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# 1 Introduction

## 1 Introduction

As it has been recently argued in , although the standard model of particle physics is the uncontested theory of all interactions down to distances of $`10^{17}`$m, there are good reasons to believe that new physics could be soon arising at the experimental level. On the other hand, on the purely theoretical side, string theory and further developments connected to it provide a background with immense appeal in order to solve long-standing problems of theoretical high energy physics. It is by now a widespread idea, from a general theoretical setup, that the so-called M-theory  is a reasonable description of our Universe: in the field theory limit, it is described by a solution of the (eventually 11-dimensional) Einstein equations with a cosmological constant, by means of a four dimensional membrane. In this picture only gravity survives in the higher dimensions, while the remaining matter and gauge interactions are typically four dimensional.

If the picture above is the one physically realized in nature, a very large amount of new physics emerges. In particular, when membranes are solutions of Einstein’s equations and matter fields reside inside the brane, the gravitational fields have to obey the Israel conditions  at the sides of the brane. Thus, there is a possibility that gravitational fields propagating out of the brane speed up, reaching farther distances as compared to light propagating inside the brane, a scenario that for a resident of the brane (such as ourselves) implies shortcuts  \- .

It is our aim in this work to further develop these ideas in the case of a FRW brane Universe . The subject was developed until now from the point of view of the brane , where all time dependence is embedded in the bulk metric written in gaussian coordinates. The price payed for the knownledge of the position of the brane in the bulk is the complicated form of the bulk metric and, consequently, the complicated behaviour of geodesics in the bulk. However, if we treat the problem from the point of view of the bulk, where the brane evolves in a non-trivial way in a static AdS background, we can construct explicitly the causal structure of null geodesics leaving and subsequently returning to the brane. As it turns out, shortcuts are common, although harmless at the present days (the delay is vanishingly small), but could be large in the era before nucleosynthesis if high redshits were available.

Moreover, one of the main goals of string theory nowadays is to prove itself able of coping with experimental evidences. Branes have been shown to be useful tools to understand the physics of strings and M-theory . As it has also recently been pointed out , brane Universes such as the one described above could imply the existence of relics of the extra dimensions in the cosmic microwave background. Unfortunately, recent developments with inflation guided by a scalar field in the brane indicate that the consistency equation is preserved . In this work however, we show that if inflation took part on the brane, the causal structure is definitely changed by those gravitational shortcuts, possibly leading to a non-usual period of causal evolution of scales. This could be responsible for distinct predictions in the cosmic microwave background structure for inflationary models.

The paper is organized as follows. Chapter two provides a short revision of the general setup adopted in this work: the view of the bulk. In chapter three we discuss how the brane evolves in the background and show the effects of the propagation of gravity trought the extra dimension. Finally, in chapter 4 we explicitly construct the geodesical behaviour of the shortcuts found in the earlier fase of the evolution of the universe. A brief conclusion and discussion is also presented.

## 2 The General Setup

We consider a scenario where the bulk is a purely Anti-de-Sitter space-time of the form ,

$$ds^2=h(a)dt^2\frac{da^2}{h(a)}a^2d\mathrm{\Sigma }^2,$$

with $`h(a)=k+\frac{a^2}{l^2}`$, $`l0.1mm`$ is the Randall-Sundrum lenght scale  and $`d\mathrm{\Sigma }^2`$ represents the metric of the three dimensional spatial sections with $`k=0,\pm 1`$,

$$d\mathrm{\Sigma }^2=\frac{dr^2}{1kr^2}+r^2[d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2(\theta )d\varphi ^2].$$

The brane is localized at $`a_b(\tau )`$, where $`\tau `$ is the proper time on the brane. The unit vector normal to the brane is defined as (overdot and prime superscript denote differentiation with respect to $`\tau `$ and $`a`$ respectively)

$$n=\dot{a}_b(\tau )dt\dot{t}(\tau )da.$$
(1)
The normalization of $`n`$ implies the relation between the bulk time $`t`$ and the brane time $`\tau `$,

$$h(a_b)\dot{t}^2\dot{a_b}^2h^1(a_b)=1$$
(2)
and also the usual FRW expression for the distance in the brane ,

$$ds^2=d\tau ^2a_b^2d\mathrm{\Sigma }^2.$$

Aiming at the Israel conditions in the brane  we compute the second fundamental form

$$K_{ij}=e_i^\alpha e_j^\nu _\alpha n_\nu ,$$

$`K_{rr}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{a_bh}{(1kr^2)}}\dot{t},`$ (3)
$`K_{\theta \theta }`$ $`=`$ $`a_br^2h\dot{t},`$ (4)
$`K_{\varphi \varphi }`$ $`=`$ $`a_br^2\mathrm{sin}^2(\theta )h\dot{t}`$ (5)
and

$`K_{\tau \tau }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{h\dot{t}}}\left(\ddot{a}_b+{\displaystyle \frac{h^{}}{2}}\right).`$ (7)
With these results, using the Israel conditions for a $`Z_2`$ symmetric configuration ,

$$K_{ij}=\frac{1}{2}\kappa _{(5)}^2\left(S_{ij}\frac{1}{3}h_{ij}S\right),$$
(8)
we relate the discontinuity in the second fundamental form through the brane and the energy momentum tensor in the brane, $`S_{ij}`$. For an isotropic distribution of matter, as given by

$$S_{ij}=ϵ_Tu_iu_jp_T(h_{ij}u_iu_j),$$
(9)
the following relations hold ,,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dϵ_T}{d\tau }}`$ $`=`$ $`3{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}_b}{a_b}}(ϵ_T+p_T)`$
and

$$\frac{\dot{a}_b^2}{a_b^2}+\frac{h}{a_b^2}=\frac{\kappa _{(5)}^4ϵ_T^2}{36}.$$
(10)
Following  and , we introduce an intrinsic non-dynamical energy density $`ϵ_0`$ defined by means of $`ϵ_T=ϵ_0+ϵ`$, $`p_T=ϵ_0+p`$ where $`ϵ`$ and $`p`$ corresponds to the brane matter. Thus the junction equations imply the usual energy conservation in the brane,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{dϵ}{d\tau }}`$ $`=`$ $`3{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}_b}{a_b}}(ϵ+p)`$ (11)
and the modified Friedmann equation ,

$$H^2=\left(\frac{\dot{a}_b}{a_b}\right)^2=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }_4}{3}+\frac{1}{M_{Pl}^2}\left(\frac{ϵ}{3}+\frac{ϵ^2}{6ϵ_0}\right)\frac{k}{a_b^2},$$
(12)
with the hierarchy

$$M_{PL}^2=\frac{\kappa _5^4ϵ_0}{6}$$
(13)
and the cosmological constant in the brane

$$\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }_4}{3}=\left(\frac{\kappa _5^4ϵ_0^2}{36}\frac{1}{l^2}\right).$$
(14)
The present density of the Universe is

$$ϵ(0)=\mathrm{\Omega }_0ϵ_c=\mathrm{\Omega }_03M_{PL}^2H_0^2,$$

where $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0`$ is the ratio of the density and the critical density of the Universe. Aiming at the energy conservation, the Friedmann equation can be written as

$$H^2=\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }_4}{3}+\mathrm{\Omega }_0H_0^2\frac{a_{b0}^q}{a_b^q}\left(1+\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}{4(1+\mathrm{\Lambda }_4l^2/3)}\frac{L_c^q}{a_b^q}\right)\frac{k}{a_b^2},$$
(15)
where $`L_c^q=a_{b0}^ql^2H_0^2`$.

We thus verify that there exist three phases in the evolution of the Universe. When $`a_b>>L_c`$ the linear term in the energy density prevails in the Friedmann equation, leading to the standard cosmology. Because $`H_0l10^{29}`$ this happens in a redshift of $`a_{b0}/a_b10^{15}`$, much earlier than the nucleosynthesis. For $`a_b<<L_c`$ the Universe expands at a slower pace as compared to the standard model, $`a_b\tau ^{1/q}`$, and the quadratic term is the prevailing one. In an intermediate era where $`a_bL_c`$, both phases coexist.

We see that all the cosmological information is already known: the position of the brane in the extra dimension, $`a_b(\tau )`$, is just the scale factor of the FRW metric and the junction conditions imply that the cosmological evolution of the brane is obtained by the usual energy conservation (11) and the modified Friedmann equations (12). However, in this work, we are particularly interested in the evolution of the brane with respect to the bulk. This relation can be obtained using (2) and transforming from the time of the brane to the time of the bulk. Thus the position of the brane can also be treated as a function of the bulk proper time satisfying the equation

$$\frac{da_b}{dt}=\frac{da_b}{d\tau }\frac{d\tau }{dt}=\dot{a}_b(\tau )\frac{h(a_b)}{\sqrt{h(a_b)+\dot{a}_b(\tau )^2}}.$$
(16)
In the next section we solve the Friedmann equation (15) in order to obtain the evolution of the brane inside the bulk, namely (16).

## 3 The Brane evolving in the Bulk

The main reason to study the evolution of the brane from the point of view of the bulk is to simplify the analysis of gravitational signs leaving and subsequently returning to the brane. In fact in the static AdS backgound, the equation for a null geodesic in the bulk, $`a=a(t)`$, is particularly simplified ,

$$\frac{\ddot{a}(t)}{a}+\frac{\dot{a}^2(t)}{a^2}\left(1\frac{3h^{}(a)a}{2h(a)}\right)+\frac{h(a)}{a}\left(\frac{h^{}(a)}{2}\frac{h}{a}\right)=0.$$
(17)
On the other hand, the evolution of the brane in the bulk, $`a=a_b(t)`$, at early times, $`a_b<<L_c`$, is dictated by

$$\frac{da_b}{dt}=\frac{h(a_b)}{\sqrt{1+\frac{h(a_b)}{\dot{a}_b(\tau )^2}}}=h(a_b)\left(1+\frac{k+\frac{a_b^2}{l^2}}{\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2}{4(1+l^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_4)}\frac{L_c^{2q}}{l^2a_b^{2q2}}}\right)^{1/2},$$

where we used the fact that the quadratic term in the energy prevails. Thus,

$$\frac{da_b}{dt}=h(a_b)\left(1+\frac{4(1+l^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_4)}{\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2}\frac{a_b^{2q}}{L_c^{2q}}(1+kl^2/(a_b^2))\right)^{1/2},$$

and, for $`a_b<<L_c`$, since the observed cosmological constant is at most $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4H_0^2`$, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_4l^2<<1`$ we have

$$\frac{da_b}{dt}h(a_b)\left(1\frac{2(1+l^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_4)}{\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2}\frac{a_b^{2q}}{L_c^{2q}}(1+kl^2/(a_b^2))\right).$$
(18)
Substituting the result for the evolution of the brane, $`\dot{a}(t)=h(a)`$, in the geodesic equation (17), we verify that it is satisfied. Therefore, the trajectory of the brane differs from the trajectory of the null geodesic by a term of the order $`\left(\frac{a_b}{L_c}\right)^{2q}`$.

This means that for $`a_b<<L_c`$, the trajectory of the brane in the bulk is governed by

$$\frac{da_b(t)}{dt}=k+\frac{a_b^2}{l^2}.$$
(19)
Thus, if $`k=0`$,

$$a_b(t)=\frac{a_b(0)l^2}{l^2a_b(0)t}$$
(20)
and, if $`k=1`$,

$$a_b(t)=\frac{2l(l+a_b(0))}{e^{2t/l}(la_b(0))+l+a_b(0)}l.$$
(21)
In this last situation, if the Universe begins under the Randall-Sundrum scale, $`a(0)<l`$, it will recolapse to the singularity in a finite time,

$$t=\frac{l}{2}\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{l+a_b(0)}{la_b(0)}\right).$$

Indeed, there is an event horizon when $`a=l`$ if $`k=1`$.

In the case of an eliptic Universe,

$$a_b(t)=l\mathrm{tan}\left(\frac{t}{l}+\mathrm{tan}^1\left(\frac{a_b(0)}{l}\right)\right).$$
(22)
Starting at the singularity $`t_0=\tau _0=a_b(t_0)=0`$, we have

$$a_b(t)=l\mathrm{tan}\left(\frac{t}{l}\right).$$
(23)
Note that the evolution of the brane in the bulk is linear near the initial singularity ($`a(t)t`$ for $`t<<l`$), diverging at the critical time $`t_c=\frac{\pi }{2}l`$. In fact, the behaviour of all solutions is similar near the critical time

$`t_c`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{a_b(0)}};`$
$`t_c`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{l}{2}}\mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{l+a_b(0)}{a_b(0)l}}\right);`$
$`t_c`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{2}}ll\mathrm{tan}^1\left({\displaystyle \frac{a_b(0)}{l}}\right)`$ (24)
for $`k=0,1,+1`$ respectively.

As we approach the critical time $`a_b(t)`$ increases quickly. When $`a_b(t)L_c`$ equation (19) is no longer valid, and the trajectory of the brane is no longer a geodesic. Thus, for a very short period, from the point of view of the bulk the brane undergoes a phase transition. In figure 1 this behaviour is shown in terms of the numerical solution of eq. (16) for a radiation dominated eliptic Universe.

Before the critical time, from the point of view of the bulk, there is no time left for the remaining graviton geodesics to reach the brane. This is in fact the kind of behaviour that we find in numerical studies of the complete equation for the evolution of the brane and null geodesics as in the example of figure 2.

On the other hand, for later times the evolution of the brane is softer, and shortcuts appear, as exhibited in fig. 3.

### 3.1 The Effect of Shortcuts in Late Times Universes

The shortcuts just found for late times Universes could be used to probe the extra-dimensionality by the aparent violation of causality in the brane. Thus, suppose that in $`\tau =t=0`$ an object could emit eletromagnetic and gravitational waves and that we could be able to detect both signs in times $`\tau _\gamma ^{}`$ and $`\tau _g^{}`$. We compute now the order of magnitude of the advance in time of the graviton. Since the signals cover the same distance in the brane,

$$_0^{\tau _\gamma ^{}}\frac{d\tau _\gamma }{a_b(\tau _\gamma )}=_0^{t_g^{}}\frac{dt_g}{a(t_g)}\sqrt{h(a)\frac{\dot{a}(t_g)^2}{h(a)}}.$$
(25)
Here, $`a`$ denotes the coordinate defining the geodesic in the bulk, and differs from the coordinate of the brane $`a_b`$. In terms of the dimensionless parameters $`y`$ and $`x`$, $`a=Ly`$ and $`t=Tx`$ the last integral reads

$`{\displaystyle _0^{t_g^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{dt_g}{a(t_g)}}\sqrt{h(a){\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}(t)^2}{h(a)}}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{t_g^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{dt_g}{l}}\sqrt{1+{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{L^2y^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{T^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{y}(x)^2}{y^2+y^4\frac{L^2}{l^2}}}}.`$ (26)
Using the relation between the time in the brane and that of the bulk we convert the above expressions in terms of the interval of time of the observer in the brane,

$`{\displaystyle _0^{\tau _\gamma ^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau _\gamma }{a_b(\tau _\gamma )}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\tau _g^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau _g}{l}}{\displaystyle \frac{dt_g}{d\tau _g}}\sqrt{1+{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{L^2y^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{T^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{y}(x)^2}{y^2+y^4\frac{L^2}{l^2}}}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\tau _g^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau _g}{l}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{h(a_b)}}\sqrt{h(a_b)+\dot{a}_b(\tau _g)^2}\sqrt{1+{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{L^2y^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{T^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{y}(x)^2}{y^2+y^4\frac{L^2}{l^2}}}}.`$
The Friedmann equation implies

$`{\displaystyle _0^{\tau _g^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau _g}{l}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{h(a_b)}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{y_b^2L^2}{l^2}}+\mathrm{\Lambda }_4L^2y_b^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}{y_b^{q2}}}{\displaystyle \frac{L_c^q}{l^2L^{q2}}}}\sqrt{1+{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{L^2y^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{T^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{y}(x)^2}{y^2+y^4\frac{L^2}{l^2}}}}`$
$`={\displaystyle _0^{\tau _g^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau _g}{l}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{h(a_b)}}{\displaystyle \frac{y_bL}{l}}\sqrt{1+l^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_4+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}{y_b^q}}{\displaystyle \frac{L_c^q}{L^q}}}\sqrt{1+{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{L^2y^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{T^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{y}(x)^2}{y^2+y^4\frac{L^2}{l^2}}}}`$
$`={\displaystyle _0^{\tau _g^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau _g}{a_b(\tau _g)}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{1+\frac{l^2}{L^2y_b^2}}}\sqrt{1+l^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_4+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}{y_b^q}}{\displaystyle \frac{L_c^q}{L^q}}}\sqrt{1+{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{L^2y^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{T^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{y}(x)^2}{y^2+y^4\frac{L^2}{l^2}}}}.`$
Therefore, if $`L>>L_c>>l`$ we obtain, at second order in $`L_c/L`$ and $`l/L`$,

$$_0^{\tau _g^{}}\frac{d\tau _g}{a_b(\tau _g)}\left(1\frac{l^2}{L^2}\frac{1}{y_b^2}\right)\left(1+\frac{1}{2}l^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_4+\frac{1}{2}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}{y_b^q}\frac{L_c^q}{L^q}\right)\left(1+\frac{1}{2}\frac{l^2}{L^2y^2}\frac{1}{2}\frac{l^2}{T^2}\frac{\dot{y}(x)^2}{y^2+y^4\frac{L^2}{l^2}}\right).$$

Finally,

$`{\displaystyle _0^{\tau _\gamma ^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau _\gamma }{a_b(\tau _\gamma )}}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\tau _g^{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau _g}{a_b(\tau _g)}}[1+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}{y_b^q}}{\displaystyle \frac{L_c^q}{L^q}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}l^2\mathrm{\Lambda }_4{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{L^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{y_b^2}}`$
$`+`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{L^2y^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{l^4}{T^2L^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{y}(x)^2}{y^4}}].`$
Thus, at first order, the time difference between the photon and the graviton is corrected in the integrand by terms of the order $`\frac{L_c^q}{a_b^q}`$. Today this factor is at most $`10^{58}`$ and in the time of decoupling $`10^{46}`$, showing that the time advance of the graviton can be safely neglected and is of no physical significance, in spite of the fact that the trajectory of the brane is distinctively different from the null geodesic.

### 3.2 The Effect of Shortcuts in Early Time Universe

From the analysis developed so far we learned that the periods of evolution of the Universe differ by the scale that defines the physical significance of the shortcuts. In an era where $`a_b<<L_c`$, the trajectory of the brane in the bulk differs from the extreme geodesics by $`(a_b/L_c)^{2q}`$ and the shortcuts do not appear, since the brane itself provides the graviton geodesic.

In the period when $`a_b>>L_c`$, the trajectory of the brane is far from a null geodesic and shortcuts appear, but they are not significant, since the skin depth of the graviton in the bulk is defined by the parameter $`l<<L_c<<a_b`$. The difference between the time intervals of the photon and the graviton is of the order $`(L_c/a_b)^q`$.

However, from the continuity of the evolution of the brane in the bulk, we expect that there is also an intermediate situation $`a_bL_c`$ when physically important shortcuts could appear, since the evolution of the brane is far enough from a geodesic. Indeed, in figure 4, rescaling the geodesics in the bulk we can observe the behaviour of the brane as compared to the geodesics that start in it at a later time. It is clear that these shortcuts are serious mediators of homogenization of the matter in the brane in the era before nucleosynthesis , .

From the evolution of the brane in the bulk in the intermediate epoch we thus conclude that there is a critical age $`t_c`$, after which the gravitational waves leaving the brane return before the arrival of the photons released at the same time as the gravitons. The behaviour of the geodesic in the bulk shows that any geodesic starting in the brane at a certain instant will be singular at a time later than the critical time, indicating that it will return to the brane. Thus, information leaks between regions which apparently are causally disconnected at times $`t>t_c`$.

In order to study the horizon problem, we now compare, at a certain time $`\tau _n`$ previous to nucleosynthesis, the graviton horizon $`R_g`$ with the observable proper distance of the universe (from the radiation decoupling until today) . Since the graviton evolves in a bulk geodesic,

$`R_g`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{dr}{\sqrt{1kr^2}}}={\displaystyle \frac{dt}{a}\sqrt{h(a)\frac{\dot{a}^2}{h(a)}}}={\displaystyle \frac{d\tau }{a}\frac{\sqrt{h(a_b)+\dot{a}_b^2}}{h(a_b)}\sqrt{h(a)\frac{\dot{a}^2}{h(a)}}}`$ (27)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{\tau _n}}{\displaystyle \frac{d\tau }{a_b}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{1+l^2/a_b^2}}\sqrt{1+\mathrm{\Lambda }_4l^2+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0L_c^q}{a_b^q}}\left(1+{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0L_c^q}{4a_b^q(1+\mathrm{\Lambda }_4l^2)}}\right)}\times `$
$`\times \sqrt{1+{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{L^2y^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{T^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{y}(x)^2}{y^2+y^4\frac{L^2}{l^2}}}},`$
while in the brane, the size of the observable Universe is $`R=\frac{d\tau }{a_b(\tau )}`$.

We use the known results for the usual particle horizon

$$R=\frac{1}{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}H_0a_{b0}}_{z(\tau )}^{z(0)}z^{q/2}𝑑z=\frac{2}{(q2)\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}H_0a_{b0}}(z(\tau )^{1q/2}z(0)^{1q/2}).$$

where $`z(\tau )=a_{b0}/a_b(\tau )`$. Today,

$$R\frac{2}{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}H_0a_{b0}}R_0.$$

For the computation of the graviton horizon, we work in a primordial era before nucleosynthesis. Thus, in the Friedmann equation we can neglect the usual cosmological term as well as the curvature term. At an epoch between Planck era and nucleosynthesis, $`l<<a_b<<H_0`$, it is safe to neglect terms involving $`l^2/L^2`$ in (27), and we find

$$R_g_0^{\tau _n}\frac{d\tau }{a_b}\sqrt{1+\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0L_c^q}{a_b^q}+\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0^2L_c^{2q}}{4a_b^{2q}}}.$$

Using the Friedmann equation we get

$$R_g=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }_0^{1/2}H_0a_{b0}}_{z(\tau _n)}^{z(0)}\frac{dz}{z^2}\frac{(1+\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0H_0^2l^2}{2}z^4)}{\sqrt{1+\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }_0H_0^2l^2}{4}z^4}}.$$
(28)
The integral diverges for arbitrarly high redshifts, proving that the horizon problem is potentially solvable. The behaviour of this integral can be determined. We have

$$R_g\frac{l}{a_{b0}}z(0).$$

Comparing with the size of the Universe today,

$$\frac{R_g}{R_0}\frac{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}}{2}H_0lz(0).$$

It looks like shortcuts are not enough to solve the horizon problem, since we would need to go back in time to $`z(0)(H_0l)^110^{29}`$, $`10^{11}`$ times higher than the redshift at the Planck time in the brane associated with the fundamental scale of gravity, $`\kappa _5`$.

For the time being, lets assume the validity of the theory in such high energies. In the next section we will argue that, in order to provide a solution to the usual cosmological problems, inflationary models must use of those high redshifts. We may note, however, that there are actually two related time scales. In the primordial Universe the brane is evolving as a part of the bulk, with velocities close to that of light, and time intervals in the brane correspond to much longer intervals in the bulk. In fact, the relation between these scales is obtained from $`t_0=\tau _0=a_b(\tau _0)=0`$ and from

$$t=_0^\tau 𝑑\tau \frac{\sqrt{h(a_b)+\dot{a}_b^2(\tau )}}{h(a_b)}.$$

For $`a_b<<L_c`$ we have $`\tau <<l`$, and one finds, as a consequence

$$t_0^\tau 𝑑\tau \frac{\dot{a}_b(\tau )}{h(a_b)}=_0^{a_b(\tau )}\frac{da_b}{k+a_b^2/l^2}.$$

This implies, for the example of a closed universe with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_0=2`$,

$$t=l\mathrm{arctan}\left(\frac{a_b(\tau )}{l}\right).$$

Therefore, when $`a_b(\tau )l`$, that is, when the brane time is $`\tau 10^{67}s`$, the corresponding bulk time $`t\frac{\pi }{4}l10^{11}`$s is much larger than the Planck scale, $`t>>M_{(5)}^1`$.

If we assume that quantization is mandatory according to the bulk Planck energy scale, geodesics that start in the bulk with $`z(0)(H_0l)^1`$ should be sufficient to homogenize the Universe before nucleosynthesis, reaching $`R_g1`$. In order to verify this, we have numerically integrated the expression for the distance reached by geodesics $`a(t)`$ starting in the brane at $`a_b=l`$, corresponding to a time $`t=\pi /4l`$, for $`k=1`$ with $`\mathrm{\Omega }_02`$ ($`a_{b0}H_0^1`$):

$$R_g=_{l\pi /4}^{t_f}\frac{dt}{a}\sqrt{h(a)\frac{\dot{a}^2}{h(a)}}.$$
(29)
The solution of the geodesic equation is given in figure 5. The brane evolves initially as a geodesic with speed $`v_b2`$ ($`a_bl`$) and we exhibit a geodesic with zero initial speed in the bulk. The point of inflexion in its trajectory is $`t_f=2.356l>t_c=\frac{\pi }{2}l`$. As we saw before, the brane evolves smoothly after the transition and the geodesics return to the brane if we wait until $`t_f`$, see (29). Although the trajectory diverges near this point, the integrand in (29) is finite and we can perform the integration, finding

$$R_g=2.526.$$

Thus, the observable Universe is smaller than the reach of the relic gravitons that start in a previous era.

## 4 Causal Gravitational Structure

In the last section we learned about the behaviour of null-geodesics for closed Universes. We can, however, study analytically the whole causal structure of the gravitational signs for a $`k=0`$ Universe.

The geodesic equation, (17), is quite simple for purely AdS $`k=0`$ space-times

$$\frac{1}{a^2}\frac{da}{dt}=\frac{v(0)}{a(0)^2}.$$
(30)
Thus, a geodesic that starts in the brane at $`a=a(0)`$ ant $`t=0`$, with initial veolcity $`v(0)`$, returns to it when

$$t_r\frac{a(0)}{v(0)}.$$

The expression for the gravitational horizon can also be integrated

$`R_g`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle _0^{t_r}}{\displaystyle \frac{dt}{a}}\sqrt{h(a){\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}^2}{h(a)}}}={\displaystyle _0^{t_r}}{\displaystyle \frac{dt}{l}}\sqrt{1{\displaystyle \frac{l^4\dot{a}^2}{a^4}}}`$ (31)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{t_r}{l}}\sqrt{1{\displaystyle \frac{v(0)^2l^4}{a(0)^4}}}.`$
Using the relation between the returning time and the initial velocity,

$`R_g={\displaystyle \frac{t_r}{l}}\sqrt{1{\displaystyle \frac{l^4}{a(0)^2t_r^2}}}.`$ (32)
In order to relate the returning time to the redshift, we must integrate the relation between time of the bulk and time of the brane (16). We already know that from $`a(0)`$ to the critical period of transition a time of $`t_c\frac{l^2}{a(0)}`$ has passed. After that, the evolution is dominated by the usual term in Friedmann equation and we can approximate

$`t_r`$ $``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{a(0)}}+{\displaystyle _{L_c}^{a_r}}l{\displaystyle \frac{da_b}{a_b^2H}}{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{a(0)}}+{\displaystyle _{L_c}^{a_r}}𝑑a_b{\displaystyle \frac{l}{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}H_0}}a_b^{q/22}`$ (33)
$``$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{l^2}{a(0)}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2l}{(q2)\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}H_0a_{b0}}}\left(z_r^{q/2+1}10^{15}\right),`$
where $`z_r`$ must, of course, be greater than the redshift in the transition, $`z_{Lc}10^{15}`$.

Substituting back in the expression of the gravitational horizon,

$`R_g`$ $`=`$ $`\left[{\displaystyle \frac{l}{a(0)}}+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{(q2)\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}H_0a_{b0}}}\left(z_r^{q/2+1}10^{15}\right)\right]`$ (34)
$`\times `$ $`\sqrt{1\left[1+{\displaystyle \frac{2a(0)}{(q2)\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}lH_0a_{b0}}}\left(z_r^{q/2+1}10^{15}\right)\right]^2}.`$
When considering the interesting situation of a high initial redshift $`z(0)=a_{b0}/a(0)>(H_0l)^1`$, this expression can be approximated by

$`R_g{\displaystyle \frac{l}{a(0)}}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{4a(0)}{(q2)\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}lH_0a_{b0}}}\left(z_r^{q/2+1}10^{15}\right)}.`$ (35)
Comparing with the size of the horizon today, we find

$`({\displaystyle \frac{R_g}{R_0}})_{z_r}\sqrt{\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}{\displaystyle \frac{lH_0}{(q2)}}}\sqrt{z(0)\left(z_r^{q/2+1}10^{15}\right)}.`$ (36)
We note, as we did in the last section, that if sufficiently large redshifts were available, the graviton horizon in a past epoch could be larger than the present size of the observable Universe.

We argue, however, that those high redshifts could be available even when the energy density in the brane is not quantized yet. Indeed, if inflation takes place in the brane high redshifts could be present in the beginning of the inflationary epoch.

Denoting the redshift when inflation ends by $`z_e`$, if the size of the present Universe, $`R_0`$, is expected to be in causal contact during inflation, we must reach at least a redshift in the beginning of inflation, $`z(0)`$, that solves

$$\frac{a_{b0}R_0}{z(0)}=H^1(z_e).$$

The unusual results in brane-world cosmology are expected if inflation ends before the transition time, when the quadratic term in Friedmann equation dominates. In this case, we get

$$\frac{a_{b0}R_0}{z(0)}=\frac{1}{\mathrm{\Omega }_0H_0^2lz_e^4}$$

and

$$z(0)=2\sqrt{\mathrm{\Omega }_0}H_0lz_e^4.$$
(37)
If $`H(z_e)l>>1`$, it is simple to note, from equation (16), that the evolution of the brane in the bulk is not altered during inflation. Thus, we can substitute the result(37) in the complete expression for the causal gravitational horizon (36),

$`({\displaystyle \frac{R_g}{R_0}})_{z_r}\sqrt{{\displaystyle \frac{2\mathrm{\Omega }_0}{(q2)}}}H_0lz_e^2\sqrt{\left(z_r^{q/2+1}10^{15}\right)}.`$ (38)
This equation tells us that, in the time of nucleosyntesis, when $`z_r10^{10}`$, $`R_g/R_01`$ for a model with inflation ending just before what would be the Planck era, with $`z_e10^{17}`$ (where $`z_{Pl}10^{18}`$). This proves that successfully inflationary models ending before the transition time necessarily make relevant changes in the causal structure of the universe.

We are able to sketch the gravitational horizon for this kind of configuration. In figure 6 we show the behaviour of the Hubble horizon in comoving coordinates $`H^1a_b^1/R_0`$ and the graviton horizon $`R_g/R_0`$ for an inflationary model ending just before the Planck era, $`z_e=10^{17}`$ and producing the necessary number of e-folds to solve the horizon problem. The fraction of the Universe in causal contact by gravitational signs in the nucleosynthesis epoch is just the present horizon $`R_0`$. Today, the gravitational horizon would be $`10^5R_0`$.

## 5 Conclusions

Studying the shortcut problem in braneworld cosmology from the point of view of the bulk we have explicitly shown that shortcuts are indeed common in late time Universes, though they are extremelly small and the time advance of the graviton can be safely neglected. However, we have also learned that gravitational signs may leave and subsequently return to the brane even in early times Universes. We have showed that those shortcuts exist and that the new scale of the model, $`l`$, implies in a minimum time scale for the reception of those signs by an observer in the brane. Before that critical time, the brane itself evolves like a null-geodesic in the bulk.

If high initial redshits were available the shortcuts just found could solve the horizon problem without inflation. More important however, may be the effect of those shortcuts with an inflationary epoch in the brane.

Brane-world models incorporate two changes in the cosmology, namely, the modified Friedmann equation and the possibility of leaking of gravity in the extra dimension. Using the first of those modifications, it was shown that, remarkably, the consistency equation is mantained in the brane-world formalism when the inflation is guided by a scalar field minimally coupled in the brane . This consists in bad news for those who expect that brane cosmological configurations could probe the extra dimensionality of our Universe.

However, we have showed that if there was an inflationary epoch in the brane evolution, the causal structure of the universe could be strongly modified. This could be a sign of an unusual evolution of the perturbations from the time they cross the de Sitter horizon, $`H^1`$, during inflation, through the time they became causally connected again. In this case, there could be distinct predictions for the microwave background radiation structure even with the same consistency equation during inflation. Thus, further investigation on the dynamics of perturbations in inflationary brane-world models may prove useful to probe the dimensionality of space-time.

Acknowledgements: This work has been supported by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), Brazil. We would like to thank R. Abramo for reading the manuscript.


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# Revealing the Focused Companion Wind in Cygnus X-1 with Chandra

## 1. Introduction

Cygnus X-1 is the only known Galactic black hole which has displayed persistent X-ray activity since the dawn of X-ray astronomy. It is also a rare black hole binary in that it has a high-mass companion star (HDE 226868 — an O9.7 Iab supergiant; Gies & Bolton 1982, 1986). The mass of the black hole primary is most likely $`M_110.1M_{}`$, and the mass of the companion secondary is most likely $`M_217.8M_{}`$ (Herrero et al. 1996).

At present, there are 14 Galactic systems with low-mass companions ($`M_21M_{}`$) for which optical radial velocity curves imply a primary with $`M_13M_{}`$ (the theoretical upper-limit for a neutron star mass; for a list of dynamically-constrained low-mass black hole systems see http://www.astro.uu.nl/$``$orosz/). These systems are transients, undergoing outbursts in which the X-ray luminosity may change by factors of $`10^6`$ or more on scales ranging from days to months. It is logical, then, to associate the persistent nature of Cygnus X-1 with the fact that it is a high-mass X-ray binary (HMXB). While the companion wind is very likely to play an important accretion role in Cygnus X-1 — perhaps through a “focused wind” scenario (Friend & Castor 1982, Gies & Bolton 1986; see below) — numerous detections of the disk’s thermal spectrum, strong and broad Fe K$`\alpha `$ emission lines, and strong disk reflection in Cygnus X-1 clearly demonstrate that standard disk accretion is also important in this system. The relative importance of the wind and disk in driving the accretion process and X-ray “states” in Cygnus X-1 is still uncertain (for a review of states, see Done et al. 2002; for a critical discussion see Homan et al. 2001).

Winds from isolated massive stars may be approximated as being spherically symmetric. Friend & Castor (1982) explored the geometry of winds from massive stars in the presence of a compact object. Due to the compact object’s gravity, continuum radiation pressure, and centrifugal forces from binary orbital motion, it was found that winds are likely to be strongly asymmetric if the mass donor is close to filling its critical Roche surface. The region of highest mass flux is likely to be along the axis connecting the compact object and mass donor components. Optical spectroscopy of HDE 226868 (Cygnus X-1) later revealed that modulations of the He II $`\lambda `$4686 emission line could be described by this geometry, and that the bulk of this emission may come from a cone ($`\theta <20^{}`$) along the connecting axis (Gies & Bolton 1986).

The sensitivity and resolution of previous X-ray observatories has been insufficient to directly probe this focused wind geometry. However, matters have improved greatly with the Chandra High Energy Transmission Grating Spectrometer (HETGS). Marshall et al. (2001a) discussed the detection of several highly ionized absorption lines in a 15 ksec Chandra/HETGS observation made in the persistent low-luminosity, hard spectrum state (at a binary phase of $`\varphi 0.84`$, defining $`\varphi =0`$ as the point at which the companion is closest along our line of sight and based on the ephemeris of La Sala et al. 1998) commonly observed in Cygnus X-1. It is natural to associate the observed absorption features with the companion wind as the same lines have been observed in emission in a number of HMXBs with neutron star primaries. Schulz et al. (2002) report the detection of numerous emission and absorption features, and P-Cygni-type line profiles, in a prior 15 ksec Chandra/HETGS observation of Cygnus X-1 (at $`\varphi 0.93`$) made in a state wherein the flux was approximately twice that reported by Marshall et al. (2001a).

We observed Cygnus X-1 with the Chandra/HETGS for 32.1 ksec on January 4, 2001, at a flux which was approximately twice that commonly observed in the “low/hard” spectral state (we likely observed the source in an “intermediate” state). The observation occurred at a binary phase of $`\varphi 0.76`$ in the 5.6-day orbital period. The broad-band spectrum obtained in this observation is discussed by Miller et al. (2002). A composite Fe K$`\alpha `$ emission line was revealed — the first such composite line clearly resolved in a binary black hole system. The broad component may be shaped by Doppler shifts and strong gravitational effects at the inner edge of an accretion disk extending close to the marginally stable circular orbit, while the neutral, narrow component may be produced in the outer accretion disk.

Herein, we report the results of our analysis of the time-averaged high resolution spectrum in the 6–24 Å (0.5–2.0 keV) band. While some of the lines we detect were also found by Marshall et al. (2001a) and Schulz et al. (2002), in this paper we present the first attempt to systematically fit a high-resolution spectrum of Cygnus X-1 and to measure the parameters of the strongest absorption and emission lines in this band. Moreover, it is clear that the spectrum we have observed differs considerably from those reported earlier, likely indicating that the appearance of the wind changes with orbital phase and the intensity of the source.

## 2. Observation and Data Reduction

We observed Cygnus X-1 on 4 January 2001, from 06:03:47 to 14:59:20 (UT), for a total of 32.133 ks. The observatory was still slewing onto the source during the first 900 s of this observation, so we do not include this data in our analysis. We exclude data acquired during a prominent 500 s dip in the X-ray lightcurve which occurs 25.7 ks into this observation. The remaining 30.733 ks is used for analysis.

To prevent severe photon pile-up, the dispersed spectrum from the HETGS was read-out with the ACIS-S array operating in continuous-clocking (Graded-CC) mode. To prevent telemetry saturation and frame-dropping, the zeroth-order photons were not read-out. This was achieved with a 100-row blocking window. A SIM-Z translation of + 4 mm (towards the top of the ACIS-S array) was used to limit wear and tear on the nominal ACIS-S3 aimpoint. A Y-coordinate translation of -80 arcseconds (towards S4) was used to place as much of the iron line region on S3 as possible.

At the time we started our analysis, the standard CIAO processing tools were unable to handle data taken in this mode. Therefore, we developed a robust set of custom processing routines. This processing method is described in great detail in a paper reporting results from a Chandra/HETGS observation of the Rapid Burster in outburst (Marshall et al. 2001b). All aspects of how the grating orders and background were selected, and how the data is corrected for the instrument response, are exactly those previously reported. The only important difference between that analysis, and our analysis of Cygnus X-1 is the blocking of the zeroth-order photons. By examining the location of the neutral Si absorption edges (due to the Si-based CCDs) in opposite grating orders in raw counts space, we were able to derive a zeroth-order position. This position was fine-tuned by fitting the most prominent absorption lines in opposite grating orders and requiring that the centroid wavelengths agree to within 0.05% uncertainty, which matches the HETG calibration uncertainty (Canizares et al., 2002, in prep.). We are confident that our wavelength calibration is equivalent to that for standard observing modes.

Fits to the high-resolution data were made using ISIS version 0.9.37 (Houck & Denicola 2000). Systematic errors were not added for our analysis of the narrow spectral features (in this mode, flux uncertainties across the full HETGS band may be 5%; Marshall et al. 2001b). We estimate that the effects of photon pile-up in our observation to be negligible. We also note instrumental features near 6.71Å (a single-bin “line” at HEG resolution near the Si K edge) and a broader feature at 7.96Å due to the instrumental Al K edge (Marshall 2002, in prep.).

## 3. Analysis and Results

The most striking result of this observation is the wealth of absorption lines found in the 6–24Å range (concentrated in the 6–15Å band, see Figure 1 and Figure 2). Our fits to the absorption and emission features are listed in Table 1. Each line is significant at or above the 3$`\sigma `$ level of confidence unless noted explicitly as an upper-limit; 34 lines are detected and resolved.

In analyzing the high resolution spectrum in the 6–15Å range, we combine the HEG orders and MEG orders. These spectra were fit jointly with local single-component models for the continuum in contiguous 3Å segments. The HEG range does not extend to wavelengths longer than 14Å, so only the MEG spectrum is considered between 14–24Å. All of the lines in the high resolution spectra are fit with Gaussian profiles. We fit only the strongest features, with the requirement that the feature be evident in each of the four first-order spectra between 6–14Å, and in both first-order MEG spectra above 14Å. In cases where nearby line features might cause blending, the width is fixed to $`\sigma =0.01`$ Å – the maximum line resolution of the HEG. For such lines, the FWHM is 0.0236 Å – just broader than the maximum line resolution of the MEG. This width is generally consistent with the lines in Table 1 for which the width was allowed to vary.

Identifications for the line features were made by assuming the transition with highest oscillator strength in the wavelength range of a given feature, using the line lists of Verner, Verner, & Ferland (1996) and Mewe, Gronenschild, & van den Oord (1985). It should be noted that many lines identified in this work may be blends, as Fe L shell transitions are present throughout this range. In examining Figure 1 and Figure 2, it is clear that a myriad of weaker lines exist in this spectrum which we have not identified here; the majority of these features are likely absorption lines from the Fe L-shell.

The column densities of observed lines are calculated using the relation:

(1) $`W_\lambda =\frac{\pi e^2}{m_ec^2}N_j\lambda ^2f_{ij}=8.85\times 10^{13}N_j\lambda ^2f_{ij}`$

where $`N_j`$ is the column density of a given species, $`f_{ij}`$ is the oscillator strength, $`W_\lambda `$ is the equivalent width of the line, and $`\lambda `$ is the wavelength of the line in cm units (Spitzer 1978). We take $`f_{ij}`$ values for all resonant lines from Verner et al. (1996), and those for other lines from Mewe et al. (1985). In using this equation, we have implicitly assumed that we are on the linear part of the curve of growth and that the lines are not significantly saturated.

### 3.1. Absorption in the Interstellar Medium

We clearly detect the neutral K-shell absorption edges of O, Ne, Mg, and Si, and Fe-L3 and Fe-L2 edges in the 6–24Å range (see Figure 1, Figure 2). Following the procedure of Schulz et al. (2002) in a previous analysis of the ISM absorption edges in a Chandra spectrum of Cygnus X-1, we fit the K-shell edges with a simple step-function edge model based on the photoelectric cross sections of Henke, Gullikson, & Davis (1993) and elemental abundances relative to solar as per Morrison & McCammon (1983). We fit the Fe L edges with a model based on the cross sections of Kortright & Kim (2000).

We find that the wavelength, depth ($`\tau `$), and abundances (relative to solar) implied by the K-shell edges are fully consistent with the values reported by Schulz et al. (2002) based on measurements at $`\varphi 0.93`$, and we refer the reader to that work for a full discussion. The depths of the Fe L edges are also consistent; again the edges are found at 17.51Å and 17.22Å (rather than 17.56Å and 17.23Å, perhaps indicating non-metallic contributions).

The $`1s2p`$ transition from neutral (atomic) O is detected at $`23.50\pm 0.02`$ Å with a flux of $`2.0\pm 0.5\times 10^4\mathrm{ph}\mathrm{cm}^2\mathrm{s}^1`$. The best-fit width of this line is quite large: $`\mathrm{FWHM}=0.18\pm 0.04`$ Å. This line is likely saturated, however, so the flux and FWHM measurements are likely under-estimated and over-estimated, respectively.

### 3.2. Hydrogenic and Helium-like Ne, Na, Mg, and Si Lines

We clearly detect the Ly-$`\alpha `$ lines of Ne, Na, Mg, and Si in absorption (see Figure 1 and Figure 2, and Table 1). The Ne series is seen in absorption from Ly-$`\alpha `$ to Ly-$`\delta `$. The helium-like resonance ($`r`$) lines of these elements are also clearly detected in absorption. We also fit the inter-combination ($`i`$) and forbidden ($`f`$) lines from these elements, which are observed to be in emission. Due to a nearby error in the the instrument response we tie the Si $`f`$ emission line width and strength to those values measured for the $`r`$ line. The Si $`i`$ line is not clearly detected, and measurements should be regarded as upper-limits. Similarly, the Ne $`f`$ line parameters should be regarded as upper-limits.

The measured equivalent widths of the Ne Ly series do not decrease steadily in strength from Ly-$`\alpha `$ to Ly-$`\delta `$ as one would expect from the oscillator strengths for these lines (see Table 1). This suggests that the Ne Ly series absorption lines may be partially saturated, or that regions of different density are seen simultaneously (also supported by the inconsistent FWHM values we measure). It is also possible that unresolved Fe L-shell transitions contribute to the absorption, and that the lines are actually blends. Inconsistent line strengths and column densities are also measured from the helium-like Ne, Na, Mg, and Si $`rif`$ triplets, though some of these are poorly constrained and/or upper-limits (see Table 1).

Including the helium-like and hydrogenic lines from Ne, Na, Mg, and Si for which the FWHM could be constrained, we calculate a flux-weighted mean FWHM of $`800`$ km/s. For the same lines, we calculate a flux-weighted mean red-shift of $`100`$ km/s.

### 3.3. Highly-Ionized Fe and Ni Lines

A number of lines which we identify with transitions from Fe XVIII–XXIV are also detected, as well as lines which may be from Ni XIX and Ni XX. It must be noted that the identification of these line is less certain than those from lower-Z elements, and this may account for a greater spread in the implied bulk velocity shifts and velocity widths measured for these lines.

We used a boot-strap method to identify lines in this spectrum. The Ly series lines from lower-Z elements are fewer than the numerous transitions from the Fe L-shell, and spaced at regular intervals. Most of those lines are measured to have slight red-shifts, or to be consistent with zero bulk velocity. In examining other lines, then, we made the assumption that observed lines should lie relatively close to their rest-frame wavelengths. However, some are observed at blue-shifts (e.g., Fe XVIII at 14.257Å – blue-shifted by 1000 km/s). The identifications given to these lines are tentative, but reflect the transition with highest oscillator strength in the given region.

As with the lower-Z lines, the measured strengths and implied column densities for multiple lines from the same species are not consistent. Again, in such cases it is possible that the given line is actually a blend.

### 3.4. Other Line Features

We note a pair of marginal emission features at 21.8 Å and 21.9 Å. Although the sensitivity of the spectrum is limited in this range, modeling these lines improves the fit in this region. The line at 21.8 Å can be identified as the the O VII $`i`$ line. In general, this triplet line is only expected in isolation if produced in a very dense region. For this reason, it is tempting to associate this line with the accretion disk. It is possible that the line at 21.9 Å is a second O VII $`i`$ line, part of a Doppler-shifted pair that are at an overall red-shift. In this case, the overall red-shift is $`700`$ km/s and the separation implies a Doppler shift of $`1400`$ km/s. While the Doppler shift is plausibly associated with the outer accretion disk, the overall red-shift of the pair is not.

### 3.5. Constraints on the Companion Wind at $`\varphi 0.76`$

While the observed spectrum is clearly very complicated, some basic inferences can be made. Miller et al. (2002) find that the broad-band spectrum from this observation of Cygnus X-1 is strongly dominated by a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }1.8`$ power-law component, and that the source was at a luminosity of $`L_X1.0\times 10^{37}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (0.65–10 keV). Assuming a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2.0`$ power-law input flux and overall luminosity of $`L_X=10^{37}`$ ergs/s in the soft X-ray band, Kallman & McCray (1982) have calculated the temperatures at which absorption lines from given elemental species will be at peak strength. Here, we list these temperatures for select species: for Ne IX, log(T)$`=`$4.5-5.0; for Ne X, log(T)$`=`$5.0-5.5; for Si XII, log(T)$`=`$5.2-5.7; and for Si XIV, Fe XVIII, and Fe XIX, log(T)$`=`$5.5-6.0. Thus, the absorption features we detect arise in regions that span over an order of magnitude in temperature. Given the range in ionization states observed and temperatures implied, it is likely that the gas in the line of sight cannot be described by a single ionization parameter ($`\xi =L_X/nr^2=L_X/\mathrm{N}_Hr`$, where $`L_X`$ is the luminosity, $`n`$ is the hydrogen number density, $`\mathrm{N}_H`$ is the hydrogen equivalent column density, and $`r`$ is radius). If $`L_X`$ may be assumed to be relatively steady, then $`nr^2`$ may vary significantly along our line of sight.

A number of additional constraints can be derived by considering the ionization fractions expected in this regime. Kallman & Bautista (2001) have calculated the ionization fractions expected for a gas with typical wind characteristics, again assuming a $`\mathrm{\Gamma }=2.0`$ power-law input flux and overall luminosity of $`L_X=10^{37}`$ ergs/s in the soft X-ray band. The hydrogen equivalent column density for resonance absorption lines is given by $`\mathrm{N}_{H,Z}=\mathrm{N}_Z/(F_Z\times A_Z)`$ (where $`\mathrm{N}_{H,Z}`$ is the hydrogen equivalent column density for a given resonance line, $`\mathrm{N}_Z`$ is the column density for that line as noted in Table 1, $`F_Z`$ is the ionization fraction for the given ion species, and $`A_Z`$ is the solar abundance of the given element relative to H).

We find that the hydrogen equivalent column densities of helium-like and hydrogenic resonance lines from given single elements are broadly self-consistent for those elements: $`\mathrm{N}_{H,NeIX,X}7.2\times 10^{20}\mathrm{cm}^2,\mathrm{N}_{H,MgXI,XII}14.5\times 10^{20}\mathrm{cm}^2,and\mathrm{N}_{H,SiXIII,XIV}7.4\times 10^{22}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. As noted previously, the Ne Ly series is likely partially saturated. Performing the above exercise using the Ne Ly-$`\gamma `$ and Ne Ly-$`\delta `$ lines gives $`\mathrm{N}_{H,NeX}4.3\times 10^{21}\mathrm{cm}^2`$; this likely serves as a lower-limit estimate on the hydrogen equivalent column density of Ne X. With the exception of the Fe XIX lines at 14.93Å and 14.97Å, the hydrogen equivalent column densities for the ionized Fe species (Fe XVIII–XXIV) are below $`10^{23}\mathrm{cm}^2`$.

Comparing again to Kallman & Bautista (2001), the absorption region can be described by ionization parameters between $`\mathrm{log}(\xi )=23`$, corresponding to distances from the central ionizing source of $`(59)\times 10^{10}`$ cm. If we assume that the binary separation of Cygnus X-1 is $`40R_{}`$, and that the radius of HDE 226868 is $`20R_{}`$ (consistent with the parameters derived by LaSala et al. 1998), then the black hole is approximately $`1.4\times 10^{12}`$ cm from the companion surface. The distances implied by the range of ionization parameters are far below this separation. This disparity can be seen a second way: if the companion wind is spherically symmetric and our line of sight extends through a distance similar to the black hole companion-surface separation, assuming typical stellar wind densities ($`\mathrm{log}[n]=1011`$) we would expect to measure hydrogen equivalent column densities of $`1.4\times 10^{2223}\mathrm{cm}^2`$. In contrast, the strong majority of the estimates we have obtained are below this range.

The $`f`$/$`i`$ line intensity ratio for a given helium-like element can be used to measure the density of emitting material. Porquet & Dubau (2000) have calculated densities as a function of the gas temperature for a number of elements, including Ne, Mg, and Si among the lines we have detected. Dividing the column density measurements obtained via equation (1) by these densities, then, an estimate of the physical depth of the absorbing gas along our line of sight may be obtained. We assume the temperatures of peak absorption for Ne IX, and Si XIII from Kallman & McCray (1982), and assume the appropriate temperature for Mg XI lies between these values. As the $`i`$ and $`f`$ lines we observe are weak, their intensities may be regarded as upper-limits. The linear depth estimates we obtain via the calculations of Porquet & Dubau are not very constraining: we find lower-limits of only 10-100 m.

Finally, we do not find convincing evidence of P-Cygni line features like those reported by Schulz et al. (2002) at $`\varphi 0.93`$. This fact may indicate that the appearance of such line profiles is phase-dependent; it is also possible that the appearance of nearby emission and absorption features is coincidental, as suggested by the authors.

## 4. Discussion

We have performed the first systematic fits to the line-rich low-energy spectrum of Cygnus X-1. The temperatures, velocities, and densities implied by the weak, narrow lines in the spectrum are consistent with absorption in an ionized portion of the companion wind. The spectrum we have observed from Cygnus X-1 is dominated by absorption lines, however, which stands in strong contrast to the spectra observed from other HMXBs. ASCA and Chandra observations of Vela X-1 (Sako et al. 1999, Schulz et al. 2002b) and Cen X-3 and (Wojdowski, Liedahl, & Sako 2001) reveal emission line spectra due to recombination in a photoionized companion wind (the emission lines are most prominent in eclipse, but persist outside of eclipse). A recent Chandra observation of Cygnus X-3 revealed many of the same strong emission lines independent of orbital phase (Paerels et al. 2000).

While the spectrum of Cen X-3 can be modeled in terms of a spherically-symmetric wind centered on the neutron star (Wojdowski, Liedahl, & Sako 2001), the absorption spectrum of Cygnus X-1 may require dense material preferentially along the line of sight. A relative lack of material outside of the line of sight is also required to explain the absence of resonance emission lines excited by photoionization from the central accretion engine. The inclination of Cygnus X-1 is rather low ($`\theta 35^{}`$; Gies & Bolton 1986), so it is unlikely that the absorption region can be associated with the outer accretion disk or a warm (few keV) disk atmosphere. As optical observations of Cygnus X-1 (Gies & Bolton 1986) have already provided evidence for a focused wind geometry, we suggest that such a geometry might also explain the X-ray spectrum we have observed. In the discussion below, we first examine the evidence for a focused wind from this and other recent Chandra observations of Cygnus X-1. We then address the implications of the neutral absorption features and the impact of this observation on our understanding of Cygnus X-1.

### 4.1. Evidence for a Focused Wind Geometry

Kallman & Bautista (2001) have calculated ionization fractions and ionization parameters for a gas with properties consistent with stellar winds, for an incident spectrum similar to that measured here (Miller et al. 2002). The ionization parameters consistent with the observed absorption spectrum ($`\mathrm{log}(\xi )=23`$) imply distances between the source and absorbing gas ($`59\times 10^{10}`$ cm) that are far less than the distance between the black hole and the companion surface ($`1.4\times 10^{12}`$ cm; LaSala et al. 1998). Moreover, the estimates we obtain for the equivalent neutral hydrogen column densities for various elements generally lie well below expectations for a spherically symmetric wind (assuming that our line of sight through the wind is comparable to the separation between the black hole and companion surface).

An examination of the velocities implied by the absorption lines also supports a focused wind geometry. For the Ly-$`\alpha `$ and helium-like resonance lines from Ne, Mg, Na, and Si, we measure a flux-weighted mean red-shift of $``$100 km/s and flux-weighted mean FWHM of $``$800 km/s (again, our observation occurred at $`\varphi 0.76`$). Marshall et al. (2001a) report a number of absorption lines with a mean red-shift of $``$450 km/s and a typical FWHM of $``$300 km/s at $`\varphi 0.84`$. This is consistent with the expectation that the a focused flow should be largely transverse to the line of sight at intermediate phase points, and have a greater component along the line of sight at other phases.

Schulz et al. (2002) report marginal evidence for ionized Fe transitions with P-Cygni-type line profiles at $`\varphi =0.93`$. This may indicate that the wind from the companion surface opposite to the X-ray source may have a significant radial component. The absence of such line profiles at more intermediate phases (this work; Marshall et al. 2001a) suggests that the wind does not have a radial component of typical strength at phases away from conjunction.

We suggest that when considered together, these spectra may provide the first direct evidence in X-rays for a focused wind geometry in Cygnus X-1 (see Figure 3 for a possible geometry). The column densities measured from absorption lines are smaller than expected for a spherically symmetric wind geometry. At an intermediate phase point the flow is mostly transverse to the line of sight; at points closer to superior conjunction, the flow has smaller transverse velocities and higher velocities parallel along the line of sight. Finally, very close to superior conjunction, the wind from the face of the companion opposite to the X-ray source may have a radial component; indeed P-Cygni profiles may have been observed by Schulz et al. (2002a).

A caveat is that the observation reported on by Marshall et al. (2001a) occurred in the low/hard state typically observed in Cygnus X-1, while this observation and that discussed by Schulz et al. (2002a) were made during transitional states with higher fluxes. At present, it is not clear how the source state and wind are related. Moreover, all three observations were separated by several months, and the nature of the wind may vary with the long-term period in this system (e.g., Brocksopp et al. 1999). The observation of narrow, blue-shifted absorption lines from low-Z elements near to inferior conjunction and broadened lines near $`\varphi =0.25`$ would strengthen the evidence for a focused wind accretion geometry. Future observations with the Chandra/HETGS (or XMM-Newton/RGS) achieving sensitivities similar to those observations considered here will be required for this purpose.

### 4.2. Neutral Absorption Edges, and the Atomic O $`1s2p`$ Absorption Line

We measure absorption edge depths from neutral atoms in the interstellar medium that are consistent with those reported by Schulz et al. (2002). This suggests that any cold absorbing gas intrinsic to Cygnus X-1 does not vary with orbital phase. Although the atomic O $`1s2p`$ line is saturated (and its profile therefore distorted) in both observations, the width we measure (FWHM$`=0.18\pm 0.04`$Å) is roughly twice the width measured previously.

The width of the O $`1s2p`$ lines measured in observations of Cygnus X-1 are factors of 10–20 higher than the width of the same line measured in a Chandra/LETGS spectrum of the neutron star 4U 0614$`+`$091 (Paerels et al. 2001). Although the lines in Cygnus X-1 are saturated, this disparity is likely larger than can be attributed solely to distortion of the line Cygnus X-1 profile. It is possible that the variation can be accounted for by different turbulent velocities in the neutral oxygen intrinsic to each system. However, due to the ionizing X-ray flux from accretion onto the compact object in these systems, little neutral oxygen is expected locally. We suggest that the atomic O $`1s2p`$ line, then, may serve as a probe of turbulent velocities in the ISM along different lines of sight. Studies of the Galactic H I power spectrum which suggest that column density variations due to cold gas may be dominated by localized velocity field fluctuations (Dickey et al. 2001). At present, this is a relatively unexplored regime in X-ray astronomy but well within the reach of current observatories.

### 4.3. Understanding the Accretion Geometry in Cygnus X-1

Future analysis and observations will achieve a better understanding of the degree to which the wind in Cygnus X-1 may be focused, and its temperature and density characteristics. In the near future, then, it may be possible to constrain the mass accretion rate onto the black hole via focused wind accretion. Comparisons to the observed X-ray luminosity will then indirectly provide a constraint on the mass delivered to the black hole via disk accretion.

Constraints of this kind are important for a number of reasons. Cygnus X-1 often serves as a standard for testing models for accretion flow geometries and state transitions based on the mass accretion rate (such as advection-dominated accretion flow models, or “ADAFs”; see, e.g., Esin et al. 1998). This source is also a testbed for X-ray “reflection” models (see, e.g., Ross, Fabian, & Young 1999), which suggest that the innermost accretion flow geometry in Cygnus X-1 may be very similar to that in some AGN. In both cases, a central source of hard X-rays (a “corona”) is important, as is an accretion disk (some reflection models suggest that an ionized transition layer may lie on top of the accretion disk). Neither family of models has considered the role of the companion wind, or the nature of disk-wind or corona-wind interactions.

Although the timing properties of Cygnus X-1 are well-studied (see, e.g., Pottschmidt et al. 2002), quasi-periodic oscillations (QPOs) have never been observed at high frequencies (“high” is somewhat arbitrary, $`\nu >30\mathrm{Hz}`$ is a reasonable distinction). Such QPOs have been very useful in constraining black hole spin in systems such as GRO J1655$``$40 (Strohmayer 2001); in contrast spin can only be investigated in Cygnus X-1 via spectroscopy (e.g., Miller et al. 2002). It is possible that the companion wind in Cygnus X-1 acts to dampen high-frequency signals preferentially; when a better understanding of the wind geometry and density is achieved this possibility can be addressed.

At present, Cygnus X-1 is the only Galactic HMXB for which a black hole primary is required. LS 5039 may provide an interesting comparison: the companion is an O6.5 V(f) supergiant (which does not fill its critical Roche radius), the orbital period is 4.1 days, and its distance is likely $``$3.1 kpc (McSwain & Gies 2002). Our preliminary analysis of archival ASCA data suggests that LS 5039 is very weak in X-rays relative to Cygnus X-1: $`L_X<2\times 10^{34}\mathrm{erg}\mathrm{s}^1`$ (0.5–10.0 keV). This may underscore the importance of disk accretion via Roche-lobe overflow in Cygnus X-1. At present, the nature of the compact object in LS 5039 is not known. Even if the primary in LS 5039 is a neutron star, this system bears important similarities to Cygnus X-1, and we look forward to spectroscopy of this source with Chandra and XMM-Newton.

## 5. Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Chandra Director Harvey Tananbaum, and the Chandra staff for executing this observation and their help in processing the data. We wish to recognize John Houck and David Huenemoerder for their insights, and the CXC/ISIS team. We thank Claude Canizares, Michael Nowak, and Bryan Gaensler for helpful insights. We acknowledge Adrienne Juett for sharing the specialized Fe L absorption model. RW was supported by NASA through Chandra fellowship grants PF9-10010, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for NASA under contract NAS8–39073. WHGL gratefully acknowledges support from NASA. This research has made use of the data and resources obtained through the HEASARC on-line service, provided by NASA-GSFC.