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# Universal Sets of Quantum Gates for Detected Jump-Error Correcting Quantum Codes

## 1 Introduction

Within the last two decades quantum information has become a vital and fast growing research field . Secure key exchange (quantum cryptography), the perfect transfer of unknown quantum states (teleportation) and the development of powerful quantum algorithms  demonstrate in an impressive way the pratical potential of quantum physics. However, the two characteristic quantum phenomena these developments are based on, namely interference and entanglement, are very fragile and can be destroyed easily by uncontrolled interactions with an environment. In order to protect quantum information against decoherence resulting from such uncontrolled interactions, powerful methods of quantum error correction have been developed over the last few years. The first such code has been constructed by Shor  by transfering basic ideas of error correction from the classical to the quantum domain. This first investigation inspired the development of various classes of active  and passive  error correcting quantum codes.

The main aim of quantum error correction is to reverse the perturbing influence of an uncontrollable environment. Whether such an inversion is possible or not and how it can be achieved most efficiently depends on the physical interaction between the quantum system considered and its environment. In the subsequent sections we discuss main ideas underlying a recently developed new class of error correcting quantum codes which are capable of correcting a frequently occurring class of errors arising from spontaneous decay processes . In quantum optical systems such spontaneous decay processes may arise from the spontaneous emission of photons and in solid state devices, for example, they may originate from the spontaneous emission of phonons. These jump codes exploit in an optimal way information about errors which is obtained from continuous observation of the environment. It will be demonstrated that on the basis of Heisenberg- and Ising-type Hamiltonians universal quantum gates can be constructed for these jump codes. They guarantee that any error can be corrected even if it occurred during the action of one of these gates. Thus, with the help of these quantum gates it is possible to stabilize quantum information processing units against spontaneous decay processes.

This contribution is organized as follows: In Sec. 2 we summarize basic facts about the inversion of general quantum operations or generalized measurements. One of the particularly useful results arising from the systematic analysis of this general problem is an algebraic criterion for the inversion of error operators. In Sec. 3 we discuss the theoretical description of spontaneous decay processes and of continuous measurement processes by master equations. The practical need of inverting events involving zero- and one-photon (or phonon) emission processes leads directly to one-error correcting jump codes. These quantum codes exploit in an optimal way information about error times and error positions by monitoring the environment continuously. In Sec. 4 we address the problem of stabilizing the coherent dynamics of a quantum system against spontaneous decay processes. An example of such a coherent dynamics is a quantum algorithm performed by a quantum information processing unit. In particular, we address two main problems which arise in this context. Firstly, we deal with the question how one can implement any unitary transformation entirely within the code space of a jump code without leaving it at any time. Secondly, we propose a universal entanglement gate which allows one to entangle two arbitrary basic quantum registers of a quantum information processing unit. This entanglement gate does not leave the error correcting code space of a jump code at any time. Together with the local unitary transformations which can be performed on any of the basic quantum registers it forms a universal set of quantum gates.

## 2 Invertible quantum operations and error correction

### 2.1 Decoherence and quantum operations

A typical quantum information processing unit is composed of a system of $`N`$ two-level quantum systems, so called qubits, which can be addressed individually. According to the linear superposition principle of quantum mechanics an arbitrary pure quantum state of such a $`N`$-qubit quantum register is of the form

$$|\psi =\underset{i_1,i_2,\mathrm{},i_N=0,1}{}a_{i_1i_2\mathrm{}i_N}|i_N,\mathrm{},i_2,i_1$$
(1)
with $`|0_\alpha `$ and $`|1_\alpha `$ denoting two orthogonal basis states of qubit $`\alpha `$. The corresponding orthonormal basis states of the $`N`$-qubit Hilbert space $``$ are denoted $`|i_N,i_{N1},\mathrm{},i_1|i_N|i_{N1}\mathrm{}|i_1`$. The complex coefficients $`a_{i_1i_2\mathrm{}i_N}`$ fulfill the normalization condition $`_{i_1,\mathrm{},i_N=0,1}a_{i_1i_2\mathrm{}i_N}^2=1`$. This generalizes easily to a system of $`N`$ qudits. The power of quantum computation relies on the ability to preserve the quantum coherence of such a register-state. Any coupling to an external environment which involves uncontrollable degrees of freedom may destroy linear superpositions thus causing decoherence . This phenomenon which is undesirable from the point of view of quantum information processing can be overcome by quantum mechanical error correction techniques. Shor  demonstrated that quantum error correcting codes are possible. By now many different classes of error correcting quantum codes have been developed .

A main aim of quantum error correction is to reverse the dynamical influence of an external environment on the states of a quantum register . The most general dynamical influence of this kind can be represented by a unitary joint evolution of a quantum register with an environment followed by a von Neumann measurement performed on the environment. If initially the quantum register and the environment are not entangled and if the various possible measurement results are discarded, this way a trace-preserving or deterministic quantum operation $``$ is obtained. Its action on an arbitrary register state with density operator $`\rho `$ (and proper normalization $`\mathrm{Tr}\rho =1`$) can be characterized by a set of Kraus-operators  $`\{K_{lm}\}`$. These Kraus- or error operators characterize all possible environmental influences which may occur and they satisfy the completeness relation $`_{lm}K_{lm}^{}K_{lm}=\mathrm{𝟏}`$. The quantum state resulting from a deterministic quantum operation is given by

$`:\rho (\rho )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{l}{}}p_l\rho _l.`$ (2)
The labels $`l`$ characterize all possible measurement results which occur with probabilities $`p_l=\mathrm{Tr}(_mK_{lm}^{}K_{lm}\rho )`$. Observation of a particular measurement result, say $`l`$, implies that immediately afterwards the register is in the normalized state $`\rho _l=_mK_{lm}\rho K_{lm}^{}/p_l`$.

Typically a set of Kraus-operators $`\{K_{lm}\}`$ which defines a quantum operation (or generalized measurement) is not unique. Any two sets of Kraus-operators, say $`\{\overline{K}_{\lambda \mu }\}`$ and $`\{K_{lm}\}`$, give rise to the same quantum operation if and only if they are related by a unitary matrix $`𝒰_{\lambda \mu ,lm}`$, i.e. $`\overline{K}_{\lambda \mu }=_{\lambda \mu ,lm}𝒰_{\lambda \mu ,lm}K_{lm}`$ . An important special case of deterministic quantum operations are pure ones. They are characterized by the property that for each measurement result $`l`$ the associated quantum state $`\rho _l`$ involves one Kraus-operator $`\{K_l\}`$ only, i.e.

$`_p:\rho _p(\rho )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{l}{}}p_l\rho _l`$ (3)
with $`p_l=\mathrm{Tr}(K_l^{}K_l\rho )`$, $`\rho _l=K_l\rho K_l^{}/p_l`$ and $`_lK_l^{}K_l=\mathrm{𝟏}`$. Pure quantum operations correspond to situations where a maximum amount of information about the register state is extracted from the quantum state of an environment . As a result, an initially prepared pure register state, say $`|\psi `$, remains pure, i.e. $`|\psi |\psi ^{}=K_l|\psi /\sqrt{\psi |K_l^{}K_l|\psi }`$.

### 2.2 Reversible quantum operations and error correction

A quantum operation $``$ is reversible, if one can construct a deterministic quantum operation $``$ such that $`((\rho ))=\rho `$ for any density operator $`\rho `$. The recovery operation $``$ is required to be deterministic because we want the reversal definitely to occur not just with some probability. In general such an inverse quantum operation cannot be constructed over the whole state space of a quantum register. The main problem in quantum error correction is to find an appropriate, sufficiently high dimensional subspace $`𝒞`$ over which such an inversion operation can be defined.

It has been shown by Knill and Laflamme  and by Bennett et al.  that a quantum operation is reversible on a subspace $`𝒞`$ if and only if there exists a non-negative matrix $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{ll^{}}`$ such that

$`P_𝒞K_l^{}K_l^{}P_𝒞`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{ll^{}}P_𝒞`$ (4)
for all possible error (or Kraus-) operators $`K_l`$ and $`K_l^{}`$. Thereby $`P_𝒞`$ denotes the projection operator onto the desired subspace $`𝒞`$ which is usually called a quantum error-correcting code space or code. Its code words which may be identified with classical bit-strings are formed by an orthonormal basis of states, say $`\{|c_i,i=1,\mathrm{},L\}`$. The difference $`r`$ between the dimension of the original Hilbert space $``$ and the dimension of $`𝒞`$, i.e. $`r=2^NL0`$, is a measure of the redundancy which has to be introduced in order to guarantee successful error correction. For the actual reversal of a quantum operation one has to identify first of all the character of the error (i.e. its syndrome) by an appropriate measurement and subsequently one has to apply an appropriate unitary recovery operation which reverses this quantum operation . The criterion of Eq. (4) guarantees the existence of such a measurement process and its associated unitary recovery operation. These two basic steps, namely determination of the character of an error and subsequent application of a (nontrivial) unitary recovery operation, constitute the basic elements of any kind of active quantum error correction.

A special situation arises, if one is able to identify a subspace $`𝒞^{}`$ which fulfills not only Eq. (4) but also the more stringent condition

$$K_lP_𝒞^{}=\lambda _lP_𝒞^{}$$
(5)
for all possible error operators $`K_l`$ considered. In this case the quantity $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{ll^{}}`$ of Eq. (4) factorizes according to $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{ll^{}}\lambda _l^{}\lambda _l^{}`$. It is apparent that in this case all the required unitary recovery operations are trivial as they are equal to the identity operation over the code space $`𝒞^{}`$. Thus, no recovery operation has to be performed at all. Such a passive error correction  is not only capable of correcting single but also multiple errors of arbitrary order. However, so far only very few physical situations are known in which sufficiently high dimensional decoherence-free subspaces (DFSs) $`𝒞^{}`$ can be constructed. In many cases the relevant DFSs are one-dimensional so that they are not of any practical interest for purposes of quantum information processing.

In practical applications one is interested in constructing error correcting methods which tend to decrease not only the number of recovery operations but which also minimize redundancy. For this purpose it may be advantageous to combine passive and active methods of quantum error correction. In the subsequent sections we discuss such a family of error correcting quantum codes which is capable of correcting spontaneous decay processes of the distinguishable qubits of a quantum information processor.

## 3 Quantum error correction by jump codes

### 3.1 Spontaneous decay and quantum trajectories

Any interaction of a quantum system with an environment whose degrees of freedom are not accessible to observation leads to decoherence. An example of such an interaction is the coupling of a quantum register to the unoccupied vacuum modes of the electromagnetic field (compare with Fig. 1). As a result an excited qubit can decay spontaneously by emission of a photon. For the sake of quantum information processing situations are of particular interest in which no spontaneous decay process affects the distinguishability of the qubits involved. This is guaranteed whenever the wave lengths $`\lambda `$ of the spontaneously emitted photons are much smaller than typical distances $`D`$ between adjacent qubits and therefore the qubits decay into statistically independent environments. In this case the time evolution of the state of the quantum register $`\rho (t)`$ is given by a quantum master equation of the form

$$\frac{d\rho }{dt}(t)=\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}[H,\rho (t)]+\underset{\alpha }{}\{[L_\alpha ,\rho (t)L_\alpha ^{}]+[L_\alpha \rho (t),L_\alpha ^{}]\}.$$
(6)
Thereby the Hamiltonian $`H`$ describes the coherent dynamics of the quantum register in the absence of any coupling to its environment. This coherent dynamics might represent a quantum algorithm, for example. The Lindblad operators  $`L_\alpha =\sqrt{\kappa _\alpha }|0_\alpha 1_\alpha |`$ with $`\alpha =1,\mathrm{},N`$ characterize the influence of the environment on the quantum register. The spontaneous decay rate of qubit $`\alpha `$ is denoted by $`\kappa _\alpha `$. It should be mentioned that the Born- and Markov approximations underlying the derivation of Eq. (6) are applicable whenever the interaction between system and environment is weak and, in addition, the environmental correlation time is small. Typically these conditions are well fulfilled for quantum optical systems. Sometimes they are also fulfilled for other quantum systems, such as solid state devices with phononic decay processes, provided the environmental temperature is sufficiently high .

If the initial state of a quantum register is pure, a formal solution of the quantum master equation (6) is given by

$$\rho \left(t\right)=\underset{n=0}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _n}{}_0^t𝑑t_n_0^{t_n}𝑑t_{n1}\mathrm{}_0^{t_2}𝑑t_1|t;t_n,\alpha _n;\mathrm{};t_1,\alpha _1t;t_n,\alpha _n;\mathrm{};t_1,\alpha _1|$$
(7)
with the unnormalized pure states

$$|t;t_n,\alpha _n;\mathrm{};t_1,\alpha _1=e^{\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}H_{eff}(tt_n)}L_{\alpha _n}\mathrm{}L_{\alpha _2}e^{\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}H_{eff}(t_2t_1)}L_{\alpha _1}e^{\frac{i}{\mathrm{}}H_{eff}t_1}|t=0.$$
(8)
According to Eq. (7) the state of the register at time $`t`$ is unravelled into a sum of contributions which are associated with all possible numbers $`n`$ of spontaneously emitted photons. For a given number $`n`$ of emitted photons the quantum state is unravelled into a sum of all contributions which describe all possible sequences of emission events taking place at emission times $`t_1t_2\mathrm{}t_n`$ and affecting qubits $`\alpha _1,\mathrm{},\alpha _n`$. The pure state $`|t;t_n,\alpha _n;\mathrm{};t_1,\alpha _1`$ of Eq. (8) describes the resulting quantum state of the register . The quantum jumps of the qubits from their excited to their ground states due to spontaneous decay processes are characterized by the Lindblad operators $`L_{\alpha _i}`$. The time evolution between two successive quantum jumps with no photon emission in between is described by the effective Hamiltonian

$`H_{eff}`$ $`=`$ $`H{\displaystyle \frac{i\mathrm{}}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{\alpha }{}}L_\alpha ^{}L_\alpha .`$ (9)
The norm of the quantum state of Eq. (8) yields the probability with which a particular measurement record characterized by a quantum trajectory  $`(t_n,\alpha _n;\mathrm{};t_1,\alpha _1)`$ contributes to the density operator $`\rho \left(t\right)`$. The formal solution of Eq. (7) describes the dynamics of the quantum register under the influence of the environment in cases in which the environment is monitored continuously by photodetectors  but the measurement results are discarded. According to Sec. 2 the formal solution of Eq. (7) describes a deterministic quantum process where each quantum trajectory characterizes a particular measurement record.

### 3.2 Detected jump-error correcting quantum codes

How can we stabilize a quantum system, such as the one depicted in Fig. 1, against spontaneous decay processes, if we are able to monitor the distinguishable qubits continuously by photodetectors? According to Eq. (7) we have to tackle two major tasks. Firstly, we have to correct the modifications taking place during successive photon emission events. These modifications are described by the effective (non-hermitian) Hamiltonian of Eq. (9). Secondly, we have to invert each quantum jump which is caused by the spontaneous emission of a photon. These quantum jumps are described by the Lindblad operators appearing in Eq. (8).

For the sake of simplicity let us concentrate in this section on the case of a quantum memory without any intrinsic coherent time evolution, i.e. $`H0`$ in Eq. (6). If we want to correct the errors taking place during successive photon emission events, we must invert the pure quantum operation which is characterized by the one-parameter family of Kraus-operators

$`K_0(t)`$ $`=`$ $`e^{_\alpha L_\alpha ^{}L_\alpha t/2}.`$ (10)
Specializing the criterion of Eq. (4) to the case of these hermitian error operators an inversion is possible over a subspace $`𝒞`$ if and only if

$`P_𝒞K_0(2t)P_𝒞=\mathrm{\Lambda }_{00}(t)P_𝒞`$ (11)
with $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{00}(t)0`$. Stated differently, over the code space $`𝒞`$ the undesired modification appearing in the effective Hamiltonian of Eq. (9) has to act as a (non-negative) multiple of the unit operator. Thus, the code space we are looking for is a DFS of the effective Hamiltonian with $`H0`$.

In the subsequent discussion we focus on the important special case in which the spontaneous decay rates of all qubits are equal, i.e. $`\kappa _\alpha \kappa `$. The corresponding DFSs can be found easily because the relevant operator, i.e. $`_\alpha L_\alpha ^{}L_\alpha =\kappa _\alpha |1_\alpha _\alpha 1|`$, just enumerates the number of excited qubits. Therefore, any set of orthonormal states which all involve the same number of excited qubits constitutes a passive error correcting code space for the Kraus-operators $`K_0(t)`$. The dimension $`D`$ of a DFS involving $`N`$ physical qubits $`k`$ of which are excited, i.e. a $`\mathrm{DFS}(N,k)`$, is given by

$$D=\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{N}{k}\right)\frac{N!}{k!(Nk)!}.$$
(12)
For a given number of physical qubits $`N`$ this dimension is maximal, if half of the qubits are excited, i.e. for $`k=[N/2]`$. ($`[x]`$ denotes the largest integer smaller or equal to $`x`$.) Such a DFS of maximal dimension involving four physical qubits, for example, is formed by the set of code words $`\{|1100,`$ $`|0011,`$ $`|1010,`$ $`|0101,`$ $`|1001,`$ $`|0110\}`$.

In general, arbitrary linear superpositions of code words of such a DFS cannot be stabilized against quantum jumps arising from spontaneous decay processes. If we also want to invert each individual quantum jump, we have to find an appropriate subspace $`𝒞^{}𝒞`$ over which any of the quantum operations appearing in Eq. (7) is reversible. For this purpose we note, that within any $`\mathrm{DFS}(N,k)`$ the time evolution between successive quantum jumps is proportional to the unit operator, i.e. $`e^{_\alpha L_\alpha ^{}L_\alpha t/2}|_𝒞e^{k\kappa t/2}P_𝒞`$. Therefore, we have to find appropriate subspaces $`𝒞^{}𝒞`$ over which the Lindblad operators appearing in Eq. (8) are reversible. The details of the construction of an active error correcting quantum code capable of correcting one quantum jump at a time, for example, depends very much on whether the error position is known or not. In the case of an unknown error position one has to fulfill the criterion of Eq. (4) for all possible Lindblad operators $`L_\alpha `$ with $`\alpha \{1,\mathrm{},N\}`$. Plenio et al.  have been able to find such a code which requires at least eight physical qubits for the encoding of one logical qubit, i.e. for two orthonormal logical states. In contrast, if the error position $`\alpha `$ of a quantum jump characterized by Lindblad operator $`L_\alpha `$ is known, the redundancy of such an active one-error correcting quantum code which is embedded into a passive code can be lowered significantly.

The simplest example of such an embedded quantum code or jump code which is capable of correcting one error at a time can be constructed with the help of four physical qubits . The (unnormalized) code words of this particular jump code represent a logical qutrit and are given by

$`|c_0`$ $`=`$ $`|0011+e^{i\phi }|1100,`$
$`|c_1`$ $`=`$ $`|0101+e^{i\phi }|1010,`$ (13)
$`|c_2`$ $`=`$ $`|0110+e^{i\phi }|1001`$
with an arbitrary phase $`\phi `$. Obviously, the code words of this jump code consist of four-qubit states in which half of the qubits are excited. The equal number of excited qubits involved in this code guarantees that the effective time evolution between successive quantum jumps is corrected passively. A characteristic feature of this quantum code is the complementary pairing of states with equal probabilities. This latter property guarantees the validity of the necessary and sufficient conditions of Eq. (4) provided the error position is known. This one-error correcting jump code involves three logical states and four physical qubits two of which are excited. Therefore, let us call it jump code $`1JC(4,2,3)`$. This construction of a one-error correcting embedded quantum code can be generalized easily to any even number $`N`$ of physical qubits. Thus, any jump code $`1JC(N,N/2,\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{N1}{N/21}\right))`$ can be constructed by an analogous complementary paring of $`N`$-qubit states half of which are excited. This way one obtains $`\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{N1}{N/21}\right)`$ orthogonal code words which form a one-error correcting embedded quantum code for spontaneous decay processes. It can be shown that this family of one-error correcting quantum codes is optimal in the sense that their redundancy cannot be reduced any further . Asymptotically, for large numbers of physical qubits the effective number of logical qubits $`L_q`$ which can be encoded by the jump code $`1JC((N,N/2,\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{N1}{N/21}\right))`$ is given by $`L_q\mathrm{log}_2\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{N1}{N/21}\right)=N\mathrm{log}_2\sqrt{N}+O(1).`$ In addition, far reaching links between these jump codes and fundamental structures of combinatorial design theory  can be established. These links are expected to be particularly useful for the further development of many-error correcting embedded quantum codes with low redundancy.

In order to demonstrate some basic aspects of these links let us consider the previously discussed optimal $`1JC(4,2,3)`$-code as an example. This embedded quantum code is constructed within the six-dimensional DFS which involves all quantum states of four qubits two of which are excited. These six quantum states can be represented graphically by six lines as depicted in Fig. 2 on the left hand side. Each point in this diagram represents a qubit. Each basis state of this DFS is represented by a line connecting the two qubits which are excited.

This system of points and lines has a few interesting properties, namely
(1) any two points define a unique line;
(2) there are at least two points on each line;
(3) there are three points which are not on a line;
(4) to each line $`g`$ and each point $`P`$ not contained in $`g`$ there exists a uniquely
determined parallel line $`h`$ which has no point in common with $`g`$ (axiom of
parallels).
In combinatorial design theory a structure fulfilling these axioms is called an affine plane. The three code words of our previously discussed $`1JC(4,2,3)`$-code (compare with Eq.(13)) correspond to the three possible parallel pairs of this affine plane. Thus, the affine plane of Fig. 2 may be viewed as a generating design for the parallelisms which are associated with the basis states of the $`1JC(4,2,3)`$-code. Exploiting this link jump codes can be constructed which are even capable of correcting more than one error at a time .

Provided the decay rates of all qubits are equal, error position and error time can be determined perfectly and recovery operations are applied immediately after the observation of a quantum jump, spontaneous decay processes can be corrected perfectly with these jump codes. But in reality, typically none of these conditions is fulfilled precisely. However, numerical simulations demonstrate that quantum states can be stabilized against various types of imperfections still to a high degree even if some of these conditions are not fulfilled perfectly .

## 4 Universal sets of quantum gates for detected jump-error correcting code spaces

The previously discussed error correcting jump codes allow one to stabilize a quantum memory against spontaneous decay processes. However, in order to be useful also for purposes of quantum information processing and quantum computation two major additional requirements have to be fulfilled. Firstly, one should be able to manipulate pure quantum states in such a way that a chosen error correcting code space is not left at any time during the performance of a quantum algorithm. This can be achieved by using a universal set of quantum gates which operates entirely within an error correcting code space and which is implemented by a set of Hamiltonians leaving this code space invariant. Such a Hamiltonian implementation of universal quantum gates guarantees that any quantum algorithm which is implemented with the help of these quantum gates does not leave this code space at any time even during the application of one of these quantum gates. Secondly, analogous to classical computer architecture, it is desirable to develop quantum information processors which are based on small quantum registers and, in addition, to design quantum gates in such a way that in each step at most two basic quantum registers are entangled. This ensures that the same set of quantum gates can be used for an arbitrarily large quantum information processing unit. For a recent proposal on implementing these ideas on suitable subspaces of our detected jump-error correcting codes see . In the subsequent sections we present an example how a quantum information processing unit meeting these two major requirements can be constructed on the basis of elementary four-qubit registers each of which constitutes a local qutrit of the jump code $`1JC(4,2,3)`$.

### 4.1 Universal sets of quantum gates for qudit-systems

Universal sets of quantum gates for qubit-systems were considered by D. DiVincenzo , A. Barenco et al.  and S. Lloyd . These authors have shown that with a few Hamiltonians acting on single qubits and with one particular two-qubit Hamiltonian it is possible to generate any unitary transformation for a quantum register consisting of qubits. All possible one-qubit operations are members of the continuous group $`SU(2)`$ (suppressing a trivial $`U(1)`$ operation) and the two qubit operation entangles any two separable qubits. The lowest dimensional member of our previously discussed jump codes, namely the $`1JC(4,2,3)`$-code, provides a logical qutrit and therefore the most general unitary qutrit-operations needed for quantum information processing within this code space are members of the continuous group $`SU(3)`$ (again suppressing a trivial $`U(1)`$ operation). Thus the natural question arises which set of quantum gates is universal and thus capable of generating an arbitrary unitary transformation within the state space of a qutrit.

Jean-Luc and Ranee Brylinski  derived a generalization of the results of D. DiVincenzo, A. Barenco et al. and S. Lloyd. In particular, they demonstrated that for $`d`$-dimensional elementary data carriers, so called qudits, every N-qudit gate can be obtained by combinations of all one-qudit gates and a certain two-qudit entanglement gate. In particular, these authors call a collection $`𝒢`$ of one-qudit and two-qudit gates universal (exactly universal), if every $`N`$qudit gate with $`N2`$ can be approximated with arbitrary accuracy (represented exactly) by a circuit made up of $`N`$-qudit gates of this collection $`𝒢`$. A (unitary) two-qudit gate $`V`$ is called primitive, if it maps separable pure states again to separable pure states. Thus, if $`|x`$ and $`|y`$ are qudit-states, we can find qudit-states $`|u`$ and $`|v`$ such that $`V|x|y=|u|v`$. If $`V`$ is not primitive, it is called imprimitive. Suppose we are given a two-qudit gate $`V`$. Then the collection of all one-qudit gates together with $`V`$ is universal if and only if $`V`$ is imprimitive. In particular, J.-L. and R. Brylinski  have proved the useful criterion that, if a (unitary) two-qudit gate $`V`$ is diagonal in a computational basis, i.e. $`V|j|k=\mathrm{exp}(i\theta _{jk})|j|k`$, $`V`$ is primitive if and only if we have

$$\theta _{jk}+\theta _{pq}\theta _{jq}+\theta _{pk}(\mathrm{mod2}\pi )$$
(14)
for all possible values of $`j,k,p,q`$.

In general, the difficulty of finding an appropriate set of Hamiltonians by which one can generate a universal set of quantum gates operating entirely within an error correcting code space depends on the physical interactions available. Typical physical two-body interaction Hamiltonians which are expected to be realizable in laboratory are Heisenberg and Ising Hamiltonians $`H_{He}`$ and $`H_{Is}`$, i.e.

$`H_{He}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\alpha \beta }{}}C_{\alpha \beta }(t)(\sigma _\alpha ^{(x)}\sigma _\beta ^{(x)}+\sigma _\alpha ^{(y)}\sigma _\beta ^{(y)}+\sigma _\alpha ^{(z)}\sigma _\beta ^{(z)}),`$
$`H_{Is}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \underset{\alpha \beta }{}}D_{\alpha \beta }(t)\sigma _\alpha ^{(z)}\sigma _\beta ^{(z)}.`$ (15)
Thereby, $`\sigma _\alpha ^{(x)},\sigma _\alpha ^{(y)},\sigma _\alpha ^{(z)}`$ denote the three Cartesian components of the Pauli spin operators of qubit $`\alpha `$ and the quantities $`C_{\alpha \beta }(t)`$ and $`D_{\alpha \beta }(t)`$ denote coupling coefficients of qubits $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$. These latter coefficients are assumed to be tunable arbitrarily. If it is not possible to realize particular linear combinations or commutators of these Hamiltonians by appropriate tunings of these coupling coefficients, one may use appropriate products, such as

$`e^{i(t_1H_1+t_2H_2)}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(e^{i\frac{t_1}{n}H_1}e^{i\frac{t_2}{n}H_2}\right)^n+O\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{n}}\right),`$
$`e^{i(i[t_1H_1,t_2H_2])}`$ $`=`$ $`\left(e^{i\frac{t_1}{\sqrt{n}}H_1}e^{i\frac{t_2}{\sqrt{n}}H_2}e^{i\frac{t_1}{\sqrt{n}}H_1}e^{i\frac{t_2}{\sqrt{n}}H_2}\right)^n+O\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{n}}}\right).`$ (16)
According to Eqs.(16) one needs infinite products for representing unitary transformations corresponding to sums or commutators of Hamiltonians exactly. However, it can be shown that in many cases exact representations can also be obtained which involve finite products only .

### 4.2 Universal one-qutrit gates

In this section we address the question how arbitrary unitary transformations can be implemented in the error correcting code spaces of jump codes with the help of Heisenberg-type and Ising-type Hamiltonians. Thereby the Hamiltonians considered are expected to leave these code spaces invariant so that during the application of an arbitrary sequence of unitary transformations the error correcting code space is not left at any time. This requirement guarantees that any error due to a spontaneous decay process occurring during the processing of a quantum state can be corrected. As an example we consider the implementation of arbitrary unitary transformations in the lowest dimensional one-error correcting jump code, i.e. the $`1JC(4,2,3)`$-code .

Two classes of two-particle Hamiltonians of the Heisenberg- and Ising-type acting on physical qubits will be needed for this construction, namely

$`E_{\alpha \beta }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(P_{\alpha ,\beta }+\sigma _\alpha ^{(x)}\sigma _\beta ^{(x)}+\sigma _\alpha ^{(y)}\sigma _\beta ^{(y)}+\sigma _\alpha ^{(z)}\sigma _\beta ^{(z)}\right),`$
$`F_{\alpha \beta }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\left(P_{\alpha ,\beta }+\sigma _\alpha ^{(z)}\sigma _\beta ^{(z)}\right)`$ (17)
with $`\alpha ,\beta =1,\mathrm{},N`$. Any member of this family of two-particle Hamiltonians acts on the physical qubits $`\alpha `$ and $`\beta `$ only leaving all other qubits unaffected. The terms of Eqs.(17) involving the projection operator $`P_{\alpha ,\beta }`$ represent an energy shift of the two qubits. The residual interaction terms are of Heisenberg- and Ising-type. ¿From these Hamiltonians we can select the six members $`E_{12}`$, $`E_{23}`$, $`E_{13}`$, $`F_{12}`$, $`F_{13}`$, $`F_{13}`$, for example.

Their action on the code words of the jump code $`1JC(4,2,3)`$ with $`\phi =0`$ (compare with Eq. (13)) is given in Table 1 and can be represented by the matrices

$`E_{12}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill 1& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 1\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 1& \hfill 0\end{array}\right),`$ $`E_{23}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill 0& \hfill 1& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 1& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 1\end{array}\right),`$ $`E_{13}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 1\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 1& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 1& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\end{array}\right),`$ (27)
$`F_{12}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill 1& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\end{array}\right),`$ $`F_{13}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 1& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\end{array}\right),`$ $`F_{23}=\left(\begin{array}{ccc}\hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 0\\ \hfill 0& \hfill 0& \hfill 1\end{array}\right).`$ (37)
Accordingly, the unitary transformations resulting from the Hamiltonians $`E_{12},E_{13}`$ and $`E_{23}`$ swap two codewords and change the phase of the third code word. The unitary transformations resulting from the Hamiltonians $`F_{12},F_{13}`$ and $`F_{23}`$ change the phase of exactly one of the three code words. It is straight forward to demonstrate that the six operators

$`C_{12}^+=E_{23}F_{23},`$ $`C_{13}^+=E_{13}F_{13},`$ $`C_{23}^+=E_{12}F_{12},`$ (38)
$`C_{12}^{}=i[C_{13}^+,C_{23}^+],`$ $`C_{13}^{}=i[C_{12}^+,C_{23}^+],`$ $`C_{23}^{}=i[C_{12}^+,C_{13}^+]`$
and the two operators $`F_{12}`$ and $`F_{13}`$ form a basis for the Lie Algebra of the continuous group $`SU(3)`$. Thus, by an appropriate linear combination of these eight generators any unitary transformation belonging to the continuous group $`SU(3)`$ can be represented on the code space of the jump code $`1JC(4,2,3)`$.

### 4.3 A universal entanglement gate

In computer science it is common practice to use basic registers of a fixed size and to scale an information processing unit by using several of these basic registers. Consequently, on the one hand an algorithm consists of the manipulation of single basic registers, and on the other hand of the interaction between any two of these registers at a time. Such an architecture ensures that the same set of gates can be used for an arbitrarily scaled device. In addition, new registers can be added to the information processing unit at any time even during a computation without necessitating a new encoding of all qubits involved. If one applies this idea to a quantum processing unit, the basic registers are formed by an appropriate number of qubits. In addition, if one wants to correct errors originating from spontaneous decay processes, the simplest basic register has to consist of four physical qubits which form a jump code $`1JC(4,2,3)`$. Thus, an appropriate quantum information processing unit capable of stabilizing quantum algorithms against spontaneous decay processes would consist of an array of such four-qubit clusters (compare with Fig. 3). We have already demonstrated in the previous section that any unitary transformation within such a four-qubit basic quantum register can be implemented with the help of Heisenberg- and Ising-type Hamiltonians. Here we present a universal entanglement gate which is capable of entangling two arbitrary four-qubit basic registers and which is based on Ising-type Hamiltonians. Together with the unitary transformations discussed in the previous section this entanglement gate forms a universal set of quantum gates for a quantum information processing unit which is based on four-qubit registers. In addition, the presented entanglement gate ensures that all errors due to spontaneous decay processes can be corrected even if they take place during the application of a quantum gate.

Let us consider first of all the nine tensor product states which are associated with two basic four-qubit registers. These states are constituted by the product states of two jump codes $`1JC(4,2,3)`$, namely

$`|00_L`$ $`=`$ $`|00110011+|11001100+|00111100+|11000011,`$
$`|01_L`$ $`=`$ $`|00110101+|11001010+|00111010+|11000101,`$
$`|02_L`$ $`=`$ $`|00110110+|11001001+|00111001+|11000110,`$
$`|10_L`$ $`=`$ $`|01010011+|10101100+|01011100+|10100011,`$
$`|11_L`$ $`=`$ $`|01010101+|10101010+|01011010+|10100101,`$
$`|12_L`$ $`=`$ $`|01010110+|10101001+|01011001+|10100110,`$
$`|20_L`$ $`=`$ $`|01100011+|10011100+|01101100+|10010011,`$
$`|21_L`$ $`=`$ $`|01100101+|10011010+|01101010+|10010101,`$
$`|22_L`$ $`=`$ $`|01100110+|10011001+|01101001+|10010110.`$
The linear subspace spanned by these states is denoted by $`𝒞_9`$. It is apparent that these states are linear superpositions of code words of the one-error correcting jump code $`1JC(8,4,35)`$. Let us assume that it is possible to implement the Ising-type Hamiltonian

$`H_{ent}`$ $`=`$ $`1/2(F_{26}+F_{36}+F_{27}+F_{37})`$ (39)
by an appropriate tuning of the coupling coefficients of Eq. (15). This Hamiltonian leaves the code space of the jump code $`1JC(8,4,35)`$ invariant so that any spontaneous decay process can be corrected. Let us denote the linear subspace spanned by the eight orthonormal states

$$\{|00_L,|01_L,|02_L,|10_L,|11_L,|12_L,|20_L,|21_L\}$$
(40)
by $`A`$ and the subspace spanned by the two orthonormal states

$$|22+_L=|01100110+|10011001$$
(41)
and

$$|22_L=|01101001+|10010110$$
(42)
by B. With this notation the action of the Hamiltonian can be represented by $`H_{ent}=P_A2|22+_{LL}22+|`$ with $`P_A`$ denoting the projection operator onto subspace $`A`$. Therefore, the Hamiltonian $`H_{ent}`$ acts in the subspaces $`A`$ and $`B`$ differently. Applying this Hamiltonian for the (dimensionless) time $`\tau `$ yields the unitary transformation

$$U(t)=e^{iH\tau }=e^{i\tau }P_A(e^{i2\tau }|22+_{LL}22+|+|22_{LL}22|).$$
(43)
Though states $`|22+_L`$ and $`|22_L`$ are affected differently by this Hamiltonian the unitary transformation of Eq. (43) does not leave the one-error correcting code space $`1JC(8,4,35)`$ at any time. Therefore, any spontaneous emission event can be corrected. In order to implement an entanglement operation within the tensor product space of two basic four-qubit registers we choose the (dimensionless) interaction time so that $`\tau =\pi `$. This implies that all code words in subspace $`A`$ are multiplied by a factor $`(1)`$ and states $`|22+_L`$ and $`|22_L`$ are both multiplied by a factor $`(+1)`$. Applying an additional global factor of $`(1)`$ results in the conditional phase gate $`V`$

$$V=P_A|22_{LL}22|.$$
(44)
This conditional phase gate is a universal entanglement gate because, consistent with the notation of Eq. (14), $`\theta _{ij}=0`$ for all $`(i,j)(2,2)`$ and $`\theta _{22}=\pi `$. Therefore, $`\theta _{12}+\theta _{21}=0\pi =\theta _{11}+\theta _{22}(\mathrm{mod2}\pi )`$ and according to the criterion of Eq. (14) $`V`$ is a universal entanglement gate.

## 5 Summary and outlook

We discussed main ideas underlying a recently introduced class of error correcting quantum codes, the so called jump codes, which are capable of correcting spontaneous decay processes originating from the coupling of distinguishable qubits to statistically independent environments. These quantum codes exploit information about error times and error positions in an optimal way by monitoring the environment continuously. We also addressed the practical question how these error correcting quantum codes can be used for stabilizing a quantum algorithm against these types of errors. For this purpose we presented a set of universal quantum gates which guarantees that any error due to a spontaneous decay process can be corrected even if it occurred during the application of one of these quantum gates. This is possible because these quantum gates are based on Heisenberg- and Ising-type Hamiltonians which leave the code space of a jump code invariant.

Though our discussion concentrated on one-error correcting quantum jump codes, the already mentioned connection with basic concepts of combinatorial design theory may offer interesting perspectives also for the construction of multiple-error correcting jump codes with minimal redundancy. Such optimal multiple-error correcting quantum codes are expected to be particularly useful for stabilizing the dynamics of quantum information processing units against environmental influences.

## 6 Acknowledgments

This work is supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Discussions with T. Beth, I. Cirac, M. Grassl, R. Laflamme, D. Lidar and D. Shepelyansky are gratefully acknowledged.


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# Rotational Perturbations of High Density Matter in the Brane Cosmology

## I Introduction

Most of the astronomical objects in the Universe (planets, stars or galaxies) have some form of rotation (differential or uniform). Hence the possibility that the Universe itself could be rotating has attracted a lot of attention. But even that observational evidences of cosmological rotation have been reported Bi82 ; Bi83 ; NoRa97 ; Ku97 , they are still subject of controversy.

From the analysis of microwave background anisotropy Collins and Hawking CoHa73 , and Barrow, Juszkiewicz, and Sonoda BaJuSo85  have found some very tight limits of the cosmological vorticity, $`T_{obs}>3\times 10^5T_H`$, where $`T_{obs}`$ is the actual rotation period of our Universe and $`T_H=(12)\times 10^{10}`$ years is the Hubble time, corresponding to an angular velocity of the order of $`10^{13}`$ rad/sec. Therefore our present day Universe is rotating very slowly, if at all. However, the existence of such a small rotation, when extrapolated to the early stages of the Universe, could have played a major role in the dynamics of the early Universe, and possibly as well in the processes involving galaxy formation.

From a theoretical point of view, Gödel Go49  gave in 1949 his famous example of a rotating cosmological solution to the Einstein gravitational field equations. Gödel also discussed the possibility of a cosmic explanation of the galactic rotation Go49 . This rotating solution has attracted considerable interest because the corresponding Universes possess the property of closed time-like curves.

The investigation of rotating and rotating-expanding Universes generated a large amount of literature in the field of general relativity, the combination of rotation with expansion in realistic cosmological models being one of the most difficult tasks in cosmology (see Ob00  for a review of the expansion-rotation problem in general relativity). Hence rotating solutions of the gravitational field equations cannot be excluded a priori. But this raises the question of why the Universe rotates so slowly. This problem can also be naturally solved in the framework of the inflationary model. Ellis and Olive ElOl83 , and Grøn and Soleng GrSo87  pointed out that if the Universe came into being as a mini-universe of Planck dimensions and went directly into an inflationary epoch driven by a scalar field with a flat potential, due to the non-rotation of the false vacuum and the exponential expansion during inflation the cosmic vorticity has decayed by a factor of about $`10^{145}`$.

The rotational perturbations of a spatially homogeneous and isotropic Universe in terms of a small variation of curvature have been investigated by Hawking Ha66 . He found that for pressureless dust and radiation the perturbations die away. Later Miyazaki Mi79  studied the perturbations by a spherical shell in a closed homogeneous Universe in the framework of the Brans-Dicke theory. The possibility of incorporating a slowly rotating Universe into the framework of Friedmann-Robertson-Walker (FRW) type metrics has been considered by Bayin and Cooperstock BaCo80 , who obtained the restrictions imposed by the field equations on the matter angular velocity. They also shown that uniform rotation is incompatible with the dust filled (zero pressure) and with the radiation dominated Universe. Moreover, Bayin Ba85  has obtained the solutions of the field equations for a special class of non-separable rotation functions of the matter distribution. The investigation of the first order rotational perturbations of flat FRW type Universes proved to be useful in the study of string cosmological models with dilaton and axion fields ChHaMa01 . The form of the rotation equation imposes strong constraints on the form of the dilaton field potential $`U`$, restricting the allowed forms to two: the trivial case $`U=0`$ and the exponential type potential.

Recently, Randall and Sundrum RS99a ; RS99b  have pointed out that a scenario with an infinite fifth dimension in the presence of a brane can generate a theory of gravity, which mimics purely four-dimensional gravity, both with respect to the classical gravitational potential and with respect to gravitational radiation. The gravitational self-couplings are not significantly modified in this model. This result has been obtained from the study of a single 3-brane embedded in five dimensions, with the 5D metric given by $`ds^2=e^{f(y)}\eta _{\mu \nu }dx^\mu dx^\nu +dy^2`$, which can produce a large hierarchy between the scale of particle physics and gravity, due to the appearance of the warp factor. Even if the fifth dimension is uncompactified, standard 4D gravity is reproduced on the brane. This model allows the presence of large or even infinite non-compact extra dimensions. Our brane is identified to a domain wall in a 5-dimensional anti-de Sitter space-time.

The Randall-Sundrum (RS) model was inspired by superstring theory. The ten-dimensional $`E_8\times E_8`$ heterotic string theory, which contains the standard model of elementary particle, could be a promising candidate for the description of the real Universe. This theory is connected with an eleven-dimensional theory compactified on the orbifold $`R^{10}\times S^1/Z_2`$ HW96 . The static RS solution has been extended to time-dependent solutions and their cosmological properties have been extensively studied KK00 ; BDEL00 ; BDL00 ; STW00 ; LMW00 ; CEHS00 ; ClGrSe99 ; AnNuOl00  (for a review of dynamics and geometry of brane universes see Ma01 ).

The effective gravitational field equations on the brane world, in which all the matter forces except gravity are confined on the 3-brane, in a 5-dimensional space-time with $`Z_2`$-symmetry have been obtained, by using an elegant geometric approach, by Shiromizu, Maeda and Sasaki SMS00 ; SSM00 . The correct signature for gravity is provided by the brane with positive tension. If the bulk space-time is exactly anti-de Sitter, generically the matter on the brane is required to be spatially homogeneous. The electric part of the 5-dimensional Weyl tensor $`E_{IJ}`$ gives the leading order corrections to the conventional Einstein equations on the brane. The effect of the dilaton field in the bulk can also be taken into account in this approach MW00 .

In brane-world model, the behavior of an anisotropic Bianchi type I cosmology in the presence of inflationary scalar fields has been considered by Maartens, Sahni and Saini MSS00 . By using dynamical systems techniques, the behavior of the FRW, Bianchi type I and V cosmological models in the RS brane world scenario, with matter on the brane obeying a barotropic equation of state, has been studied by Campos and Sopuerta CS01 ; CS01a . The general exact solution of the field equations for an anisotropic brane with Bianchi type I and V geometry, with perfect fluid and scalar fields as matter sources, has been found in ChHaMa01a . In spatially homogeneous brane world cosmological models the initial singularity is isotropic, and hence the initial conditions problem is solved Co01a . Consequently, these models do not exhibit Mixmaster or chaotic-like behavior close to the initial singularity Co01b .

Realistic brane-world cosmological models require the consideration of more general matter sources to describe the evolution and dynamics of the very early Universe. The effects of the bulk viscosity of the matter on the brane have been analyzed in ChHaMa01b . Limits on the initial anisotropy induced by the 5-dimensional Kaluza-Klein graviton stresses by using the CMB anisotropies have been obtained by Barrow and Maartens BaMa01 . Anisotropic Bianchi type I brane-worlds with a pure magnetic field and a perfect fluid have also been analyzed BaHe01 . The effect of the bulk viscosity of the cosmological matter on the cosmological evolution on the brane for a Bianchi type I brane geometry was considered in HaMa03 .

The simplest way to investigate if brane world cosmologies are consistent with the observations is to investigate the behavior of the perturbations in the model. Perturbations on the brane are associated with perturbations in the geometry of the bulk space-time. The linearized perturbation equations in the generalized RS model have been obtained, by using the covariant nonlinear dynamical equations for the gravitational and matter fields on the brane, by Maartens Ma00 . The gauge-invariant formalism for perturbations in the brane world has been developed in KoIsSa00 ; Ko01 . The equations governing the bulk perturbations in the case of a general warped Universe have been computed by Langlois La00 ; La01 . A gauge invariant formalism for metric perturbations in five-dimensional brane world theories, which also applies to models originating from heterotic M-theory has been obtained in BrDoBrLu00 . Koyama and Soda KoSo00  obtained a formalism for solving the coupled dynamics of the cosmological perturbations in the brane world and of the gravitational waves in the AdS bulk. A closed system of the perturbation equations on the brane, which is valid on a large scale and may be solved without solving for the bulk perturbations has been proposed in GoMa00  and LaMaSaWa01 . The perturbations of the brane worlds in conformally Minkowskian coordinates, which enable to disentangle the contributions of the bulk gravitons and of the motion of the brane, have been considered in DeDoKa01 . Dorca and van de Bruck BrDo01  proposed a new gauge, in which the full five-dimensional problem of the perturbations is solvable. The second order perturbations of the gravitational field induced on the 3-brane have been analyzed by Kudoh and Tanaka KuTa01 ; KuTa01a . The equations of motion for metric perturbations in the bulk and matter perturbations on the brane have been presented, in an arbitrary gauge, in BrMaWa01 . The evolution of density perturbations in brane world cosmological models with a bulk scalar field has been considered by Brax, van de Bruck and Davis BrBrDa01 . The $`1+3`$-covariant approach to cosmological perturbations in the brane-world models, and its application to CMB anisotropies, have been reviewed recently by Maartens Ma03 .

In a previous paper ChHaKaMa02 , we studied first order rotational perturbations of homogeneous and isotropic FRW brane world cosmological models. Assuming that the rotation is slow, and by keeping only the first order rotational terms in the field equations, a rotation equation describing the space dependence and time evolution of the metric perturbations is obtained. However, in our previous consideration in ChHaKaMa02  the bulk effects related to the tensorial part of the dark energy (coming from the 5-dimensional Weyl tensor) have been neglected, and only the role played by the scalar part (via the unperturbed field equations) has been considered. The conservation of the angular momentum, following from the general energy-momentum conservation equation on the brane, has also not been included in the formalism. Moreover, the angular dependence of the angular velocity of the matter on the brane has also been overlooked.

It is the purpose of the present paper to consider the rotational perturbations of slowly rotating brane worlds, with azimuthal symmetry, by taking into account both the tensorial and scalar perturbations in the bulk, produced due to the matter perturbations on the brane. We assume that the background geometry of the unperturbed system is homogeneous and isotropic, of FRW type. Since the quadratic corrections terms are related, via a consistency condition, to the dark energy term, the contributions of the tensorial and scalar parts of the perturbation can be consistently included in the formalism. The conservation of the angular momentum of the matter on the brane gives a basic relation between the angular velocity $`\omega `$ of the matter and the metric rotation function $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, in terms of the equation of state of the matter on the brane and the scale factor of the expanding Universe. In the case of the perfect dragging, when $`\omega =\mathrm{\Omega }`$, the decay of the rotational perturbations is independent of the equation of state of the matter and in the large time limit rotation always vanishes. However, the behavior of perturbations is very different for the general case $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }`$. In such case the analysis of the long time behavior of the angular velocity for several proposed physical models of the high-density cosmological fluid, corresponding to different equations of state of the matter (Zeldovich causal model or Chaplygin gas) shows that in these cases the rotational perturbations increase in time. However, for the Hagedorn equation of state of dense matter, the late time rotational perturbations tend, in the large time limit, to zero. For other, more conventional equations of state, like the radiation fluid, pressureless dust, quark matter obeying the bag model equation of state and the Boltzmann gas, the rotational perturbations are wiped out by the expansion of the Universe. It worth to note that the results for the behavior of perturbations are also specific to standard general relativity.

The present paper is organized as follows. The field equations for a slowly rotating brane-world are written down, and the basic rotation equation is derived in Section II. The case of the perfect dragging is discussed in Section III. In Section IV the behavior of rotational perturbations is analyzed for several relevant equations of state of the cosmological fluid. We conclude our results in Section V.

## II Slowly rotating brane Universes

In the 5D space-time the brane-world is located at $`Y(X^I)=0`$, where $`X^I,I=0,1,2,3,4`$, are 5-dimensional coordinates. The effective action in five dimensions is MW00

$$S=d^5X\sqrt{g_5}\left(\frac{1}{2k_5^2}R_5\mathrm{\Lambda }_5\right)+_{Y=0}d^4x\sqrt{g}\left(\frac{1}{k_5^2}K^\pm \lambda +L^{\text{matter}}\right),$$
(1)
with $`k_5^2=8\pi G_5`$ the 5-dimensional gravitational coupling constant and where $`x^\mu ,\mu =0,1,2,3`$, are the induced 4-dimensional brane world coordinates. $`R_5`$ is the 5D intrinsic curvature in the bulk and $`K^\pm `$ is the extrinsic curvature on either side of the brane.

On the 5-dimensional space-time (the bulk), with the negative vacuum energy $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_5`$ source of the gravitational field the Einstein field equations are given by

$$G_{IJ}=k_5^2T_{IJ},T_{IJ}=\mathrm{\Lambda }_5g_{IJ}+\delta (Y)\left[\lambda g_{IJ}+T_{IJ}^{\text{matter}}\right],$$
(2)
In this space-time a brane is a fixed point of the $`Z_2`$ symmetry. In the following capital Latin indices run in the range $`0,\mathrm{},4`$ while Greek indices take the values $`0,\mathrm{},3`$.

Assuming a metric of the form $`ds^2=(n_In_J+g_{IJ})dx^Idx^J`$, with $`n_Idx^I=d\chi `$ the unit normal to the $`\chi =\text{constant}`$ hypersurfaces and $`g_{IJ}`$ the induced metric on $`\chi =\text{constant}`$ hypersurfaces, the effective four-dimensional gravitational equations on the brane take the form SMS00 ; SSM00 :

$$G_{\mu \nu }=\mathrm{\Lambda }g_{\mu \nu }+k_4^2T_{\mu \nu }+k_5^4S_{\mu \nu }E_{\mu \nu },$$
(3)
where

$$S_{\mu \nu }=\frac{1}{12}TT_{\mu \nu }\frac{1}{4}T_\mu {}_{}{}^{\alpha }T_{\nu \alpha }^{}+\frac{1}{24}g_{\mu \nu }\left(3T^{\alpha \beta }T_{\alpha \beta }T^2\right),$$
(4)
and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }=k_5^2(\mathrm{\Lambda }_5+k_5^2\lambda ^2/6)/2,k_4^2=k_5^4\lambda /6`$ and $`E_{IJ}=C_{IAJB}n^An^B`$. $`C_{IAJB}`$ is the 5-dimensional Weyl tensor in the bulk and $`\lambda `$ is the vacuum energy on the brane. $`T_{\mu \nu }`$ is the matter energy-momentum tensor on the brane and $`T=T^\mu _\mu `$ is the trace of the energy-momentum tensor.

For any matter fields (scalar field, perfect fluids, kinetic gases, dissipative fluids etc.) the general form of the brane energy-momentum tensor can be covariantly given as

$$T_{\mu \nu }=(\rho +p)u_\mu u_\nu +ph_{\mu \nu }+\pi _{\mu \nu }+2q_{(\mu }u_{\nu )}.$$
(5)
The decomposition is irreducible for any chosen 4-velocity $`u^\mu `$. Here $`\rho `$ and $`p`$ are the energy density and isotropic pressure, $`\pi _{\mu \nu }`$ are the anisotropic stresses on the brane, induced for example by the dissipative properties of the fluid (shear viscosity) and $`q_\mu `$ is the heat flux. $`h_{\mu \nu }=g_{\mu \nu }+u_\mu u_\nu `$ projects orthogonal to $`u^\mu `$. The heat flux obeys the condition $`q_\mu =q_{<\mu >}`$, while the anisotropic stress obeys $`\pi _{\mu \nu }=\pi _{<\mu \nu >}`$, where angular brackets denote the projected, symmetric and trace-free part:

$$V_{<\mu >}=h_\mu {}_{}{}^{\nu }V_{\nu }^{},W_{<\mu \nu >}=\left[h_{(\mu }{}_{}{}^{\alpha }h_{\nu )}^{}{}_{}{}^{\beta }\frac{1}{3}h^{\alpha \beta }h_{\mu \nu }\right]W_{\alpha \beta }.$$
(6)
The symmetry properties of $`E_{\mu \nu }`$ imply that generally we can irreducibly decompose it with respect to a chosen 4-velocity field $`u^\mu `$ as

$$E_{\mu \nu }=\frac{k_5^4}{k_4^4}\left[\frac{1}{3}𝒰(4u_\mu u_\nu +g_{\mu \nu })+𝒫_{\mu \nu }+2𝒬_{(\mu }u_{\nu )}\right],$$
(7)
where $`𝒰`$ is a scalar, $`𝒬_\mu `$ a spatial vector and $`𝒫_{\mu \nu }`$ a spatial, symmetric and trace-free tensor. For a FRW model $`𝒬_\mu =0`$ and $`𝒫_{\mu \nu }=0`$ CS01a . Hence the only non-zero contribution from the 5-dimensional Weyl tensor from the bulk is given by the scalar term $`𝒰`$. The “dark energy” term, $`E_{\mu \nu }`$, is a pure bulk effect, therefore we cannot determine its expression without solving the complete system of field equations in 5 dimensions. However, its expression in the bulk is constrained by the relation

$$D_\mu E^{\mu \nu }=k_5^4D_\mu S^{\mu \nu }.$$
(8)
The Einstein equation in the bulk also implies the conservation of the energy momentum tensor of the matter on the brane,

$$T_\mu {}_{}{}^{\nu }{}_{;\nu }{}^{}_{\chi =0}^{}=0.$$
(9)
The rotationally perturbed metric can be expressed in terms of the usual coordinates in the form MuFeBr92

$$ds^2=dt^2+a^2(t)\left[\frac{dr^2}{1kr^2}+r^2\left(d\theta ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2\right)\right]2\mathrm{\Omega }(t,r,\theta )a^2(t)r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta dtd\phi ,$$
(10)
where $`\mathrm{\Omega }(t,r,\theta )`$ is the metric rotation function. Although $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ plays a role in the “dragging” of local inertial frames, it is not the angular velocity of these frames, except for the special case when it coincides with the angular velocity of the matter fields. $`k=1`$ corresponds to closed Universes, with $`0r1`$. $`k=1`$ corresponds to open Universes, while the case $`k=0`$ describes a flat geometry, where the range of $`r`$ is $`0r<\mathrm{}`$. In all models, the time-like variable $`t`$ ranges from $`0`$ to $`\mathrm{}`$.

For the matter energy-momentum tensor on the brane we restrict our analysis to the case of the perfect fluid energy-momentum tensor,

$$T^{\mu \nu }=(\rho +p)u^\mu u^\nu +pg^{\mu \nu }.$$
(11)
The components of the four-velocity vector are $`u^\mu =(1,0,0,\omega )`$ and $`\omega (t,r,\theta )=d\phi /dt`$ is the angular velocity of the matter distribution. Consequently, for the rotating brane the energy-momentum tensor has a supplementary component

$$T_{03}=\left\{\left[\mathrm{\Omega }(t,r,\theta )\omega (t,r,\theta )\right]\rho \omega (t,r,\theta )p\right\}r^2a^2(t)\mathrm{sin}^2\theta .$$
(12)
As a first step to consider rotational perturbations on the brane, we should find a consistent assumption for $`E_{\mu \nu }`$ “induced” by the small rotation. The reason that the small rotation changes the expression of $`E_{\mu \nu }`$ can be understood as follows. In the brane world scenario an $`Z_2`$ symmetry is imposed. Once we introduce a small rotation effect on the brane, the bulk geometry should have a “self-tuning” process in order to preserve the $`Z_2`$ symmetry. Therefore, some nontrivial components of $`E_{\mu \nu }`$ should be turned on to the order of perturbation. Hence, the first constraint we need to check for a consistent expression of $`E_{\mu \nu }`$ is the equation (8).

For the perfect fluid source, two nontrivial equations of the energy-momentum conservation (9), corresponding to the $`t`$ and $`\varphi `$ components, are

$`\dot{\rho }+3(\rho +p){\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}}{a}}`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (13)
$`_t\left[(\rho +p)(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega )a^5\right]`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (14)
Imposing the above equations, the right hand side of (8) has only one nonzero component as

$$D_\mu S^{\mu \varphi }=\frac{1}{6}_t\left[\rho (\rho +p)(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega )a^5\right]a^5.$$
(15)
Hence, the constraint (8) shows that the $`E_{\mu \nu }`$ should satisfy the following equations

$$D_\mu E^{\mu t}=D_\mu E^{\mu r}=D_\mu E^{\mu \theta }=0,D_\mu E^{\mu \varphi }=\frac{k_5^4}{6}_t\left[\rho (\rho +p)(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega )a^5\right]a^5.$$
(16)
The last equation simply just shows what we have already mentioned, that is the rotational perturbation does induce an effect on the bulk for consistency. Otherwise, the only possible perturbation is the so-called perfect dragging case, with $`\mathrm{\Omega }=\omega `$.

A possible solution of the constraint (16) is $`E^{\mu \nu }=(k_5^4/k_4^4)𝒫^{\mu \nu }`$, which, for the perfect fluid energy-momentum tensor gives only one non-vanishing component

$$𝒫^{t\varphi }=𝒫^{\varphi t}=𝒫O(ϵ),D_\mu E^{\mu \varphi }=\frac{k_5^4}{k_4^4}_t\left(𝒫a^5\right)a^5.$$
(17)
Hence the tensor component $`𝒫`$ is of order of perturbation such that the quadratic terms, by itself or together with $`\omega `$ or $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, can be neglected. Under this assumption, the solution for the equation (16) can be easily obtained

$$𝒫=\frac{k_4^4}{6}\rho (\rho +p)(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega ),$$
(18)
which, as expected, is of the first order of perturbation. Straightforwardly the first order of $`E`$-term is

$$E_{t\varphi }=E_{\varphi t}=\frac{k_5^4}{6}a^2r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \rho (\rho +p)(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega ),$$
(19)
which is the consistently “induced” effect by the rotational perturbation in the brane world model.

Generally, the above result can be extended to the case including the scalar part of the $`E`$-correction, namely the $`𝒰`$ term contribution. For the case, the first order covariant derivatives are

$`D_\mu E^{\mu t}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{k_5^4}{k_4^4}}\left(_t𝒰+4{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}}{a}}𝒰\right),D_\mu E^{\mu r}=D_\mu E^{\mu \theta }=0,`$
$`D_\mu E^{\mu \varphi }`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{k_5^4}{k_4^4}}_t\left[{\displaystyle \frac{4}{3}}𝒰(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega )a^5+𝒫a^5\right]a^5+\mathrm{\Omega }D_\mu E^{\mu t}.`$ (20)
Then the constraint (16) gives

$$𝒰=𝒰_0a^4,𝒫=\left[\frac{4}{3}𝒰+\frac{k_4^4}{6}\rho (\rho +p)\right](\mathrm{\Omega }\omega ),$$
(21)
or

$$E_{tt}=\frac{k_5^4}{k_4^4}𝒰,E_{ii}=\frac{1}{3}\frac{k_5^4}{k_4^4}𝒰g_{ii},E_{t\varphi }=E_{\varphi t}=a^2r^2\mathrm{sin}^2\theta \left[\frac{1}{3}\frac{k_5^4}{k_4^4}𝒰\mathrm{\Omega }+\frac{k_5^4}{6}\rho (\rho +p)(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega )\right].$$
(22)
We assume that rotation is sufficiently slow, so that deviations from spherical symmetry can be neglected. Then to first order in $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ the gravitational and field equations (3) can be decomposed, by neglecting the $`𝒫_{\mu \nu }`$ contribution on the background geometry, into the following components

$`3{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}^2}{a^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{3k}{a^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Lambda }+k_4^2\rho +{\displaystyle \frac{k_5^4}{12}}\rho ^2+{\displaystyle \frac{k_5^4}{k_4^4}}𝒰,`$ (23)
$`{\displaystyle \frac{2\ddot{a}}{a}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}^2}{a^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{k}{a^2}}`$ $`=`$ $`\mathrm{\Lambda }k_4^2p{\displaystyle \frac{k_5^4}{12}}\rho (\rho +2p){\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{k_5^4}{k_4^4}}𝒰,`$ (24)
$$3\frac{\dot{a}}{a}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{r}+\frac{^2\mathrm{\Omega }}{tr}=0,3\frac{\dot{a}}{a}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\theta }+\frac{^2\mathrm{\Omega }}{t\theta }=0,$$
(25)
$`(1kr^2){\displaystyle \frac{^2\mathrm{\Omega }}{r^2}}+\left({\displaystyle \frac{4}{r}}5kr\right){\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{r}}+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{r^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{^2\mathrm{\Omega }}{\theta ^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{3\mathrm{cot}\theta }{r^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\theta }}+2a^2\mathrm{\Omega }\left({\displaystyle \frac{2\ddot{a}}{a}}+{\displaystyle \frac{\dot{a}^2}{a^2}}+{\displaystyle \frac{k}{a^2}}\right)`$ (26)
$`=`$ $`2a^2\mathrm{\Omega }\mathrm{\Lambda }+2k_4^2a^2[(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega )\rho \omega p]+{\displaystyle \frac{k_5^4}{6}}a^2(\rho ^2\mathrm{\Omega }2\rho p\omega 2\rho ^2\omega )2a^2\left[{\displaystyle \frac{1}{3}}{\displaystyle \frac{k_5^4}{k_4^4}}𝒰\mathrm{\Omega }+{\displaystyle \frac{k_5^4}{6}}\rho (\rho +p)(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega )\right].`$
Equations (25) follows from the $`(r\varphi )`$ and $`(\theta \varphi )`$ components of the field equations and (26) is from the $`(t\varphi )`$-component. Moreover, the last equation can be simplified by applying (24) to be

$$(1kr^2)\frac{^2\mathrm{\Omega }}{r^2}+\left(\frac{4}{r}5kr\right)\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{r}+\frac{1}{r^2}\frac{^2\mathrm{\Omega }}{\theta ^2}+\frac{3\mathrm{cot}\theta }{r^2}\frac{\mathrm{\Omega }}{\theta }2k_4^2a^2(\rho +p)(\mathrm{\Omega }\omega )=0.$$
(27)
In this equation the correction from the bulk effect exactly cancelled. Hence the form of this equation is the same as the version from the standard general relativity.

The field equations (23)-(27) must be solved together with the conservation equations (13)-(14). If the equation of state of the cosmological matter, $`p=p(\rho )`$, is known, then Eq. (13) gives the time evolution of the energy density, $`\rho =\rho (a)`$. Once $`\rho `$ is known, the general solution of the background (unperturbed) gravitational field equations on the brane can be obtained in the form

$$tt_0=\left[\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{3}a^2+\frac{k_4^2}{3}\rho (a)a^2+\frac{k_5^4}{36}\rho ^2(a)a^2+\frac{k_5^4}{3k_4^4}\frac{𝒰_0}{a^2}k\right]^{1/2}𝑑a,$$
(28)
where $`t_0`$ is a constant of integration.

The solution of equations (25) is

$$\mathrm{\Omega }(t,r,\theta )=A(r,\theta )a^3(t),$$
(29)
where $`A(r,\theta )`$ is an arbitrary integration function. Then the perturbed equations we need to solve are

$$(1kr^2)\frac{^2A}{r^2}+\left(\frac{4}{r}5kr\right)\frac{A}{r}+\frac{1}{r^2}\frac{^2A}{\theta ^2}+\frac{3\mathrm{cot}\theta }{r^2}\frac{A}{\theta }2k_4^2a^2(\rho +p)(A\omega a^3)=0,$$
(30)
and

$$_t\left[(\rho +p)(A\omega a^3)a^2\right]=0.$$
(31)
The general solution of Eq. (31) is

$$A\omega a^3=\frac{F(r,\theta )}{(\rho +p)a^2},$$
(32)
where $`F(r,\theta )`$ is an arbitrary integration function. With the use of Eq. (29) we obtain the following general relation between the metric perturbation function $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and the angular velocity of the matter on the brane:

$$\omega (t,r,\theta )=\mathrm{\Omega }(t,r,\theta )\frac{F(r,\theta )}{(\rho +p)a^5}=\frac{A(r,\theta )}{a^3}\frac{F(r,\theta )}{(\rho +p)a^5}.$$
(33)
Finally, with the use of Eq. (32) and of the unperturbed field equations, Eq. (30) reduces to

$$(1kr^2)\frac{^2A(r,\theta )}{r^2}+\left(\frac{4}{r}5kr\right)\frac{A(r,\theta )}{r}+\frac{1}{r^2}\frac{^2A(r,\theta )}{\theta ^2}+\frac{3\mathrm{cot}\theta }{r^2}\frac{A(r,\theta )}{\theta }2k_4^2F(r,\theta )=0.$$
(34)
## III The case of the perfect dragging

As a first case for the study of the rotational perturbations in the brane world we consider the case of the perfect dragging, corresponding to the choice $`F(r,\theta )=0`$ of the arbitrary integration function. Therefore the angular velocity of the matter equals the metric perturbation function and is given by

$$\omega (t,r,\theta )=A(r,\theta )a^3(t).$$
(35)
For an expanding Universe in the large time limit the rotational perturbations always decay, $`\omega `$ tending to zero for $`t\mathrm{}`$.

In order to find the radial and angular dependence of the angular velocity, we consider two possible functional forms of the function $`A(r,\theta )`$. As a first case we take $`A(r,\theta )=B(r)C(\theta )`$. Then Eq. (34) can be separated into the following two independent equations

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^2C}{d\theta ^2}}+3\mathrm{cot}\theta {\displaystyle \frac{dC}{d\theta }}+nC`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (36)
$`(1kr^2)r^2{\displaystyle \frac{d^2B}{dr^2}}+\left({\displaystyle \frac{4}{r}}5kr\right)r^2{\displaystyle \frac{dB}{dr}}nB`$ $`=`$ $`0,`$ (37)
where $`n`$ is a separation constant. By introducing a new variable $`x=\mathrm{cos}\theta `$, Eq. (36) becomes

$$(1x^2)\frac{d^2C}{dx^2}4x\frac{dC}{dx}+nC=0.$$
(38)
Therefore the general solution of Eq. (36) is given by

$$C(\theta )=C_1{}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(a_1,b_1;c_1;\mathrm{cos}^2\theta )+C_2\mathrm{cos}\theta {}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(a_2,b_2;c_2;\mathrm{cos}^2\theta ),$$
(39)
where $`a_1=(3\sqrt{9+4n})/4,b_1=(3+\sqrt{9+4n})/4,c_1=1/2,a_2=(5\sqrt{9+4n})/4,b_2=(5+\sqrt{9+4n})/4,c_2=3/2`$ and $`{}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(a,b;c;x)=_{k=0}^{\mathrm{}}\frac{(a)_k(b)_k}{(c)_k}\frac{x^k}{k!}`$ is the hypergeometric function AbSt72 . Hereafter in this section the parameters $`C_1`$ and $`C_2`$ are used to label the constants of integration in the expressions of exact solution.

In order to solve Eq. (37) we introduce first a new variable $`\eta =r^2`$. Hence the equation is transformed into

$$4\eta ^2(1k\eta )\frac{d^2B}{d\eta ^2}+2\eta (56k\eta )\frac{dB}{d\eta }nB=0,$$
(40)
with the general solution given by

$$B(r)=C_1r^\alpha {}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(k_1,l_1;m_1;kr^2)+C_2r^\beta {}_{2}{}^{}F_{1}^{}(k_2,l_2;m_2;kr^2),\text{for}k=\pm 1,$$
(41)
where $`\alpha =(3\sqrt{9+4n})/2,\beta =(3+\sqrt{9+4n})/2,k_1=3/4\sqrt{9+4n}/4,l_1=5/4\sqrt{9+4n}/4,m_1=1\sqrt{9+4n}/2,k_2=3/4+\sqrt{9+4n}/4,l_2=5/4+\sqrt{9+4n}/4,m_2=1+\sqrt{9+4n}/2`$. For $`k=0`$, the general solution of Eq. (37) is given by

$$B(r)=C_1r^\alpha +C_2r^\beta ,\text{for}k=0.$$
(42)
A second class of solutions can be obtained by assuming that the function $`A(r,\theta )`$ can be represented as $`A(r,\theta )=M(r)+N(\theta )`$. Then Eq. (34) yields again two independent equations,

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d^2N}{d\theta ^2}}+3\mathrm{cot}\theta {\displaystyle \frac{dN}{d\theta }}`$ $`=`$ $`m,`$ (43)
$`(1kr^2)r^2{\displaystyle \frac{d^2M}{dr^2}}+\left({\displaystyle \frac{4}{r}}5kr\right)r^2{\displaystyle \frac{dM}{dr}}`$ $`=`$ $`m,`$ (44)
where $`m`$ is a separation constant. By introducing a new variables $`N^{}=dN/d\theta `$, Eq. (43) is transformed into

$$\frac{dN^{}}{d\theta }+3\mathrm{cot}\theta N^{}=m.$$
(45)
Taking integration, Eq. (45) gives

$$N^{}=\frac{dN}{d\theta }=m\left(\frac{\mathrm{cos}\theta }{\mathrm{sin}^3\theta }\frac{1}{3}\mathrm{cot}^3\theta \right)+\frac{C_1}{\mathrm{sin}^3\theta }.$$
(46)
After further integration, we obtain the general solution of Eq. (43) in the form

$$N(\theta )=\frac{m}{3}\left(\mathrm{ln}\mathrm{sin}\theta \frac{1}{\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }\right)+\frac{C_1}{4}\left(\mathrm{ln}\frac{1\mathrm{cos}\theta }{1+\mathrm{cos}\theta }\frac{2\mathrm{cos}\theta }{\mathrm{sin}^2\theta }\right)+C_2.$$
(47)
The general solution of Eq. (44), corresponding to the three different background geometries is given by

$$M(r)=\{\begin{array}{cc}\frac{1}{6r^3}\left[mr+\sqrt{1+r^2}(2r^21)(m\mathrm{sinh}^1r+C_1)2r^3(m\mathrm{ln}r+C_2)\right],\hfill & \text{for}k=1,\hfill \\ \frac{1}{6r^3}\left[mr+\sqrt{1r^2}(2r^2+1)(m\mathrm{sin}^1r+C_1)2r^3(m\mathrm{ln}r+C_2)\right],\hfill & \text{for}k=1,\hfill \\ C_1+\frac{C_2}{r^3}+\frac{m}{3}\mathrm{ln}r,\hfill & \text{for}k=0.\hfill \end{array}$$
(48)
Hence the general solution of the gravitational field equations for a slowly rotating brane with perfect dragging can be obtained in a closed form.

## IV General time dependence of the angular velocity for $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }`$

Generally, the angular velocity of the matter on the slowly rotating brane consists of two time-dependent terms, $`\omega (t,r,\theta )=\omega _1(t,r,\theta )+\omega _2(t,r,\theta )`$. The first term, $`\omega _1(t,r,\theta )=A(r,\theta )a^3(t)`$ always tends to zero for an expanding Universe, with an increasing scale factor, so that in the large time limit $`\omega _10`$. However, the time evolution of the second term, $`\omega _2(t,r,\theta )=F(r,\theta )/(\rho +p)a^5`$ essentially depends on the equation of state and the dynamic behavior of the background cosmological fluid and geometry. In the following we shall investigate the time dependence of this term for a number types of equation of state which could be relevant for the description of the ultra-high density matter of which the Universe consisted in its very early stages.

### IV.1 Zeldovich Stiff Fluid

One of the most common equations of state, which have extensively been used to study the properties of the early Universe is the linear barotropic equation of state, with $`p=(\gamma 1)\rho `$, with $`\gamma =\text{constant}[1,2]`$. For this equation of state the conservation equation (13) can be immediately integrated to give $`\rho =\rho _0a^{3\gamma },\rho _0=\text{constant}0`$. Therefore for the second term $`\omega _2(t,r,\theta )`$ of the angular velocity we obtain the following time dependence:

$$\omega _2(t,r,\theta )=\frac{F(r,\theta )}{\gamma \rho _0}a^{3\gamma 5}.$$
(49)
In order to have decaying rotational perturbations the condition $`\gamma <5/3`$ must be satisfied. It is satisfied for the case of the pressureless dust, with $`\gamma =1`$, and also for the radiation fluid, having $`\gamma =4/3`$. But this condition in not satisfied for a very important case of the so-called causal limit of the linear barotropic equation of state, corresponding to $`\gamma =2`$, or the Zeldovich stiff fluid equation of state $`p=\rho `$. For the choice $`\gamma =2`$ we obtain $`\omega _2(t,r,\theta )=F(r,\theta )a/2\rho _0`$, showing that an initial rotational perturbation in the ultra-high density cosmological fluid do not decay and the angular velocity of the matter is linearly increasing with the scale factor of the expanding Universe.

The Zeldovich equation of state, valid for densities significantly higher than nuclear densities, $`\rho >10\rho _{\text{nuc}}`$, with $`\rho _{\text{nuc}}=10^{14}g/cm^3`$ can be obtained by constructing a relativistic Lagrangian that allows bare nucleons to interact attractively via scalar meson exchange and repulsively via the exchange of a more massive vector meson ShTe83 . In the non-relativistic limit both the quantum and classical theories yield Yukawa-type potentials. At the highest densities the vector meson exchange dominates and by using a mean field approximation one can show that in the extreme limit of infinite densities the pressure tends to the energy density, $`p\rho `$. In this limit the sound speed $`c_s=\sqrt{dp/d\rho }1`$, and hence this equation of state satisfies the causality condition, with the speed of sound less than the speed of light ShTe83 .

The Zeldovich equation of state can also describe a non-interacting scalar field, with zero potential, with $`\rho _\varphi =p_\varphi =\dot{\varphi }^2/2`$. Hence the rotational perturbations in a potential-free field do not decay. For a self-interacting field with potential $`U(\varphi )`$, the energy density and pressure of the field are $`\rho _\varphi =\dot{\varphi }^2/2+U(\varphi )`$ and $`p_\varphi =\dot{\varphi }^2/2U(\varphi )`$, respectively. The conservation equation (13) becomes in this case

$$\ddot{\varphi }+3\dot{\varphi }\frac{\dot{a}}{a}+U^{}(\varphi )=0,$$
(50)
and has the first integral

$$\dot{\varphi }=\frac{Ka^3U^{}(\varphi )𝑑t}{a^3},$$
(51)
with $`K`$ a constant of integration. Therefore we obtain for $`\omega _2`$

$$\omega _2=F(r,\theta )\frac{a}{K^22Ka^3U^{}(\varphi )𝑑t+\left[a^3U^{}(\varphi )𝑑t\right]^2}.$$
(52)
Hence if the potential $`U(\varphi )`$ is so that the quantity $`a\{K^22Ka^3U^{}(\varphi )𝑑t+[a^3U^{}(\varphi )𝑑t]^2\}^1`$ is a decreasing function of time, the initial rotational perturbation is rapidly decaying.

### IV.2 Hagedorn Fluid

An alternative approach to the equation of state at ultra-high densities is based on the assumption that a whole host of baryonic resonant states arise at high density ShTe83 . In the Hagedorn model the baryon resonance mass spectrum is given by $`N(m)dmm^a\mathrm{exp}(m/m_0)dm`$, where $`N(m)dm`$ is the number of resonances between mass $`m`$ and $`m+dm`$. The existing data on baryon resonances show that $`m_0=160`$ MeV and $`7/2a5/2`$ LeWa73 . For asymptotically large densities the particle number $`n=_0^{\mu _n}N(m)𝑑mm_0\mu _n^a\mathrm{exp}(\mu _n/m_0)`$, where $`\mu _n`$ is the chemical potential of the nuclear matter. The density of the matter is $`\rho n\mu _nm_0\mu _n^{a+1}\mathrm{exp}(\mu _n/m_0)`$. The pressure can be obtained from $`p=n^2d(\rho /n)/dn`$ and is given by the Hagedorn equation of state,

$$p=\frac{\rho }{\mathrm{ln}\frac{\rho }{\rho _0}},$$
(53)
where $`\rho _0=2.5\times 10^{12}`$ g/cm<sup>3</sup> ShTe83 .

The velocity of sound in this type of matter is $`c_s=[\mathrm{ln}(\rho /\rho _0)]^{1/2}\left[1(\mathrm{ln}(\rho /\rho _0))^1\right]^{1/2}`$ LeWa73 ; ShTe83 . For the Hagedorn equation of state the speed of sound has the property $`c_s0`$ for $`\rho /\rho _0\mathrm{}`$, in striking contrast with the mean field theory approach in which $`c_s1`$. The gravitational collapse of a high-density null charged matter fluid, satisfying the Hagedorn equation of state in the framework of the Vaidya geometry was considered in Ha03 . A collapsing Hagedorn fluid could end either as a black hole, or as a naked singularity. The collapse of Hagedorn fluid to a naked singularity is also a possible source of gamma-ray bursts Ha03 .

In order to find the time behavior of the rotational perturbations in a Hagedorn fluid, with the equation of state given by (53), we have to obtain first the scale factor dependence of the density. For the Hagedorn equation of state the conservation equation of the matter on the brane (13) takes the form

$$\dot{\rho }+3\rho \left[1+\left(\mathrm{ln}\frac{\rho }{\rho _0}\right)^1\right]\frac{\dot{a}}{a}=0,$$
(54)
which can be integrated to give

$$\frac{\rho }{\rho _0\left(\mathrm{ln}\frac{\rho }{\rho _0}+1\right)}=\frac{C}{a^3},$$
(55)
with $`C0`$ a constant of integration. For an expanding Universe with an increasing scale factor the energy density of the Hagedorn cosmological fluid is decreasing in time. The time variation of the second component of the angular velocity of the matter can be written as a function of the time dependent only density as

$$\omega _2(t,r,\theta )=\frac{F(r,\theta )}{\rho _0C^{5/3}}\frac{\left(\frac{\rho }{\rho _0}\right)^{2/3}\mathrm{ln}\frac{\rho }{\rho _0}}{\left(\mathrm{ln}\frac{\rho }{\rho _0}+1\right)^{8/3}}.$$
(56)
The variation of the time-dependent part $`f(\rho /\rho _0)=(\rho /\rho _0)^{2/3}\mathrm{ln}(\rho /\rho _0)/\left[\left(\mathrm{ln}(\rho /\rho _0)+1\right)^{8/3}\right]`$ of $`\omega _2`$ is represented in Fig. 1.

As one can see from the figure, once the Universe is expanding and its density decreases, the angular velocity of the matter is also decreasing, and in the large time limit it tends to zero. Therefore the cosmological behavior of the rotational perturbations of the Hagedorn fluid is very different to that of the causal stiff (Zeldovich) cosmological matter, with the matter angular velocity increasing due to the cosmological expansion.

### IV.3 Chaplygin Gas

A form of matter which has recently been invoked to account for the recent supernovae evaluations of the cosmological constant is the so-called Chaplygin gas GiHoYi01 . The Chaplygin gas is a form of what is called “k-essence”, and satisfies an equation of state of the form $`p=1/\rho `$ Gi01 . This equation of state comes from the Born-Infeld type Lagrangian, $`(1\sqrt{1\eta ^{\mu \nu }_\mu A_\nu A})d^nx`$, with $`A`$ the transverse coordinate of domain wall or a (n-1)-brane. The energy-momentum tensor satisfies the Hooke law, and, by taking into account a cosmological constant $`\lambda _0`$, it follows that the pressure and the energy density satisfy the equation of state $`(\rho +\lambda _0)(p\lambda _0)=1`$ Gi01 . In the following we shall take $`\lambda _0=0`$. Hence the energy conservation equation for a Chaplygin gas on the brane becomes

$$\dot{\rho }+3\left(\rho \frac{1}{\rho }\right)\frac{\dot{a}}{a}=0,$$
(57)
with the general solution given by

$$\rho =\sqrt{\frac{\rho _0}{a^6}+1},$$
(58)
with $`\rho _00`$ a constant of integration.

Therefore the second component of the angular velocity varies as

$$\omega _2(t,r,\theta )=\frac{F(r,\theta )}{\rho _0}\frac{\sqrt{a^6+\rho _0}}{a^2}.$$
(59)
In the limit of large times $`a^6>>\rho _0`$ and it follows that $`\omega _2(t,r,\theta )F(r,\theta )a/\rho _0`$, that is, similar to the Zeldovich fluid, the angular velocity of the expanding Universe is an increasing function of time.

### IV.4 Classical Boltzmann Gas

Another important example of a rotationally perturbed cosmological fluid we consider next is the classical Boltzmann gas filled Universe. If the cosmological fluid is a collision-dominated classical gas in equilibrium, then the thermodynamic parameters of the gas are given by Hi91 , Ma96

$$p=nm\beta ^1,nm=A_0K_2(\beta )/\beta ,\rho =A_0\left[\beta ^1K_1(\beta )+3\beta ^2K_2(\beta )\right],$$
(60)
where $`n`$ is the particle number density, $`\beta =mc^2/k_BT`$, with $`k_B`$ the Boltzmann constant, $`T`$ the temperature and $`A_0=m^4g/2\pi ^2\mathrm{}^3`$, with $`g`$ the spin weight of the fluid particles. $`K_n`$ are the modified Bessel functions of the second kind.

With the use of Eqs. (60) the energy conservation equation of the cosmological fluid can be written as

$$\dot{\beta }g(\beta )\frac{\dot{a}}{a}=0,$$
(61)
where

$$g(\beta )=\frac{6\beta [\beta K_1(\beta )+4K_2(\beta )]}{\beta ^2K_0(\beta )+5\beta K_1(\beta )+(12+\beta ^2)K_2(\beta )+3\beta K_3(\beta )}.$$
(62)
In order to obtain Eq. (62) we have used the recurrence relation $`K_n^{}(x)=[K_{n1}(x)+K_{n+1}(x)]/2`$ AbSt72 . Therefore the scale factor can be expressed as a function of the temperature as

$$a(\beta )=a_0\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{d\beta }{g(\beta )}\right),$$
(63)
with $`a_00`$ a constant of integration.

The second component of the angular velocity of the matter on the brane is given by

$$\omega _2(\beta ,r,\theta )=\frac{F(r,\theta )}{A_0a_0^5}\frac{\beta ^2\mathrm{exp}\left(5g^1(\beta )𝑑\beta \right)}{\beta K_1(\beta )+4K_2(\beta )}=\frac{F(r,\theta )}{A_0a_0^5}h(\beta ),$$
(64)
where we denoted $`h(\beta )=\beta ^2\mathrm{exp}\left[5g^1(\beta )𝑑\beta \right]/[\beta K_1(\beta )+4K_2(\beta )]`$. The variation of $`h(\beta )`$ is presented in Fig. 2.

The angular velocity of the Boltzmann gas decreases with increasing $`\beta `$, so that for small temperatures (large $`\beta `$) $`\omega _20`$.

### IV.5 Quark Matter

The rotational perturbations always decay in the important case of quark matter, satisfying the bag model equation of state $`p=(\rho 4B)/3`$ Wi84 , where $`B=10^{14}g/cm^3`$ is the bag constant ChHa00 . Quark matter is assumed to have played an important role in the early evolution of the Universe, and a first order phase transition from quark to hadronic matter took place when the temperature was around $`100MeV`$. It is also possible that inhomogeneities in the baryon number density were produced during this transition, and perhaps they persisted even to the time of nucleosynthesis, which could alter the abundance of light elements Wi84 . For the bag model equation of state of the quark matter the density-scale factor dependence is given by

$$\rho =B+\frac{\rho _0}{a^4},$$
(65)
and consequently $`\omega _2`$ becomes

$$\omega _2(t,r,\theta )=\frac{3F(r,\theta )}{4\rho _0}\frac{1}{a}.$$
(66)
Therefore in the large time limit, for $`a\mathrm{}`$, the rotational perturbations in the cosmological quark matter tend to zero.

In the general case, due to the dependence of the rotation equation on the arbitrary function $`F(r,\theta )`$, the solution of the rotation equation cannot be obtained. The particular choice $`F(r,\theta )=A(r,\theta )`$ leads again to a radial and angular distribution of the matter which is very similar to the perfect dragging case. Moreover, if $`A`$ is represented as a product of two $`r`$ and $`\theta `$ only dependent functions, $`A(r,\theta )=X(r)Y(\theta )`$, then the angular velocity $`\omega `$ is also a separable function of all variables. But if $`A`$ is the sum of two independent functions, $`A(r,\theta )=X(r)+Y(\theta )`$, the angular velocity is a non-separable function. In these cases the functions $`X(r)`$ and $`Y(\theta )`$ can be obtained in terms of the hypergeometric function.

## V Discussions and final remarks

In the present paper we have considered the evolution of the small rotational perturbations in the brane world cosmological model. The evolution of the angular velocity of the matter is related to the metric perturbation function via an equation derived from the energy-momentum conservation on the brane. This equation is in fact the same in both standard general relativity and brane world cosmology. Once the evolution of the background non-perturbed geometry is known, the time dynamics of the metric rotation function $`\mathrm{\Omega }(t,r,\theta )`$ and of the angular velocity $`\omega (t,r,\theta )`$ of the matter on the brane is uniquely determined by the unperturbed field equations and, from a physical point of view, by the equation of state of the ultra-high density cosmological fluid. The time behaviors of $`\omega (t,r,\theta )`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }(t,r,\theta )`$ are independent on their spatial distribution. For $`\omega =\mathrm{\Omega }`$, in the large time limit the angular velocity of the matter tends to zero, showing that the initial small rotational perturbations of the brane world are smoothed out, due to the expansion of the Universe. This result is also independent of the geometry (flat, open or close) of the space-time. However, despite the fact that the presence of the dark matter term $`𝒰=𝒰_0/a^4`$ is not essential for the rapid decay of the rotational perturbations of the matter on the brane, the effects induced by the five-dimensional bulk still contribute to the decay (or amplification) of the first order rotational perturbations via their effect on the unperturbed background geometry.

A very different situation occurs for $`\omega \mathrm{\Omega }`$. In this case the dependence of the angular velocity on the equation of state leads to two distinct classes of behaviors. For some equations of state (radiation fluid or quark matter), the rotational perturbations decay and this behavior is consistent with the observational constraint that our present day Universe is rotating very slowly. However, some equations of state which try to model the thermodynamical properties of the super-dense matter at the very early stages of the evolution of our Universe, like the Zeldovich or Chaplygin gas equations of state, do not lead to an observationally consistent description of the early Universe. In particular, the causal Zeldovich equation of state with $`\gamma =2`$, which has been used, for example, to determine the maximum mass of the neutron stars ShTe83 , does not lead, once applied to a cosmological framework, to a description of the rotational perturbations consistent with the observations, that is, it does not satisfy the basic observational requirement of a very small rotation in the large time limit. Hence, if still one assumes these equations of state for the early Universe, a physical mechanism supplementary to the expansion is also needed to suppress rotation.

However, if the brane Universe experiences an inflationary period, than any rotational perturbation is reduced exponentially to a very low level, the decrease of cosmological vorticity being of the order of $`10^{145}`$ GrSo87 . Hence, any growth of the rotational perturbations during a maximally stiff phase in a post-inflationary period is unlikely to increase them back up to observationally significant levels.

The equation of state of the Hagedorn fluid is consistent with the requirement of a non-rotating Universe. Therefore the study of the perturbations of cosmological models could also provide some insights in the equation of state of the ultra-high density nuclear or sub-nuclear matter. The actual very tight limit on the rotation of the Universe imposes very strong constraints on the initial equation of state of the cosmological fluid.

The spatial and angular distribution of the angular velocity depend on two arbitrary integration constants $`C_i,i=1,2`$. In principle the values of these constants could be determined by fixing the value of $`A(r,\theta )`$ at the center, and from the actual value of the angular velocity of the Universe.

## Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank to the anonymous referee for comments which helped to improve the manuscript. This work is supported in part by the National Science Council under the grant numbers NSC90-2112-M009-021 and NSC90-2112-M002-055. The work of CMC is also supported by the Taiwan CosPA project and, in part, by the Center of Theoretical Physics at NTU and National Center for Theoretical Science.