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# Theorem 1

On Arithmetic Progressions of Cycle Lengths in Graphs

Jacques Verstraëte

Department of Pure Mathematics and Mathematical Statistics

Centre for Mathematical Sciences

Wilberforce Road, Cambridge CB3 OWB

England August 1999.

jbav@microsoft.com

Abstract

A recently posed question of Häggkvist and Scott’s asked whether or not there exists a constant $`c`$ such that if $`G`$ is a graph of minimum degree $`ck`$ then $`G`$ contains cycles of $`k`$ consecutive even lengths. In this paper we answer the question by proving that for $`k2`$, a bipartite graph of average degree at least $`4k`$ and girth $`g`$ contains cycles of $`(g/21)k`$ consecutive even lengths. We also obtain a short proof of the theorem of Bondy and Simonovits, that a graph of order $`n`$ and size at least $`8(k1)n^{1+1/k}`$ has a cycle of length $`2k`$.

Erdős and Burr  conjectured that for every odd number $`k`$, there is a constant $`c_k`$ such that for every natural number $`m`$, every graph of average degree at least $`c_k`$ contains a cycle of length $`m`$ modulo $`k`$. Erdős and Burr  settled their conjecture in the case $`m=2`$ and Robertson (see ) settled the case $`m=0`$. The full conjecture was resolved by Bollobás , who proved the conjecture with $`c_k=2[(k+1)^k1]/k`$. In this paper, we show that $`c_k=8k`$ will do. Thomassen  later showed cycles of all even lengths modulo $`k`$ are obtained under the hypothesis that the average degree is at least $`4k(k+1)`$, without requiring $`k`$ to be odd. Thomassen  also proved that if $`G`$ is a graph of minimum degree at least three and girth at least $`2(k^2+1)(32^{k^2+1}+(k^2+1)^21)`$, then $`G`$ contains cycles of all even lengths modulo $`k`$.

Bondy and Vince  proved that in a graph in which all but at most two vertices have degree at least three, there exist two cycles whose lengths differ by at most two. This answered a conjecture of Erdős and was also studied by Häggkvist and Scott . Recently, Häggkvist and Scott , considered extending this to considering arithmetic progressions of cycle lengths in graphs. Häggkvist and Scott  proved that if $`G`$ is a graph of minimum degree at least $`300k^2`$ then $`G`$ contains $`k+1`$ consecutive even cycle lengths. The same authors asked if a linear bound on the minimum degree is possible. In this paper, we answer the question of Häggkvist and Scott in the following theorem.

###### Theorem 1

Let $`k2`$ be a natural number and $`G`$ a bipartite graph of average degree at least $`4k`$ and girth $`g`$. Then there exist cycles of $`(g/21)k`$ consecutive even lengths in $`G`$. Moreover, the shortest of these cycles has length at most twice the radius of $`G`$.

This result generalises the above-mentioned result of Bollobás and partly generalises that of Thomassen, insofar as Thomassen’s result is valid for graphs of minimum degree at least three, whereas the result above requires average degree at least eight. The graph $`K_{k,nk}`$ shows that we require the average degree to be at least about $`2k`$ to ensure the conclusion of Theorem 1.

The following lemma lies at the heart of the proof of Theorem 1. It was originally inspired by methods used by Gyárfás, Komlós and Szemerédi . Whilst this paper was being written, the lemma was discovered to be implicit in a lemma of Bondy and Simonovits . Nevertheless, the proof is short and is retained here for completeness.

###### Lemma 2

Let $`H`$ be a graph comprising a cycle with a chord. Let $`(A,B)`$ be a non-trivial partition of $`V(H)`$. Then $`H`$ contains $`A`$$`B`$ paths of every length less than $`|H|`$, unless $`H`$ is bipartite with bipartition $`(A,B)`$.

Proof. Label the vertices of the cycle $`0,1,\mathrm{},n1`$ where $`n=|H|`$. Suppose $`H`$ does not contain $`A`$$`B`$ paths of every length less than $`n`$, and let $`m`$ be the smallest integer for which there is no $`A`$$`B`$ path of length $`m`$ not using the chord; $`m>1`$ since $`(A,B)`$ is a non-trivial partition of $`V(H)`$. We remark also that $`mn/2`$, or $`H`$ would contain $`A`$$`B`$ paths of all lengths less than $`n`$.

Now $`\chi (j)=\chi (j+m)`$ for every $`jV(H)`$, where $`\chi `$ is the characteristic function of $`A`$ (label arithmetic is modulo $`n`$). Let $`d=\text{hcf}(n,m)`$. Then there are integers $`p`$ and $`q`$ such that $`pm+qn=d`$; hence $`\chi (j)=\chi (j+d)`$ for every $`j`$. But then there is no $`A`$$`B`$ path of length $`d`$ round the cycle; thus $`d=m`$ and $`mn`$. In particular, $`A`$$`B`$ paths of every length less than $`m`$ exist by the definition of $`m`$, so $`A`$$`B`$ paths of every length other than multiples of $`m`$ exist by periodicity of $`\chi `$.

We find paths of the remaining lengths $`km`$, $`1kn/m1`$, using the chord. Suppose first that the chord joins two vertices within distance $`m`$ on the cycle, say $`0`$ and $`r`$ where $`1<rm`$. There exist $`A`$$`B`$ paths of length $`m+r1`$ round the cycle; thus $`\chi (j)\chi (j+m+r1)`$ for some $`j`$, $`m<j0`$. But $`j+m+r1r`$, so the path $`j,j+1,\mathrm{},0,r,r+1,\mathrm{},j+km+r1`$ is an $`A`$$`B`$ path of length $`km`$ provided $`j+km+r1<n+j`$, which holds for all the desired $`kn/m1`$.

So we may suppose the chord is $`0r`$, where $`m<r<nm`$. Let $`m<j<0`$ and consider the paths $`j,j+1,\mathrm{},0,r,r1,\mathrm{},rjm+1`$ and $`m+j,m+j1,\mathrm{},0,r,r+1,\mathrm{},rj1`$, of length $`m`$. If either of them is an $`A`$$`B`$ path we can extend it, by $`m`$ vertices at a time, to $`A`$$`B`$ paths of lengths $`km`$, $`k1`$, until the number of unused vertices in the two arcs defined by the chord is less than $`m`$ in each arc. At this point $`km+1n2(m1)`$, and as $`mn`$, $`km=nm`$ as desired. Likewise, if either of the two paths $`0,r,r1,\mathrm{},rm+1`$ and $`0,r,r+1,r+m1`$ is an $`A`$$`B`$ path then $`H`$ contains paths of all lengths less than $`|H|`$.

Thus it follows, as $`\chi (j)=\chi (m+j)`$, that for $`m<j<0`$ we have $`\chi (rjm+1)=\chi (rj1)`$ and that $`\chi (rm+1)=\chi (r+m1)`$, implying $`\chi (rj+1)=\chi (rj1)`$ and $`\chi (r+m+1)=\chi (r+m1)`$. So $`\chi (v+2)=\chi (v)`$ for all $`rv<r+m`$, and so for all $`vV(H)`$. Hence $`m=2`$.

We conclude, therefore, that $`|H|`$ is even and the vertices of the cycle are alternately in $`A`$ and in $`B`$. It is immediately seen that, under these circumstances, if the chord joins two vertices in the same class then $`H`$ contains $`A`$$`B`$ paths of all lengths less than $`|H|`$. Consequently, the chord joins $`A`$ to $`B`$, so $`H`$ is bipartite, with bipartition $`(A,B)`$. $`^\text{ }`$

###### Lemma 3

Let $`k2`$ be a natural number and let $`G`$ be a graph of average degree at least $`2k`$ and girth $`g`$. Then $`G`$ contains a cycle of length at least $`(g2)k+2`$, with at least one chord.

Proof. It is easily seen that a graph $`G`$ of average degree at least $`2k`$ contains a subgraph $`H`$ of minimum degree at least $`k+1`$. If $`P`$ is a longest path in $`H`$, then an endvertex $`v`$ of $`P`$ has all its neighbours on $`P`$. Some neighbour $`u`$ of $`v`$ is at distance at least $`(g2)k+1`$ from $`v`$ on $`P`$. Hence $`P+uv`$ is a cycle of length at least $`(g2)k+2`$. As $`k+13`$, this cycle has at least one chord. $`^\text{ }`$

Proof of Theorem 1. We may assume that $`G`$ is connected and let the radius of $`G`$ be $`\text{rad}(G)`$. Choose a central vertex $`v_0V(G)`$, and let $`V_i`$ denote the set of vertices a distance $`i`$ from $`v_0`$ in $`G`$. Then there exists $`l`$ such that $`V_lV_{l+1}`$ spans a graph $`G^{}`$ with at least $`k|V_lV_{l+1}|`$ edges. By Lemma 3, find $`HG^{}`$ comprising a cycle, of length at least $`(g2)k+2`$, with a chord. Let $`T^{}`$ be a minimal subtree of $`T`$, restricted to $`_{il}V_i`$, such that $`T^{}`$ contains $`V(H)V_l`$. The minimality of $`T^{}`$ ensures that it branches at its root. Now let $`A`$ be the set of vertices of $`H`$ in one of these branches and let $`B=V(H)\backslash A`$. By Lemma 2, and as $`(A,B)`$ is not the bipartition of $`H`$, there are $`A`$$`B`$ paths of all lengths up to $`(g2)k+1`$, all disjoint from $`T^{}\text{end}(T^{})`$. Each $`A`$$`B`$ path of even length $`s`$, together with a subpath of $`T^{}`$ between the ends of such a path, gives rise to a cycle of length $`s+2r`$, where $`r`$ is the distance from $`V_l`$ to the root of $`T^{}`$. Note that, as $`G`$ is bipartite, all paths of even length with one end in $`A`$ have their other end in $`V_l`$. This gives cycles $`C_{2r+2},C_{2r+4},..,C_{2r+(g2)k}`$, of $`(g/21)k`$ consecutive even lengths, and since $`v_0`$ is a central vertex, $`2r+2\text{rad}(G)`$, as required. $`^{}`$

We define the even girth of a graph $`G`$ to be the length of a shortest even cycle in $`G`$. Theorem 1 easily extends to general graphs, as is shown by the following corollary.

###### Corollary 4

Let $`k2`$ be a natural number, and let $`G`$ be a graph of average degree at least $`8k`$ and even girth $`g`$. Then there are cycles of $`(g/21)k`$ consecutive even lengths in $`G`$.

Proof. This follows from the observation that a graph of average degree at least $`8k`$ has a spanning bipartite subgraph of average degree at least $`4k`$, and then applying Theorem 1 to this bipartite subgraph. $`^\text{ }`$

In the case of graphs of average degree at least $`6k`$, we may also argue as follows. Given a vertex $`v_0`$, let $`V_l`$ denote the vertices a distance $`l`$ from $`v_0`$. Then either there exists $`l`$ such that $`V_lV_{l+1}`$ spans a bipartite graph of average degree at least $`2k`$, or there exists $`l`$ such that $`V_l`$ spans a graph of average degree at least $`2k`$. In the former case, the method of Theorem 1 gives cycles of all even lengths in an integer interval of form $`[2r+1,2r+(g2)k+1]`$ and the latter case gives (also following the proof of Theorem 1) cycles of all odd lengths in an integer interval of form $`[2r+1,2r+(g2)k+1]`$. So we have the following theorem:

###### Theorem 5

Let $`k2`$ be a natural number, and let $`G`$ be a graph of average degree at least $`6k`$ and girth $`g`$. Then, for some odd number $`r3`$, there exist cycles of all even lengths or all odd lengths in the interval $`[r,r+(g2)k]`$.

The above result recalls the result of Bondy and Vince , that if $`G`$ is a graph with at most two vertices of degree at most two, then $`G`$ contains cycles of two consecutive lengths or two consecutive even lengths. This was proved using a technique of Thomassen and Toft . In comparison, note that Theorem 5 requires average degree at least $`6k`$ where $`k2`$. Therefore, to ensure two cycles of consecutive lengths or consecutive even lengths, we require average degree at least twelve, which is higher than what is required in the context of Bondy and Vince’s results.

The following result is proved in the same was as Theorem 1:

###### Corollary 6

Let $`k2`$ be a natural number, and suppose that $`G`$ has chromatic number at least $`2k+2`$ and girth at least $`g`$. Then $`G`$ contains cycles of $`k(g2)`$ consecutive lengths.

The idea is that some level of a breadth-first search tree induces a graph of chromatic number at least $`k+1`$. Such a graph contains an odd cycle of length at least $`k(g2)+1`$ with a chord. We then apply the colouring lemma to deduce that $`G`$ contains cycles of $`k(g2)`$ consecutive lengths. In a sense, this generalizes a result of Gyárfás who showed that if $`G`$ has chromatic number at least $`2k+2`$, then $`G`$ contains cycles of $`k`$ distinct odd lengths. These ideas may also be used to give a relatively short proof that $`r(C_{2k+1},K_n)n^{1+1/(k+1)}`$. However, better results are easily obtain — for example, it is possible to show that $`r(C_{2k+1},K_n)n^{1+1/(k+1)}(\mathrm{log}_2n)^{1/k}`$.

The cycles we have obtained are all very close together in the sense that they share many vertices. Häggkvist and Scott  asked if it was possible, under an appropriate bound on the size of the graph, to find disjoint cycles of $`k`$ consecutive even lengths. This question also remains open, noting that a bound of order at least $`k^2`$ on the average degree would be required for disjoint cycles of $`k`$ consecutive even lengths. This is shown, for example, by $`K_{l,nl}`$ where $`l<2k+k(k1)/2`$ and $`n`$ is sufficiently large.

We remark that from Theorem 1 we may obtain a result on extremal numbers for even cycles, that slightly improves the result obtained by Bondy and Simonovits  (see Corollary 9). From their paper, it follows that a graph of order $`n`$ and size at least $`90kn^{1+1/k}`$ contains a cycle of length $`2k`$. Two simple lemmas are required before proving our result. The first lemma is a special case of a lemma of Kostochka and Pyber .

###### Lemma 7

Let $`G`$ be a graph of order $`n`$ and size at least $`cn^{1+1/k}`$, where $`c1`$. Then $`G`$ contains a subgraph of average degree at least $`c`$ and radius at most $`k`$.

Proof. We may assume that $`G`$ has minimum degree at least $`cn^{1/k}`$. Let $`v_0`$ be an arbitrary vertex in $`G`$ and define $`H_i`$ to be the subgraph of $`G`$ induced by vertices at distance at most $`i`$ from $`v_0`$. Define $`r=\mathrm{min}\{i:e(H_i)\frac{1}{2}c|H_i|\}`$. Clearly $`e(H_i)\frac{1}{2}cn^{1/k}|H_{i1}|`$ for all $`i`$ and so, by definition of $`r`$, $`|H_{r1}|>n^{1/k}|H_{r2}|`$ which gives $`|H_{r1}|>n^{(r1)/k}`$. Since $`|H_{r1}|n`$, $`r1<k`$ and so $`rk`$ and $`H_r`$ is the desired subgraph. $`^\text{ }`$

###### Lemma 8

Let $`G`$ be a graph of order $`n`$ with $`e(G)2n^{1+1/k}`$ where $`k2`$. Then $`G`$ has girth at most $`2k+1`$.

Proof. By Lemma 6, $`G`$ has a subgraph $`H`$ of radius at most $`k`$ and average degree at least two. So $`H`$ contains a cycle and some cycle in $`H`$ has length at most $`2k+1`$. $`^\text{ }`$

In particular, if $`G`$ is bipartite and $`k=2`$ in Lemma 7, then $`G`$ has a cycle of length four. For comparison, a standard result states that a graph which has at least $`n^{3/2}/2+n/4`$ edges contains a cycle of length four. We are able, using Theorem 1, to show the existence of longer even cycles:

###### Theorem 9

Let $`G`$ be a bipartite graph of order $`n`$ and girth $`g`$, and of size at least $`42(k1)/(g2)n^{1+1/k}`$, where $`k2`$ is an integer. Then $`G`$ has a cycle of length $`2k`$.

Proof. By Lemma 7, either $`G`$ contains a cycle of length $`2k`$ or $`g<2k`$ and $`k3`$. In the latter case, $`2(k1)/(g2)2`$. Lemma 6 shows that $`G`$ contains a subgraph of average degree at least $`42(k1)/(g2)`$ and of radius at most $`k`$. By Theorem 1, there are cycles of at least $`k1`$ consecutive even lengths in $`H`$, the shortest length being at most $`2k`$. So one of these cycles must have length exactly $`2k`$. $`^\text{ }`$

As a corollary to Theorem 8, we slightly improve the result of Bondy and Simonovits :

###### Corollary 10

Let $`G`$ be a graph of order $`n`$ and size at least $`8(k1)n^{1+1/k}`$, where $`k2`$. Then $`G`$ contains a cycle of length $`2k`$.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Andrew Thomason for his many helpful suggestions.


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# Berry’s phase in Cavity QED: proposal for observing an effect of field quantization

## Abstract

Geometric phases are well known in classical electromagnetism and quantum mechanics since the early works of Pantcharatnam pac  and Berry berry . Their origin relies on the geometric nature of state spaces and has been studied in many different systems such as spins, polarized light and atomic physics wil . Recent works have explored their application in interferometry and quantum computation jvec ; fal . Earlier works suggest how to observe these phases in single quantum systems adiabatically driven by external classical devices or sources, where, by classical, we mean any system whose state does not change considerably during the interaction time: an intense magnetic field interacting with a spin $`1/2`$, or a birefringent medium interacting with polarized light tom -tom6 . Here we propose a feasible experiment to investigate quantum effects in these phases, arising when this classical source drives not a single quantum system, but two interacting ones. In particular, we show how to observe a signature of field quantization through a vacuum effect in Berry’s phase. To do so, we describe the interaction of an atom and a quantized cavity mode altogether driven by an external quasi-classical field.

The matter-light interaction as well as the quantum nature of light itself have been subjects of many experimental investigations in the last two decades, specially in the Cavity QED domain haroche1 ; haroche12 ; walther ; walther2 . Furthermore, it has recently been shown that the quantization of the electromagnetic field can affect the geometric phase acquired by an evolving two-level system, if this system is made to interact with the quantized field angelo . In this letter, we propose an experiment that allows one to observe such an effect in Cavity QED.

Our system uses two dispersive Jaynes-Cummings interactions jcm , in the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ Raman configuration, between the atomic levels, two orthogonally polarized cavity modes (+ for the right and - for the left polarization) and an auxiliary external field $`\stackrel{}{E}(t)=\epsilon _0[(\mathrm{cos}\frac{\theta }{2}e^{i(\frac{\varphi }{2})}\widehat{ϵ}_++\mathrm{sin}\frac{\theta }{2}e^{i(\frac{\varphi }{2})}\widehat{ϵ}_{})e^{i\omega t}+c.c.]`$ inside a microwave cavity (see fig1). The quantum system to be observed consists of the electronic levels of the atom dressed by the cavity modes. The external field, injected transversely in the cavity, works as our external driving source.

Due to the dispersive one-photon interaction, the two upper electronic levels of the atom act only as virtual states allowing for the two-photon coupling between levels $`|1`$ and $`|2`$. The polarization of the auxiliary field determines how each cavity mode couples to the effective transition $`|1|2`$. For large detuning, i.e. $`\delta g,\mathrm{\Omega }`$, the whole system evolves according to the effective Hamiltonian marcelo

$$\begin{array}{c}H_{eff}=\mathrm{}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }^2}{\delta }\widehat{\sigma }_{22}+\mathrm{}\frac{g^2}{\delta }(\widehat{a}_+^{}\widehat{a}_++\widehat{a}_{}^{}\widehat{a}_{})\widehat{\sigma }_{11}\hfill \\ \hfill +\lambda [(\mathrm{cos}\frac{\theta }{2}e^{i\frac{\varphi }{2}}\widehat{a}_++\mathrm{sin}\frac{\theta }{2}e^{i\frac{\varphi }{2}}\widehat{a}_{})\widehat{\sigma }_{21}+h.c.],\end{array}$$
(1)
where $`\widehat{a}_+`$ ($`\widehat{a}_{}`$) denotes the annihilation operator of the right (left) circularly polarized quantized mode and we assumed states $`|1`$ and $`|2`$ to have the same parity. We assume, for the sake of simplicity, that the atom couples with the same strength to each polarization, both with the classical and the quantized modes $`g_+=g_{}=g=\mathrm{\Omega }`$. We also consider $`\mathrm{\Omega }_+=\mathrm{cos}\frac{\theta }{2}e^{i\frac{\varphi }{2}}\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{}=\mathrm{sin}\frac{\theta }{2}e^{i\frac{\varphi }{2}}\mathrm{\Omega }`$. Finally, we define $`\lambda =\frac{g\mathrm{\Omega }}{\delta }`$ as the effective coupling constant of the whole system.

The adiabatic rotation of the polarization of the injected (external) driving field produces two simultaneous effects; the usual one, which is related to the geometric phase $`\gamma /2`$ acquired by this quasi-classical (intense) field, where $`\gamma `$ is the solid angle associated to the surface described by its polarization vector in the Poincaré sphere (fig2). The other effect, much more subtle, is the slow variation of the effective Hamiltonian parameters $`\theta `$ and $`\varphi `$, and, therefore, of the internal structure of the atom-quantized modes interaction.

In particular, if this rotation is such that the final Hamiltonian is the same as the original one, except for the phase $`\gamma /2`$, then a quantum Berry phase can be observed in the joint state of the atom and the quantized modes. According to angelo , for a resonant Jaynes-Cummings interaction, state $`|1|n1|m`$ ($`|2|n|m`$) acquires a geometric phase $`e^{i\gamma /2(nm+1/2)}`$ ($`e^{i\gamma /2(nm+1/2)}`$), where $`|n`$ and $`|m`$ are the Fock states of modes $`\widehat{a}_+`$ and $`\widehat{a}_{}`$, respectively.

Note that even if both cavity modes are initially in the vacuum state, there is still a phase shift $`e^{i\gamma /4}`$ in the atomic state $`|2`$, while state $`|1`$ remains unchanged.

This geometric phase shift can be observed through the usual Ramsey interferometric method (fig3) haroche1 . The atom is prepared in the first Ramsey zone and put into a symmetric superposition of levels $`|1`$ and $`|2`$, while mode $`a_+`$ is prepared in some arbitrary state and mode $`a_{}`$ is prepared in the vacuum. The initial polarization of field $`\stackrel{}{E}(t))`$ is chosen so that only mode $`a_+`$ interacts with the atom. The external field is turned on and the whole system is allowed to interact for a time $`\tau 1/\lambda `$, during which the polarization of the external field is rotated at a much slower rate compared to $`\lambda `$ until it is back to its original value. After that, the atom undergoes a $`\pi /2`$ rotation in the second Ramsey zone and is detected by ionization.

If the initial state of mode $`a_+`$ is also the vacuum, then $`H_{eff}`$ is resonant (for $`\mathrm{\Omega }=g`$) and the probability to detect the atom in level $`|2`$, after an integral number of Rabi flips inside the cavity, and the $`\pi /2`$ pulse of the second Ramsey zone, is given by $`P_2=(1\mathrm{cos}\gamma /4)/2`$. This corresponds to a $`\gamma /4`$ geometric phase shift, which is a surprising effect, comparing to the usual $`\gamma /2`$ classical result. The atom-cavity mode system splits into doublets except for a lonely ground state, which serves as an internal reference frame for the measurement of the global geometric phases acquired by the remaining dressed states. This is only possible due to the quantum behaviour of the cavity mode.

This becomes clear, if the experiment is repeated but, now, a coherent state $`|\alpha `$ is initially injected in mode $`a_+`$. Then, the probability to measure the atom in the excited state for the same $`\gamma `$, is given by kike

$$2P_2=(1e^{|\alpha |^2})(1\mathrm{cos}\gamma /2)+e^{|\alpha |^2}(1\mathrm{cos}\gamma /4).$$

From this equation it is clear that only for $`|\alpha =0`$, we have the surprising $`\gamma /4`$ ratio. As the intensity of the initial coherent state increases, the observed phase shift goes to the well expected $`\gamma /2`$ semi-classical limit. In this calculation, we assume a slightly different setup in which the dynamical effects can be eliminated kike .

In Fig. 2a, we show the phase shift in the probability to find the atom in level $`|2`$ $`P_2`$ for a induced geometric phase $`\gamma =\pi `$ due to the rotation of the polarization of the driving field. In Fig. 2b we show $`P_2`$ as a function of different initial coherent states in the cavity field, for a fixed interaction time $`\tau =10/\lambda `$, and the same phase shift $`\gamma =\pi `$.

Typical values for the one photon vacuum Rabi frequency are $`g/2\pi 50kHz`$ haroche1 ; haroche2 . Choosing the same coupling for the classically driven transition $`\mathrm{\Omega }/2\pi 50kHz`$, and a detuning $`\delta =3\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`\lambda /2\pi 15kHz`$, which means that the atom-field system can perform approximately $`10`$ complete Rabi cycles during an effective interaction time of $`0.6ms`$. Times of interaction of this order are achievable in microwave cavities for atomic velocities of the order of $`10m/s`$ and are within typical decaying times ($`1`$ ms) for the cavities used in haroche1 . According to our calculations, in these experimental conditions, the non-ideal adiabatic rotation of the polarization produces errors of the order of $`5\%`$ in $`P_2`$, which are smaller than the ones produced by other sources, like detectors inefficiency, cavity field decay and so on.

Our work suggests that the geometric phase still has additional surprising features. It also shows the versatility and power of the simple combination of the quantized cavity mode manipulated by an externally injected quasi-classical field. This opens a number of further possibilities for research, such as for example the effect of the phase on the collapses and revivals of atomic population in the Jaynes-Cummings model collapse .

Acknowledgements This research was supported by EPSRC, Hewlett-Packard, Elsag spa and the EU. MFS acknowledges the support of CNPq.

Correspondence should be addressed to v.vedral@ic.ac.uk.

Figure 1. The experimental proposal. The Rydberg atoms cross cavity C one at a time; the cavity mode is initially prepared in some weak coherent state and a circularly polarized intense field $`\stackrel{}{E}(t)`$ drives the atom-cavity mode system. The atomic levels are shown in fig 1b. For large detunings $`\delta g,\mathrm{\Omega }`$, the two lower levels interact effectively through a two-photon process; for simplicity, we consider $`g=\mathrm{\Omega }`$, where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_+=\mathrm{cos}\frac{\theta }{2}e^{i\frac{\varphi }{2}}\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{}=\mathrm{sin}\frac{\theta }{2}e^{i\frac{\varphi }{2}}\mathrm{\Omega }`$; in R1, the atoms are prepared in symmetric quantum superpositions of levels 1 and 2, and subsequently perform an integral number of Rabi flips inside C. During this interaction in C, the polarization of the external field is slowly rotated so as to complete a closed loop in the Poincaré sphere (as in fig. 2); the atoms are finally rotated back in R2, and detected in I.

Figure 2. A closed loop described by the polarization vector of the external driving field. The (classical) geometric phase generated in this way is equal to one half of the solid angle enclosed by the path (equal to $`\pi `$ in this figure). Note that the same picture can be used to represent the evolution of a quantum two-level system whose state space has the same structure as a two dimensional sphere (known as the Bloch sphere). In our paper we combine these two pictures with the quantization of the field to produce and measure a new phase effect. The evolution of the joint atom and the quantized field state can no longer be represented in this simple way.

Figure 3. Experimental prediction. (a) probability to measure the atom in state $`|2`$, for a fixed number of Rabi flips inside the cavity and different relative phases $`\xi `$ between R1 and R2; the green curve is the caliber curve for the Ramsey interferometry, and the red curve represents the situation in which a geometric phase shift of $`\pi /4`$ is induced in the system, according to the proposed experiment. This phase shift corresponds to the solid angle $`\gamma =\pi `$ described in fig 2. Part (b) represents the effective phase shift for different coherent states prepared in the cavity. We see that for the vacuum states (i.e. a coherent state of amplitude $`0`$) the shift would be equal to $`\pi /4`$, and it would increase with the coherent state amplitude converging to the expected (semi-classical) value of $`\pi /2`$. Note that the convergence is very fast, and for amplitudes of $`2`$ and higher the semi classical result is in a very good agreement with the fully quantized calculation.


text:
# A new proof of the Nonrationality of Cubic Threefolds

## 0 Introduction and History

The aim of this paper is to use methods of degenerations of Prym varieties of \[ABH\] to prove the following theorem:

###### Theorem 1

A generic cubic threefold is not birational to $`^3`$.

There have been several proofs of this theorem. The first proof was by Clemens and Griffiths in \[CG\]. However, even though their proof does use degenerations, it does not use them directly in the proof of Theorem 1. So we cannot compare their proof to the others mentioned here. The advantage which their proof has over the ones listed here is that it applies to any cubic threefold.

Collino gives a degeneration proof in \[C\]. He looks at a family $`𝒳/S`$ of cubic threefolds where $`S`$ is a smooth but not necessarily complete curve. The family has the property that for each $`sS`$ and $`ss_0`$ the threefold $`X_s`$ is smooth, and $`X_{s_0}`$ has exactly one ordinary double point. To this family he associates a family of generalized Prym varieties $`𝒜/S`$ such that when $`ss_0`$, $`A_s=J(X_s)`$, the intermediate Jacobian of $`X_s`$ and $`A_{s_0}`$ is an extension of a Jacobian $`B`$ of a curve $`C`$ by a torus $`\tau `$. On the family $`𝒜/S`$ he constructs a relative cartier divisor $`D`$ such that when $`ss_0`$, $`D_s`$ induces the same polarization as the theta divisor of $`J(X_s)`$ and $`D_{s_0}=2\mathrm{\Theta }`$ in $`NS(B)`$, the Neron-Severi group. Here $`\mathrm{\Theta }`$ is a divisor which induces a principal polarization on $`B`$. The irrationality is proved by showing that if all $`X_s`$ ($`ss_0`$) were rational then the pair $`(A_{s_0},D_{s_0})`$ should be a polarized generalized Jacobian of a curve with ordinary double points. The curve $`C`$ would have to be both hyperelliptic and of genus 4 embedded in $`^3`$ which is a contradiction. This proof works over all algebraically closed fields where the characteristic is not 2.

Bardelli also does a degeneration proof in \[B\]. In his case he starts out with a family $`𝒳/^1`$ of cubic threefolds. For $`t0`$ the fiber $`X_t`$ is a smooth cubic threefold and $`X_0=_{j=1}^3X_0^i`$ where each $`X_0^i`$ is isomorphic to $`^3`$. The generalized intermediate jacobian of $`X_0`$ is an extension of $`_{j=1}^3J(X_0^i)`$ by a torus $`\tau `$. Then for $`t0`$ $`H^3(X_t)`$ is polarized by a cup product which is denoted $`\mathrm{\Theta }(t)`$. The family $`\{\mathrm{\Theta }(t)\}`$ specializes to the natural polarization on $`_{j=1}^3J(X_0^i)`$. The Hodge structure corresponding to $`\tau `$ is polarized by a bilinear symmetric form $`\psi _{X_0}`$. It is shown that $`\psi _{X_0}`$ is defined in terms of $`\mathrm{\Theta }_t`$ and the local monodromy of the family of threefolds. By assuming $`X_t`$ is rational for $`t0`$ he shows that $`\psi _{X_0}`$ is not the natural polarization on the space of transverse 1-cycles of any semistable curve. Because of the use of Hodge theory, this proof only works over $``$.

The proof in this paper is different in that it is maximal in the following sense: The Prym variety arising from double covers of stable curves is an extension of an abelian part by a torus. For the proofs above there is an extension of a Jacobian by a torus $`\tau `$. In Bardelli’s proof $`\tau `$ is $`(^{})^2`$ (\[B\] 6.2.1) and in Collino it is $`(k^{})^1`$ where $`k`$ is an algebraically closed field. For the proof presented here there is no abelian part, so the torus is $`(k^{})^5`$ which is the maximum it can be.

The outline of this paper is as follows: In section 1 we gather the results we need from \[A\] and \[ABH\] and \[V\]. which we will use later in the paper. Section 2 presents the information we need to know about unimodular systems and $`E_5`$ in particular. Section 3 gives the relationship between cubic threefolds and Prym varieties. Finally, in section 4, we compute the unimodular system for our degeneration, put everything together and prove Theorem 1.

Acknowledgements: I would like to thank Prof. Valery Alexeev for his help and attention to my work and Prof. Berndt Sturmfels for his help with Macaulay2. I would also like to thank Prof. Roy Smith and Prof. Robert Varley for lots of help and suggestions in the course of preparing this paper.

## 1 Degeneration results

In this section we recall the results we need in order for our degeneration to work. The results are proved in the papers \[A\], \[ABH\] and \[N\]. All results work over algebraically closed fields with characteristic not 2.

### 1.1 Jacobians

Suppose we have a 1-parameter family of smooth curves degenerating to a stable curve with dual graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Then by \[A\] (or \[ABH\]) we get induced data. For us the object of interest is the cell decomposition obtained (\[A\] 5.5.) This cell decomposition is obtained by intersecting the subspace $`H_1(\mathrm{\Gamma },)C_1(\mathrm{\Gamma },)`$ with the standard cubes in $`C_1(\mathrm{\Gamma },)`$. This decomposition, called a cographic dicing, does not depend on the 1-parameter family and can be obtained from a unimodular system (\[ABH\], 2.3 (J6)).

### 1.2 Pryms

Suppose we have a 1-parameter family of curves $`(\stackrel{~}{C},\iota )/S`$ such that the generic fiber is a smooth curve with a base-point-free involution and the degenerate curve $`(\stackrel{~}{C}_0,\iota )`$ is a stable curve. Then degenerate data can be obtained for this family (\[ABH\], Section 2.4 PP0–PP6). In particular the data we need is the cell decomposition of PP6 which we now describe.

For the rest of this section we will the drop the subscript $`0`$ from $`\stackrel{~}{C}_0`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}_0`$. Let the dual graph of $`\stackrel{~}{C}`$ be $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$. To get this cell decomposition we do the following: We define a map

$`\pi ^{}:H_1(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }},)`$ $``$ $`H_1(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }},\frac{1}{2})`$
$`h`$ $``$ $`\frac{1}{2}(h\iota (h))`$
Let $`X^{}:=\pi ^{}(H_1(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }},))`$. The space $`X^{}`$ is contained in $`C_1(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }},)`$. Each edge $`e_j`$ of $`\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }}`$ defines a coordinate function $`z_j`$ in $`C_1(\stackrel{~}{\mathrm{\Gamma }},)`$. Let $`m_j=1`$ if $`z_j:X^{}`$ is surjective and $`m_j=2`$ if $`z_j:X^{}\frac{1}{2}`$ is surjective. The functions $`m_jz_j`$ define a cell decomposition of $`X^{}`$.

The cell decomposition defined on $`X^{}`$ is independent of the 1-parameter family if the vertices of the cell decomposition are precisely the points of $`X^{}`$, i.e. the linear functions define a dicing of $`X^{}`$. This is condition (\*) in \[ABH\]. An equivalent, easier to verify, condition is given in \[V\] as Theorem 0.1. This condition can be stated as follows:

###### Lemma 2 (\[V\] Theorem 0.1)

The cell decomposition depends only on the degenerate fiber $`(\stackrel{~}{C},\iota )`$ if the following is true: There do not exist two connected subgraphs $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0,\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ of the dual graph of $`\stackrel{~}{C}`$ such that $`\iota (\mathrm{\Gamma }_i)=\mathrm{\Gamma }_i`$, $`(i=0,1)`$ and there are at least four edges connecting $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$.

## 2 Unimodular systems

###### Definition 3 (\[DG\])

A system of $`mn`$ vectors $`R`$ generating $`^n`$ is called a unimodular system ($`U`$-system) if when we write any $`n`$ vectors of $`R`$ as columns in terms of a basis $`BR`$ we obtain a matrix which is totally unimodular, i.e the maximal minors are either $`0`$, $`1`$ or $`1`$.

Suppose $`R`$ is a set of vectors spanning $`^n`$. Then these vectors define a family $`H(R)`$ of of parallel hyperplanes $`H(\text{r},z)=\{\text{x}^n:\text{x}\text{r}=z\},z,\text{r}R`$. If $`BR`$ is a basis for $`^n`$ then the intersection points of hyperplanes in $`H(B)`$ is a lattice and $`H(R)`$ is then called a lattice dicing. The set of intersection points of hyperplanes of $`H(R)`$ is a lattice if and only if $`R`$ is a unimodular system.

There are unimodular systems which are not cographic. In our case, we are interested in a very nice and exceptional one called $`E_5`$. It is represented by the matrix

$$\left(\begin{array}{cccccccccc}1& 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 1& 1\\ 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 1& 1& 0& 0& 1\\ 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 1& 1& 0& 1\\ 0& 0& 0& 1& 0& 0& 0& 1& 1& 1\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& 1& 1& 1& 1& 1& 1\end{array}\right).$$

The fact that it is not cographic is proved as Cor 13.2.5 in \[O\].

## 3 Cubic Threefolds and Plane Quintics

In this section we show the connection between cubic threefolds and plane quintics for nonsingular threefolds and the Segre threefold. Most of the information here is put together from the following sources: in \[D\] Sections 4.8 and 5.17, \[H\] Section 3.1 and 3.2, \[M1\], \[M2\], \[CG\] and \[SR\].

### 3.1 Smooth Cubic Threefolds

Let $`X`$ be a smooth cubic threefold in $`^4`$. The lines in $`X`$ form a surface $`F`$ called a Fano surface (\[M1\], 1.1; \[CG\], Theorem 7.8). Pick a generic enough line $`\mathrm{}`$ in $`FX`$ (satisfying conditions in \[M1\], Prop 1.25). The space of planes through $`\mathrm{}`$ is parametrized by a projective space $`Y=^2`$. Let $`C_{\mathrm{}}Y`$ be the planes $`L`$ such that $`LX`$ consists of three lines. Then $`C_{\mathrm{}}`$ is a plane quintic curve. Also, let $`\stackrel{~}{C_{\mathrm{}}}=\{\mathrm{}^{}F|\mathrm{}\mathrm{}^{}\mathrm{}\}`$. Then $`\stackrel{~}{C_{\mathrm{}}}`$ is a curve in $`F`$ and there is a natural map $`q:\stackrel{~}{C_{\mathrm{}}}C_{\mathrm{}}`$. We get an involution $`\iota `$ on $`\stackrel{~}{C}`$ as follows: for a point $`LC`$ $`q^1(L)=\{\mathrm{}^{},\mathrm{}^{\prime \prime }\}`$. So for $`\mathrm{}^{}\stackrel{~}{C}`$ we have $`\iota (\mathrm{}^{})=\mathrm{}^{\prime \prime }`$. From this double cover we obtain a Prym variety $`P(\stackrel{~}{C_{\mathrm{}}},\iota )`$. However the Prym variety is independent of $`\mathrm{}`$, so we can write $`P(X)`$. This construction is in \[M2\] Section 2, and \[CG\], Appendix C.

### 3.2 The Segre Threefold

Now we construct a singular plane quintic and a double cover.

###### Definition 4

The Segre cubic threefold $`𝒮`$ is given by the following equation in $`^5`$:

$$\{(x_0,\mathrm{},x_5):\underset{j=0}{\overset{5}{}}x_j^3=\underset{j=0}{\overset{5}{}}x_j=0\}.$$

This equation only works with fields of characteristic not 3. In all characteristics not 2 the following works:

{(x0,,x4):

i, j, k
distinct
2xixjxk+ijxi2xj=0,i,j,k{0,,4}}conditional-setsubscript𝑥0subscript𝑥4formulae-sequencesubscript

i, j, k
distinct
2subscript𝑥𝑖subscript𝑥𝑗subscript𝑥𝑘subscript𝑖𝑗superscriptsubscript𝑥𝑖2subscript𝑥𝑗0𝑖𝑗𝑘04\left\{(x_{0},\ldots,x_{4}):\sum_{\mbox{\shortstack{$i$, $j$, $k$\\
 distinct}}}2x_{i}x_{j}x_{k}+\sum_{i\neq j}x_{i}^{2}x_{j}=0,\ \ \ i,j,k\in\{0,\ldots,4\}\right\}
The Segre threefold is the unique (up to isomorphism) threefold with ten nodes. The equation above shows that the cubic threefold is invariant under the action of the symmetric group $`S_6`$ on the coordinates. One node is given by the coordinates $`(1,1,1,1,1,1)`$ and the other nine are obtained by the action of $`S_6`$ on the coordinates.

We can obtain $`𝒮`$ as follows: Let $`p_1,\mathrm{},p_5`$ be points in general position in $`^3`$ and for each pair of points $`\mathrm{}_{ij}`$ is the line joining $`p_i`$ and $`p_j`$. Blow up $`^3`$ at the five points and then blow down the proper transforms of the ten lines $`\mathrm{}_{ij}`$. The image is $`S`$ in $`^4`$.

There are $`15`$ planes contained in $`𝒮`$. Ten of them come from proper transforms of the planes in $`^3`$ containing three points $`p_i`$, $`p_j`$ and $`p_k`$. These are labeled $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{ijk}`$ ($`i<j<k`$). The other five are images of the exceptional divisors coming from the blowup. These are labeled $`\mathrm{\Pi }_i`$ ($`1i5`$). Each of the 15 planes contains 4 nodes.

$`𝒮`$ contains 6 two dimensional families of lines, $`R_i`$ ($`1i5`$) which are proper transforms of lines through $`p_i`$ and $`R_0`$ which is the family of twisted cubics through the five points. Each line in $`R_i`$ goes through the five planes $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{ijk}`$ ($`i<j<k`$). Each line in $`R_0`$ goes through $`\mathrm{\Pi }_i`$ (\[SR\] VIII 2.32).

We choose a line $`\mathrm{}`$ in $`R_1`$ which does not go through a node and goes through exactly 5 planes. We project from $`\mathrm{}`$ onto $`^2`$. The images of each of the five planes is in the degeneracy locus for $`𝒮`$. Each line meets each of the other four lines at a node. Each node is where the preimage is a plane containing a node on $`𝒮`$. The five lines form a pentagon in $`^2`$ which we call $`C_0`$. The dual graph of $`C_0`$ is the complete graph on five vertices $`K_5`$.

As in the smooth case, we can construct a double cover for the curve $`C`$ above. This double cover will lie in $`G(2,5)`$. The preimage of each point in $`C`$ consists of two lines, excluding $`\mathrm{}`$, which are points in the double cover. The whole cover can be described as follows: Take ten copies of $`^1`$, $`L_i^ϵ`$ where $`1i5`$ and $`ϵ`$ is either 0 or 1. Each line $`L_i^ϵ`$ has four points marked on it $`p_{i,j}^ϵ`$ where $`1j5`$ and $`ji`$. In the following the notation $`(p_{i,j}^0p_{j,i}^1)`$ means that the points $`p_{i,j}^0`$ and $`p_{j,i}^1`$ are identified. The double cover $`\stackrel{~}{C}`$ is

$$\stackrel{~}{C}=\left(\underset{i,ϵ}{}L_i^ϵ\right)/\left(p_{i,j}^0p_{j,i}^1\right)$$

The dual graph $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_0=\mathrm{\Gamma }(\stackrel{~}{C_0})`$ is shown below. If the vertices of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(C_0)`$ are labelled $`v_j`$, the the vertices $`a_j`$ and $`b_j`$ both map to $`v_j`$. The map of edges is given by the map of vertices.

The edges are named as follows: $`e_1=(b_3,a_2)`$, $`e_2=(a_4,b_2)`$, $`e_3=(a_5,b_3)`$, $`e_4=(a_5,b_4)`$, $`e_5=(a_5,b_1)`$, $`e_6=(a_4,b_3)`$, $`e_7=(b_3,a_1)`$, $`e_8=(b_2,a_5)`$, $`e_9=(a_1,b_4)`$, $`e_{10}=(b_2,a_1)`$. The rest of the edges are named as follows: if edge $`e_i`$ is $`(a_j,b_k)`$ ($`(b_j,a_k)`$ respectively) the edge $`e_i^{}`$ is $`(b_j,a_k)`$, ($`(a_j,b_k)`$ respectively).

The tree used to form the basis of $`H_1(\mathrm{\Gamma },)`$ is given by the edges $`e_6=(a_4,b_3)`$, $`e_7=(b_3,a_1)`$, $`e_8=(b_2,a_5)`$, $`e_9=(a_1,b_4)`$, $`e_{10}=(b_2,a_1)`$ and $`e_{10}^{}=(a_2,b_1)`$, $`e_7^{}(a_3,b_1)`$, $`e_9^{}=(b_1,a_4)`$, $`e_8^{}=(a_2,b_5)`$.

## 4 Proof of the Main Theorem

We now prove the irrationality of cubic threefolds by making use of the following lemma which relates cubic threefolds and Prym varieties.

###### Lemma 5 (\[M2\] Thm 3.11)

Let $`\text{char}(k)2`$. Let $`X`$ be a nonsingular cubic threefold in $`^4`$, defined over $`k`$. If there exists a birational transformation between $`X`$ and $`^3`$ then the canonically polarized prym variety $`(P(X),\mathrm{\Xi })`$ associated with $`X`$ is isomorphic, as a polarized abelian variety, to a product of canonically polarized Jacobian varieties of curves.

Given a smooth plane quintic curve with a double cover we degenerate it to the stable curve $`C_0`$ above. The generalized Prym $`P(\stackrel{~}{C},\iota )`$ can be easily shown to be isomorphic to $`(k^{})^5`$.

Using the results on degeneration above we can compute the unimodular system for the Delaunay decomposition of the degeneration. By constructing the dual graph of the double cover and using the algorithm in \[ABH\], outlined in Section 1.2 we prove the following theorem:

###### Theorem 6

The unimodular system for cell decomposition associated to a family of cubic threefolds degenerating to the Segre Threefold is $`E_5`$.

Before we do the proof we need to verify that if a family of cubic threefolds degerate to $`𝒮`$ the the family of double covers satisfies Lemma 2.

Let $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ be as above. Suppose we have the two subgraphs $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ of $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$. Then the first possible case is that $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ has 2 vertices and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ has 8 vertices. This is not possible because then $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ would not be connected. Suppose the vertices in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ correspond to the lines $`L_1^0`$ and $`L_1^1`$ (using the notation from above). The line $`L_1^0`$ and $`L_1^1`$ do not meet, so on the dual graph their corresponding vertices do not have an edge between them. The second possible case is if $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ have 4 and 6 vertices respectively. Suppose without loss of generality the lines $`L_1^0`$,$`L_1^1`$, $`L_2^0`$ and $`L_2^1`$ are in $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$. This would imply $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ is not connected because the connected subgraph with $`L_1^0`$ and $`L_2^1`$ is not connected with the subgraph with $`L_1^1`$ and $`L_2^0`$. So the Delaunay decomposition is independent of the 1-parameter family, therefore we can obtain a unimodular system.

Proof
\[of Theorem 6\]

We now compute $`X^{}C_1(\mathrm{\Gamma },)`$.

The following is a basis for $`H_1(\mathrm{\Gamma },)`$.

$`h_1`$ $`=`$ $`e_6^{}+e_7^{}e_9^{}+e_6+e_7e_9`$
$`h_2`$ $`=`$ $`e_1^{}+e_7^{}+e_9^{}+e_6+e_7+e_{10}`$
$`h_3`$ $`=`$ $`e_1e_{10}^{}e_9^{}+e_6`$
$`h_4`$ $`=`$ $`e_2+e_6+e_7+e_{10}`$
$`h_5`$ $`=`$ $`e_2^{}e_{10}^{}e_9^{}+e_6+e_7e_9`$
$`h_6`$ $`=`$ $`e_5^{}e_8^{}e_{10}^{}e_9^{}+e_6+e_7`$
$`h_7`$ $`=`$ $`e_5e_9^{}+e_6+e_7+e_{10}+e_8`$
$`h_8`$ $`=`$ $`e_4+e_9+e_{10}e_8`$
$`h_9`$ $`=`$ $`e_3+e_7+e_{10}e_8`$
$`h_8^{}`$ $`=`$ $`e_4^{}+e_9^{}+e_{10}^{}e_8^{}`$
$`h_9^{}`$ $`=`$ $`e_3^{}+e_7^{}+e_{10}^{}e_8^{}.`$
The basis for $`X^{}`$ is as follows

$`\mathrm{}_1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(h_2\iota (h_2))={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(h_3\iota (h_3))`$
$`\mathrm{}_2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(h_4\iota (h_4))={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(h_5\iota (h_5))`$
$`\mathrm{}_3`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(h_9\iota (h_9))={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(h_9^{}\iota (h_9^{}))`$
$`\mathrm{}_4`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(h_8\iota (h_8))={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(h_8^{}\iota (h_8^{}))`$
$`\mathrm{}_5`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(h_6\iota (h_6))={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(h_7\iota (h_7))`$
and $`X^{}=<\mathrm{}_1,\mathrm{},\mathrm{}_5>`$. The unimodular system is obtained by seeing how the edges $`e_j`$ restrict to $`X^{}`$. The unimodular matrix for the dicing of $`X^{}`$ is $`(a_{ij})`$ where $`a_{ij}`$ is defined to be $`1`$ if $`\mathrm{}_i`$ contains $`e_j`$. This matrix is $`E_5`$.

We are now in a position to prove Theorem 1.

Let $`\mathrm{}_0`$ be a line in $`𝒮`$ (chosen as in Section 3.2). Choose a smooth cubic threefold $`X`$ such that it also contains $`\mathrm{}_0`$. We have a pencil of cubic threefolds which contain $`\mathrm{}_0`$:

$$X_{a,b}=aX+b𝒮(a:b)^1.$$

By restricting to some open subset $`S`$ of $`^1`$ we get a family $`𝒳/S`$ of cubic threefolds. For each $`s`$ there is a Prym $`P(X_s)`$. If the threefolds in our family were rational then by Section 1.1 and Lemma 5 the family of Pryms we obtain should give a cographic unimodular system. But by Theorem 6 we get $`E_5`$ which we know is not cographic. So our original supposition that the cubic threefolds were rational is false.


text:
# The Cosmology of Fluctuations

## 1 Introduction

From early 1998, the conventional wisdom of cosmology that had concretized from the mid sixties onwards, began to be challenged. It had been believed that the density of the universe is near its critical value, separating eternal expansion and ultimate contraction, while the nuances of the dark matter theories were being fine tuned. However the work of Perlmutter and others  began appearing in 1998 and told a different story. These observations of distant supernovae indicated that contrary to widely held belief, the universe was not only not decelarating, it was actually accelerating. This paradigm shift permeated to the popular press also. For example an article in the Scientific American  observed, ”In recent years the field of cosmology has gone through a radical upheaval. New discoveries have challenged long held theories about the evolution of the universe… Now that observers have made a strong case for cosmic acceleration, theorists must explain it…. If the recent turmoil is anything to go by, we had better keep our options open.”
On the other hand, the Physics World observed , ”A revolution is taking place in cosmology. New ideas are usurping traditional notions about the composition of the universe, the relationship between geometry and destiny, and Einstein’s greatest blunder.”
The infamous cosmological constant was resurrected and now it was ”dark energy” that was in the air, rather than dark matter.
Shortly before these dramatic discoveries, the author had presented a cosmological model based on fluctuations in an all permeating Zero Point Field . This model is consistent with astrophysical observations and predicts an ever expanding and accelerating universe. It deduces from theory the so called large number coincidences including the purely empirical Weinberg formula that connects the pion mass to the Hubble Constant . Let us now examine this cosmology and some of its implications.

## 2 Fluctuations and Cosmology

We first observe that the concept of a Zero Point Field (ZPF) or Quantum Vacuum (or Ether) is an idea whose origin can be traced back to Max Planck himself. Quantum Field Theory attributes the ZPF to the virtual Quantum Effects of an already present electromagnetic field . There is another approach, sometimes called Stochastic Electrodynamics which treats the ZPF as primary and attributes to it Quantum Mechanical effects . It may be observed that the ZPF results in the well known experimentally verified Casimir effect . We would also like to point out that contrary to popular belief, the concept of Ether has survived over the decades through the works of Dirac, Vigier, Prigogine, String Theoriests like Wilzeck and others -. It appears that even Einstein himself continued to believe in this concept .
We would first like to observe that the energy of the fluctuations in the background electromagnetic field could lead to the formation of elementary particles. Infact it is known that this energy of fluctuation in a region of length $`l`$ is given by

$$B^2\frac{\mathrm{}c}{l^4}$$

In the above if $`l`$ is taken to be the Compton wavelength of a typical elementary particle, then we recover its energy $`mc^2`$, as can be easily verified. It may be mentioned that Einstein himself had believed that the electron was a result of such condensation from the background electromagnetic field (Cf. for details). We also take the pion to represent a typical elementary particle, as in the literature.
To proceed, as there are $`N10^{80}`$ such particles in the universe, we get

$$Nm=M$$
(1)
where $`M`$ is the mass of the universe.
In the following we will use $`N`$ as the sole cosmological parameter.
Equating the gravitational potential energy of the pion in a three dimensional isotropic sphere of pions of radius $`R`$, the radius of the universe, with the rest energy of the pion, we can deduce the well known relation

$$R\frac{GM}{c^2}$$
(2)
where $`M`$ can be obtained from (1).
We now use the fact that given $`N`$ particles, the fluctuation in the particle number is of the order $`\sqrt{N}`$, while a typical time interval for the fluctuations is $`\mathrm{}/mc^2`$, the Compton time. We will come back to this point later. So we have

$$\frac{dN}{dt}=\frac{\sqrt{N}}{\tau }$$

whence on integration we get,

$$T=\frac{\mathrm{}}{mc^2}\sqrt{N}$$
(3)
We can easily verify that equation (3) is indeed satisfied where $`T`$ is the age of the universe. Next by differentiating (2) with respect to $`t`$ we get

$$\frac{dR}{dt}HR$$
(4)
where $`H`$ in (4) can be identified with the Hubble Constant, and using (2) is given by,

$$H=\frac{Gm^3c}{\mathrm{}^2}$$
(5)
Equation (1), (2) and (3) show that in this formulation, the correct mass, radius and age of the universe can be deduced given $`N`$ as the sole cosmological or large scale parameter. Equation (5) can be written as

$$m\left(\frac{H\mathrm{}^2}{Gc}\right)^{\frac{1}{3}}$$
(6)
Equation (6) has been empirically known as an ”accidental” or ”mysterious” relation. As observed by Weinberg, this is unexplained: it relates a single cosmological parameter $`H`$ to constants from microphysics. We will touch upon this micro-macro nexus again. In our formulation, equation (6) is no longer a mysterious coincidence but rather a consequence.
As (5) and (4) are not exact equations but rather, order of magnitude relations, it follows that a small cosmological constant $``$ is allowed such that

$$0(H^2)$$

This is consistent with observation and shows that $``$ is very very small - this has been a puzzle, the so called cosmological constant problem . But it is explained here.
To proceed we observe that because of the fluctuation of $`\sqrt{N}`$ (due to the ZPF), there is an excess electrical potential energy of the electron, which infact we have identified as its inertial energy. That is ,

$$\sqrt{N}e^2/Rmc^2.$$

On using (2) in the above, we recover the well known Gravitation-electromagnetism ratio viz.,

$$e^2/Gm^2\sqrt{N}10^{40}$$
(7)
or without using (2), we get, instead, the well known so called Eddington formula,

$$R=\sqrt{N}l$$
(8)
Infact (8) is the spatial counterpart of (3). If we combine (8) and (2), we get,

$$\frac{Gm}{lc^2}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}T^1$$
(9)
where in (9), we have used (3). Following Dirac (cf.also ) we treat $`G`$ as the variable, rather than the quantities $`m,l,c\text{and}\mathrm{}`$ (which we will call micro physical constants) because of their central role in atomic (and sub atomic) physics.
Next if we use $`G`$ from (9) in (5), we can see that

$$H=\frac{c}{l}\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}$$
(10)
Thus apart from the fact that $`H`$ has the same inverse time dependance on $`T`$ as $`G`$, (10) shows that given the microphysical constants, and $`N`$, we can deduce the Hubble Constant also, as from (10) or (5).
Using (1) and (2), we can now deduce that

$$\rho \frac{m}{l^3}\frac{1}{\sqrt{N}}$$
(11)
Next (8) and (3) give,

$$R=cT$$
(12)
(11) and (12) are consistent with observation.
Finally, we observe that using $`M,G\text{and}H`$ from the above, we get

$$M=\frac{c^3}{GH}$$
(13)
The relation (13) is required in the Friedman model of the expanding universe (and the Steady State model also).
The above model predicts an ever expanding and possibly accelerating universe whose density keeps decreasing. This seemed to go against the accepted idea that the density of the universe equalled the critical density required for closure.

## 3 Issues and Ramifications

i) The above cosmology exhibits a time variation of the gravitational constant of the form

$$G=\frac{\beta }{T}$$
(14)
Indeed this is true in a few other schemes also, including Dirac’s cosmology (Cf. ). Interestingly it can be shown that such a time variation can explain the precession of the perihelion of Mercury (Cf. ). It can also provide an alternative explanation for dark matter and the bending of light while the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation is also explained (Cf.).
It is also possible to deduce the existence of gravitational waves given (14). To see this quickly let us consider the Poisson equation for the metric $`g_{\mu \nu }`$

$$^2g_{\mu \nu }=G\rho u_\mu u_\nu $$
(15)
The solution of (15) is given by

$$g_{\mu \nu }=G\frac{\rho u_\mu u_\nu }{|\stackrel{}{r}\stackrel{}{r}^{}|}d^3\stackrel{}{r}$$
(16)
Indeed equations similar to (15) and (16) hold for the Newtonian gravitational potential also. If we use the second time derivative of $`G`$ from (14) in (16), along with (15), we can immediately obtain the D’alembertian wave equation for gravitational waves, instead of the Poisson equation:

$$\mathrm{}g_{\mu \nu }0$$

ii) Recently a small variation with time of the fine structure constant has been detected and reconfirmed by Webb and coworkers . This observation is consistent with the above cosmology. We can see this as follows. We use an equation due to Kuhne

$$\frac{\dot{\alpha }_z}{\alpha _z}=\alpha _z\frac{\dot{H}_z}{H_z},$$
(17)
If we now use the fact that the cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is given by

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }0(H^2)$$
(18)
as can be seen from (4), in (17), we get using (18),

$$\frac{\dot{\alpha }_z}{\alpha _z}=\beta H_z$$
(19)
where $`\beta <\alpha _z<10^2`$.
Equation (19) can be shown to be the same as

$$\frac{\dot{\alpha }_z}{\alpha _z}1\times 10^5H_z.$$
(20)
which is the same as Webb’s result.
We give another derivation of (20) in the above context wherein, as the number of particles in the universe increases with time, we go from the Planck scale to the Compton scale.
This can be seen as follows: In equation (7), if the number of particles in the universe, $`N=1`$, then the mass $`m`$ would be the Planck mass. In this case the classical Schwarzschild radius of the Planck mass would equal its Quantum Mechanical Compton wavelength. To put it another way, all the energy would be gravitational (Cf. for details). However as the number of particles $`N`$ increases with time, according to (3), gravitation and electromagnetism get differentiated and we get (7) and the Compton scale.
It is known that the Compton length, due to zitterbewegung causes a correction to the electrostatic potential which an orbiting electron experiences, rather like the Darwin term .
Infact we have

$$\delta V=V(\stackrel{}{r}+\delta \stackrel{}{r})V(\stackrel{}{r})$$

$$=\delta r\frac{V}{r}+\frac{1}{2}\underset{ıj}{}\delta r_ı\delta r_j\frac{^2V}{r_ır_j}$$

$$0(1)\delta r^2^2V$$
(21)
Remembering that $`V=e^2/r`$ where $`r10^8cm`$, from (21) it follows that if $`\delta rl`$, the Compton wavelength then

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha }{\alpha }10^5$$
(22)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }\alpha `$ is the change in the fine structure constant from the early universe. (22) is an equivalent form of (20) (Cf.ref.), and is the result originally obtained by Webb et al (Cf.refs.).
iii) The latest observations of distant supernovae referred to above indicate that the closure parameter $`\mathrm{\Omega }1`$.
Remembering that $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is given by

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\frac{8\pi G}{3H^2}\rho $$

we get therefrom on using (1)

$$\frac{H^2}{2G}R^3=mN$$

which immediately leads to the mysterious Weinberg formula (6). Thus this is the balance between the cosmos at large and the micro cosmos.
iv) In General Relativity as well as in the Newtonian Theory, we have, without a cosmological constant

$$\ddot{R}=\frac{4}{3}\pi G\rho R$$
(23)
We remember that there is an uncertainity in time to the extent of the Compton time $`\tau `$, and also if we now use the fact that $`G`$ varies with time, (23) becomes on using (14),

$$\ddot{R}=\frac{4}{3}\pi G(t\tau )\rho R$$

$$=\frac{4}{3}\pi G\rho R+\frac{4}{3}\pi \rho R\left(\frac{\tau }{t}\right)G/t$$
(24)
Remembering that at any point of time, the age of the universe, that is $`t`$ itself is given by (3), we can see from (24) that this effect of time variation of $`G`$, which again is due to the background Zero Point Field is the same as an additional density, the vacuum density given by

$$\rho _{vac}=\frac{\rho }{\sqrt{N}}$$
(25)
This term in (24) is also equivalent to the presence of a cosmological constant $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ as discussed above. On the other hand, we know independently that the presence of a vacuum field leads to a cosmological constant given by (Cf.ref. and references therein)

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }=G\rho _{vac}$$
(26)
Equation (26) is pleasingly in agreement with (24) and (25) that is, the preceeding considerations. In other words quantitatively we have reconfirmed that it is the background Zero Point Field that manifests itself as the cosmological constant described in Section 2. This also gives as pointed out an explanation for the so called cosmological constant problem  viz., why is the cosmological constant so small?
v) In the above cosmology of fluctuations, our starting point was the creation of $`\sqrt{N}`$ particles within the minimum time interval, a typical elementary particle Compton time $`\tau `$. A rationale for this, very much in the spirit of the condensation of particles from a background Zero Point Field as discussed at the beginning of Section 2, has also been obtained recently in terms of a broken symmetry phase transition from the Zero Point Field or Quantum Vacuum. In this case, particles are like the Benard cells which form in fluids, as a result of a phase transition. While some of the particles or cells may revert to the Zero Point Field, on the whole there is a creation of these particles. If the average time for the creation of one of these particles or cells is $`\tau `$, then at any point of time where there are $`N`$ such particles, the time elapsed, in our case the age of the universe, would be given by (3) (Cf. ). While this is not exactly the Big Bang scenario, there is nevertheless a rapid creation of matter from the background Quantum Vacuum or Zero Point Field. Thus half the matter of the universe would have been created within a fraction of a second.
In any case when $`\tau 0`$, we recover the Big Bang scenario with a singular creation of matter, while when $`\tau `$ Planck time we recover the Prigogine Cosmology (Cf. for details). However in neither of these two limits we can deduce all the above consistent with observation relations.
vi) The above cosmological model is related to the fact that there are minimum space time intervals $`l,\tau `$. Indeed in this case it is known that there is an underlying non commutative geometry of spacetime  given by

$$[x,y]0(l^2),[x,p_x]=ı\mathrm{}[1+\beta l^2],[t,E]=ı\mathrm{}[1+\gamma \tau ^2]$$
(27)
Interestingly (27) implies modification to the usual Uncertainity Principle, and this in turn can also be interpreted in terms of a variable speed of light cosmology .
The relations (27), lead to the modified Uncertainity relation

$$\mathrm{\Delta }x\frac{\mathrm{}}{\mathrm{\Delta }p}+\alpha ^{}\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }p}{\mathrm{}}$$
(28)
(28) appears also in Quantum SuperString Theory and is related to the well known Duality relation

$$R\alpha ^{}/R$$

(Cf.). In any case (28) is symptomatic of the fact that we cannot go down to arbitrarily small space time intervals. We observe that the first term of (28) gives the usual Uncertainity relation. In the second term, we write $`\mathrm{\Delta }p=\mathrm{\Delta }Nmc`$, where $`\mathrm{\Delta }N`$ is the Uncertainity in the number of particles, $`N`$, in the universe. Also $`\mathrm{\Delta }x=R`$, the radius of the universe where

$$R\sqrt{N}l,$$

the famous Eddington relationship. It should be stressed that the otherwise emperical Eddington formula, arises quite naturally in a Brownian characterisation of the universe as has been pointed out earlier (Cf. for example ref.). Put simply (8) is the Random Walk equation
We now get,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }N=\sqrt{N}$$

This is the uncertainity in the particle number, we used earlier. Substituting this in the time analogue of the second term of (28), we immediately get, $`T`$ being the age of the universe,

$$T=\sqrt{N}\tau $$

which is equation (3). So, our cosmology is self consistent with the modified relation (28).
Interestingly these minimum space time considerations can be related to the Feynmann-Wheeler Instantaneous Action At a Distance formulation (Cf.).
We finally remark that relations like (27) and (28), which can also be expressed in the form, $`a`$ being the minimum length,

$$[x,p_x]=ı\mathrm{}[1+\left(\frac{a}{\mathrm{}}\right)^2p^2]$$

(and can be considered to be truncated from a full series on the right hand side (Cf. ), could be deduced from the rather simple model of a fixed lattice - a one dimensional lattice for simplicity. In this case we will have (Cf.)

$$[x,p_x]=ı\mathrm{}cos\left(\frac{p}{\mathrm{}}a\right),$$

where $`a`$ is the lattice length, $`l`$ the Compton length in our case. The energy time relation now leads to a correction to the mass energy formula, viz

$$E=mc^2cos(kl),kp/\mathrm{}$$

This is the contribution of the extra term in the Uncertainity Principle.
vii) It is well known that the Planck scale is an absolute minimum scale in the universe. In Section 3, ii) we argued that with the passage of time the Planck scale would evolve to the present day elementary particle Compton scale. This can also be seen in the following way: We have by definition

$$\mathrm{}G/c^3=l_P^2$$

where $`l_P`$ is the Planck length $`10^{33}cms`$. If we use (9) in the above we will get

$$l=N^{1/4}l_P$$
(29)
Similarly we have

$$\tau =N^{1/4}\tau _P$$
(30)
In (29) and (30) $`l`$ and $`\tau `$ denote the typical elementary particle Compton length and time scale, and $`N`$ is the number of such elementary particles in the universe. We could explain these equations in terms of the Benard cell like elementary particles referred to above. This time there are total of $`n=\sqrt{N}`$ Planck particles and (29) and (30) are the analogues of equations (3) and (8) in the context of the formation of such particles. Indeed it is well known that a Planck mass, $`m_P10^5gms`$, has a Compton life time and also a Bekenstein Radiation life time of the order of the Planck time. These space time scales are much too small and we encounter much too large energies from the point of view of our observed limits. As noted above our observed scale is the Compton scale, in which Planck scale phenomena are moderated. In any case it can be seen from the above that as the number of particles $`N`$ increases, the scale evolves from the Planck to the Compton scale. Interestingly another way to looking at the above is that the particles can be considered to be the fluctuational effect of the fluctuationally created $`\sqrt{N}`$ particles (Cf.).
So, the scenario which emerges is, that as the universe evolves, Planck particles form the underpinning for elementary particles, which in turn form the underpinning for the universe by being formed continuously.
This can be confirmed by the following argument: We can rewrite (29) as

$$l=\nu ^{}\sqrt{T}$$
(31)
$$\nu ^{}=l_P/\sqrt{\tau }\mathrm{}/m_P$$

wherein we have used (3). Equation (31) is identical to the Nelsonian-Brownian Theory which is infact the underpinning for equations like (3) or (8), except that this time we have the same Brownian Theory operating from the Planck scale to the Compton scale, instead of from the Compton scale to the edge of the universe as seen above (Cf. also ).
Interestingly, let us apply the above scenario of $`\sqrt{n}`$ Planck particles forming an elementary particle, to the extra term of the modified Uncertainity Principle (28), as we did earlier in section (iv). Remembering that $`\alpha ^{}=l_P^2`$ in the theory, and $`\mathrm{\Delta }p=N^{1/4}m_Pc`$, in this case, we get, as $`\mathrm{\Delta }x=l`$,

$$l=N^{1/4}l_P,$$

which will be recognized as (29) itself! Thus once again we see how the above cosmology is consistently tied up with the non commutative space time expressed by equations (27) or (28).
It may be mentioned that, as indeed can be seen from (29) and (30), in this model, the velocity of light remains constant.


text:
# Forward Quark Jets from Protons Shattering the Colored Glass

## Abstract

We consider the single-inclusive minijet cross section in $`pA`$ at forward rapidity within the Color Glass Condensate model of high energy collisions. We show that the nucleus appears black to the incident quarks except for very large impact parameters. A markedly flatter $`p_t`$ distribution as compared to QCD in the dilute perturbative limit is predicted for transverse momenta about the saturation scale, which could be as large as $`Q_s^210`$ GeV2 for a gold nucleus boosted to rapidity $`10`$ (as at the BNL-RHIC).

QCD correctly predicted logarithmic violations of Bjorken scaling in Deep-Inelastic electron-proton scattering at very large $`Q^2`$, i.e. at very short distances . Asymptotic freedom provides the theoretical basis for the successfull applications of perturbative QCD to hard scattering, short distance phenomena. However, the region of QCD phase space where the field strengths are strong is largely unexplored. This is where one expects that cross sections become comparable to geometric sizes of hadrons and nuclei (the “black limit”) and where the unitarity limit is reached. A perturbative QCD based mechanism for unitarization of cross sections is provided by gluon saturation effects . A semi-classical approach to gluon saturation and QCD in the high energy limit (small $`x`$) was developed in  and applied to high energy heavy ion collisions at RHIC .

An ideal environment to study gluon saturation and unitarization effects is provided by large nuclei since high gluon density effects are expected to be amplified by a factor of $`A^{1/3}`$ due to the Lorentz contraction of the nucleus. The scale associated with the high gluon density, the saturation scale $`Q_s`$, grows with energy and $`A`$ and decreases with increasing impact parameter. The Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collider (RHIC) at BNL will soon allow experimental study of proton-gold or deuteron-gold collisions at a center-of-mass energy of $`\sqrt{s}200300`$ GeV. We suggest that the saturation regime of QCD can be probed at RHIC by measuring the inclusive cross section in $`p+Au`$ (or $`d+Au`$) collisions (in this regard, see also ). In particular, in the forward region, i.e. close to the rapidity of the proton beam, the saturation scale $`Q_s`$ can become quite large due to renormalization group evolution in rapidity . Thus, we predict significant modifications of the $`p_t`$ distribution of produced pions relative to leading twist perturbation theory at transverse momenta as large as several GeV. A modification of the longitudinal distribution of leading hadrons produced by electrons scattering inelastically from a black target has been predicted previously . Here, we focus on the transverse distribution in the forward region from $`p+A`$ scattering, which will be analyzed experimentally in the near future at RHIC.

At large rapidity, we consider the quark-nucleus elastic and total scattering cross sections. (In turn, towards midrapidity gluon production becomes the dominant contribution to the cross section in the Color Glass Condensate model .) We argue that the total quark-nucleus scattering cross section may be related to the single inclusive hadron (jet) cross section in proton-nucleus collisions by using the colinear factorization theorem on the proton side. Let $`p^\mu `$ ($`q^\mu `$) be the momentum of the incoming (outgoing) quark. We assume the quark is moving along the left branch of the light cone such that $`p^{}p^+=p_t^2/2p^{}`$. The starting point is the scattering amplitude (for brevity, we do not write polarization indices explicitly)

$`q(q)_{out}|q(p)_{in}=out|b_{out}(q)b_{in}^{}(p)|in,`$ (1)
which, using the LSZ formalism  can be written as

$`out|b_{out}(q)b_{in}^{}(p)|in`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{Z_2}}{\displaystyle d^4xd^4ye^{i(pxqy)}\overline{u}(q)[i\underset{y}{\overset{}{/}}m]}`$ (2)
$`out|T\psi (y)\overline{\psi }(x)|in[i\underset{x}{\overset{}{/}}m]u(p)`$
where $`m`$ is the quark mass and $`Z_2`$ is the fermion wave function renormalization factor. $`u(p)`$ is the quark spinor with momentum $`p`$. The fermion propagator $`G_F`$ in the background of the classical color field is

$`out|T\psi (y)\overline{\psi }(x)|iniout|inG_F(y,x).`$ (3)
The amplitude then becomes

$`q(q)_{out}|q(p)_{in}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{i}{Z_2}}out|in{\displaystyle d^4xd^4ye^{i(pxqy)}}`$ (4)
$`\overline{u}(q)[i\underset{y}{\overset{}{/}}m]G_F(y,x)[i\underset{x}{\overset{}{/}}m]u(p).`$
In momentum space, the fermion propagator $`G_F`$ can be written as

$`G_F(q,p)=(2\pi )^4\delta ^4(qp)G_F^0(p)igG_F^0(q){\displaystyle \frac{d^4k}{(2\pi )^4}/A(k)G_F(q+k,p)},`$ (5)
where $`/A=A^\mu \gamma _\mu `$ is the classical background color field, and $`G_F^0`$ is the free fermion propagator. It is useful to define the interaction part of the fermion propagator from (5) as

$`G_F(q,p)=(2\pi )^4\delta ^4(qp)G_F^0(p)+G_F^0(q)\tau (q,p)G_F^0(p).`$ (6)
Substituting (6) into the amplitude (4) leads to

$`q(q)_{out}|q(p)_{in}=\overline{u}(q)\tau (q,p)u(p).`$ (7)
Here, we have set $`Z_2=1`$ and $`out|in=1`$ since we are working to leading order in $`\alpha _s`$ and our background field is time independent. This is a very simple relation between the amplitude for scattering of a quark or anti-quark from the Color Glass Condensate and the quark propagator in the background color field of the nucleus.

The explicit form of the quark propagator in the background of a classical color field was calculated in . The interaction part, as defined in (6) is given by

$`\tau (q,p)=(2\pi )\delta (p^{}q^{})\gamma ^{}{\displaystyle d^2z_t\left[V(z_t)1\right]e^{i(q_tp_t)z_t}},`$ (8)
where

$`V(z_t)\widehat{P}\mathrm{exp}\left[ig^2{\displaystyle _{\mathrm{}}^+\mathrm{}}𝑑z^{}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{_t^2}}\rho _a(z^{},z_t)t_a\right],`$ (9)
and $`t_a`$ are in the fundamental representation. Using (8) in the scattering amplitude (7) gives

$`q(q)_{out}|q(p)_{in}=(2\pi )\delta (p^{}q^{})\overline{u}(q)\gamma ^{}u(p){\displaystyle d^2z_t\left[V(z_t)1\right]e^{i(q_tp_t)z_t}}.`$ (10)
The presence of the delta function in the amplitude is due to the target being (light-cone) time independent which leads to conservation of the “minus” component of momenta. It can be factored out in the standard fashion,

$`q(q)_{out}|q(p)_{in}`$ $`=`$ $`(2\pi )\delta (p^{}q^{})M(p,q),`$ (11)
which gives the cross section

$`d\sigma ={\displaystyle \frac{d^4q}{(2\pi )^4}(2\pi )\delta (2q^+q^{}q_t^2)\theta (q^+)\frac{1}{2p^{}}(2\pi )\delta (p^{}q^{})|M(p,q)|^2}.`$ (12)
The local density of color charge in the nucleus, $`\rho _a(x_t,x^{})`$, is a stochastic variable which has to be averaged over. Commonly, one assumes a distribution of the charge sources which is local and Gaussian , such that the average of any operator $`O`$ is

$`O={\displaystyle 𝒟\rho O[\rho ]\mathrm{exp}\left(\mathrm{tr}\rho ^2/\mu ^2\right)}.`$ (13)
$`\mu ^2(z_t,x^{})`$ denotes the color charge density per unit transverse area $`d^2z_t`$, and per unit of rapidity, $`dx^{}/x^{}`$, in the nucleus. When computing the total cross section, we will have to square the amplitude (10) before averaging over the color charge density $`\rho `$ of the classical background field. On the other hand, for the case of elastic scattering, we first average the amplitude (10) over $`\rho `$ and then square it . That way no color exchange occurs over a large distance in rapidity (from the projectile quark to the nucleus).

The averages of $`V(z_t)`$ and $`V^{}(z_t)V(\overline{z_t})`$ are given by

$`V(z_t)_\rho =\mathrm{exp}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{g^4(N_c^21)}{4N_c}}\chi {\displaystyle d^2y_tG_0^2(z_ty_t)}\right],`$ (14)
and

$`V^{}(z_t)V(\overline{z_t})_\rho =\mathrm{exp}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{g^4(N_c^21)}{4N_c}}\chi {\displaystyle d^2y_t[G_0(z_ty_t)G_0(\overline{z_t}y_t)]^2}\right].`$ (15)
We have defined $`\chi (x^{})_{x^{}/x_0^{}}^{x_A^{}/x_0^{}}𝑑z^{}\mu ^2(z^{})`$, which is the density of color charge in the nucleus per unit transverse area integrated over longitudinal phase space (rapidity). $`x_A^{}x_0^{}`$ is the coordinate of the nucleus, with $`y_A=\mathrm{log}x_0^{}/x_A^{}`$ its rapidity; while $`x^{}x_0^{}`$ is the coordinate of the quark projectile, and $`y=\mathrm{log}x^{}/x_0^{}`$ is its rapidity. ($`x_0^{}`$ is a reference point, which we choose to be midrapidity). $`G_0(z_ty_t)`$ is the free propagator of static gluons

$`G_0(z_ty_t)={\displaystyle \underset{\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2}{}}{\displaystyle \frac{d^2k_t}{(2\pi )^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{e^{ik_t(z_ty_t)}}{k_t^2}}.`$ (16)
The trace of the quark spinors in the squared amplitude is

$`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{spins}{}}\left|\overline{u}(q)\gamma ^{}u(p)\right|^2=4p^{}q^{}.`$ (17)
Averaging over the colors of the incoming quark is made trivial by the fact that (14,15) are diagonal in color space. For elastic scattering, we shall use (14) to color average the amplitude given by (10), and afterwards square it. The color averaging of the amplitude leads to a delta-function of transverse momenta $`(2\pi )^2\delta ^2(p_tq_t)`$. This is due to the assumed translational invariance of the target in transverse space (we have assumed a large cylindrical target nucleus so that the color charge density is uniform) and should be understood as $`\pi R_A^2(2\pi )^2\delta ^2(p_tq_t)`$ in the squared amplitude. Using (10), (11) and (12) finally leads to

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma _{qA}^{el}}{d^2b}}=\left[1e^{\pi ^2Q_s^2/N_c\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2}\right]^2`$ (18)
where we have introduced the saturation scale of the target, $`Q_s^2(N_c^21)\alpha _s^2\chi /\pi `$ (this is the same definition as in ).

To compute the total cross section for scattering of the quark on the nucleus, we first square the amplitude (10) and then average over the background field using (14,15). It leads to

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma _{qA}^{tot}}{d^2b}}={\displaystyle \frac{d^2q_t}{(2\pi )^2}d^2r_te^{iq_tr_t}\left[e^{\frac{2\pi Q_s^2}{N_c}{\scriptscriptstyle d^2k_t/k_t^4\left[1\mathrm{exp}(ik_tr_t)\right]}}2e^{\pi ^2Q_s^2/N_c\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2}+1\right]}.`$ (19)
The integral over $`q_t`$ just gives $`\delta ^2(r_t)`$ which in turn can be used to perform the $`r_t`$ integration. The final result for the total cross section is

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma _{qA}^{tot}}{d^2b}}=2\left[1e^{\pi ^2Q_s^2/N_c\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2}\right].`$ (20)
From eqs. (18) and (20), we see that in the high energy limit ($`Q_s\mathrm{}`$) we have

$`\sigma _{qA}^{tot}=2\sigma _{qA}^{el}=2\pi R_A^2`$ (21)
as a consequence of unitarity.

It is more interesting to consider the differential cross section $`d\sigma _{qA}^{tot}/d^2bd^2q_t`$ when the quark momentum $`q_t`$ is large ($`q_t^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2`$). In this limit, one can convolute the quark-nucleus cross section with the quark distribution function in a proton and the quark fragmentation function into hadrons, thereby relating $`qA`$ scattering to single inclusive hadron (jet) production in $`pA`$ collisions .

At very large transverse momentum, $`q_t^2Q_s^2`$, we can expand the $`V`$’s in eq. (15), keeping only the first non-trivial term. This corresponds to the dilute perturbative limit. Using (16) then gives the expected

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma _{qA}}{d^2q_td^2b}}{\displaystyle \frac{Q_s^2}{q_t^4}}.`$ (22)
In the region $`q_t^2Q_s^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2`$, in turn, we must resum higher twists, i.e. rescatterings in the nuclear field. We then obtain

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma _{qA}}{d^2q_td^2b}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{q_t^2}}.`$ (23)
Clearly, the non-linearities of the classical field have flattened the differential cross section as compared to the perturbative cross section (22). This arises, in fact, from a suppression of particle production. It should be easy to distinguish from $`p_t`$-broadening, i.e. “initial-state” interactions of the beam quarks with spectators from the target , which enhance the cross section at semi-high $`p_t`$.

The single inclusive $`p+Ah+X`$ cross section can now be obtained in principle by convoluting the total $`qA`$ cross section with the quark distribution function of the proton at the factorization scale $`Q_f^2`$, which can for example be chosen to be $`q_t^2`$, and the quark-hadron (jet) fragmentation function $`D_{q/h}(z,Q_f^2)`$, where $`z`$ is the ratio of hadron and quark momenta.

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\sigma ^{pAhX}}{dyd^2k_td^2b}}={\displaystyle 𝑑x\frac{dz}{z^2}q(x,Q_f^2)\frac{d\sigma _{qA}^{tot}}{dy_qd^2q_td^2b}D_{q/h}(z,Q_f^2)}.`$ (24)
Here, $`x`$ denotes the fractional (light-cone) momentum carried by the quark, such that the light-cone coordinate of the incident proton is related to that of its quark by $`x_p^{}=xx^{}`$.

The $`qA`$ cross sections depend on $`x`$ through the saturation momentum of the nucleus. From the analysis of HERA DIS data, the saturation momentum scales like $`Q_s^2(x^{}/x_0^{})/Q_s^2(x_0^{})=(x_0^{}/x^{})^\lambda =(x_0^{}x/x_p^{})^\lambda `$, with $`\lambda 0.3`$ . For gold nuclei, it has been estimated that $`Q_s^2(x_0^{})2`$ GeV2 at RHIC energy (100A GeV gold beam, corresponding to $`y_A=5.4`$. Therefore, near the rapidity of the incident proton, i.e. $`y_p=\mathrm{log}x_p^{}/x_0^{}=5.4`$, we estimate that roughly $`Q_s^210`$ GeV2. With $`1/\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^225`$ GeV-2, the exponent in eqs. (18,20) is $`<800`$. In fact, even at $`b6`$ fm from the center of a gold nucleus, using a Gaussian density distribution for the nucleus we estimate that $`Q_s^2(x_0^{},b6`$ fm$`)0.75`$ GeV2, and therefore $`Q_s^2(x_p^{},b6`$ fm$`)3.8`$ GeV$`{}_{}{}^{2}100\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2`$. At the edge of the acceptance of the BRAHMS spectrometer at RHIC, $`y=\mathrm{log}x_0^{}/x^{}=4`$, one obtains $`Q_s^2(x^{},b0)6.6`$ GeV2. That is, $`2\sigma _{qA}^{el}=\sigma _{qA}^{tot}=2\pi R_A^2`$, with $`R_A`$ the radius of the black disc formed by the nucleus (i.e. the distance from the center of the nucleus where $`Q_s^2`$ becomes of order $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}^2`$), is quite close to the geometric cross section of the gold nucleus.

The quark distribution functions in the proton, and their fragmentation into pions will modify the transverse momentum dependence of the pion cross section (24) relative to the quark cross section (23). Nevertheless, that modification is the same for both the dilute perturbative estimate of the $`qA`$ cross section (22) as well as for the resummed $`qA`$ cross section from (23). Therefore, a modification of the $`p_t`$ distribution from strong nonlinear color fields as compared to the dilute limit should hold independently of any scale dependence of the quark distribution and fragmentation functions. The big advantage of measurements in the forward region is that these effects extend much farther in $`p_t`$ than in the central rapidity region, hopefully making it much less ambiguous to observe them experimentally.
Acknowledgement:
We thank F. Gelis, S. Jeon, D. Kharzeev, Y. Kovchegov, A. Kovner, L. McLerran, J. Qiu and R. Venugopalan for useful discussions. This work is supported by the U.S. Department of Energy under Contract No. DE-AC02-98CH10886. J.J-M. is also supported in part by a LDRD and a PDF from BSA.


text:
# Trial wave functions with long-range Coulomb correlations for two-dimensional 𝑁-electron systems in high magnetic fields

## I Introduction

Two-dimensional (2D) few-electron systems in strong magnetic fields have been the focus of extensive theoretical investigations in the last twenty years.  Many of these studies have used the Jastrow-Laughlin  (JL) and composite-fermion  (CF) wave functions, where the dynamics of electrons in extended fractional quantum Hall (FQH) systems is governed by the so-called Jastrow correlations. It was shown  that the JL functions are exact eigenstates of the $`N`$-electron problem under high-magnetic fields for a special short-range interparticle repulsion. However, based on close-to-unity overlaps with exact numerical solutions  of the Coulomb problem for few-electron systems (with $`N8`$), it is believed  that the JL/CF functions should not differ significantly from the exact Coulombic solutions.

Recent experiments  on electron tunneling into the edges of a FQH system have found a current-voltage power law behavior, $`IV^\alpha `$, with values for the exponent $`\alpha `$ that are in conflict with the universal prediction $`\alpha =1/\nu `$ derived from Jastrow correlations. These findings motivated  detailed exact diagonalization studies of FQH systems at the filling factor $`\nu =1/3`$ with up to $`N=12`$ electrons. These latest studies revealed that the long-range Coulomb correlations lead to the formation of stripe-like oscillations in the radial electron densities (ED’s) which are responsible  for the observed unexpected behavior of the current-voltage power law. Most importantly, the JL functions fail  to capture these ED oscillations, in spite of having overlaps with the exact wave functions that are very close to unity.

For the $`N`$-electron problem in strong magnetic fields and in the disk geometry (case of quantum dots, QD’s), we use in this paper a microscopic many-body approach to derive analytic wave functions that capture the long-range correlations of the Coulomb repulsion. To obtain analytic results, we specifically consider the limit when the confining potential can be neglected compared to the confinement induced by the magnetic field.

Underlying our approach is a physical picture of a collectively rotating electron molecule (REM) and the synthesis of the states of the system consists of two steps: First the breaking of the rotational symmetry at the level of the single-determinantal unrestricted Hartree-Fock (UHF) approximation yields states representing electron molecules (EM’s, or finite crystallites). Subsequently the rotation of the electron molecule is described through restoration of the circular symmetry via post Hartree-Fock methods, and in particular Projection Techniques  (PT’s). Naturally, the restoration of symmetry goes beyond the mean-field and yields multi-determinantal wave functions. In contrast to the JL/CF functions, our analytic functions (applicable for any $`N`$ and fractional filling) yield oscillatory radial ED’s in agreement with the exact solutions of the $`N`$-electron Coulombic system (see below).

## II METHOD AND TRIAL WAVE FUNCTIONS

In general, the symmetry-broken UHF orbitals are determined numerically.  However, in the case of an infinite 2D electron gas in strong magnetic fields, it has been found  that such UHF orbitals can be approximated by analytic Gaussian functions centered at different positions $`Z_jX_j+ıY_j`$ and forming an hexagonal Wigner crystal (each Gaussian representing a localized electron). Such displaced Gaussians are written as (here and in the following $`ı\sqrt{1}`$)

$`u(z,`$ $`Z_j)=(1/\sqrt{\pi })`$ (2)
$`\times \mathrm{exp}[|zZ_j|^2/2]\mathrm{exp}[ı(xY_j+yX_j)],`$
where the phase factor is due to the gauge invariance. $`zxıy`$, and all lengths are in dimensionless units of $`l_B\sqrt{2}`$ with the magnetic length being $`l_B=\sqrt{\mathrm{}c/eB}`$.

In the case of a Coulombic finite $`N`$-electron system, it has been found  that the UHF orbitals arrange themselves in concentric rings forming EM’s (referred to also as Wigner molecules, WM’s).  The UHF results for the ring arrangements are in agreement with the molecular structures obtained via the conditional probability distributions (CPD’s, which can be extracted from exact numerical wave functions ), as well as with those obtained  for the equilibrium configurations of classical point charges in a 2D harmonic trap.

For an $`N`$-particle system, the electrons are situated at the apexes of $`r`$ concentric regular polygons. The ensuing multi-ring structure is denoted by $`(n_1,n_2,\mathrm{},n_r)`$ with $`_{q=1}^rn_q=N`$. The position of the $`j`$-th electron on the $`q`$-th ring is given by

$$Z_j^q=\stackrel{~}{Z}_q\mathrm{exp}[ı2\pi (1j)/n_q],\mathrm{\hspace{0.33em}\hspace{0.33em}1}jn_q.$$
(3)
We expand now the displaced Gaussian (2) over the Darwin-Fock single-particle states. Due to the high magnetic field, only the single-particle states,

$$\psi _l(z)=\frac{z^l}{\sqrt{\pi l!}}\mathrm{exp}(zz^{}/2),$$
(4)
of the lowest Landau level are needed (the angular momentum of this state is $`l`$ due to the definition $`zxıy`$) Then a straightforward calculation  yields

$$u(z,Z)=\underset{l=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}C_l(Z)\psi _l(z),$$
(5)
with $`C_l(Z)=(Z^{})^l\mathrm{exp}(ZZ^{}/2)/\sqrt{l!}`$ for $`Z0`$. Naturally, $`C_0(0)=1`$ and $`C_{l>0}(0)=0`$.

Since electrons in strong magnetic fields are fully polarized, only the space part of the many-body wave functions needs to be considered.  The symmetry-broken UHF determinant, $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{UHF}}^N`$, describing the WM is constructed out of the localized wave functions $`u(z,Z_j^q)`$. Using (5) one finds the following expansion (within a proportionality constant)

$`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{UHF}}^N=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{l_1=0,\mathrm{},l_N=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{C_{l_1}(Z_1)C_{l_2}(Z_2)\mathrm{}C_{l_N}(Z_N)}{\sqrt{l_1!l_2!\mathrm{}l_N!}}}`$ (7)
$`\times D(l_1,l_2,\mathrm{},l_N)\mathrm{exp}({\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}z_iz_i^{}/2),`$
where $`D(l_1,l_2,\mathrm{},l_N)\text{det}[z_1^{l_1},z_2^{l_2},\mathrm{},z_N^{l_N}]`$. The $`Z_k`$’s (with $`1kN`$) in Eq. (5) are the $`Z_j^q`$’s of Eq. (2), but relabeled.

The UHF determinant $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{UHF}}^N`$ breaks the rotational symmetry and thus it is is not an eigenstate of the total angular momentum $`\mathrm{}\widehat{L}=\mathrm{}_{i=1}^N\widehat{l}_i`$. However, one can restore  the rotational symmetry by applying onto $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{UHF}}^N`$ the following projection operator

$$𝒪_L\underset{q=1}{\overset{r}{}}𝒫_{L_q},$$
(8)
with

$$2\pi 𝒫_{L_q}_0^{2\pi }𝑑\gamma _q\mathrm{exp}[ı\gamma _q(\widehat{L}_qL_q)],$$
(9)
where $`\mathrm{}\widehat{L}_q=\mathrm{}_{i=i_q+1}^{i_q+n_q}\widehat{l}_i`$ and $`\mathrm{}L_q=\mathrm{}_{i=i_q+1}^{i_q+n_q}l_i`$ with $`i_q=_{s=1}^{q1}n_s`$ $`(i_1=0)`$ are partial angular momenta operators and values, respectively, associated with the $`q`$th ring, and $`\mathrm{}L=\mathrm{}_{q=1}^rL_q`$ are the eigenvalues of the total angular momentum.

When applied onto $`\mathrm{\Psi }_{\text{UHF}}^N`$, the projection operator $`𝒪_L`$ acts as a product of Kronecker deltas: from the unrestricted sum (7), it picks up only those terms having a given total angular momentum $`L`$ and a specific ordered partition of it into partial angular momenta associated with the concentric rings, i.e., $`\mathrm{}L=\mathrm{}_{q=1}^rL_q`$. The final analytic expression depends on the specific ring arrangement $`(n_1,n_2,\mathrm{},n_r)`$. For lack of space, we will present here explicitly only the simplest nontrivial arrangement, i.e., $`(n_1,n_2)`$, with more complex \[or simpler ones, i.e., (0,N) and $`(1,N1)`$\] obtained via straightforward extensions.

For specific electron locations (3) associated with the $`(n_1,n_2)`$ WM, one derives  the following symmetry-preserving, many-body correlated wave functions (within a proportionality constant),

$`\mathrm{\Phi }_{L_1,L_2}`$ $`(n_1,n_2;[z])=`$ (14)
$`{\displaystyle \underset{0l_1<l_2<\mathrm{}<l_N}{\overset{l_1+\mathrm{}+l_{n_1}=L_1,l_{n_1+1}+\mathrm{}+l_N=L_2}{}}}\left({\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}l_i!\right)^1`$
$`\times \left({\displaystyle \underset{1i<jn_1}{}}\mathrm{sin}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{n_1}}(l_il_j)\right]\right)`$
$`\times \left({\displaystyle \underset{n_1+1i<jN}{}}\mathrm{sin}\left[{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{n_2}}(l_il_j)\right]\right)`$
$`\times D(l_1,l_2,\mathrm{},l_N)\mathrm{exp}({\displaystyle \underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}}z_iz_i^{}/2).`$
In deriving (14), we took into account that for each determinant $`D(l_1,l_2,\mathrm{},l_N)`$ in the unrestricted expansion (7) there are $`N!1`$ other determinants generated from it through a permutation of the indices $`\{l_1,l_2,\mathrm{},l_N\}`$; these determinants are equal to the original one or differ from it by a sign only.

Generalizations of expression (14) to structures with a larger number $`r`$ of rings involve for each additional $`q`$-th ring ($`2<qr`$): (I) Inclusion of an additional product of sines with arguments containing $`n_q`$; (II) A restriction on the summation of the associated $`n_q`$ angular momenta.

## III PROPERTIES OF THE REM WAVE FUNCTIONS

We call the correlated wave functions \[Eq. (14)\] the REM wave functions. Among the properties of the REM functions, we mention the following:

1) The REM wave functions lie entirely within the Hilbert subspace spanned by the lowest Landau level and, after expanding the determinants,  they can be written in the form (within a proportionality constant),

$$\mathrm{\Phi }_L^N[z]=P_L^N[z]\mathrm{exp}(\underset{i=1}{\overset{N}{}}z_iz_i^{}/2),$$
(15)
where the $`P_L^N[z]`$’s are order-$`L`$ homogeneous polynomials of the $`z_i`$’s.

2) The polynomials $`P_L^N[z]`$ are divisible by

$$P_V^N[z]=\underset{1i<jN}{}(z_iz_j),$$
(16)
namely $`P_L^N[z]=P_V^N[z]Q_L^N[z]`$. This is a consequence of the antisymmetry of $`\mathrm{\Phi }_L^N[z]`$. $`P_V^N[z]`$ is the Vandermonde determinant $`D(0,1,\mathrm{},N)`$. For the case of the lowest allowed angular momentum $`L_0=N(N1)/2`$ (see below), one has $`P_{L_0}^N[z]=P_V^N[z]`$, a property that is shared with the Jastrow-Laughlin  and composite-fermion  trial wave functions.

3) The $`P_L^N[z]`$’s are translationally invariant functions.

4) The coefficients of the determinants \[i.e., products of sine functions, see Eq. (14)\] dictate that the REM functions are nonzero only for special values of the total angular momentum $`L`$ given for a $`(n_1,n_2,\mathrm{},n_r)`$ configuration by,

$$L=N(N1)/2+\underset{q=1}{\overset{r}{}}n_qk_q,k_q=0,1,2,3,\mathrm{}$$
(17)
The minimum angular momentum $`L_0=N(N1)/2`$ is determined by the fact that the $`D`$ determinants \[see Eq. (14)\] vanish if any two of the single-particle angular momenta $`l_i`$ and $`l_j`$ are equal. For the $`(0,N)`$ and $`(1,N1)`$ rings, the special values are given by $`L=L_0+Nk`$ and $`L=L_0+(N1)k`$, respectively. In plots of the energy vs. the angular momenta, derived from exact-diagonalization studies,  it has been found that the special $`L`$ values associated with the $`(0,N)`$ and $`(1,N1)`$ rings (appropriate for $`N7`$) exhibit prominent cusps reflecting enhanced stability; as a result these $`L`$ values are often referred to as “magic angular momenta”.  We predict that similar magic behavior reflecting enhanced stability is exhibited by the special $`L`$ values given by Eq. (17) and associated with the general ring arrangement $`(n_1,n_2,\mathrm{},n_r)`$. In the thermodynamic limit,  the total $`L`$ is related to a fractional filling $`\nu =N(N1)/(2L)`$, and thus the angular momenta (17) of the REM functions correspond to all the $`\nu `$ associated with the FQHE, including the even-denominator ones, i.e., $`\nu =`$ 1, 3/5, 3/7, 5/7, 2/3, 1/2, 1/3, etc…

5) For the case of two electrons $`(N=2)`$, the REM functions reduce to the Jastrow-Laughlin form, namely

$$P_L^2[z]=\underset{1i<jN}{}(z_iz_j)^L,$$
(18)
where $`L=1`$, 3, 5, … However, this is the only case for which there is coincidence between the REM and the JL wave functions. For higher numbers of electrons, $`N`$, the polynomials $`P_L^N[z]`$ of the REM functions (apart from the lowest-order Vandermonde $`P_{L_0}^N[z]`$ ones) are quite different from the corresponding JL or composite-fermion polynomials. In particular, the familiar factor $`_{1i<jN}(z_iz_j)^{2p}`$, with $`p`$ an integer,  (which reflects multiple zeroes) does not appear in the REM functions (see, e.g., Table I which contrasts the $`Q_9^3[z]`$ polynomials corresponding to the REM and JL functions).

6) For the case of three electrons $`(N=3)`$, after transforming to the Jacobi coordinates $`\overline{z}=(z_1+z_2+z_3)/3`$, $`z_a=(2/3)^{1/2}((z_1+z_2)/2z_3)`$, $`z_b=(z_1z_2)/\sqrt{2}`$ (and dropping the center-of-mass exponential factor), the REM wave functions can be written as (again within a proportionality constant),

$`\mathrm{\Phi }_L^3[z_a,z_b]=`$ $`[(z_a+ız_b)^L(z_aız_b)^L]`$ (20)
$`\times \mathrm{exp}[(1/2)(z_az_a^{}+z_bz_b^{})],`$
with $`L=3m`$, $`m=1`$, 2, 3, 4, … being the total angular momentum. Again the wave functions $`\mathrm{\Phi }_L^3[z_a,z_b]`$ are very different from the three-electron JL ones; e.g., they are nonvanishing for even $`m`$ values, unlike the three-electron JL functions. However, the $`\mathrm{\Phi }_L^3[z_a,z_b]`$’s coincide with the functions $`|m,0`$ derived in Ref. . We remark that, although it was found  that these wave functions exhibited behavior expected of fractional quantum Hall ground states (e.g., areal quantization and incompressibility), the generalization of them to a higher number of electrons did not follow; instead, the REM functions presented here do constitute such a generalization.

## IV OSCILLATORY ELECTRON DENSITIES

In Fig. 1, we display the radial ED’s of several REM wave functions and compare them to corresponding ED’s from exact diagonalizations. The main conclusion is that the ED’s of the REM functions exhibit  a prominent oscillatory behavior in excellent agreement with the exact ED’s. Such an oscillatory behavior is a natural consequence of the underlying ring arrangements. For $`N=6`$ and $`L=20`$, the underlying structure is a $`(1,5)`$ arrangement \[$`L`$ is 5 units larger than the minimum $`L_0=15`$, i.e., $`n_1=1`$, $`k_1=0`$ and $`n_2=5`$, $`k_2=1`$ in Eq. (17)\], and thus the corresponding ED exhibits a maximum at the origin followed by an outer hump \[Fig. 1(a)\]. For $`N=6`$ and $`L=21`$, however, the underlying structure is a $`(0,6)`$ arrangement ($`L`$ is 6 units larger than $`L_0`$), and thus the ED exhibits a dip at the origin and a single outer hump \[Fig. 1(b)\]. In the other $`N=6`$ cases plotted here \[Figs. 1(c), 1(d), 1(e)\], the difference $`LL_0`$ is divisible by 5 and the underlying ring arrangement is $`(1,5)`$; thus there are two humps in the corresponding ED’s, the inner one portraying the single electron at the origin. The $`N=6`$, $`L=75`$ \[Fig. 1(d) \] and $`N=6`$, $`L=105`$ \[Fig. 1(e)\] cases correspond to the fractional fillings $`1/5`$ and $`1/7`$, respectively. For these two cases, we have plotted also the ED’s associated with the JL functions (dotted lines). As was found in the $`\nu =1/3`$ case,  the JL functions fail to capture the radial oscillations that are characteristic of the long-range Coulomb force. Finally, in Fig. 1(f) and Fig. 1(g), we present the ED’s of the REM functions for $`N=12`$, $`L=123`$ and $`N=16`$, $`L=205`$. In general, there are as many humps as the number of concentric rings. Indeed the ring structures are  (3,9) and (1,5,10) for $`N=12`$ and $`N=16`$, respectively.  We note that the ED for $`N=12`$, $`L=123`$ is similar to the exact ED for the same case,  although the latter was calculated with an external confinement.

It has been found  that the number of rings $`(r)`$ increases as the number of electrons grows. For $`\nu 1/3`$, this results in electron-density oscillations that extend along the whole radius of the QD, with no obvious separation into bulk and edge regions. Currently, the largest number of electrons for which the ring structure has been determined  is $`N=230`$ with a concentric-ring arrangement of (1,6,12,18,23,25,34,37,37,37).

## V CONCLUSIONS

We have developed a new class of trial wave functions of simple functional form, which accurately describe the physics of electrons in QD’s under high magnetic fields. In particular, our functions capture the long-range correlations of the Coulomb repulsion; unlike the JL functions, they yield for all $`N`$ and fractional fillings $`\nu `$ an oscillatory radial electron density in agreement with exact-diagonalization results. The electron density oscillations extend throughout the system. The thematic basis of our approach is built upon the intuitive, but microscopically supported, picture of collectively rotating electron molecules, and the synthesis of the many-body REM wave functions involves breaking of the circular symmetry at the UHF level with subsequent restoration of this symmetry via a projection technique. While we focus here on the strong magnetic-field regime, we note that the REM picture unifies the treatment of strongly correlated states of electrons in QD’s over the whole magnetic-field range.  Finally, our REM wave functions, aimed here mainly at treating finite electron systems (i.e., QD’s), can provide in the thermodynamic limit an alternative interpretation of the FQH effect; namely, the observed hierarchy of fractional filling factors may be viewed as a signature originating from the magic angular momenta of rotating electron molecules.

This research is supported by the U.S. D.O.E. (Grant No. FG05-86ER-45234).