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# Radiation Bursts from Particles in the Field of Compact, Impenetrable, Astrophysical Objects

The radiation emitted by charged, scalar particles in a Schwarzschild field with maximal acceleration corrections is calculated classically and in the tree approximation of quantum field theory. In both instances the particles emit radiation that has characteristics similar to those of gamma-ray bursters.

PACS: 04.62.+v; 04.70.-s; 04.70.Bw; 98.70.Rz
Keywords: Quantum Geometry; Maximal Acceleration; General Relativity; Gamma-Ray Bursts.

Compact, impenetrable, astrophysical objects (CIAOs) arise in a model, proposed by Caianiello and collaborators, in which particle accelerations have an upper limit $`𝒜_m=2mc^3/\mathrm{}`$, referred to as maximal acceleration (MA). The limit can be derived from quantum mechanical considerations , is a basic physical property of all massive particles and must therefore be included in the physical laws from the outset. This requires a modification of the metric structure of space-time.

Classical and quantum arguments supporting the existence of a MA have been discussed in the literature . MA also appears in the context of Weyl space , and of a geometrical analogue of Vigier’s stochastic theory  and plays a role in several issues. It is invoked as a tool to rid black hole entropy of ultraviolet divergences  and of inconsistencies arising from the application of the point-like concept to relativistic particles . MA may be also regarded as a regularization procedure  that avoids the introduction of a fundamental length , thus preserving the continuity of space-time.

An upper limit on the acceleration also exists in string theory where Jeans-like instabilities occur  when the acceleration induced by the background gravitational field reaches the critical value $`a_c=\lambda ^1=(m\alpha )^1`$ where $`\lambda `$, $`m`$ and $`\alpha ^1`$ are string size, mass and tension. At accelerations larger than $`a_c`$ the string extremities become casually disconnected. Frolov and Sanchez  have also found that a universal critical acceleration must be a general property of strings. It is the same cut–off required by Sanchez in order to regularize the entropy and the free energy of quantum strings .

Applications of Caianiello’s model include cosmology , the dynamics of accelerated strings , the energy spectrum of a uniformly accelerated particle , neutrino oscillations , and photons in a cavity resonator . The model also makes the metric observer–dependent, as conjectured by Gibbons and Hawking .

The consequences of the model for the classical electrodynamics of a particle , the mass of the Higgs boson  and the Lamb shift in hydrogenic atoms  have been worked out. In the last instance the agreement between experimental data and MA corrections is very good for $`H`$ and $`D`$. For $`He^+`$ the agreement between theory and experiment is improved by $`50\%`$ when MA corrections are considered.

MA effects in muonic atoms appear to be measurable . MA also affects the helicity and chirality of particles .

More recently, the model has been applied to particles falling in the gravitational field of a spherically symmetric collapsing object . In this problem MA manifests itself through a spherical shell external to the Schwarzschild horizon and impenetrable to classical and quantum particles . The shell is not a sheer product of the coordinate system, but survives, for instance, in isotropic coordinates. It is also present in the Reissner-Nordström  and Kerr  cases. The model therefore seems to preclude the usual process of formation of black holes. These are replaced by CIAOs. The purpose of this work is to study the emission of radiation by a scalar particles in the field of a CIAO.

Caianiello’s model is based on an embedding procedure  that stipulates that the line element experienced by an accelerating particle is represented by

$$d\tau ^2=\left(1+\frac{g_{\mu \nu }\ddot{x}^\mu \ddot{x}^\nu }{𝒜_m^2}\right)g_{\alpha \beta }dx^\alpha dx^\beta \sigma ^2(x)g_{\alpha \beta }dx^\alpha dx^\beta \stackrel{~}{g}_{\alpha \beta }dx^\alpha dx^\beta ,$$
(1)
where $`g_{\alpha \beta }`$ is a background gravitational field. The effective space-time geometry given by (1) therefore exhibits mass-dependent corrections that in general induce curvature and violations of the equivalence principle. The four–acceleration $`\ddot{x}^\mu =d^2x^\mu /ds^2`$ appearing in (1) is a rigorously covariant quantity only for linear coordinate transformations. Its transformation properties are however known and allow the exchange of information among observers. Lack of covariance for $`\ddot{x}^\mu `$ in $`\sigma ^2(x)`$ is not therefore fatal in the model. The justification for this choice lies primarily with the quantum mechanical derivation of MA which applies to $`\ddot{x}^\mu `$, requires the notion of force, is therefore Newtonian in spirit and is fully compatible with special relativity. The choice of $`\ddot{x}^\mu `$ in (1) is, of course, supported by the weak field approximation to $`g_{\mu \nu }`$ which is, to first order, Minkowskian. On the other hand, Einstein’s equivalence principle does not carry through to the quantum level readily , and the same may be expected of its consequences, like the principle of general covariance . Complete covariance is, of course, restored in the limit $`\mathrm{}0`$, whereby all quantum corrections, including those due to MA, vanish.

The corrections to the Schwarzschild field experienced by a particle initially at infinity and falling toward the origin along a geodesic, require that $`\sigma ^2(x)`$ be calculated. From (1) and $`\theta =\pi /2`$, one finds (in units $`\mathrm{}`$=$`c`$=$`G=1`$)

$$\sigma ^2(r)=1+\frac{1}{𝒜_m^2}\{\frac{1}{12M/r}(\frac{3M\stackrel{~}{L}^2}{r^4}+\frac{\stackrel{~}{L}^2}{r^3}\frac{M}{r^2})^2+$$

$$+(\frac{4\stackrel{~}{L}^2}{r^4}+\frac{4\stackrel{~}{E}^2M^2}{r^4(12M/r)^3})[\stackrel{~}{E}^2(1\frac{2M}{r})(1+\frac{\stackrel{~}{L}^2}{r^2})]\},$$
(2)
where $`M`$ is the mass of the source, and $`\stackrel{~}{E}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{L}`$ are the total energy and angular momentum per unit of particle mass $`m`$ .

It is now convenient to introduce the adimensional variable $`\rho =r/M`$ and the parameters $`ϵ=(M𝒜_m)^1`$ and $`\lambda =\stackrel{~}{L}/M`$. The analysis of the motion can be carried out in terms of

$$\stackrel{~}{V}_{eff}^2(\rho )=\stackrel{~}{E}^2\left\{1+\frac{1}{\sigma ^2(\rho )}\left[\frac{1}{\sigma ^2(\rho )}+\frac{1}{\stackrel{~}{E}^2}\left(1\frac{2}{\rho }\right)\left(1+\frac{\lambda ^2}{\rho ^2\sigma ^2(\rho )}\right)\right]\right\}.$$
(3)
Notice that $`\stackrel{~}{V}_{eff}^2\stackrel{~}{E}^2`$ as $`\rho 2`$ and $`\rho 0`$, and that $`\stackrel{~}{V}_{eff}^21`$ as $`\rho \mathrm{}`$. Plots of (3) for different values of $`\stackrel{~}{E}`$ show a characteristic step–like behaviour in the neighborhood of $`\rho =2`$ (see Figs. 1 and 2 in Ref. ). An expansion of (3) in the neighborhood of $`\rho =2`$ yields, in fact, $`\stackrel{~}{V}_{eff}^2\stackrel{~}{E}^2+\frac{(\rho 2)^4}{4ϵ^2\stackrel{~}{E}^4}+O((\rho 2)^5)`$ which has the minimum $`\stackrel{~}{E}^2`$ on the horizon $`\rho =2`$. This term vanishes only in the limit $`\stackrel{~}{E}\mathrm{}`$ and/or in the limit $`ϵ\mathrm{}`$, for which $`𝒜_m`$ or $`M`$ or both vanish and the problem becomes meaningless.

The addition of MA effects does therefore produce a spherical shell of radius $`2<\rho <2+\eta `$, with $`\eta 1`$. The shell is classically impenetrable and remains so at higher orders of approximation . The analogous occurrence of a classically impenetrable shell was first derived by Gasperini as a consequence of the breaking of the local $`SO(3,1)`$ symmetry . A classically impenetrable shell and shift in horizon also occur in the problem of particles in hyperbolic motion in a Kruskal plane .

The existence of large accelerations in proximity of the shell suggests the possibility of radiation of photons (and gravitons) by bremsstrahlung. It has become recently clear that production of electromagnetic radiation is possible even when the acceleration is produced by a gravitational field. Two approaches are followed here.

$`i)`$ Generalization of Larmor’s formula. A covariant generalization of this formula would replace $`\ddot{x}^\mu `$ with its covariant counterpart which vanishes rigorously along a geodesic in general relativity. It is of course know that even in Einstein’s theory a charged particle, while trying to adhere to the equivalence principle, does not really follow a geodesic in a gravitational field. Deviations necessarily develop an account of damping and of the tail effect discussed by De Witt and Brehme . In Caianiello’s model, not only is the equivalence principle violated, but the MA corrections also introduce deviations from geodetic motion. These are introduced by $`\sigma ^2(x)`$ which in first approximation is given by (2). From the definition (1) of $`\sigma ^2(x)`$ one finds $`g_{\mu \nu }\ddot{x^\mu }\ddot{x^\nu }=(\sigma ^21)𝒜_m^2`$ and Larmor’s formula, which applies to particles of arbitrary trajectory, therefore becomes

$$P\frac{2q^2}{3}𝒜_m^2(\sigma ^21).$$
(4)
When the MA corrections vanish, $`\sigma 1`$ and $`P0`$. Eq. (4) therefore seems suitable to deal with radiation due to MA. On the basis of (4) and (2) one may expect radiation to be particularly intense when $`\rho `$ is close to 2, where $`\sigma ^2(x)`$ has a singularity. One finds in fact

$`P`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2q^2}{3}}𝒜_m^2{\displaystyle \frac{ϵ^2}{\rho ^7(\rho 2)^3}}\{\lambda ^4(\rho 2)^2(710\rho +3\rho ^2)`$ (5)
$`+`$ $`\rho ^4[4+4(1+2\stackrel{~}{E}^2)\rho +\rho ^2(14\stackrel{~}{E}^2+4\stackrel{~}{E}^4)]`$
$``$ $`2\lambda ^2\rho ^2(\rho 2)[10+(19+10\stackrel{~}{E}^2)\rho +(118\stackrel{~}{E}^2)\rho ^2+2(\stackrel{~}{E}^21)\rho ^3]\}.`$
However, the particle can not reach the value $`\rho =2`$ because of its acceleration and ensuing impenetrable shell. The shell’s radius corresponds to a maximum of $`\stackrel{~}{V}_{eff}^2`$ and to the smallest value of $`\rho `$ the particle can reach. By expanding $`\stackrel{~}{V}_{eff}^2`$ as a series in the neighborhood of $`\rho =2`$ and keeping terms to sixth order, one finds

$`\stackrel{~}{V}_{eff}^2`$ $``$ $`\{256\stackrel{~}{E}^2(\rho 2)^4ϵ^2+5(4+\lambda ^2)^2(\rho 2)^6ϵ^2+1024\stackrel{~}{E}^{10}ϵ^416\stackrel{~}{E}^2(\rho 2)^5\times `$ (6)
$`\times [8(4+2ϵ^2+ϵ^2\lambda ^2)+(16+4ϵ^2+3ϵ^2\lambda ^2)\rho ]\}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{1024\stackrel{~}{E}^8ϵ^4}},`$
whose maximum is at

$`\rho _1`$ $`=`$ $`\{2(768\stackrel{~}{E}^2240ϵ^2+272\stackrel{~}{E}^2ϵ^2120\lambda ^2ϵ^2+164\stackrel{~}{E}^2\lambda ^2ϵ^215\lambda ^4ϵ^2)`$
$`+`$ $`4\stackrel{~}{E}^2ϵ\sqrt{6144\stackrel{~}{E}^21520ϵ^2+1536\stackrel{~}{E}^2ϵ^2760\lambda ^2ϵ^2+1152\stackrel{~}{E}^2\lambda ^2ϵ^295\lambda ^4ϵ^2}\}\times `$
$`\times \{3(256\stackrel{~}{E}^280ϵ^2+64\stackrel{~}{E}^2ϵ^240\lambda ^2ϵ^2+48\stackrel{~}{E}^2\lambda ^2ϵ^25\lambda ^4ϵ^2)\}^1.`$
The distance of closest approach $`\rho _1`$ is real for

$$\stackrel{~}{E}^2ϵ^2(1520+760\lambda ^2+95\lambda ^4)(6144+153ϵ^2+1152\lambda ^2ϵ^2)^1$$

and always positive for small values of $`\lambda `$ (radial infall) and $`ϵ`$ which are appropriate in many instances. It is useful to recall at this point the relationship between the adimensional parameters $`M`$, $`\stackrel{~}{E}`$, $`\lambda `$, $`ϵ`$, $`\tau `$ (adimensional time) and the corresponding (primed) CGS quantities. One has

$$M=\frac{GM^{}}{c^2},\stackrel{~}{E}=\frac{E^{}}{m^{}c^2},\lambda =\frac{L^{}c}{GM^{}m^{}},ϵ=\frac{\mathrm{}c}{2GM^{}m^{}},\tau =\frac{c^3t^{}}{GM^{}}.$$

If $`M^{}3M_{}`$ and the falling particle is a proton of energy $`E^{}10`$MeV, one finds $`ϵ4.7\times 10^{20}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{E}0.01`$. For these values of the parameters $`2\rho _19.7\times 10^{16}`$.

An expression that gives $`P`$ as a function of $`M`$, $`\stackrel{~}{E}`$, $`\lambda `$ and $`ϵ`$ can be obtained by substituting (Radiation Bursts from Particles in the Field of Compact, Impenetrable, Astrophysical Objects) into (5). Its usefulness is however limited because the parameters involved can not yet be linked directly to the particle’s motion in the new field $`\stackrel{~}{g}_{\mu \nu }`$. This can be achieved by writing $`{\displaystyle \frac{dr}{d\stackrel{~}{s}}}={\displaystyle \frac{dr}{dx^0}}{\displaystyle \frac{dx^0}{d\stackrel{~}{s}}}`$, with $`{\displaystyle \frac{dx^0}{d\stackrel{~}{s}}}={\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{E}}{\stackrel{~}{g}_{00}}}={\displaystyle \frac{\stackrel{~}{E}}{\sigma ^2g_{00}}}`$, and using $`\left({\displaystyle \frac{dr}{d\stackrel{~}{s}}}\right)^2=\stackrel{~}{E}^2\stackrel{~}{V}_{eff}^2`$. One gets

$$\left(\frac{dr}{dx^0}\right)^2=\frac{\stackrel{~}{E}^2\stackrel{~}{V}_{eff}^2}{\stackrel{~}{E}^2}\sigma ^4\left(1\frac{2M}{r}\right)^2.$$
(8)
The desired function $`r=r(x^0)`$ is obtained by integrating (8) with respect to time. In adimensional variables, one finds

$$\stackrel{~}{E}\frac{\rho d\rho }{\sigma ^2(\rho )(\rho 2)\sqrt{\stackrel{~}{E}^2\stackrel{~}{V}_{eff}^2(\rho )}}=\tau +a,$$
(9)
where the negative sign in front of $`\tau `$ accounts for the fact that the particle approaches the gravitational source as $`\tau `$ increases. The constant $`a`$ must be determined by appropriate initial conditions.

By assuming that the motion is radial ($`\lambda =0`$) and for the values of $`\stackrel{~}{E}`$ and $`ϵ`$ given above, the l.h.s. of (9) can be integrated in the neighborhood of $`\rho _1`$ and yields

$$2\sqrt{2}\mathrm{ln}(\rho \rho _1)\tau +a.$$
(10)
By requiring that $`\rho 2.1`$ at $`t=0`$, one finds $`a=1.3272`$ and (10) becomes

$$\rho \rho _1+e^{(\tau +6.5127)/2\sqrt{2})}.$$
(11)
The particle therefore reaches a distance within a $`1\%`$ of $`\rho _1`$, in the time $`t^{}4.8\times 10^5`$s. However, radiation becomes particularly intense when $`t^{}1.68\times 10^3`$. If (11) is then substituted into (5), one obtains

$$|P|\frac{2q^2𝒜_m^2}{3GM^{}}[2.67\times 10^{42}+3.85\times 10^{47}(t^{}1.68\times 10^3)+3.78\times 10^{52}(t^{}1.68\times 10^3)^2].$$
(12)
Radiation becomes appreciable $`10^{30}`$erg/s only at $`t^{}5\times 10^4`$s and increases very rapidly with $`t^{}`$. As shown in Fig. 1, it already is $`P10^{51}`$erg/s at $`t^{}10^3`$s. Because of the quadratic dependence in both particle charge and mass, small clumps of matter radiate significantly more and at higher frequencies even a certain distance from $`\rho _1`$.

$`ii)`$ Tree-level calculations. The second way of estimating the power produced follows the procedure of Crispino, Higuchi and Matsas . It treats the electromagnetic field as a scalar field, whose source is the current produced by a particle, also a scalar. Quantum field theory at the tree level is then used to describe the electromagnetic field in a Schwarzschild background. The method is particularly interesting in the context of Caianiello’s model because it enables a comparison between the massive scalar particle that produces the current and experiences the effective geometry $`\sigma ^2g_{\mu \nu }`$, and the massless photon that can not be accelerated and therefore ”sees” only a Schwarzschild geometry. The source is the scalar current

$$j(x)=\frac{q}{\sqrt{g}\stackrel{~}{u}^0}\delta (rr_S)\delta (\theta \pi /2)\delta (\varphi ),$$
(13)
normalized by the requirement that $`𝑑\sigma _Vj(x)=q`$, where $`d\sigma _V`$ is the proper 3-volume element orthogonal to $`\stackrel{~}{u}^\mu `$, the four-velocity of the source. The four-velocity component $`\stackrel{~}{u}^0=\stackrel{~}{E}\stackrel{~}{g}^{00}=\frac{\stackrel{~}{E}}{\sigma ^2g_{00}}`$ takes into account the MA corrections to the motion of the scalar particle, whereas the 3-volume integration is in Schwarzschild space, hence the $`\sqrt{g}`$ in (13). The scalar electromagnetic field generated by (13) is, at the tree level,

$$A_{\omega lp}=id^4x\sqrt{g}j(x)u_{\omega lp}^{},$$
(14)
where the functions

$$u_{\omega lp}(x)=\sqrt{\frac{\omega }{\pi }}R_{\omega l}(r)Y_{lp}(\theta ,\varphi )e^{i\omega t}$$
(15)
represent the positive-frequency solutions ($`\omega >0`$) in Schwarzschild space-time of the equation $`_\mu ^\mu u_{\omega lp}=0`$. The functions $`R_{\omega l}`$ satisfy the equation

$$e^{2\lambda }R_{\omega l}^{\prime \prime }+\left(\frac{2}{r}+\lambda ^{}\right)e^{2\lambda }R_{\omega l}^{}+\left[\omega ^2e^\lambda \frac{l(l+1)}{r^2}\right]R_{\omega l}=0,$$
(16)
where $`e^\lambda =12M/r`$ and the primes denote differentiation with respect to $`r`$ . The emitted power is then

$$P=_0^{\mathrm{}}𝑑\omega \omega \frac{|A_{\omega lp}|^2}{T},$$
(17)
where $`T`$ is the time during which the interaction is switched on. Introducing (13) into (14) and using the coordinate $`\rho 2=x`$, one finds, to leading order,

$$A_{\omega lp}\frac{De^{6.5127/\sqrt{2}}}{2M\sqrt{\omega }}\frac{e^{(iM\omega +1/\sqrt{2})\tau }1}{iM\omega +\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}},$$
(18)
where

$$Di\frac{4q\stackrel{~}{E}^3}{𝒜_m^2M\sqrt{\pi }}Y_{lp}(\pi /2,0)(1+\stackrel{~}{R}_{\omega l}).$$

The contribution of the term $`1`$ on the r.h.s. of (18) is negligible relative to the exponential. The reflection coefficient $`\stackrel{~}{R}_{\omega l}<1`$ is also neglected.

Eqs. (17) and (18) give the radiated power as

$$|P|\frac{q^2\stackrel{~}{E}^6e^{6.512}}{\pi 𝒜_m^4M^6}\frac{e^{\sqrt{2}\tau }}{\tau },$$
(19)
where the time $`T=M\tau ^{}`$ in (17) and $`\tau ^{}`$ is the time required for the particle to reach the intense radiation zone of its trajectory. Though this result vanishes as $`\mathrm{}0`$, the correct limit for vanishing MA contributions follows by taking the limit $`\sigma 1`$ in (13) and is finite. In CGS units, the power becomes

$$|P|\frac{q^2E^6\mathrm{}^4e^{8.21}}{16\pi m^{}G^5M^5}\frac{e^{\sqrt{2}c^3t^{}/GM^{}}}{t^{}}2.35\times 10^{110}\frac{e^{1.9\times 10^5t^{}}}{t^{}}.$$
(20)
Despite the enormously small reducing factor in (20), a single proton reaches powers of $`10^{30}`$erg/s after only $`t^{}2\times 10^3`$s, and $`P10^{51}`$erg/s is reached for $`t^{}2.3\times 10^3`$s, in agreement with the results of (12). The frequency distribution of $`P`$ is given by

$$\frac{dP}{d\omega }\frac{|D|^2e^{9.121}}{4M^3}\frac{e^{\sqrt{2}\tau }}{(M^2\omega ^2+\frac{1}{2})\tau },$$
(21)
or, in CGS units, by

$$\frac{dP}{d\omega }\frac{10^4}{4\pi ^2}\frac{\mathrm{}^4E^6q^2}{G^4M^4m^{10}c^8}\frac{e^{\sqrt{2}c^3t^{}/GM^{}}}{(\frac{G^2M^2\omega ^2}{c^6}+\frac{1}{2})t^{}}.$$
(22)
It can be seen from the Figs. 2 and 3 that the bursts of radiation are sudden and peaked at lower frequencies, though the intensity of radiation also remains high at $`\gamma `$-ray frequencies. Some similarities with $`\gamma `$-ray busters are obvious. The latter have extraordinary large energy outputs $`10^{51}`$ to $`10^{54}`$erg/s. Their spectra are non-thermal with photon energies ranging from $`50keV`$ to the $`GeV`$ region. In CIAO’s case spectra also are non-thermal, in fact typically of the bremsstrahlung type, with intense radiation that extends to the same frequency range of bursters. Significant amounts of low frequency radiation could be absorbed by the progenitor, if this is a black hole, in the case of busters. Black holes are known to have sizeable absorption for infrared photons . For CIAOs absorption could also take place at the shell which, for photons, behaves like a horizon. Nonetheless energy extraction from CIAOs remains extremely efficient. The duration of the intense emission by particles in their proximity is of the same order of magnitude, $`1ms`$ to $`10^3`$s, of the events that are observed. Finally, the lower frequency afterglows that are sometimes observed to last several months, may be explained, in CIAO’s scenario, as due to a dip in the effective potential experienced by scalar particles at higher accelerations. The material trapped in this way may subsequently leave the relatively shallow attractive area to resume the acceleration and radiation processes at lower intensities and frequencies.

Acknowledgments

Research supported by MURST PRIN 2001 and by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.


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# Tachyonic Instability and Darboux Transformation

## 1 Introduction.

In  a new mechanism for the generation density perturbation by tachyonic instability is discussed. If we assume that
1. the universe was flat and homogeneous;
2. Hubble constant is small during the process generation of the perturbation
then the equation for the quantum fluctuations $`\delta \varphi _k(t)e^{i\mathrm{𝐤𝐫}}`$ of scalar field is

$$\delta \ddot{\varphi }_k+\left(k^2+u(t)\right)\delta \varphi _k=0,$$
$`(1)`$
where $`u(t)=d^2V(\varphi (t))/d\varphi (t)^2`$ (we call $`u(t)`$ as ”one-loop potential”), $`V(\varphi )`$ is classical potential, $`\varphi (t)`$ is a homogeneous solution of classical equation of motion. To calculate spectrum of density one need to find solution of (1) with the asymptotic behavior $`\delta \varphi _k(t+\mathrm{})=e^{ikt}/\sqrt{2k}`$. Then density fluctuations at moment $`t_0`$ are given by

$$\delta _kH\left(\frac{k}{2\pi }\right)^{3/2}\frac{\delta \varphi _k(t_0)}{\delta \varphi _0(t_0)},n_s=1+\frac{d\mathrm{log}\delta _k^2}{d\mathrm{log}k},$$
$`(2)`$
where $`\delta \varphi _0`$ is solution of the (1) with $`k=0`$, $`n_s`$ is the spectral index deciding the ”color” of spectrum. It is easy to see that $`\delta \varphi _0`$ is both $`k=0`$ solution of the (1) and the time derivative of the field $`\varphi (t)`$: $`\delta \varphi _0(t)=\dot{\varphi }(t)`$ so it’s dimensions is $`[\delta \varphi _0]=`$GeV2 whereas for the $`\delta \varphi _k(t)`$ we choose the normalization factor to have $`[\delta \varphi _k]=`$GeV1/2 (in the units with $`c=\mathrm{}=1`$).

There are just two usually studied potentials: power-law potential $`V(\varphi )=\lambda \varphi ^n/M^{n4}`$, ($`M`$ is the some constant, $`\lambda >0`$ 111The potential $`V(\varphi )<0`$ so one needs to add to $`V(\varphi )`$ some other terms to stabilize the motion. But it doesn’t matter in this paper which is devoted to tachyonic instability.) and ”ekpyrotic” or ”cyclic” potential $`V(\varphi )=V_0e^{\varphi /M}`$ . Both of them leads to the equation (1) with $`u(t)=\mu ^2/t^2`$. For the power-law potentials $`\mu ^2=\mu ^2(n)=2n(n1)/(n2)^2`$ and it easy to see that all quantities $`\mu ^2(n)>0`$ can be obtained by appropriate choosing of $`n`$. For example, if $`n>2`$ then $`\mu ^2(n)(2,+\mathrm{})`$; if $`n[1,4/3]`$ then $`\mu ^2(n)[0,2]`$ and for the $`n(\mathrm{},0]`$ we have $`\mu ^2(n)[0,2)`$. For the ”cyclic” potential $`\mu ^2=2`$.

In these both cases the equation (1) can be solved via Hankel function. The aim of this work to call attention to simple but effective method to construct infinite set of one-loop potentials with two properties:
1. All this one-loop potentials are integrable. This allow one to find $`\delta \varphi _k`$ and $`\delta \varphi _0`$ exactly to calculate $`\delta _k`$.
2. These one-loop potentials lead to almost flat spectrum.

Although, our approach get us a family ”one-loop” potentials $`u(t)`$ one can reconstruct initial classical potential $`V(\varphi )`$ starting out from the $`u(t)`$. We do it in the Sec. 3. In this next we also discuss the compatibility one of new potential with inflation. One show that this potential can lead to inflation but for very specific initial condition. This fact is at one with analysis in .

Our results about the flat spectrum are valid only for the spectrum of the scalar field and, to all appearances, don’t valid for the spectrum of density perturbations. In Sec. 4, we show that using Darboux transformations, one can construct infinite set exact soluble cosmologies with flat spectrum of the scalar field perturbations and, at the same time, with ”essentially nonflat”, blue spectrum of perturbations of metric.

## 2 Flat spectrum via Darboux transformation.

Let consider the equations

$$\delta \ddot{\varphi }_k+(k^2+u(t))\delta \varphi _k=\delta \ddot{\psi }_\kappa +(\kappa ^2+u(t))\delta \psi _\kappa =0,$$
$`(3)`$
where $`u(t)=2/t^2`$, $`k`$ and $`\kappa `$ are real numbers. One choose the solution of the first equation (3) as ($`t>0`$).

$$\delta \varphi _k=N\left(1+\frac{i}{kt}\right)e^{ikt}.$$

This is the particular case of the Hankel functions . To calculate spectrum one need to choose the normalization factor $`N=(2k)^{1/2}`$. It is shown in  that in this case the spectrum of density fluctuations will be exactly flat, $`n_s=1`$. It’s clear that $`\delta \varphi _0`$ has the form

$$\delta \varphi _0=c_+t^2+\frac{c_{}}{t},$$
$`(4)`$
$`c_\pm `$ are constants of integration.

The general solution of the second equation from (3) is

$$\delta \psi _\kappa =C_+\left(1\frac{1}{\kappa t}\right)e^{\kappa t}+C_{}\left(1+\frac{1}{\kappa t}\right)e^{\kappa t},$$
$`(5)`$
with some constants $`C_\pm `$. We introduce the Darboux transformation for the (3) as

$$\begin{array}{c}\delta \varphi _k(t)\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}(t;\kappa )\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}=\frac{\delta \dot{\varphi _k}\delta \psi _\kappa \delta \varphi _k\delta \dot{\psi _\kappa }}{\delta \psi _\kappa },\hfill \\ \\ u(t)u^{(1)}(t;\kappa )u^{(1)}=u+2\frac{d^2\mathrm{log}\delta \psi _\kappa }{dt^2}.\hfill \end{array}$$
$`(6)`$
It’s easy to see that new function $`\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}`$ is solution of ”dressed” equation

$$\delta \ddot{\varphi }_k^{(1)}+\left(k^2+u^{(1)}\right)\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}=0,$$
$`(7)`$
if $`\delta \varphi _k`$ and $`\delta \psi _\kappa `$ are solutions of the (3). We call $`\delta \psi _\kappa `$ as prop function. We can choose the prop function as any solution of the equation (3), for example as $`\delta \varphi _{\stackrel{~}{k}}`$ with $`\stackrel{~}{k}k`$, or as $`\delta \varphi _0`$, but it is useful to choose one as (5). In this case new (integrable 222This is because one can obtain all solutions of the (7) starting out from the known solutions of the eq. (3). This why Darboux transformation is power tool to construct many, if not all, exact soluble potential in one dimensional quantum mechanics .) potential $`u^{(1)}`$ has the form,

$$u^{(1)}=2\kappa ^2\frac{A^2e^{2\kappa t}+B^2e^{2\kappa t}4AB(\kappa t)^22AB}{\left(A(\kappa t1)e^{\kappa t}+B(\kappa t+1)e^{\kappa t}\right)^2},$$
$`(8)`$
so when $`t+\mathrm{}`$ then

$$u^{(1)}\frac{2}{t^2}\frac{4}{\kappa t^3}u(t).$$

It mean that for the enough large $`t_0`$, $`u^{(1)}(t_0)u(t_0)`$ and therefore, the spectrum of fluctuations at this moment is the same both $`u(t_0)`$ and $`u^{(1)}(t_0)`$.

To show this we choose the normalization factor of initial $`\delta \varphi _k`$ as $`N=1/(ik\kappa )\sqrt{2k}`$, to obtain the good asymptotic behavior for the $`\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}`$: $`\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}(t+\mathrm{};\kappa )=e^{ikt}/\sqrt{2k}`$. We suppose that

$$0<kt_01\kappa t_0,$$
$`(9)`$
so we are interesting of long wavelength fluctuations with wavelength $`\lambda 1/k1/\kappa `$, at the moment $`1/\kappa t_01/k`$.

Using (6), (9) we get

$$\left|\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}(t_0;\kappa )\right|^2\frac{k}{2\left(k^2+\kappa ^2\right)}\left(2+\frac{1}{(kt_0)^4}+\frac{2}{(kt_0)^3}\right).$$

To obtain $`\delta _k^{(1)}`$ one need to substitute $`\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}(t_0;\kappa )`$ and $`\delta \varphi _0^{(1)}(t_0;\kappa )`$ into the (2). The function $`\delta \varphi _0^{(1)}(t_0;\kappa )`$ can be obtained from the (6) by the substitution $`\delta \varphi _k\delta \varphi _0`$ from the (4). The only $`k`$ dependence is in the $`\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}(t_0;\kappa )`$, so we omit the calculation of $`\delta \varphi _0^{(1)}(t_0;\kappa )`$. It’s clear that in main order ($`\kappa k`$, $`kt_01`$) the amplitude $`\delta _k^{(1)}`$ does not depend on $`k`$, so we get a flat spectrum. As in the , we obtain this result without any brane-string physics.

To consider small deviation from flat spectrum we write

$$\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}\frac{1}{\kappa \sqrt{2}t_0^2k^{3/2}}\left(1+kt_0\right).$$

Using (2) we get

$$n_s=2\left(2+\frac{k}{\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}(t_0)}\frac{d\delta \varphi _k^{(1)}(t_0)}{dk}\right)=1kt_0,$$

so if $`kt_00`$ then $`n_s1`$ and $`n_s<1`$. We get red spectrum but for the small $`kt_0`$ (large wavelengths) the deviations from the flat spectrum are small. As suggested by observation  we need $`n_s1<0.1`$, so $`kt_0<0.1`$.

A single act of dressing (6) can be iterated $`n`$ times . As a result one get

$$u^{(n)}=u+2\frac{d^2}{dt^2}\mathrm{log}det\left(\begin{array}{cccc}d^{n1}\delta \psi _{\kappa _n}/dt^{n1}& d^{n2}\delta \psi _{\kappa _n}/dt^{n2}& \mathrm{}& \delta \psi _{\kappa _n}\\ d^{n1}\delta \psi _{\kappa _{n1}}/dt^{n1}& d^{n2}\delta \psi _{\kappa _{n1}}/dt^{n2}& \mathrm{}& \delta \psi _{\kappa _{n1}}\\ .& & & \\ .& & & \\ d^{n1}\delta \psi _{\kappa _1}/dt^{n1}& d^{n2}\delta \psi _{\kappa _1}/dt^{n2}& \mathrm{}& \delta \psi _{\kappa _1}\end{array}\right),$$

where $`\delta \psi _{\kappa _m}`$ is solution of the equation (3) with $`\kappa =\kappa _m`$, $`m=1,..,n`$. Choosing $`\delta \psi _{\kappa _m}`$ at the form (5) we get at the moment $`t_01/K`$, with $`K=min\left\{\kappa _m\right\}`$,

$$u^{(n)}(t_0)u(t_0)=2/t_0^2,$$

therefore the one-loop potential $`u^{(n)}`$ lead to the flat spectrum just as $`u^{(1)}`$ (8).

It is interesting to obtaine the classical potential $`V(\varphi )`$ which lead to ”one-loop potential” (8). We’ll do it in the next section.

## 3 Reconstruction of potential $`V(\varphi )`$.

To reconstruct $`V(\varphi )`$ 333The general fomulation of the reconstruction problem take place in our work we start with equation of motion for the field $`\varphi =\varphi (t)`$,

$$\ddot{\varphi }=V^{}(\varphi ).$$
$`(10)`$
Introducing new variable $`\eta (t)=\dot{\varphi }`$ we get

$$\ddot{\eta }+V^{\prime \prime }(t)\eta =0,$$
$`(11)`$
Comparing with (1) one conclude that $`\eta (t)=\delta \varphi _0(t)`$. Solving (11) we find $`V(\varphi )`$ in the parametric form

$$V(t)=\rho \frac{1}{2}\eta ^2(t),\varphi (t)=\varphi _0+𝑑t\eta (t),$$
$`(12)`$
where $`\rho `$=const is energy density and $`\varphi _0`$=const is initial value of $`\varphi (t)`$.

Let illustrate this simple method for the $`V^{\prime \prime }=\mu ^2/t^2`$. If $`\mu ^22`$ then the general solution of the (11) is

$$\eta (t)=\sqrt{t}\left(C_+t^\beta +C_{}t^\beta \right),$$
$`(13)`$
where

$$\beta =\frac{1}{2}\sqrt{1+4\mu ^2}=\frac{1}{2}\left|\frac{3n2}{n2}\right|.$$

The quantity $`\beta =3/2`$ (flat spectrum) when $`n\mathrm{}`$ (it lead ones to the cyclic potential) and for the power-low potential with $`n=4/3`$. Thus, for the $`\mu ^2(n)2`$ one have

$$V(t)=\rho \frac{1}{2}\left(C_+t^2+\frac{C_{}}{t}\right)^2,\varphi (t)=\varphi _0+2t^{2/3}\left(\frac{C_+}{3+2\beta }t^\beta +\frac{C_{}}{32\beta }t^\beta \right),$$
$`(14)`$
and for the $`\mu ^2=2`$

$$V(t)=\rho \frac{1}{2}\left(C_+t^2+\frac{C_{}}{t}\right)^2,\varphi (t)=\varphi _0+\frac{C_+}{3}t^3+C_{}\mathrm{log}t.$$
$`(15)`$
In a case of general position one can’t find $`V(\varphi )`$ in non-parametric form but we can do it if one of constants $`C_\pm `$ is zero. Let $`C_{}=0`$, then

$$V_+(\varphi )=\rho g^2\left(\varphi \varphi _0\right)^{2(2\beta +1)/(2\beta +3)},g^2=\left(\frac{C_+^4\left(2\beta +3\right)^{2(2\beta +3)}}{2^{6\beta +5}}\right)^{1/(2\beta +3)}.$$

We choose $`\rho =0`$, $`\varphi _0=0`$. Then

$$\begin{array}{c}V_+(\varphi )=g^2\varphi ^{N_1(n)},n>2,\hfill \\ \\ V_+(\varphi )=g^2\varphi ^n,n[1,4/3],\hfill \\ \\ V_+(\varphi )=g^2\varphi ^{N_2(n)},n(\mathrm{},0],\hfill \end{array}$$
$`(16)`$
where

$$N_1(n)=\frac{4(n1)}{3n4},N_2(n)=\frac{4(n+1)}{3n+4}.$$

It is valid $`4/3<N_1(n)<2`$ and $`1N_2(n)<4/3`$. In this case (which is valid both for the (14) and (15)) the absolute value of $`\varphi (t)`$ grows as $`t\mathrm{}`$. To obtain decreasing ones we choose $`C_+=0`$. At last we get for the (14)

$$\begin{array}{c}V_{}(\varphi )=g^2\varphi ^n,n>0\hfill \\ \\ V_{}(\varphi )=g^2\varphi ^{N_1(n)},n[1,4/3],\hfill \\ \\ V_{}(\varphi )=g^2\varphi ^{N_2(n)},n(\mathrm{},0],\hfill \end{array}$$
$`(17)`$
and for the (15)

$$V_{}(\varphi )=\rho \frac{C_{}^2}{2}e^{2(\varphi \varphi _0)/2}.$$
$`(18)`$
The last example is nothing but ”cyclic” potential.

All known potentials (16), (17), (18) are particular cases of (14), (15) which can be reconstructed in non-parametric representation. In a case of general position, these potentials can be obtained in parametric form only. Let consider (14). If $`C_+<0`$ and $`C_{}<0`$ then function $`\varphi (t)`$ is monotone decreasing function and $`V(\varphi )`$ is single-valued function on $`\varphi `$ with maximum in

$$\varphi _{}=\varphi _0\frac{C_{}}{3}\left(\frac{1}{2}+\mathrm{log}\frac{C_{}}{2C_+}\right),V(\varphi _{})=\rho \frac{9}{2}\left(\frac{C_+C_{}^2}{4}\right)^{2/3}.$$

This decreasing potential has asymptotic behavior

$$V(\varphi )\frac{C_{}^2}{2}e^{2\varphi /C_{}},as\varphi +\mathrm{}(t0),$$

and

$$V(\varphi )\frac{C_+^{2/3}}{2}\left(3\varphi \right)^{4/3},as\varphi \mathrm{}(t+\mathrm{}).$$

If, $`C_+C_{}<0`$ then the function $`\varphi (t)`$ has one extreme point and $`V(\varphi )`$ is two-digit function on $`\varphi `$.

Using this method one can reconstruct the classical potential $`V(\varphi )`$ starting out with the ”one-loop potential” $`u^{(1)}`$ (8). Dressing $`\delta \varphi _0`$ (4) and choosing $`C_+=C_{}=1`$, $`c_{}=0`$ we get

$$\begin{array}{c}u^{(1)}(y)=\frac{d^2V^{(1)}(\varphi )}{d\varphi ^2}=\frac{2\kappa \left(\mathrm{sinh}^2yy^2\right)}{\left(y\mathrm{cosh}y\mathrm{sinh}y\right)^2},\hfill \\ \\ \eta (y)=\frac{y\left(3y\mathrm{cosh}y+(3+y^2)\mathrm{sinh}y\right)}{y\mathrm{cosh}y\mathrm{sinh}y},y=\kappa t,\hfill \end{array}$$
$`(19)`$
so using (12) one get the potential $`V(\varphi )`$ in parametric form. It easy to see that

$$V(\varphi )\frac{1}{2}\left(3\kappa \varphi \right)^{4/3},ast+\mathrm{},$$

and

$$V(\varphi )\rho \frac{4}{\sqrt{5}}\left(\kappa (\varphi \varphi _0)\right)^{3/2},ast0,$$

therefore $`\rho `$ is initial value of $`V(\varphi )`$. Then $`dV/d\varphi =2\kappa \dot{\eta }0`$, so $`V(\varphi )`$ is monotone function on $`\varphi `$. And last but not least, $`\delta \varphi _0`$ is monotone function on time therefore $`V(\varphi )`$ is single-valued function on $`\varphi `$.

Choosing another $`c_\pm `$ one can find a family of classical potentials with the same quantum potentials $`V^{\prime \prime }`$ and which lead to the same spectrum.

It is interesting to consider the last potential (which can be obtained from the (19)) from the inflation standpoint. To obtain inflation one suppose that $`\dot{\varphi }^2/2V(\varphi )`$ so $`\rho \eta ^2/2`$ and during inflation $`V(\varphi )\rho `$ (we suppose $`\rho >0`$). Therefore $`H^2=8\pi \rho /3M_p^2=`$const. But $`k^2>H^2`$ . This is because we neglect the term $`3H\delta \dot{\varphi }_k`$ in the equation (1). On the other hand, as suggested by observation  we need $`n_s1<0.1`$, so $`kt_0<0.1`$. Introducing dimensionless $`T`$ and $`R`$ as $`t_0=10^T/M_p`$ and $`\rho =M_p^4/10^R`$ one get the inequality

$$R2T>2+\mathrm{lg}(8\pi /3)2.92.$$

This inequality represent restriction to possible values of $`t_0`$ and initial energy density $`\rho `$. One can see that if $`t_010^{35}`$s then $`\rho <10^{19}M_p^4`$ so we have not normal initial conditions for the chaotic inflation.

## 4 Density perturbations.

As we have seen the Darboux transformation allows one to obtain a set of potentials which lead to the flat (or almost flat) spectrum. But we should distinguish between the spectrum of the scalar field and the spectrum of density perturbations 444I’d like to thank prof. A. Linde who drew my attention to this circumstance.. An investigation of this question by Lyth , Brandenberger  and others suggests that even though the scalar field perturbations with flat spectrum can be generated by this effect, it does not lead to perturbations of metric with flat spectrum. In particularly, Brandenberger in  has considered the simplest potential which lead to the scale factor $`a(t)t^p`$. For extremely slow contraction with $`p0`$ he get a blue spectrum with index $`n3`$. It is interesting to consider more general class of potentials and we’ll do it in this section.

In the case of general position one can’t solve the Einstein equations exactly to find the scale factor $`a(t)`$ but using the Darboux transformations we can construct a rich set of exact soluble potentials so this method it is interesting itself.

Let consider the Einstein equations (in the units with $`c=8\pi G=1`$)

$$\ddot{\varphi }+3H\dot{\varphi }+V^{}=0,H^2=\frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{1}{2}\dot{\varphi }^2+V(\varphi )\right),$$
$`(20)`$
so $`\dot{\varphi }^2=2\dot{H}`$. Introducing $`\psi (t)=a(t)^3`$ one get $`\ddot{\psi }=3V\psi `$. If we add positive cosmological term $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>0`$ then this equation can be written as the Schrödinger equation

$$\ddot{\psi }=\left(u+\lambda ^2\right)\psi ,$$
$`(21)`$
where $`u(t)=3V(\varphi (t))`$, $`\lambda ^2=3\mathrm{\Lambda }`$. We denote the scale factor and the Hubble ”constant” in the universe with $`\lambda =0`$ as $`a=a(t)=\psi ^{1/3}`$, $`H=H(t)`$ whereas the same in the universe with $`\lambda 0`$ will be $`\stackrel{~}{a}=\stackrel{~}{\psi }^{1/3}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{H}`$.

We suppose that in our universe the $`\lambda ^2=0`$. Some researchers are suggested that the reason of the recently discovered accelerated expansion of the universe is the nonzero cosmological term. Indeed, it is easy to formulate usual inflationary theory to obtain this accelerated expansion. To do it one can add a small constant term $`V_0>0`$ to the potential $`V(\varphi )`$  555Cosmology with negative potentials were considered in .. If cosmological constant $`V_010^{120}`$ (in Planck units) then one get the present accelaration , but is not terrifically because it is not clear why should $`V_0`$ be so small? This approach return us to the old mystery of vacuum energy  and this is why we suppose that $`\lambda ^2=0`$ in our universe. The solutions of (20) with nonzero cosmological term will be necessary for the Darboux transformation (see below).

The Darboux transformation for the (21) has the form

$$\psi \psi ^{(1)}=\left(\sigma \stackrel{~}{\sigma }\right)\psi ,uu^{(1)}=u2\dot{\stackrel{~}{\sigma }},$$

where $`\sigma =d\mathrm{log}\psi /dt`$, $`\stackrel{~}{\sigma }=d\mathrm{log}\stackrel{~}{\psi }/dt`$. One get

$$H^{(1)}=\stackrel{~}{H}+\frac{\lambda ^2}{9(\stackrel{~}{H}H)},$$
$`(22)`$
therefore the dressed scale factor $`a^{(1)}(t)`$ has the form

$$a^{(1)}=\frac{const}{\stackrel{~}{a}}\mathrm{exp}\left[\frac{\lambda ^2}{9}𝑑t\left(\frac{d}{dt}\mathrm{log}\frac{\stackrel{~}{a}}{a}\right)^1\right].$$
$`(23)`$
At last, dressed potential $`V^{(1)}(\varphi ^{(1)})`$ can be written in parametrical form,

$$\begin{array}{c}\varphi ^{(1)}(t)=\varphi _0^{(1)}\sqrt{\frac{2}{3}}𝑑t\sqrt{\frac{\lambda ^4}{9(H\stackrel{~}{H})^2}+\lambda ^2\frac{H+\stackrel{~}{H}}{H\stackrel{~}{H}}+3\dot{\stackrel{~}{H}}},\hfill \\ V^{(1)}(t)=V(t)2\dot{\stackrel{~}{H}},\hfill \end{array}$$
$`(24)`$
where $`\varphi _0^{(1)}`$ is constant.

This method of construction of exact soluble potentials is valid both for usual inflation cosmology and for the effective field theory of the Ekpyrotic/Cyclic Universe. In the last case the scalar field $`\varphi `$ represents the position of the bulk brane in the fifth dimensions. Following Brandenberger one consider the scale factor $`a(t)(t)^p`$ (time is negative). If $`\lambda ^2=0`$ then

$$u(t)=\frac{3p(3p1)}{t^2}.$$

The solution of (21) with $`\lambda ^20`$ has the form

$$\stackrel{~}{\psi }=\sqrt{t}\left(c_1K_\nu (\lambda t)+c_2I_\nu (\lambda t)\right),$$
$`(25)`$
where $`\nu =\pm (16p)/2`$, $`c_1>0`$ and $`c_2>0`$ are constants, $`K_\nu `$ and $`I_\nu `$ are modified Bessel function (if $`\mathrm{\Lambda }<0`$ then the solution of the (21) will be expressed via Hankel functions but the final result will be the same), $`t<0`$ and we choose $`\nu >1`$ to obtain real and positive solution (25). For the small $`\lambda t`$ one get

$$\stackrel{~}{\psi }=\frac{c_1}{\sqrt{2\lambda }}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu )\left(\frac{\lambda t}{2}\right)^{\nu 1/2}+c_2\sqrt{\frac{2}{\lambda }}\mathrm{\Gamma }(\nu +1)\left(\frac{\lambda t}{2}\right)^{\nu +1/2}.$$
$`(26)`$
Using (23), (26) and well known relations between modified Bessel functions and it’s derivatives  we have $`a^{(1)}(t)^{p^{(1)}}`$. The power $`p^{(1)}`$ is depend on initial power $`p`$. For example, if $`1/3<p<1/2`$, then $`p^{(1)}=p1/3`$, so $`0<p^{(1)}<1/6`$, and we have blue spectrum with index

$$n=1+\frac{2}{1p^{(1)}}=1+\frac{6}{43p}.$$

If $`p1/3`$ then we get the extremely slow contraction and the spectrum with index $`n3`$.

Another values of $`p^{(1)}`$ can be obtained starting out from the another choices of $`p`$. The general conclusion is that all new potentials leads to the old result of Brandenberger. In other words we have not the flat spectrum of perturbations of metric.

## 5 Conclusion.

Up to know, Darboux transformations didn’t used in cosmology (by contrast with quantum mechanics and the theory of integrable PDE). In this paper we are used only simple example of Darboux transformation. One can construct infinite set of potentials which lead to the flat spectrum with arbitrary multiple precision. We can do it without any brane-string physics and we don’t need consider field theory with power-low potential when $`n>40`$.

On the other hand, it is valid only for the spectrum of the scalar field and, to all appearances, don’t valid for the spectrum of density perturbations. Using Darboux transformations, one can construct infinite set exact soluble cosmologies with flat spectrum of the scalar field perturbations and, at the same time, with ”essentially blue” spectrum of perturbations of metric.

Acknowledgements. The author are grateful to Andrei Linde for useful comments. This work was supported by the Grant of Education Department of the Russian Federation, No. E00-3.1-383.

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text:
# Evolution of Fluctuation in relativistic heavy-ion collisions

## I INTRODUCTION

Heavy-ion collisions at relativistic energies offer a unique environment for the creation and study of the Quark-Gluon Plasma (QGP) phase of nuclear matter. In the collision process the system may go through a phase transition whereby it evolves from a very hot and dense QGP state to normal hadronic matter. A characteristic feature of this process is that the system experiences large event-by-event fluctuations in thermodynamic quantities such as temperature, number density etc. Our ability to observe a characteristic fluctuation in various observables, in present day experiments, has been facilitated by the large number of particles produced in the relativistic heavy-ion collisions at the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) and the Relativistic Heavy-Ion Collider (RHIC) along with the advent of large acceptance detectors at these experiments qm01 . The near Gaussian distributions of the experimental observables like multiplicity, transverse energy wa98\_fluc , transverse momentum and particle ratios na49\_fluc  have provided an opportunity to relate these quantities to thermodynamical properties of matter, such as specific heat cv\_prl  and matter compressibility compress . Fluctuations as a signature of quark-hadron phase transition has been experimentally studied extensively but no definite signature has been observed in this sector so far phenix ; na49\_fluc ; wa98\_fluc ; henning .

The main task for using fluctuation as a probe of QGP phase transition would be to identify an observable whose fluctuation will survive from the time of formation of plasma till they get detected after the freeze-out. In this context, it was suggested that the study of the fluctuation in conserved quantities e.g. net baryon number, net charge or net strangeness will be very useful evs ; twin\_prl1 ; twin\_prl2 ; prakash . The fluctuation in any conserved quantity ($`𝒪`$) is given by landau

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }𝒪)^2𝒪^2𝒪^2=T\frac{𝒪}{\mu }$$
(1)
where, $`\mu `$ is the associated chemical potential and $`T`$ is the temperature of the system under consideration. Here $`𝒪`$ represents the mean value of the conserved quantity over a large number of events and $`(\mathrm{\Delta }𝒪)`$ denotes the deviation of its value from the mean, event-by-event. It has been shown that the fluctuation in these conserved quantities with and without QGP formation are very different. Hence, study of fluctuations in these conserved quantities can be a good signature of transition from confined to de-confined state of matter.

However, in the earlier calculations twin\_prl1 ; twin\_prl2  ideal gas EOS for both the QGP and hadronic gas was considered. For the QGP initial state, the evolution of fluctuation during mixed phase have also not been taken into account. Finally, modifications of hadronic spectral functions in the thermal bath was ignored.

The aim of this paper is to study the evolution of the fluctuation in conserved quantities from time of formation to the time of detection. In addition to the QGP and hadronic initial state we consider an important case where the hadrons are formed at the initial stage but the spectral function of the hadrons are different from their vacuum properties. We also discuss the sensitivity of the results on different EOS. Here we concentrate only on the net baryon number fluctuation and the results are presented in terms of the experimentally measured quantity, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b)^2/N_b`$, where $`N_b`$ is the number of baryons and $`\mathrm{\Delta }N_b`$ is the fluctuation in the net baryon number.

The paper is organized as follows. In the next section we discuss the possible evolution scenarios. Then the initial conditions used for solving the evolution equations for various evolution scenarios are presented in section III. In section IV we study the evolution of the system. Section V and VI is devoted for the results at the freeze-out for SPS and RHIC energies respectively. And finally in section VII we present the summary and conclusions.

## II EVOLUTION SCENARIOS

We consider the following three possible evolution scenarios.

1. QGP scenario: The system starts evolving from an initial QGP state formed at a time $`\tau _i`$ and temperature $`T_i`$. It then expands, hence cools and reaches the critical temperature $`T_c`$ at a time $`\tau _q`$. In the mixed phase the cooling due to expansion is compensated by the heating of the system due to the liberation of the latent heat in a first order phase transition. Hence the temperature remains constant at $`T_c`$ (super-cooling is neglected here). After the mixed phase ends at a time $`\tau _h`$, further expansion takes place and finally the system disassembles at a time $`\tau _f`$ and temperature $`T_f`$. At this stage, called the freeze-out stage, the mean free path of the particles are too large to have any further interactions, and those are detected experimentally.
2. Hadron gas scenario: The hot and dense system is formed in the hadronic state at a time $`\tau _i`$ and temperature $`T_i`$ and the system expands from the initial to freeze-out state (at time $`\tau _f`$ when the temperature is $`T_f`$) without a phase transition.
3. Hadron gas with mass variation: The other possibility is that the system may form in the hadronic state as in (2) above, but the spectral function of the hadrons are different from their vacuum counterparts. Among others, in the present case we will consider the shift of the pole of the hadronic spectral function according to the universal scaling law proposed by Brown and Rho br :

$$m_h^{}=m_h\left(1\frac{T^2}{T_c^2}\right)^\lambda ,$$
(2)
where $`m_h^{}`$ ($`m_h`$) is the in-medium (vacuum) mass of the hadrons (except pseudo-scalar) and the index $`\lambda `$ takes a value between 0 and 1. Here we choose $`\lambda =1/6`$ according to the well known Brown-Rho scaling brpr .

## III Initial Conditions

The initial conditions in terms of initial temperature ($`T_i`$) can be set for the three scenarios from the following relation:

$$dS=\frac{2\pi ^4}{45\zeta (3)}dN=4\frac{\pi ^2}{90}g_{eff}T_i^3\mathrm{\Delta }V,$$
(3)
where $`dS(dN)`$ is the entropy (number) contained within a volume element $`\mathrm{\Delta }V=\pi R^2\tau _id\eta `$, $`R`$ as the radius of the colliding nuclei. $`g_{eff}`$ is the effective statistical degeneracy, $`\zeta (3)`$ denotes the Riemann zeta function and $`\eta `$ is the space-time rapidity. For massless bosons (fermions) the ratio of $`dS`$ to $`dN`$ is given by $`2\pi ^4/(45\zeta (3))\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}3.6}`$ (4.2), which is a crude approximation for heavy particles. For example the above ratio is 3.6 (7.5) for 140 MeV pions (938 MeV protons) at a temperature of 200 MeV.

First we consider the situation at SPS energies where $`dN/dy`$ $``$ 700 for Pb+Pb collisions. For above three scenarios taking $`g_{eff}`$ as given in Table 1, we obtain the initial temperature by using Eqn. 3. The values of the initial temperatures are given in Table 1.

The chemical potential at the initial state is fixed by constraining the specific entropy (entropy per baryon) to the value obtained from the analysis of experimental data. The specific entropy at SPS is about $`40`$ for Pb + Pb collisions pbm ; cleymans ; roland ; na49 . The net baryon number can be calculated using the baryon (anti-baryon) number density, $`n_b`$ ($`n_{\overline{b}}`$) given by,

$$n_b=\frac{g}{(2\pi )^3}f(\stackrel{}{p})d^3p,$$
(4)
where $`g`$ is the baryonic degeneracy. We take $`g=4`$ for proton and neutron. $`f(\stackrel{}{p})`$ is the well known Fermi-Dirac distribution,

$$f(\stackrel{}{p})=\left[exp\left((E\pm \mu )/T\right)+1\right]^1$$
(5)
where $`\mu (\mu )`$ is the chemical potential for baryon (anti-baryon), $`E=\sqrt{p^2+m^2}`$ and $`n_{\overline{b}}n_b(\mu \mu )`$.

For the QGP scenario we take the mass of the quarks as, $`m_{q}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}=m_{qc}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}+m_{qth}^{}{}_{}{}^{2}`$, where $`m_{qth}`$ is the thermal mass bellac  and $`m_{qc}`$ is the current quark mass. We have taken vacuum mass and effective mass for the hadrons (given by Eqn. 2) for cases 2 and 3 respectively. We obtain the value of the chemical potential to be 132 MeV, 340 MeV and 105 MeV for cases (1), (2) and (3) respectively. These are also summarized in Table 1.

Having fixed the initial temperature and chemical potential we now calculate the initial fluctuations for the three scenarios.

1. Quark Gluon Plasma: From the initial net baryon number, one can easily calculate the net baryon number fluctuations using Eqn. 1. The fluctuation in the net baryon number in the QGP phase at time $`\tau _i`$, temperature $`T_i`$ and chemical potential $`\mu _i`$, can be shown to be twin\_prl2 :

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2=\frac{2V}{9}T_i^3\left(1+\frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{\mu _i}{\pi T_i}\right)^2\right),$$
(6)
With the initial conditions as discussed above, the initial fluctuations for the QGP scenario turns out to be $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2`$ = 35. It may be noted that the value of $`g`$ in Eqn. 4 is taken to be 12, for two flavor case.

The entropy density in the QGP phase is calculated from Eqn. 3 with $`g_{eff}`$ = 37. The total entropy of the system is given by:

$$S=V\frac{4\pi ^2g_{eff}}{90}T_i^32500.$$
(7)
For fixed initial entropy of the system the initial temperature is different for the three cases because of the different values of the $`g_{eff}`$. In the present work we solve the evolution equation for ideal fluid neglecting entropy generations due to various viscous effects. The total entropy is kept constant for all the three scenarios as it is obtained from the number of particles per unit rapidity measured experimentally. So the fluctuation in net baryon number per entropy is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2/S`$ = 0.014, a value similar to that obtained in twin\_prl2 . In this case the fluctuation per unit baryon, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ = 0.56 where $`N_{b,y}`$ is the net baryon number per unit rapidity, $`dN_b/dy62`$ for SPS energies.

2. Hadron Gas : The net baryon number fluctuation in the hadronic gas can be calculated using Eqn. 1 and is given by:

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b)_{\mathrm{HG}}^2=\frac{gV}{4}\left[\frac{2mT_i}{\pi }\right]^{3/2}exp(m/T_i)\mathrm{cosh}(\mu /T_i).$$
(8)
Substituting the values of $`T_i`$, $`\mu _i`$ and $`m=938`$ MeV for the nucleons, we obtain the fluctuation in net baryon number, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}72}`$. The ratio of the fluctuation to total entropy is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2/S`$ = 0.029. This value is also similar to the one obtained in twin\_prl2 . In this case the value of $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ =1.16.

3. Hadron gas with mass variation in medium: The initial fluctuation for this case can be obtained using the Eqn’s 4 and 5 together with Eqn. 2 used for the value of mass. The initial conditions of $`T_i`$ = 226 MeV and $`\mu _i`$ = 105 MeV are constrained to reproduce the hadronic multiplicity and the entropy per baryons. In this case we get $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{HG},\mathrm{m}^{}}^2`$=153 and $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{HG},\mathrm{m}^{}}^2/S`$ = 0.061. The value of $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{HG},\mathrm{m}^{}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ =2.46 here.

We observe that for the baryon number fluctuations corresponding to the above three scenarios:

$$\frac{(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2}{(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2}2\mathrm{and}\frac{(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{HG},\mathrm{m}^{}}^2}{(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2}4.$$
(9)
This clearly shows that in the initial stage, there is a clear distinction between the three cases. The initial values of fluctuations are summarized in Table 1. It will be of interest now to see, if these fluctuations (and the differences given by Eqn. 9) survive till the freeze-out. Next we discuss the evolution of this initial fluctuation for the three scenarios.

## IV Evolution of the initial fluctuation

We follow ref. twin\_prl2  to study the proper time ($`\tau `$) evolution of the baryon fluctuation in the space-time rapidity interval $`\mathrm{\Delta }\eta `$ for different EOS as well as initial states as mentioned above. At the freeze-out point the fluctuation measured experimentally contain the residue of the initial fluctuation which survived the space time evolution and the fluctuations generated due to the exchange of baryons with the adjacent sub-volumes. We discuss each of the above cases separately in the following sub-sections.

### IV.1 Dissipation of the initial fluctuation

The difference in baryon flux ($`\mathrm{\Delta }n\overline{v}`$) originating from different densities inside and outside of the sub-volume ($`A\tau \mathrm{\Delta }\eta `$) leads to the following differential equation for $`\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(=\mathrm{\Delta }n\overline{v}A\tau )`$:

$$\frac{d\mathrm{\Delta }N_b}{d\tau }=\frac{\overline{v}}{2\mathrm{\Delta }\eta }\frac{\mathrm{\Delta }N_b}{\tau }$$
(10)
where $`\overline{v}`$ is the average thermal velocity of the particles under consideration.

The solution to the differential equation 10 from initial time $`\tau _i`$ to final time $`\tau _f`$ is then given as:

$$\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f)=\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i)\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{2\mathrm{\Delta }\eta }_{\tau _i}^{\tau _f}\frac{d\tau }{\tau }\overline{v}(\tau )\right).$$
(11)
The average thermal velocity at a given temperature can be calculated by using the following equation,

$$\overline{v}=\frac{\frac{p}{E}d^3pf(\stackrel{}{p})}{d^3pf(\stackrel{}{p})}$$
(12)
The values of $`\overline{v}`$ as a function of temperature for the three cases are shown in Fig. 1. The curves are fitted by the polynomials of the form $`a_0+a_1T+a_2T^2+a_3T^3+a_4T^4+a_5T^5+a_6T^6`$. The values of the parameters are shown in the caption of Fig. 1. The average velocity in QGP is found to be substantially larger than the velocity in hadronic gas. However, in case of the hadronic system where the effective masses of the baryons (neutron and proton here) approach zero at $`T_c`$, their velocities approach the velocity of light.

The equation of state plays a vital role in deciding how the fluctuations in the net baryon number will evolve. The variation of energy density ($`ϵ`$) as a function of temperature is obtained from the 3-flavor lattice QCD results karsch  which is parametrized as follows:

$$ϵ=T^4Atanh(B(\frac{T}{T_c})^C),$$
(13)
where the values of the parameters, $`A,B`$ and $`C`$ are 12.44, 0.517 and 10.04 respectively. Note that the effect of net baryons in the EOS is neglected here. Fig. 2 shows the variation of the energy density with temperature. The increase in the effective degeneracy near $`T_c`$ can be obtained from the hadronic phase with effective masses varying with temperature as in Eqn. 2. The increase in the effective degeneracy originates from the heavier hadrons going to a massless situation ( see also ref.kb ; bbjp ).

The evolution of the system under the boost invariance along the longitudinal direction is governed by the equation jdb ,

$$\frac{dϵ}{d\tau }+\frac{ϵ+P}{\tau }=0;P=c_s^2ϵ$$
(14)
where $`c_s`$ is the velocity of the sound in the medium. To perform the integration in Eqn. 11 we need $`d\tau /\tau `$, which can be obtained as

$$\frac{d\tau }{\tau }=\left[\frac{\beta }{T}+\frac{\alpha }{\chi }\frac{d\chi }{dT}\right]dT=f(T)dT$$
(15)
where, $`\alpha `$ = $`\frac{1}{1+c_s^2}`$, $`\beta =4\alpha `$ and

$$\chi =\left[tanhB(T/T_c)^C\right]^\alpha $$
(16)
The expression for the second term within the square bracket of Eqn.15 is given by

$$\frac{1}{\chi }\frac{d\chi }{dT}=\alpha \frac{BC}{T}(\frac{T}{T_c})^C\frac{1}{cosh(B(\frac{T}{T_c})^C)sinh(B(\frac{T}{T_c})^C)}$$
(17)
Using the relation $`c_s^2=\frac{S}{T}\frac{dS}{dT}=[3+\frac{T}{g_{eff}}\frac{dg_{eff}}{dT}]^1`$ we get the velocity of sound corresponding to the lattice QCD calculations,

$$c_s^2=\left[3+BC(\frac{T}{T_c})^C\frac{1}{cosh(B(\frac{T}{T_c})^C)sinh(B(\frac{T}{T_c})^C)}\right]^1$$
(18)
Now the fluctuation at the freeze-out point can be written as,

$$\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f)=\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i)\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{1}{2\mathrm{\Delta }\eta }_{T_f}^{T_i}f(T)𝑑T\overline{v}(T)\right).$$
(19)
In order to study the effect of the equation of state, we will present results for three different values of $`c_s`$: (a) $`c_s^2=1/3`$ corresponds to the ideal gas case, (b) $`c_s^2=0.18`$ corresponding to an EOS of hadronic gas where particles of mass upto 2.5 GeV has been taken into account from particle data book and (c) $`c_s^2`$ obtained from Eqn. 18. It may be mentioned that for the ideal gas the rate of cooling is faster than the other two cases, (b) and (c).

Now we shall calculate the total dissipation of fluctuation at the freeze-out temperature. We shall consider the freeze-out temperature to be 120 MeV na49 ; wa98  and a critical temperature for the QGP transition to be 170 MeV karsch . In all the three cases below we have taken the value of $`\mathrm{\Delta }\eta `$ = 1.

1. Quark Gluon Plasma: For the QGP initial state, the dissipation equation has three parts. In the first part, we calculate the dissipation from the initial temperature $`T_i`$ to $`T_c`$ (for the QGP phase). The second part is the dissipation during the mixed phase and in the final phase it is the dissipation from $`T_c`$ (end of mixed phase) to the freeze-out temperature $`T_f`$. Hence the complete dissipation equation becomes,

$`\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f)=\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_i)\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\mathrm{\Delta }\eta }}\left({\displaystyle _{T_c}^{T_i}}\overline{v}_{qgp}(T)f(T)𝑑T+\overline{v}_{mix}(T_c)ln(r)+{\displaystyle _{T_f}^{T_c}}\overline{v}_h(T)f(T)𝑑T\right)\right)`$ (20)
where $`r`$ is the ratio $`(g_{eff})_{qgp}/g_{eff})_h`$ $``$ 2.5 and $`\overline{v}_{mix}\overline{v}_{qgp}(T_c)`$.

The fluctuation in the net baryon number is evaluated for: (a) $`c_s^2`$ = 1/3, for which we get $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^26`$, (b) $`c_s^2`$ = 0.18, giving $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^22.23`$ and (c) $`c_s^2`$ as given by Eqn. 18, resulting in $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^20.54`$.

The initial and final fluctuation values along with the evolution process of the values for the QGP scenario is shown in Fig. 3. Only the results for $`c_s^2`$ = 1/3 and $`c_s^2`$ as given by Eqn. 18 are shown in the figures for the clarity of presentation. We have checked that the results for $`c_s^2`$ = 0.18 lies between the above two cases.

2. Hadron Gas : In case of hadronic initial state we have,

$`\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f)=\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_i)\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\mathrm{\Delta }\eta }}{\displaystyle _{T_f}^{T_i}}\overline{v}_h(T)f(T)𝑑T\right)`$ (21)
(a) For $`c_s^2`$ = 1/3, the contribution from the exponential is $``$ 0.5. Hence the fluctuation in net baryon number is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2`$ is $`18`$, (b) for $`c_s^2`$ = 0.18, we get $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2`$ is $`14.6`$ and if we take (c) $`c_s^2`$ from Eqn. 18 the contribution from the exponential term is $``$ 0.06, a factor of 8 smaller than the value for case (a). Consequently the fluctuation in net baryon number is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2`$ is $`0.22`$. The evolution of fluctuation for this case is depicted in Fig. 3.

3. Hadron gas with mass variation in medium: For the hadronic initial state with mass variation,

$`\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f)=\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_i)\mathrm{exp}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\mathrm{\Delta }\eta }}{\displaystyle _{T_f}^{T_i}}\overline{v}_h^{}(T)f(T)𝑑T\right)`$ (22)
(a) For $`c_s^2`$ = 1/3, the contribution from the exponential is $``$ 0.53. Hence the fluctuation in net baryon number is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_\mathrm{m}^{}^244`$, (b) for $`c_s^2`$ = 0.18, we get: $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_\mathrm{m}^{}^237`$ and (c) taking $`c_s^2`$ from Eqn. 18, the contribution from the exponential term is $``$ 0.08 a factor of 7 lower than the case (a). So the fluctuation in net baryon number is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{HG},\mathrm{m}^{}}^2`$ is $`0.92`$. The evolution of fluctuation for this case is shown in Fig. 3.

### IV.2 Generation of fluctuation with time

The baryon fluxes exchanged with neighboring sub-volumes can lead to generation of fluctuations, and is the main source that is to be detected experimentally at the freeze-out point. The total number of baryons leaving or entering ($`N_b^{ex}`$) the sub-volume ($`A\tau \mathrm{\Delta }\eta `$) between time $`\tau _i`$ and $`\tau _f`$ is given by twin\_prl2

$`N_b^{ex}(T_f)={\displaystyle \frac{N_b(T_i)}{2\mathrm{\Delta }\eta }}\left({\displaystyle _{T_f}^{T_i}}\overline{v}(T)f(T)𝑑T\right)`$ (23)
1. Quark Gluon Plasma: As in the previous case the fluctuations has to be evaluated in three parts in a QGP formation scenario. In the first part, we calculate the generation from the initial temperature $`T_i`$ to $`T_c`$ (for the QGP phase). The second part is the generation during the mixed phase and in the final phase it is the generation from $`T_c`$ (end of mixed phase) to the freeze-out temperature $`T_f`$. Hence the complete evolution equation becomes,

$`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))^2=N_b(T_i)\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\mathrm{\Delta }\eta }}\left({\displaystyle _{T_c}^{T_i}}\overline{v}_{qgp}(T)f(T)𝑑T+\overline{v}_{mix}(T_c)ln(r)+{\displaystyle _{T_f}^{T_c}}\overline{v}_h(T)f(T)𝑑T\right)\right)`$ (24)
The fluctuation in the net baryon number is evaluated for: (a) $`c_s^2`$ = 1/3, for which we get $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2`$ is $`56.5`$, (b) $`c_s^2`$ = 0.18, resulting in $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2`$ is $`60.4`$ and (c) $`c_s^2`$ from Eqn. 18 giving $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2`$ is $`129`$.

The initial and final values of the fluctuations along with its time evolution for the QGP scenario are shown in Fig. 4.

2. Hadron Gas : In case of hadronic initial state we have,

$`(N_b(T_f))^2=N_b(T_i)\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\mathrm{\Delta }\eta }}{\displaystyle _{T_f}^{T_i}}\overline{v}_h(T)f(T)𝑑T\right)`$ (25)
(a) For $`c_s^2`$ = 1/3, the fluctuation in net baryon number is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2`$ is $`44`$. (b) For $`c_s^2`$ = 0.18, we get $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2`$ is $`50`$. (c) If we take $`c_s^2`$ from Eqn. 18, the fluctuation in net baryon number is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2`$ is $`179`$. The evolution of fluctuation for this case is displayed in Fig. 4.

3. Hadron gas with mass variation in medium: For the hadronic initial state with mass variation,

$`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))^2=N_b(T_i)\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{2\mathrm{\Delta }\eta }}{\displaystyle _{T_f}^{T_i}}\overline{v}_h^{}(T)f(T)𝑑T\right)`$ (26)
(a) For $`c_s^2`$ = 1/3, the fluctuation in net baryon number is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))_\mathrm{m}^{}^238.9`$. (b) For $`c_s^2`$ = 0.18, we get $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))_\mathrm{m}^{}^244`$. (c) Taking $`c_s^2`$ from Eqn. 18, the fluctuation in net baryon number is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))_{\mathrm{HG},\mathrm{m}^{}}^2`$ is $`158`$. The evolution of fluctuation for this case is shown in Fig. 4.

## V Fluctuations at the freeze-out

The net baryon fluctuation at the freeze-out ($`T_f`$ = 120 MeV) is a combination of the dissipation and the generation effect as presented in the previous section. The resultant fluctuation is the sum of the variances $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))^2`$ obtained for each of the two processes.

We present results in terms of net baryon fluctuation per unit baryon, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))^2/N_{b,y}`$. For Poissonian noise this value should be close to unity. Deviation from this numerical values will indicate the presence of dynamical fluctuation.

1. Quark Gluon Plasma: The final fluctuation in the net baryon number per unit baryon in the QGP scenario at the freeze-out point for the three EOS mentioned above are given by, (a) for $`c_s^2`$ = 1/3, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ $``$ 1.0, (b) for $`c_s^2`$ = 0.18, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ $``$ 1.0 and (c) taking $`c_s^2`$ from Eqn. 18, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ $``$ 2.0.

2. Hadron Gas : The net baryon number fluctuation per unit baryon in the hadronic gas at freeze-out for different values of of $`c_s`$ are, (a) for $`c_s^2`$ = 1/3, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ $``$ 1.0 (b) for $`c_s^2`$ = 0.18, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ $``$ 1.0 (c) Taking $`c_s^2`$ from Eqn. 18, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ $``$ 2.8.

3. Hadron gas with mass variation in medium: The net baryon number fluctuation per unit baryon for the hadronic initial state with mass variation at freeze-out for the three EOS are, (a) for $`c_s^2`$ = 1/3, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))_{\mathrm{HG},\mathrm{m}^{}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ $``$ 1.3, (b) for $`c_s`$ = 0.18, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(T_f))_{\mathrm{HG},\mathrm{m}^{}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ $``$ 1.3 and (c) taking $`c_s^2`$ from Eqn. 18, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{HG},\mathrm{m}^{}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ $``$ 2.5.

The net baryon number fluctuations per unit baryon is summarized in Table 2. For all the scenarios the values of the quantity $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))^2/N_{b,y}`$ is larger than Poissonian noise for EOS taken from lattice QCD. This indicates presence of dynamical fluctuations. However, it should be mentioned here that the errors in lattice QCD calculations is large for temperature below the critical temperature. Furthermore $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{HG}}^2/(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^21.4`$ and $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{HG},\mathrm{m}^{}}^2/(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^21.25`$. This means, although scenario (1) may be distinguishable from the scenarios (2) and (3) it is very difficult to differentiate (2) and (3) from fluctuation measurements. However, for EOS with $`c_s^2=1/3`$ and $`0.18`$ they are close to Poisson value of 1. This indicates that for these EOS; it is difficult to distinguish among the three scenarios.

## VI Results at RHIC energies

The net baryon number fluctuation has been evaluated for RHIC energies of $`\sqrt{s}=200A\dot{\mathrm{GeV}}`$ of Au+Au collisions. We have taken the total (charged and neutral) $`dN/dy`$ $``$ 1100 phobos . The initial temperatures obtained from the above multiplicity are quite large, 370 MeV for hadronic gas and 290 MeV for the case of hadronic gas with mass variation. As these temperatures are well above the critical temperature predicted by lattice QCD, we have considered only the QGP scenario for RHIC energies. We have taken the initial time to be $`0.6`$ fm/c rhictime  and specific entropy to be $`150`$ for Au + Au collisions. For QGP we take $`g_{eff}=47.5`$ which gives $`T_i251`$ MeV and the constraint on the specific entropy gives an initial chemical potential of 73 MeV. With these initial conditions for QGP scenario at RHIC, the initial fluctuations turn out to be : $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2`$ = 42. The entropy density in the QGP phase is calculated from Eqn. 7 with $`g_{eff}`$ = 47.5 to be $``$ 3900. So the fluctuation in net baryon number per entropy is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2/S`$ = 0.011 and $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _i))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2/N_{b,y}`$ = 1.6. The value of $`dN_b/dy26`$ for RHIC energies a factor of about 2.4 lower than that for SPS energies.

As before, here the values of $`T_c`$ and $`T_f`$ are 170 and 120 MeV respectively. (a) For $`c_s^2`$ = 1/3, the fluctuation in net baryon number due to dissipation at freeze-out, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2`$ turns out to be $`2.7`$. Whereas the generation mechanism gives $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}35.5}`$. So the resultant fluctuation in net baryon number per unit baryon is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2/N_{b,y}1.46`$. (b) For $`c_s^2`$ = 0.18, the fluctuation in net baryon number due to dissipation, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2`$ turns out to be $`2.3`$. Whereas the generation mechanism gives $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}48.7}`$. The evolution of the dissipation and the generation of fluctuation for the QGP scenario at RHIC energies is shown in the Figs. 5 and 6. So the resultant fluctuation in net baryon number per unit baryon is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2/N_{b,y}1.96`$. (c) If we take $`c_s^2`$ as given by Eqn. 18, the fluctuation in net baryon number due to dissipation, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2`$ is $`0.25`$, the generation mechanism gives $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}82.25}`$. So the resultant fluctuation in net baryon number per unit baryon is $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2/N_{b,y}3.17`$.

Note that though the absolute value of the fluctuations in case of RHIC is smaller than SPS the fluctuation per baryon at RHIC is larger at the freeze-out point.

## VII Summary

We have discussed the evolution of the fluctuation in net baryon number from the initial state to the final freeze-out state for three different scenarios, $`viz.`$, (1) formation of QGP (2) hadronic gas and (3) hadronic gas with modified mass in the medium. In case of QGP formation we have assumed a first order phase transition. We find that the fluctuations at the initial stage agree with previously obtained values twin\_prl2  where there are clear distinctions among the three cases. The fluctuations at the freeze-out point depend crucially on the equation of state (value of $`c_s`$). Fluctuations with ideal EOS is seen to dissipate at a slower rate compared to EOS from lattice calculation. At SPS energies the values of the variance depend crucially on the EOS. For EOS from lattice QCD parametrization the fluctuation at the freeze-out is larger than the Poissonian noise. However, for ideal gas EOS and EOS with $`c_s^2`$ = 0.18, we do not observe fluctuations of dynamical origin. At RHIC energies the value of the fluctuations are larger than the Poissonian noise for all the three EOS under consideration here, indicating the fluctuations of dynamical origin. The effects of the finite acceptance on the fluctuation enters our calculations through $`\mathrm{\Delta }\eta `$ and according to Eqn. 11 and 23 it is same for all the three scenarios (1), (2) and (3) discussed above. For general discussions on the effects of acceptance on the fluctuations we refer to Ref. twin\_prl1 ; ijmpa . The dependence of the fluctuation on the centrality of the collisions (impact parameter) get canceled to a large extent in the ratio, $`(\mathrm{\Delta }N_b(\tau _f))_{\mathrm{QGP}}^2/N_{b,y}`$. It is shown in wa98\_fluc  that it is possible to control the impact parameter dependence of the fluctuation by measuring $`E_T`$ and analyzing data in narrow bins of $`E_T`$. A full (3+1) dimensional expansion will lead to faster cooling, and hence it is interesting to see the survivability of fluctuations in such a scenario bm .

###### Acknowledgements.

One of us (B.M.) is grateful to the Board of Research on Nuclear Science and Department of Atomic Energy, Government. of India for financial support. We would like to thank M. Asakawa for useful comments. We are thankful to the referee for his useful comments on the present manuscript.