. The mean destruction channel for $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$, instead, is via reaction $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}(n,p){}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$. As this reaction requires free neutrons, which are not available after the main phase of nucleosynthesis, $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$ is affected little in the second nucleosynthesis phase. The same holds for $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$, whose main reaction channel is $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}(n,p){}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{H}`$.

The reduction in D, $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{H}`$ and $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ due to element separation is most efficient at scales somewhat smaller than the “optimal scale” at which the $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ yield is minimized. The maximal $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ reduction occurs at a scale at which neutrons diffuse maximally out from the high-density regions, but the later back-diffusion is not too efficient. At a somewhat smaller scale, back-diffusion of neutrons leads to synthesis of nuclei in a narrow zone surrounding the high-density region. There are then plenty of nuclei to be transported deeper into the high-density region, once the separation of elements begins at $`T20`$ keV.

Some analytic considerations may be in place here. Consider the steady-state solution of Eqs. (2) and (21),

$`Tn_i`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{j}{}}n_in_jS_{ij}(𝐯_i𝐯_j)n_iZ_ie𝐄=0`$ (28)
$`Tn_e`$ $`b_{e\gamma }^1n_e𝐯_e+n_ee𝐄=0.`$ (29)
We are interested in the temperature regime $`T<20`$ keV and have ignored terms that represent scattering on electrons. A measure of the distance over which $`n_e`$ can deviate from $`_in_iZ_i`$ is given by the Debye shielding distance $`h=(4\pi \alpha n_e/T)^{1/2}`$ , which is orders of magnitude smaller than the inhomogenity length scale. We can therefore assume that electrical neutrality holds at the scale of the inhomogeneity ($`n_e_in_iZ_i`$), and based on that eliminate the field $`𝐄`$.

The evolution of the inhomogeneity is particularly simple in two limiting cases. If the interaction between ions is strong compared with the electron-photon interaction ($`n_iS_{ij}b_{e\gamma }^1`$), as is the case at late times ($`T1`$ keV), the plasma behaves as a single fluid, moving with a collective velocity $`𝐯_e`$. Taking the sum of Eqs. (28) and (29) and using the electrical neutrality we find

$$T(n_B+n_e)b_{e\gamma }^1n_e𝐯_e=0.$$
(30)
This represents collective hydrodynamic motion of the plasma against Thomson drag . With the approximation $`n_bn_e`$ it leads to the diffusion equation for the baryon density, with diffusion constant $`D_{hyd}=2b_{e\gamma }T`$.

In the opposite limiting case, when electron-photon scattering dominates over ion-ion scattering, the motion of electrons is suppressed by the Thomson drag. Ions then move under the condition that the net current carried by ions vanishes, $`_in_iZ_i𝐯_i=0`$. Consider for simplicity a system of two ion species only, say hydrogen and $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$. The steady-state solution now simplifies into

$$T\left(Z_1\frac{n_2}{n_2}Z_2\frac{n_1}{n_1}\right)=(𝐯_1𝐯_2)S_{12}(n_1Z_1+n_2Z_2).$$
(31)
It is now easy to see that if two isotopes have the same initial inhomogeneity ($`n_1/n_1=n_2/n_2`$), then the one with smaller charge will flow into the direction of negative density gradient, while the one with larger charge will move into the opposite direction. The isotope with larger charge will get concentrated into the high-density region.

In order to illustrate the separation of elements, we made a run with only protons and $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ present. We started with a step-like initial profile with uniform helium mass fraction $`Y_p=0.25`$. The concentration profiles of the two elements and electrons, as well as density times velocity, at various temperatures are shown in Fig. 3. Helium begins to concentrate in the high-density region at $`T<20`$ keV. At $`T=6`$ keV the initial high-density region contains 62% of all helium nuclei, while in the beginning it contained 41%. The inhomogeneity is erased when Thomson scattering becomes inefficient in restricting the collective motion of the plasma.

## IV IBBN computations and confrontation with observations

The best way to evaluate the primordial $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ has for a long time been the so-called Spite plateau  observed in halo stars. There is still debate on how much the $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ in Spite plateau stars has depleted from the primordial abundance, and consequently, on the primordial $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ abundance. While some authors obtain an relatively high upper limit $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}/\mathrm{H}<4\times 10^{10}`$, a number authors argue for a lower value. Ryan et al.  derive the range $`10.04<\mathrm{log}_{10}({}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}/\mathrm{H})<9.72`$ for the primordial abundance. In SBBN this corresponds to $`\eta _{10}=10^{10}\eta <4.2`$. Suzuki et al. obtain an even tighter range $`9.97<\mathrm{log}_{10}({}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}/\mathrm{H})<9.77`$. A recent study  gives an intermediate estimate $`\mathrm{log}_{10}({}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}/\mathrm{H})=9.76\pm 0.056\pm 0.06`$.

The tight lithium limits of Ryan et al. and and Suzuki et al. are in conflict with the low deuterium estimations from QSO absorption systems . O’Meara et al. obtain the range $`\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{H}=(3.0\pm 0.4)\times 10^5`$ from a combined study of four such systems. In SBBN this corresponds to $`5.4<\eta _{10}<6.4`$. The tight lithium limits are also in conflict with the recent Boomerang result $`\eta 6\times 10^{10}`$ .

In light of the above, it is interesting to note that the separation of elements due to Thomson drag leads to simultaneous destruction of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ and D.

We have computed the light element abundances for a range of inhomogeneity parameters. Figure 4 shows the yields of light isotopes as a function of length scale $`r`$ and volume fraction of the high-density region $`f_v`$, for $`\eta =6\times 10^{10}`$. At small scales the results converge towards SBBN results. The smallest $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ yield $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}/\mathrm{H}=10^{9.55}`$ was obtained at $`f_v10^{1.5}0.032`$ and $`r7.1`$ m. The SBBN value is $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}/\mathrm{H}=10^{9.39}`$.

In Fig. (5) we show the isotope yields as a function of $`r`$ and $`\eta `$, for $`f_v=10^{1.5}`$ and $`R=10^6`$. The reduction in $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}/\mathrm{H}`$ is more prominent at low $`\eta `$, due to the fact that at low $`\eta `$ most of the lithium is produced directly as $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$, which is sensitive to the separation of elements. At high $`\eta `$ most of the lithium comes from $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Be}`$, which is not affected as much.

In Fig. (6) we compare our results to a set of observational constraints on light element abundances. The simulation parameters are the same as in Figs. (5). For $`{}_{}{}^{4}\mathrm{He}`$ we choose conservative limits $`0.23<Y_p<0.25`$. For deuterium we select constraints $`10^{4.8}<\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{H}<10^{4.4}`$. The lower limit here comes from the present $`\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{H}`$ abundance in interstellar medium . The upper limit is based on the two-sigma upper limit of the O’Meara estimation . For lithium we choose a low limit $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}/\mathrm{H}<10^{9.7}`$. We also include the constraint $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}/\mathrm{D}<1`$. The lithium and deuterium constraints we have chosen are in conflict in SBBN. The upper limit to deuterium implies $`\eta _{10}>4.8`$ while the upper limit to $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$ implies $`\eta _{10}<4.2`$. In IBBN we find a region in the parameter space, where all constraints are satisfied simultaneously. The allowed region falls in the range $`2.1<\eta _{10}<5.2`$, corresponding to $`0.008<\mathrm{\Omega }_bh^2<0.019`$. We note that if we apply the approximation of independent diffusion, the allowed region disappears.

## V Conclusions

We have studied inhomogeneous big bang nucleosynthesis with emphasis on transport phenomena. We combined a hydrodynamic treatment to a nucleosynthesis simulation. We found an effect that to our knowledge has been overlooked before: separation of elements due to Thomson drag. Thomson drag prevents the diffusion of the electron fluid shortly after electron-positron annihilation. Hydrogen and multiply charged elements then diffuse into opposite directions so that no net charge is carried. Helium and lithium get concentrated into high-density regions, which leads to enhanched nucleosynthesis and destruction of $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}`$, D, and $`{}_{}{}^{3}\mathrm{He}`$. The effect is important at length scales from $`10^5`$ to $`10^9`$ meters at 1 keV temperature, corresponding to $`10^50.1`$ pc today.

We computed the light element yields for a variety of initial inhomogeneity profiles and found a region in the parameter space where a low lithium constraint $`{}_{}{}^{7}\mathrm{Li}/\mathrm{H}<10^{9.7}`$ and a low deuterium constraint $`\mathrm{D}/\mathrm{H}<10^{4.4}`$ are satisfied simultaneously for $`\eta =(2.15.2)\times 10^{10}`$.

## Acknowledgements

I thank the Center for Scientific Computing (Finland) for computational resources.