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# On the Vector valued Fourier Transform And Compatibility of Operators*

## 1. Introduction

A locally compact abelian group means a topological abelian group with its Haar measure whose topology is locally compact Hausdorff. The real line $``$, the discrete group of integers $``$ and the circle group $`𝕋`$ are important examples. Further information can be found in ,  and . Let $`𝔾`$ be a locally compact abelian group and $`𝔾^{^{}}`$ its dual(charactor) group, the Haar measure of $`𝔾^{^{}}`$ is determined so that Parseval’s identity is established with constant 1. For $`1r<\mathrm{}`$, we denote by $`[L_r(𝔾,\mu _𝔾),X]`$ the Banach space of all measurable functions $`𝐟:𝔾X`$ for which $`𝐟|L_r(𝔾):=(_𝔾𝐟(s)^rd\mu _𝔾(s))^{1/r}`$ is finite. Let $`𝔾`$ be a fixed infinite locally compact abelian group and $`1<p2`$. $`F^𝔾`$ denotes the Fourier transform from $`L_p(𝔾)`$ into $`L_p^{^{}}(𝔾^{^{}})`$. For a bounded linear operator $`T`$ between Banach spaces $`X`$ and $`Y`$,

$$F^𝔾T:\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}f_k𝐱_k\underset{k=1}{\overset{n}{}}F^𝔾f_kT𝐱_k$$

yields a well-defined map from $`L_p(𝔾)X`$ into $`L_p^{^{}}(𝔾^{^{}})Y`$. $`T`$ is said to be compatible with $`F^𝔾`$ or have $`𝔾`$-Fourier type $`p`$, if the operator $`F^𝔾T:L_p(𝔾)XL_p^{^{}}(𝔾^{^{}})Y`$ admits a continuous extension

$$[F^𝔾,T]:[L_p(𝔾),X][L_p^{^{}}(𝔾^{^{}}),Y].$$

For such $`T`$, we let

$$T|𝒯_p^𝔾:=[F^𝔾,T]:[L_p(𝔾),X][L_p^{^{}}(𝔾^{^{}}),Y].$$

The norm defined above is invariant under changing the Haar measure of $`𝔾`$. The class of these operators is a Banach ideal, denoted by $`𝒯_p^𝔾`$. The definition and notation follow those of .

It is known that $`𝒯_p^{}=𝒯_p^{}=𝒯_p^𝕋`$ , but the problem whether the operator ideal $`𝒯_p^𝔾`$ depends on $`𝔾`$ or not is unsolved. There are several results about $`\mathrm{FT}_p^𝔾`$, the class of Banach spaces whose identity operators are compatible with $`F^𝔾`$. And these are immediately extended to the case of $`𝒯_p^𝔾`$ by replacing the identity operator on a Banach space $`X`$ with $`T`$. Peetre  who introduced the concept of Banach space of Fourier type $`p`$ proved that $`X`$ belongs to $`\mathrm{FT}_p^{}`$ if and only if the dual space $`X^{^{}}`$ belongs to $`\mathrm{FT}_p^{}`$. In fact, $`T`$ belongs to $`𝒯_p^𝔾`$ if and only if the dual operator $`T^{^{}}`$ belongs to $`𝒯_p^𝔾^{^{}}`$ i.e. $`T|𝒯_p^𝔾=T^{^{}}|𝒯_p^𝔾^{^{}}`$ for any locally compact abelian group $`𝔾`$. Bourgain  showed that $`\mathrm{FT}_p^𝕋\mathrm{FT}_p^{}`$ and König  modified Kwapien’s argument  to show that $`\mathrm{FT}_p^{}=\mathrm{FT}_p^𝕋`$ and extended this to that $`\mathrm{FT}_p^𝔾=\mathrm{FT}_p^𝕋`$ if $`𝔾`$ is one of $`^m`$ and $`𝕋^m`$, where $`m`$ is a positive integer. Garcia-Cuerva, Kazarian and Torrea  and Andersson  showed independently that $`\mathrm{FT}_p^𝔾=\mathrm{FT}_p^{}`$ whenever $`𝔾`$ is one of $`𝕋^m,𝕋^{\mathrm{}},^m,^m`$ and $`^{\mathrm{}}`$. Andersson  also proved that $`I_X|𝒯_p^{}I_X|𝒯_p^𝔾`$ when $``$ is an open subgroup of $`𝔾`$, and that $`\mathrm{FT}_p^𝔼=\mathrm{FT}_p^{}`$ if $`𝔼`$ is a nontrivial torsion free abelian group with the discrete topology.

In this paper we characterize $`𝒯_p^𝔾`$ partly as follows. In Section 2, we show for every locally compact abelian group $`𝔾`$ that $`T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$ is equivalent to $`T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$, and $`T|𝒯_p^{^n\times 𝔾}=T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$. The Cartesian product means the direct sum. By applying these, we easily obtain some results in the above paragraph and the relation $`𝒯_p^{^k\times ^l\times 𝕋^m\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$ for any nonnegative integers $`k`$, $`l`$, $`m`$ with $`k+l+m1`$. In Section 3, we combine the results of Section 2 with the properties of a locally compact abelian group to show that $`𝒯_p^{^k\times ^l\times 𝔽}=𝒯_p^{}`$ for any compact abelian group $`𝔽`$ with finitely many components. And we show that if $`𝔾^k\times `$\[torsion-free group with discrete topology\]$`\times `$\[compact group with finite components\] then $`𝒯_p^𝔾=𝒯_p^{}`$. If the factor group of a locally compact abelian group $`𝔾`$ with respect to the component of the identity element is in the form of \[torsion-free group\]$`\times `$\[finite group\] with discrete topology, then we have $`𝒯_p^𝔾=𝒯_p^{}`$.

From now on, $`X`$ and $`Y`$ are Banach spaces and $`T:XY`$ is a bounded linear operator. We denote the dual group of $`𝔾`$ by $`𝔾^{^{}}`$. But we use the fact that $`^{^{}}=`$ and $`^{^{}}=𝕋`$. We use the abbreviation LCA for ‘locally compact abelian’. The term ‘isomorphic’ means ‘topologically and algebraically isomorphic’. The integral for a vector valued function is the Bochner integral.

## 2. Classifying $`𝒯_p^𝔾`$ via direct sum.

First we observe that the proof in  of the fact $`\mathrm{FT}_p^{}=\mathrm{FT}_p^{}`$ can be modified to yield the following:

###### Proposition 1.

For any LCA group $`𝔾`$, we have the inequalities

$$T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}\frac{\pi }{2}T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾},$$

and hence

$$𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}.$$

###### Proof.

For arbitrary $`\delta >0`$, let

$$𝐟(s,t)=\underset{m}{}\chi _{[\delta (m\frac{1}{2}),\delta (m+\frac{1}{2})]}(s)𝐠_m(t),$$

where the summation is over $``$, $`𝐠_m`$ is an $`X`$-valued simple function on $`𝔾`$ and $`𝐠_m=0`$ except for finitely many $`m`$. Note that the set of all $`X`$-valued functions of the form of $`𝐟`$ is dense in $`[L_p(\times 𝔾),X]`$. We compute

(1)
$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 𝐟|L_p(\times 𝔾)& =\left(_{\times 𝔾}\underset{m}{}\chi _{[\delta (m\frac{1}{2}),\delta (m+\frac{1}{2})]}(s)𝐠_m(t)^p𝑑s𝑑t\right)^{\frac{1}{p}}\hfill \\ & =\delta ^{\frac{1}{p}}\left(_𝔾\underset{m}{}𝐠_m(t)^pdt\right)^{\frac{1}{p}}.\hfill \end{array}$$

Since $`_{\delta (m1/2)}^{\delta (m+1/2)}\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}s)𝑑s=\mathrm{exp}(im\delta \stackrel{~}{s})\frac{\mathrm{sin}(\frac{\delta }{2}\stackrel{~}{s})}{\stackrel{~}{s}/2}`$, we have

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \widehat{T𝐟}(\stackrel{~}{s},\stackrel{~}{t})& =_𝔾_{}\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)\chi _{[\delta (m\frac{1}{2}),\delta (m+\frac{1}{2})]}(s)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}s)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dsdt\hfill \\ & =_𝔾\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})\mathrm{exp}(i\delta m\stackrel{~}{s})\frac{\mathrm{sin}(\frac{\delta }{2}\stackrel{~}{s})}{\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{s}}dt.\hfill \end{array}$$

Hence

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill [F^{\times 𝔾}& ,T]𝐟^p^{^{}}=_𝔾^{^{}}_{}_𝔾_mT𝐠_m(t)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})\mathrm{exp}(i\delta m\stackrel{~}{s})\frac{\mathrm{sin}(\frac{\delta }{2}\stackrel{~}{s})}{\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{s}}dt^p^{^{}}\frac{1}{2\pi }d\stackrel{~}{s}d\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & =\delta ^p^{^{}}_𝔾^{^{}}_{}_𝔾\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})\mathrm{exp}(i\delta m\stackrel{~}{s})\frac{\mathrm{sin}(\frac{\delta }{2}\stackrel{~}{s})}{\frac{\delta }{2}\stackrel{~}{s}}dt^p^{^{}}\frac{1}{2\pi }𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}𝑑\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & =\delta ^{p^{^{}}1}_𝔾^{^{}}_{}\left|\frac{\mathrm{sin}(\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{s})}{\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{s}}\right|^p^{^{}}_𝔾\underset{k}{}(\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)\chi _{\{m\}}(k))(t,\stackrel{~}{t})exp(ik\stackrel{~}{s})dt\frac{1}{2\pi }𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}𝑑\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & =\delta ^{p^{^{}}1}_𝔾^{^{}}_\pi ^\pi \underset{n}{}\left|\frac{\mathrm{sin}(\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{s})}{\frac{1}{2}\stackrel{~}{s}n\pi }\right|^p^{^{}}[F^{\times 𝔾},T](\underset{m}{}𝐠_m\chi _{\{m\}})^p^{^{}}\frac{1}{2\pi }d\stackrel{~}{s}d\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & \delta ^{p^{^{}}1}T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}^p^{^{}}(_𝔾\underset{m}{}𝐠_m(t)^pdt)^{\frac{p^{^{}}}{p}}\hfill \\ & =T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}^p^{^{}}𝐟|L_p(\times 𝔾)^p^{^{}}\text{by }(\text{1}),\hfill \end{array}$$

where we used the inequality $`_n|\frac{\mathrm{sin}\stackrel{~}{s}}{\stackrel{~}{s}n\pi }|^p^{^{}}\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ for any real $`\stackrel{~}{s}n\pi `$ and $`2p^{^{}}<\mathrm{}`$, see .

Therefore we have $`T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$ and $`𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$.

For the right inequality let $`𝐟(k,t)=_m𝐠_m(t)\chi _{\{m\}}(k)`$ where $`𝐠_m`$ is an $`X`$-valued simple function and $`𝐠_m=0`$ except for finitely many $`m`$. By density argument it’s enough to consider $`𝐟`$ of the above form. Now we have

(2)
$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill 𝐟|L_p(\times 𝔾)& =\left(_𝔾\underset{k}{}\underset{m}{}𝐠_m(t)\chi _{\{m\}}(k)^pdt\right)^{\frac{1}{p}}\hfill \\ & =\left(_𝔾\underset{m}{}𝐠_m(t)^pdt\right)^{\frac{1}{p}};\text{ and}\hfill \end{array}$$

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill \widehat{T𝐟}(\stackrel{~}{s},\stackrel{~}{t})& =_𝔾\underset{k}{}\left(\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)\chi _{\{m\}}(k)\right)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}k)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dt\hfill \\ & =_𝔾\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}m)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dt.\hfill \end{array}$$

We use the identity, $`\mathrm{exp}(im\stackrel{~}{s})=_{}\frac{\stackrel{~}{s}/2}{\mathrm{sin}(\stackrel{~}{s}/2)}\chi _{[m1/2,m+1/2]}(s)\mathrm{exp}(is\stackrel{~}{s})𝑑s`$, to obtain the following inequality:

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill [& F^{\times 𝔾},T]𝐟^p^{^{}}\hfill \\ & =\frac{1}{2\pi }_𝔾^{^{}}_\pi ^\pi _𝔾\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})_{}\frac{\stackrel{~}{s}/2}{\mathrm{sin}(\stackrel{~}{s}/2)}\chi _{[m1/2,m+1/2]}(s)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}s)𝑑s𝑑t^p^{^{}}𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}𝑑\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & \frac{1}{2\pi }_𝔾^{^{}}_\pi ^\pi \left|\frac{\stackrel{~}{s}/2}{\mathrm{sin}(\stackrel{~}{s}/2)}\right|^p^{^{}}_𝔾_{}\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)\chi _{[m\frac{1}{2},m+\frac{1}{2}]}(s)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}s)dsdt^p^{^{}}𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}𝑑\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & (\text{because }\left|\frac{\stackrel{~}{s}/2}{\mathrm{sin}(\stackrel{~}{s}/2)}\right|\frac{\pi }{2}\text{for}\pi \stackrel{~}{s}\pi )\hfill \\ & \frac{1}{2\pi }\left(\frac{\pi }{2}\right)^p^{^{}}_𝔾^{^{}}_{}_𝔾_{}\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)\chi _{[m\frac{1}{2},m+\frac{1}{2}]}(s)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}s)dsdt^p^{^{}}𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}𝑑\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & =\left(\frac{\pi }{2}\right)^p^{^{}}[F^{\times 𝔾},T]\left(\underset{m}{}𝐠_m\chi _{[m\frac{1}{2},m+\frac{1}{2}]}\right)^p^{^{}}\hfill \\ & \left(\frac{\pi }{2}\right)^p^{^{}}T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}^p^{^{}}\underset{m}{}𝐠_m\chi _{[m\frac{1}{2},m+\frac{1}{2}]}|L_p(\times 𝔾)^p^{^{}}\hfill \\ & (\text{ since }\underset{m}{}𝐠_m\chi _{[m\frac{1}{2},m+\frac{1}{2}]}|L_p(\times 𝔾)=(_𝔾\underset{m}{}𝐠_m(t)^pdt)^{\frac{1}{p}})\hfill \\ & =\left(\frac{\pi }{2}\right)^p^{^{}}T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}^p^{^{}}𝐟|L_p(\times 𝔾)^p^{^{}}\text{by}(\text{2}).\hfill \end{array}$$

Therefore we have $`T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}\frac{\pi }{2}T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$ and $`𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$.
This completes the proof of Proposition 1. ∎

According to Theorem 6.3 of , for any LCA group $`𝔾`$ and operator $`T`$, $`T|𝒯_p^𝔾=T^{^{}}|𝒯_p^𝔾^{^{}}`$. By applying this property, we have the following:

###### Proposition 2.

For every LCA group $`𝔾`$, $`𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔾}`$.

###### Proof.

By Proposition 1 we have

$$T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}=T^{^{}}|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾^{^{}}}T^{^{}}|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾^{^{}}}=T|𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔾}.$$

Similarly

$$T|𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔾}\frac{\pi }{2}T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}.$$

From Proposition 1 and 2, we conclude that $`𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔾}`$ for every LCA group $`𝔾`$. And we have the following two corollaries.

###### Corollary 3.

$`𝒯_p^^n=𝒯_p^^n=𝒯_p^{𝕋^n}`$ for every integer $`n1`$.

###### Proof.

By Proposition 1 we have

$$𝒯_p^^n=𝒯_p^{\times ^{n1}}=𝒯_p^{\times ^{n1}}.$$

We continue this to obtain

$$𝒯_p^{\times \times ^{n2}}=𝒯_p^{\times \times ^{n2}}=\mathrm{}=𝒯_p^^n.$$

Similarly we apply Proposition 2 $`n`$ times to obtain

$$𝒯_p^^n=𝒯_p^{𝕋^n}.$$

###### Corollary 4.

$`𝒯_p^{^n\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{^n\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{𝕋^n\times 𝔾}`$ for every LCA group $`𝔾`$.

###### Proof.

The proof is similar to that of Corollary 3. ∎

###### Lemma 5.

For every LCA group $`𝔾`$ and every positive integer $`n`$,

$$T|𝒯_p^{^n\times 𝔾}=T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}$$

and therefore $`𝒯_p^{^n\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$.

###### Proof.

Let $`𝐟(k,t)=_m𝐠_m(t)\chi _{\{m\}}(k)`$ ,where $`𝐠_m`$ is an $`X`$-valued simple function on $`𝔾`$ and the summation is on a finite subset of $``$, then

$$𝐟|L_p(\times 𝔾)=(_𝔾\underset{m}{}𝐠_m(t)^pdt)^{\frac{1}{p}}.$$

We have

$$[F^{\times 𝔾},T]𝐟(\stackrel{~}{s},\stackrel{~}{t})=_𝔾\underset{k}{}(\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)\chi _{\{m\}}(k))\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}k)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dt$$

and

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill [& F^{\times 𝔾},T]𝐟^p^{^{}}=_𝔾^{^{}}_𝕋_𝔾_k(\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)\chi _{\{m\}}(k))\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}k)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dt^p^{}d\stackrel{~}{s}d\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & =_𝔾^{^{}}_𝕋_𝕋_𝔾\underset{k,l}{}\left(\underset{m}{}T𝐠_m(t)\chi _{\{m\}}(k)\chi _{\{0\}}(l)\right)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}k)\mathrm{exp}(i\xi l)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dt^p^{^{}}𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}𝑑\xi 𝑑\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & T|𝒯_p^{^2\times 𝔾}^p^{^{}}(_𝔾\underset{k,l}{}\underset{m}{}𝐠_m(t)\chi _{\{m\}}(k)\chi _{\{0\}}(l)^pdt)^{\frac{p^{^{}}}{p}}\hfill \\ & =T|𝒯_p^{^2\times 𝔾}^p^{^{}}(_𝔾\underset{m}{}𝐠_m(t)^pdt)^{\frac{p^{^{}}}{p}},\hfill \end{array}$$

so $`T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}T|𝒯_p^{^2\times 𝔾}`$.

Conversely let

$$𝐟(k_1,k_2,t)=\underset{l_1,l_2}{}𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)\chi _{\{l_1\}}(k_1)\chi _{\{l_2\}}(k_2),$$

where the summation is on a finite subset of $`\times `$, then we have

(3)
$$𝐟|L_p(^2\times 𝔾)=(_𝔾\underset{l_1,l_2}{}𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)^pdt)^{\frac{1}{p}}.$$

Since $`[F^{^2\times 𝔾},T]𝐟(\stackrel{~}{s}_1,\stackrel{~}{s}_2,\stackrel{~}{t})=_𝔾_{l_1,l_2}T𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_1l_1)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_2l_2)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dt`$ we have

(4)
$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill [F^{^2\times 𝔾}& ,T]𝐟^p^{^{}}=\hfill \\ & _𝔾^{^{}}_𝕋_𝕋_𝔾\underset{l_1,l_2}{}T𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_1l_1)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_2l_2)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dt^p^{^{}}𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}_1𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}_2𝑑\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & (\text{we let }A=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}max\{l_1\}+1)\hfill \\ & =_𝔾^{^{}}_𝕋_𝕋_𝔾\underset{l_1,l_2}{}T𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_1l_1)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_2Al_2)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dt^p^{^{}}𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}_1𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}_2𝑑\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & =_𝔾^{^{}}_𝕋_𝕋_𝔾\underset{l_1,l_2}{}T𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_1l_1)\mathrm{exp}(i(\stackrel{~}{s}_1+\stackrel{~}{s}_2)Al_2)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dt^p^{^{}}𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}_1𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}_2𝑑\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & =_𝔾^{^{}}_𝕋_𝕋_𝔾\underset{l_1,l_2}{}T𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_1(l_1+Al_2))\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_2Al_2)(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dt^p^{^{}}𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}_1𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}_2𝑑\stackrel{~}{t}\hfill \\ & =_𝕋_𝔾^{^{}}_𝕋_𝔾\underset{l_1,l_2}{}T(𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_2Al_2))\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_1(l_1+Al_2))(t,\stackrel{~}{t})dt^p^{^{}}𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}_1𝑑\stackrel{~}{t}𝑑\stackrel{~}{s}_2\hfill \\ & =_𝕋[F^{\times 𝔾},T](\underset{l_1,l_2}{}(𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_2Al_2))\chi _{\{l_1+Al_2\}}^p^{^{}}d\stackrel{~}{s}_2\hfill \\ & _𝕋[T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}^p^{^{}}(_𝔾\underset{l_1+Al_2}{}𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)\mathrm{exp}(i\stackrel{~}{s}_2Al_2)^pdt)^{p^{^{}}/p}]d\stackrel{~}{s}_2\hfill \\ & =T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}^p^{^{}}(_𝔾\underset{l_1+Al_2}{}𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)^pdt)^{p^{^{}}/p}\hfill \\ & =T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}^p^{^{}}(_𝔾\underset{l_1,l_2}{}𝐠_{l_1,l_2}(t)^pdt)^{p^{^{}}/p}\hfill \\ & =T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}^p^{^{}}𝐟|L_p(^2\times 𝔾)^p^{^{}}\text{by (}\text{3}\text{)},\hfill \end{array}$$

so it follows that $`T|𝒯_p^{^2\times 𝔾}T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$.

Therefore we have $`T|𝒯_p^{^2\times 𝔾}=T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}.`$ A simple generalization yields, for all positive integers $`n`$ that

(5)
$$T|𝒯_p^{^n\times 𝔾}=T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}$$

hence that $`𝒯_p^{^n\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$. ∎

###### Remark 1.

In fact, a dissipative group $`𝔸`$ satisfies the property that $`T|𝒯_p^{𝔸^n\times 𝔾}=T|𝒯_p^{𝔸\times 𝔾}`$ for any positive integer $`n`$ and for any LCA group $`𝔾`$. The definition and properties of a dissipative group are introduced in . The idea of the proof of Lemma 5 goes back to .

###### Corollary 6.

$`T|𝒯_p^{𝕋^n\times 𝔾}=T|𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔾}`$ and so $`𝒯_p^{𝕋^n\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔾}`$.

###### Proof.

This follows from Lemma 5 and a duality argument. ∎

###### Proposition 7.

Let $``$ be $``$, $``$ or $`𝕋`$, and $`𝔾`$ be an LCA group. Then $`𝒯_p^{^n\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$ for any integer $`n\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$. In particular, $`𝒯_p^^n=𝒯_p^{}`$.

###### Proof.

It follows from Corollary 4 and Lemma 5 that $`𝒯_p^{^n\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$. And if $`𝔾`$ is the trivial group then we have $`𝒯_p^^n=𝒯_p^{}`$. ∎

Notation: From now on, when $``$ is $``$, $``$ or $`𝕋`$ we denote $`𝒯_p^{}`$ by $`𝒯_p`$.

###### Corollary 8.

$`𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝕋^c}=𝒯_p`$ for any nonnegative integers $`a,b,c`$ with $`a+b+c\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$.

###### Proof.

Without loss of generality we assume $`a,b,c>0`$. By applying Proposition 7, we have

$$𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝕋^c}=𝒯_p^{^{b+1}\times 𝕋^c}=𝒯_p^{\times 𝕋^c}=𝒯_p^^2=𝒯_p^{}.$$

###### Theorem 9.

Let $`𝔾`$ be an LCA group then $`𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝕋^c\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$ for any nonnegative integers $`a,b,c`$ with $`a+b+c\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$.

###### Proof.

By Proposition 7 we have

$$𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝕋^c\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{^{1+b}\times 𝕋^c\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{^{2+b}\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}.$$

## 3. Search for $`𝔾`$ satisfying $`𝒯_p^𝔾=𝒯_p^{}`$ and Further classification.

We notice that to solve the problem of deciding whether $`𝒯_p^𝔾`$ depends on $`𝔾`$, we should solve that problem on the compact abelian groups since any compactly generated LCA group is a product of finite number of $``$’s and $``$’s and a compact group . The dual group of a compact group has the discrete topology . More over if $`𝔾`$ is a compact abelian group then $`𝔾`$ is connected iff $`𝔾^{^{}}`$ is tortion-free . This fact gives a clue to the results in this section.

First, we introduce Weil’s formula which factorizes an integration on $`𝔾`$ into double ones on a closed subgroup and its factor group.

###### Theorem 10.

 Let $`𝔾`$ be an LCA group and $``$ a closed subgroup. Then there are Haar measures $`\mu _𝔾`$, $`\mu _{}`$ and $`\mu _{𝔾/}`$ such that

(6)
$$_𝔾𝐟(s)d_{\mu _𝔾}(s)=_{𝔾/}\left(_{}𝐟(s+h)d_\mu _{}(h)\right)d_{\mu _{𝔾/}}(s+)$$

if $`𝐟`$ is a compactly supported continuous Banach space-valued function or a nonnegative lower semi continuous function on $`𝔾`$.

In Theorem 10 if any two of $`\mu _𝔾`$, $`\mu _{}`$ and $`\mu _{𝔾/}`$ are given then the third is determined so that the statement holds.

Andersson  obtained the inequality, $`I_X|𝒯_p^{}I_X|𝒯_p^𝔾`$, where $``$ is an open subgroup of an LCA group $`𝔾`$ and $`I_X`$ is the identity operator on a Banach space $`X`$. By replacing $`I_X`$ with a bounded linear operator $`T:XY`$ in the proof of , we have the following:

###### Proposition 11.

Let $``$ be an open subgroup of an LCA group $`𝔾`$ then we have

(7)
$$T|𝒯_p^{}T|𝒯_p^𝔾.$$

Now we consider torsion-free LCA groups with the discrete topology.

###### Corollary 12.

For any non-trivial torsion-free LCA group $`𝔼`$ with the discrete topology,

(8)
$$T|𝒯_p^𝔼=T|𝒯_p^{}.$$

###### Proof.

The proof is similar to that of $`\mathrm{FT}_p^𝔼=\mathrm{FT}_p^{}`$ in : Since $``$ is isomorphic with an open subgroup of $`𝔼`$, by applying (7) we have $`T|𝒯_p^{}T|𝒯_p^𝔼`$. On the other hand for any $`X`$-valued simple function $`𝐟`$ defined on $`𝔼`$ which has finite $`L_p`$-norm, $`𝐟`$ is non-zero only on a subset of an open subgroup which is isomorphic with $`^k`$ for some positive integer $`k`$. Therefore we have

$$\frac{[F^𝔼,T]𝐟_p^{^{}}}{𝐟|L_p(𝔼)}=\frac{[F^^k,T]𝐟_p^{^{}}}{𝐟|L_p(^k)}T|𝒯_p^^k$$

and hence

$$T|𝒯_p^𝔼\underset{k}{sup}T|𝒯_p^^k=T|𝒯_p^{}.$$

Thus the equality (8) follows. ∎

###### Lemma 13.

Let $``$ be a closed subgroup of an LCA group $`𝔾`$ such that $`𝔾/`$ is finite. If $`n`$ is the cardinal number of $`𝔾/`$ then

(9)
$$T|𝒯_p^{}T|𝒯_p^𝔾T|𝒯_p^{}n^{1/p^{^{}}},$$

hence $`𝒯_p^𝔾=𝒯_p^{}`$.

###### Proof.

Since $`𝔾/`$ is finite, $``$ is open and by the inequlity (7) we have the left side. The proof of the right side is as follows. Let us choose $`s_1,s_2,\mathrm{},s_n`$ in $`𝔾`$ such that $`𝔾/=\{s_1+,s_2+,\mathrm{},s_n+\}`$. The measure of $`𝔾/`$ is the Haar measure of unit mass. By applying Weil’s formula, for any compactly supported continuous $`X`$-valued function $`𝐟`$ on $`𝔾`$ we have

(10)
$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill _𝔾𝐟(s)^pd_{\mu _𝔾}(s)& =_{𝔾/}\left(_{}𝐟(s+h)^pd_\mu _{}(h)\right)d_{\mu _{𝔾/}}(s+)\hfill \\ & =\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{1}{n}_{}𝐟(s_i+h)^pd_\mu _{}(h)\hfill \end{array}$$

and

(11)
$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill [F^𝔾,T]𝐟(\sigma )& =\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{1}{n}\left(_{}T𝐟(s_i+h)\sigma (s_i+h)d_\mu _{}(h)\right)\hfill \\ & =\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{\sigma (s_i)}{n}\left(_{}T𝐟(s_i+h)\sigma (h)d_\mu _{}(h)\right)\hfill \end{array}$$

for $`\sigma 𝔾^{^{}}`$. The dual group of $`𝔾/`$ is isomorphic with the closed subgroup $`^{}=\{\chi 𝔾^{^{}}|\chi (h)=1\text{ for all }h\}`$ and $`𝔾^{^{}}/^{}`$ is isomorphic with $`^{^{}}`$. Here the cardinal number of $`^{}`$ is $`n`$, the measure of $`^{}`$ is the counting measure which make Parseval’s identity clean with constant 1 and we write $`^{}`$ as $`\{\stackrel{~}{\eta }_1,\stackrel{~}{\eta }_2,\mathrm{},\stackrel{~}{\eta }_n\}`$. $`[F^𝔾,T](𝐟)`$ belongs to $`[C_0(𝔾^{^{}}),Y]`$, so $`Y`$-norm of $`[F^𝔾,T](𝐟)`$ is continuous and by Weil’s formula we have

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill [F^𝔾,T]𝐟& =\left(_{^{^{}}}\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{1}{n}\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\sigma (s_i)\eta _j(s_i)_{}T𝐟(s_i+h)\sigma (h)d_\mu _{}(h)^p^{^{}}d_\mu _{^{^{}}}(\sigma +^{})\right)^{1/p^{^{}}}\hfill \\ & \left[\left(_{^{^{}}}\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}\left(\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{1}{n}_{}T𝐟(s_i+h)\sigma (h)d_\mu _{}(h)^p\right)^{p^{^{}}/p}d_\mu _{^{^{}}}(\sigma +^{})\right)^{p/p^{^{}}}\right]^{1/p}\hfill \\ & \left[\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{1}{n}\left(_{^{^{}}}\underset{j=1}{\overset{n}{}}_{}T𝐟(s_i+h)\sigma (h)d_\mu _{}(h)^p^{^{}}d_\mu _{^{^{}}}(\sigma +^{})\right)^{p/p^{^{}}}\right]^{1/p}\hfill \\ & =\left[\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{1}{n}n^{p/p^{^{}}}\left(_{^{^{}}}_{}T𝐟(s_i+h)\sigma (h)d_\mu _{}(h)^p^{^{}}d_\mu _{^{^{}}}(\sigma +^{})\right)^{p/p^{^{}}}\right]^{1/p}\hfill \\ & [\underset{i=1}{\overset{n}{}}\frac{1}{n}n^{p/p^{^{}}}T|𝒯_p^{}^p(_{}𝐟(s_i+h)^pd_\mu _{}(h))]^{1/p}\hfill \\ & =n^{1/p^{^{}}}T|𝒯_p^{}𝐟|L_p(𝔾)\text{.}\hfill \end{array}$$

We used Minkowski’s inequality in the third line. ∎

###### Proposition 14.

If $`𝔽`$ is an infinite, compact and connected LCA group then for any nonnegative integers $`a,b`$, there exist $`c(a,b),C(a,b)>0`$ such that

$$c(a,b)T|𝒯_p^𝕋T|𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝔽}C(a,b)T|𝒯_p^𝕋.$$

Therefore we have $`𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝔽}=𝒯_p`$.

###### Proof.

If $`a=b=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$ then by applying (8) we have $`T^{}|𝒯_p^𝔽^{^{}}=T^{}|𝒯_p^{}`$ where $`𝔽^{^{}}`$ is the dual group of $`𝔽`$ and hence a nontrivial torsion-free group with the discrete topology. Therefore it follows that

(12)
$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill T|𝒯_p^𝔽& =T^{}|𝒯_p^{}=T|𝒯_p^𝕋\text{ and}\hfill \\ \hfill 𝒯_p^𝔽& =𝒯_p.\hfill \end{array}$$

If $`a+b\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}`$ then by applying Theorem 9 and Corollary 4, we have

$$𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝔽}=𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔽}$$

and in fact

$$c(a,b)T|𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔽}T|𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝔽}C(a,b)T|𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔽}$$

for some positive reals $`c(a,b),C(a,b)`$. Here $`c(a,b)=(\frac{2}{\pi })^{ab}`$, $`C(a,b)=1`$. Note that $`𝕋\times 𝔽`$ is connected and compact. Thus we again have

$$T|𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔽}=T|𝒯_p^𝕋\text{ by (}\text{12}\text{)}.$$

If $`𝔽`$ has only finitely many components and $``$ is the component(maximal connected set) of the identity element then $`𝔽/`$ is finite and we have the following result.

###### Theorem 15.

Let $`𝔽`$ be an infinite compact LCA group with $`n`$ components. Then for any nonnegative integers $`a,b`$, there exists $`c(a,b),C(a,b)>0`$ such that

$$c(a,b)T|𝒯_p^𝕋T|𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝔽}n^{1/p^{^{}}}C(a,b)T|𝒯_p^𝕋.$$

And therefore $`𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝔽}=𝒯_p`$.

###### Proof.

Let $``$ be the component of the identity element of $`𝔽`$ then the factor group $`(^a\times ^b\times 𝔽)/(^a\times ^b\times )`$ is a finite group with $`n`$ elements. Thus by Lemma 13,

$$T|𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times }T|𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝔽}n^{1/p^{^{}}}T|𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times }$$

and

$$𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times 𝔽}=𝒯_p^{^a\times ^b\times }.$$

Then the statement follows from Proposition 14. ∎

This Theorem can not say anything about the case when $`𝔽`$ has infinitely many components, because of the factor $`n^{1/p^{^{}}}`$.

Theorem 15 can be extended when our scope goes beyond the boundary of compactly generated LCA groups.

###### Theorem 16.

Let $`𝔼`$ be a nontrivial torsion free group with the discrete topology and $`𝔽`$ an infinite, compact and connected LCA group. Then for any LCA group $`𝔾`$,

$$T|𝒯_p^{𝔼\times 𝔾}=T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}$$

and

$$T|𝒯_p^{𝔽\times 𝔾}=T|𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔾}.$$

If $`\stackrel{~}{𝔽}`$ is a compact LCA group with $`n`$ components then for any nonnegative integer $`k`$ there exist $`c(k),C(k)`$ such that

$$c(k)T|𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔾}T|𝒯_p^{^k\times 𝔼^l\times \stackrel{~}{𝔽}^m\times 𝔾}n^{m/p^{^{}}}C(k)T|𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔾}$$

and hence

$$𝒯_p^{^k\times 𝔼^l\times \stackrel{~}{𝔽}^m\times 𝔾}=𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔾}$$

where $`l,m=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}\text{or}1\text{and}k+l+m1`$. In particular if $`𝔾`$ is the trivial group then

$$𝒯_p^{^k\times 𝔼^l\times \stackrel{~}{𝔽}^m}=𝒯_p.$$

###### Proof.

First, $``$ is isomorphic with an open subgroup of $`𝔼`$, and then $`\times 𝔾`$ is an open subgroup of $`𝔼\times 𝔾`$. By applying (7) we have $`T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}T|𝒯_p^{𝔼\times 𝔾}`$. Conversely, for any simple $`X`$-valued function $`𝐟`$ which is defined on $`𝔼\times 𝔾`$ and has finite $`L_p`$-norm, the support of $`𝐟`$ is a subset of $`^k\times 𝔾`$ for some positive integer $`k`$. Therefore by Lemma 5 it follows that $`T|𝒯_p^{𝔼\times 𝔾}sup_kT|𝒯_p^{^k\times 𝔾}=T|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾}`$.

Second, from the duality argument it follows that

$$T|𝒯_p^{𝔽\times 𝔾}=T^{^{}}|𝒯_p^{𝔽^{^{}}\times 𝔾^{^{}}}=T^{^{}}|𝒯_p^{\times 𝔾^{^{}}}=T|𝒯_p^{𝕋\times 𝔾}.$$

The rest follows by applying the above two results, Proposition 1, 2 and Lemma 13. ∎

###### Remark 2.

If $`𝔾`$ is an LCA group and $``$ is the component of the identity of $`𝔾`$ then $``$ is a closed normal subgroup of $`𝔾`$ and the factor group $`𝔾/`$ is totally disconnected and Hausdorff. From (24.45) of , if $``$ is open then $`𝔾`$ is isomorphic with $`\times (𝔾/)`$. In particular $``$ is open when $`𝔾`$ is locally connected. Hence to solve the question, denoted by (P), whether $`T|𝒯_p^𝔾`$ is equivalent to $`T|𝒯_p^𝕋`$ or not, it is useful to find $``$ and $`𝔾/`$. Since $``$ is isomorphic with $`^n\times 𝕂`$, where $`n`$ is a nonnegative integer and $`𝕂`$ is a compact connected group, see Theorem 9.14 of, the answer for (P) is affirmative when $`𝔾/`$ is good.

###### Theorem 17.

Let $`𝔾`$ be an LCA group with $`n`$ components. Then there are positive real numbers $`c`$ and $`C`$ such that

(13)
$$cT|𝒯_p^𝕋T|𝒯_p^𝔾n^{1/p^{^{}}}CT|𝒯_p^𝕋$$

and hence $`𝒯_p^𝔾=𝒯_p`$.

###### Proof.

Let $``$ be the component of the identity, $`𝔾/`$ is a finite LCA group. Hence by Lemma 13 we have $`T|𝒯_p^{}T|𝒯_p^𝔾n^{1/p^{^{}}}T|𝒯_p^{}`$. And $``$ is isomorphic with $`^k\times 𝕂`$, where $`k`$ is a nonnegative integer and $`𝕂`$ is a compact connected group. $`𝕂`$ is trivial or infinite. If $`𝕂`$ is trivial then by applying Proposition 2 it follows that

$$cT|𝒯_p^{𝕋^k}T|𝒯_p^{}CT|𝒯_p^{𝕋^k}$$

for some $`c,C>0`$. And by (12), $`T|𝒯_p^{𝕋^k}=T|𝒯_p^𝕋`$. Thus we have

(14)
$$cT|𝒯_p^𝕋T|𝒯_p^{}CT|𝒯_p^𝕋.$$

If $`𝕂`$ is infinite, we also have (14) by Proposition 14. Therefore the inequality (13) follows, and $`𝒯_p^𝔾=𝒯_p`$. ∎

###### Theorem 18.

If $``$ is the component of the identity of an LCA group $`𝔾`$ and $`𝔾/`$ is a (nontrivial torsion free group)$`\times `$(finite group with cardinal $`n`$) with the discrete topology, then $`T|𝒯_p^{}T|𝒯_p^𝔾n^{1/p^{^{}}}T|𝒯_p^\times `$ and $`𝒯_p^𝔾=𝒯_p`$.

###### Proof.

We have that $`𝔾`$ is isomorphic with $`\times (𝔾/)`$ because $``$ is open. We can apply Proposition 11 and Theorem 16 to obtain this theorem. ∎

As for the class of Banach spaces which has Fourier type $`p`$ for an infinite LCA group, we have the following:

###### Corollary 19.

i) Under the same conditions as Theorem 16 we have

$$\mathrm{FT}_p^{^k\times 𝔼^l\times \stackrel{~}{𝔽}^m}=\mathrm{FT}_p.$$

ii) Under the same conditions as Theorem 18,

$$\mathrm{FT}_p^𝔾=\mathrm{FT}_p.$$

Acknowledgements. The author would like to thank Professor Chansun Choi and a colleague Hun Hee Lee for comments.


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# Parametric Resonance Phenomena in Bose-Einstein Condensates: Enhanced Quantum Tunneling of Coherent Matter Pulses

## I Introduction

Nowadays dynamical properties and resonant phenomena of Bose-Einstein condensates are the subject of many experimental and theoretical invertigations. Recently, the parametric excitation of cold trapped atoms in far-off-resonance optical lattices has been experimentally obtained by modulating the potential depth . Another kind of parametric resonance, namely the parametric resonance between the collective oscillations of a trapped Bose-Einstein condensate and the oscillations of the confining harmonic trapping potential has been demonstrated with numerical simulations . Moreover, by imposing particular values of anisotropy to the trapping harmonic potential, it has been shown that different collective modes of the condensate are in resonance and the oscillations can be chaotic .

In this paper we discuss a mechanism to generate coherent matter pulses by means of macroscopic quantum tunneling of a Bose condensate through the barrier of a potential well . In our model the Bose-Einstein condensate is confined in the vertical axial direction by two Gaussian optical barriers and in the transverse direction by a magnetic or optical harmonic potential. The zero-temperature dynamics of Bose-Einstein condensate under transverse harmonic confinement is well described by the one-dimensional nonpolynomial Schrodinger equation (NPSE) we have recently derived from the three-dimensional Gross-Pitaevskii equation (3D GPE) . In the first part of the paper we discuss the range of validity of the 3D GPE and that of the NPSE. In the second part of the paper by the numerical integration of NPSE we show that it is possible to generate periodic waves of coherent matter by periodically changing the height of the lower-lying Gaussian barrier. Moreover, the emission probability is strongly enhanced when the oscillation of the height of the energy barrier is in parametric resonance with the oscillation of the center of mass of the condensate inside the potential well.

## II Conditions on the Gross-Pitaevskii Equation

The time-dependent three-dimensional Gross-Pitaevskii equation (3D GPE) , that describes the macroscopic wavefunction (or order parameter) $`\psi (𝐫,t)`$ of the Bose condensate, is given by

$$i\mathrm{}\frac{}{t}\psi (𝐫,t)=\left[\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}^2+U(𝐫)+gN|\psi (𝐫,t)|^2\right]\psi (𝐫,t),$$
(1)
where $`U(𝐫)`$ is the external trapping potential and $`g=4\pi \mathrm{}^2a_s/m`$ is the scattering amplitude and $`a_s`$ the s-wave scattering length. $`N`$ is the number of condensed bosons and the wavefunction is normalized to one. Note that the 3D GPE is a nonlinear Schrödinger (Hartree) equation and the nonlinear term is due to the interatomic interaction described by the two-body pseudo-potential $`V(𝐫,𝐫^{})=g\delta ^{(3)}(𝐫𝐫^{})`$ .

The 3D GPE is accurate to describe a condensate of dilute gas of bosons only near zero temperature, where thermal excitations can be neglected . The dilute gas condition is given by $`a_s^3\rho 1`$, where $`a_s`$ is the s-wave scattering length of the interatomic potential and $`\rho `$ is the density of the Bose gas. This diluteness condition means that the range ($`a_s`$) of the interatomic potential is much smaller than the average distance ($`\rho ^{1/3}`$) between atoms. By introducing the healing length

$$\xi =\frac{1}{\sqrt{8\pi a_s\rho }},$$
(2)
the dilute gas condition can be written as $`a_s\xi `$. Note that the condensate can be dilute but strongly interacting if its interatomic energy ($`4\pi \mathrm{}^2a_s\rho /m`$) is much larger than its kinetic energy. In the case of an axially symmetric harmonic confinement by using the healing length $`\xi `$ the dilute and strongly-interacting gas condition can be written as $`a_s\xi a_H`$, where $`a_H=\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{}}{m\omega _H}}`$ is the characteristic length of the harmonic confinement with $`\omega _H=(\omega _{}\omega _z)^{1/3}`$.

Another interesting condition is the one-dimensional gas condition. One has the 1D regime when the potential energy of the transverse confinement is much larger than the interatomic energy of the Bose condensate. In the case of a transverse harmonic confinement, again using the healing length $`\xi `$, the 1D gas condition for a Bose condensate can be written as $`a_{}\xi `$, where $`a_{}=\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{}}{m\omega _{}}}`$ is the characteristic length of the transverse harmonic confinement. It follows that, if the inequalities $`a_sa_H<a_{}\xi `$ are satisfied, then the Bose condensate is dilute, cigar-shaped and one-dimensional.

It is important to observe that for $`\xi a_{1D}`$, where $`a_{1D}`$ is the 1D scattering length given by $`a_{1D}=a_{}^2/a_s`$ , the Bose gas enters in the Tonks-Girardeau regime: a one-dimensional and very dilute gas of impenetrable Bosons for which the Bose-Einstein condensation is absent . Thus in the Tonks-Girardeau regime the 3D GPE cannot be applied. In conclusion, the 3D GPE is valid if the healing length $`\xi `$ of the Bose condensate satisfies the condition

$$a_s\xi <a_{}^2/a_s,$$
(3)
and it describes a one-dimensional Bose condensate if $`a_sa_{}\xi <a_{}^2/a_s`$.

## III Nonpolynomial Schrödinger Equation

In many experiments with Bose-Einstein condensates the external trapping potential can be described by a harmonic potential in the transverse direction and a generic potential in the axial direction:

$$U(𝐫)=\frac{1}{2}m\omega _{}^2(x^2+y^2)+V(z).$$
(4)
This external potential suggests to map the 3D GPE into an effective 1D equation, which simplifies greatly the solution of the 3D GPE. This problem is not trivial due to the nonlinearity of the GPE.

The 3D GPE is the Euler-Lagrange equation of the following Lagrangian density

$$L=\psi ^{}(𝐫,t)\left[i\mathrm{}\frac{}{t}+\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}^2U(𝐫)\frac{1}{2}gN|\psi (𝐫,t)|^2\right]\psi (𝐫,t).$$
(5)
For the wavefunction we choose the following variational ansatz

$$\psi (𝐫,t)=\varphi (x,y,t;\sigma (z,t))f(z,t),$$
(6)
where both $`\varphi `$ and $`f`$ are normalized to one and $`\varphi `$ is represented by a Gaussian:

$$\varphi (x,y,t;\sigma (z,t))=\frac{e^{\frac{(x^2+y^2)}{2\sigma (z,t)^2}}}{\pi ^{1/2}\sigma (z,t)}.$$
(7)
Moreover we assume that the transverse wavefunction $`\varphi `$ is slowly varying along the axial direction with respect to the transverse direction, i.e. $`^2\varphi _{}^2\varphi `$ where $`_{}^2=\frac{^2}{x^2}+\frac{^2}{y^2}`$. By inserting the trial wave-function in the Lagrangian density and after spatial integration along $`x`$ and $`y`$ variables the Lagrangian density becomes

$$L=f^{}\left[i\mathrm{}\frac{}{t}+\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{^2}{z^2}V\frac{1}{2}gN\frac{\sigma ^2}{2\pi }|f|^2\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\sigma ^2\frac{m\omega _{}^2}{2}\sigma ^2\right]f.$$
(8)
The Euler-Lagrange equations with respect to $`f^{}`$ and $`\sigma `$ read

$$i\mathrm{}\frac{}{t}f=\left[\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{^2}{z^2}+V+gN\frac{\sigma ^2}{2\pi }|f|^2+\left(\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\sigma ^2+\frac{m\omega _{}^2}{2}\sigma ^2\right)\right]f,$$
(9)
$$\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\sigma ^3\frac{1}{2}m\omega _{}^2\sigma +\frac{1}{2}gN\frac{\sigma ^3}{2\pi }|f|^2=0.$$
(10)
The second Euler-Lagrange equation reduces to an algebric relation providing a one to one correspondence between $`\sigma `$ and $`f`$: $`\sigma ^2=a_{}^2\sqrt{1+2a_sN|f|^2}`$, where $`a_{}=\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{}}{m\omega _{}}}`$ is the oscillator length in the transverse direction. One sees that $`\sigma `$ depends implicitly on $`z`$ and $`t`$ because of the space and time dependence of $`|f|^2`$. Inserting this result in the first equation one finally obtains

$$i\mathrm{}\frac{}{t}f=[\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{^2}{z^2}+V+\frac{gN}{2\pi a_{}^2}\frac{|f|^2}{\sqrt{1+2a_sN|f|^2}}$$

$$+\frac{\mathrm{}\omega _{}}{2}(\frac{1}{\sqrt{1+2a_sN|f|^2}}+\sqrt{1+2a_sN|f|^2})]f.$$
(11)
This equation is a time-dependent non-polynomial Schrodinger equation (NPSE).

We observe that under the condition $`a_sN|f|^21`$ one has $`\sigma ^2=a_{}^2`$ and NPSE reduces to

$$i\mathrm{}\frac{}{t}f=\left[\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\frac{^2}{z^2}+V+\frac{gN}{2\pi a_{}^2}|f|^2\right]f,$$
(12)
where the additive constant $`\mathrm{}\omega _{}`$ has been omitted because it does not affect the dynamics. This equation is a 1D Gross-Pitaevskii equation (1D GPE). The nonlinear coefficient $`g^{}`$ of this 1D GPE can be thus obtained from the nonlinear coefficient $`g`$ of the 3D GPE by setting $`g^{}=g/(2\pi a_{}^2)`$ such that $`V(z,z^{})=g^{}\delta (zz^{})=(2\mathrm{}^2/ma_{1D})\delta (zz^{})`$ is the effective 1D interatomic pseudo-potential and the effective 1D scattering length is $`a_{1D}=a_{}^2/a_s`$, in agreement with the definition of the previous section. Note that the limit $`a_sN|f|^21`$ is precisely the condition for the one-dimensional regime where the healing length $`\xi `$ is larger than $`a_{}`$. But, as shown in the previous section, the 3D GPE and consequently the NPSE are no more valid if $`\xi a_{}^2/a_s`$. It follows that the 1D GPE is valid only where the condition $`a_s^2/a_{}^2<a_sN|f|^21`$ is satisfied.

In papers  we have tested the accuracy of the NPSE in the determination of the ground-state and collective oscillations of the condensate with axial harmonic confinement and also in the description of tunneling through a Gaussian barrier. In particular, we have compared NPSE with the the full 3D GPE. The conclusion of these investigations is that NPSE is very accurate in the description of cigar-shaped condensates ($`a_z/a_{}\sqrt{10}`$) both in the 3D regime and in the 1D regime ($`a_s\xi <a_{}^2/a_s`$).

Note that the NPSE has been recently used by Massignan and Modugno to study the dynamics of a Bose condensate in a optical lattice .

## IV Periodic emission of matter waves

In this section we use the NPSE to study a mechanism which produces periodic emission of matter waves by means of the quantum tunneling of a Bose condensate. We consider a cigar-shaped condensate confined by a harmonic potential in the transverse direction and under the action of the gravity potential $`mgz`$ and two Gaussian functions that model a confining potential well in the vertical axial direction:

$$V(z)=V_1e^{(zz_1)^2/\sigma ^2}+V_2e^{(zz_2)^2/\sigma ^2}+mgz.$$
(13)
Such a configuration can be experimentally obtained by using two blue-detuned laser beams (perpendicular to the axial direction) which are modelled by the two Gaussian potentials. By varying the intensity of the lower-lying laser beam one controls the height of the energy barrier and therefore the tunneling probability. The periodic height given by:

$$V_1(t)=V_a+V_b\mathrm{sin}(\frac{2\pi }{\tau }t),$$
(14)
where $`\tau `$ is the period of oscillation.

The NPSE is integrated by using a finite-difference predictor-corrector method . The initial wave function of the condensate is found by solving the equation with imaginary time. In Figure 1 we plot the axial density profile $`\rho (z)`$ of the matter-waves coming out from the potential well with $`\tau =1.5`$. The figure shows that, as expected, the emission of pulses is periodic. Moreover, both the period of emission and the tunneling fraction $`P_T`$ depend on $`\tau `$. In the inset of Figure 2 the tunneling probability $`P_T`$ is shown as a function of $`\tau `$ for a Bose condensate with $`N=10^3`$ and $`N=10^4`$ atoms. The emission probability has its absolute maximum near $`\tau =0.8`$, that is the average period of the oscillations of the center of mass of the condensate inside the potential well.

The enhancement of the emission probability of coherent matter near $`\tau =0.8`$ has a classical explanation. We have verified  that it corresponds to the condition of resonance between the oscillation of the energy barrier and the oscillation of the center of mass of the condensate. Close to the resonance condition the phenomenon of coherent emission of atoms is no more due to quantum tunneling but to the parametric resonance  between the period of oscillation of the center of mass of the condensate and the period of oscillation of the energy barrier. This might explain the different $`N`$ dependence of $`P_T`$ and $`P_T^0`$ as shown in Figure 2: $`P_T^0`$ is dominated by quantum effects and, as such, is enhanced by interaction, while $`P_T`$ is essentially a classical effect and is almost $`N`$ independent, in agreement with the numerical data shown in Figure 2.

Note that in Figure 2 there are other local maxima whose positions follow the text-book  resonant condition formula $`\tau =\left(n/2\right)\tau _{osc}`$, where $`\tau _{osc}`$ is the period of oscillation of the center of mass in the absence of an oscillating barrier, with $`n`$ an integer number.

## Conclusions

In this paper we have studied the controlled emission of coherent matter pulses from a trap by changing the period of oscillation of the energy barrier. The experimental investigation of the physical configuration we have considered in this paper may contribute to the realization of novel phenomena in atom lasers. Finally, we observe that the parametric driving of Bose-Einstein condensates can be obtained by current experiments using optical dipole forces with far-detuned laser beams. By varying the intensity of the laser beams one can control the height of the energy barrier that confines the condensed sample.

## References

 S. Fribel, C. D’Andrea, J. Walz, M. Weitz, and T.W. Hänsch, Phys. Rev. A 57 R20 (1998).

 R. Jauregui, N. Poli, G. Roati, and G. Modugno, Phys. Rev. A 64 033403 (2001).

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 V.R. Manfredi and L. Salasnich, Int. J. Mod. Phys. B 13, 49 (1999); Manfredi and L. Salasnich, in A. Fabrocini et al. (Eds.), Perspectives on Theoretical Nuclear Physics VII, pp. 319-324 (Edizioni ETS, Pisa, 1999).

 L. Salasnich, Phys. Lett. A 266 187 (2000); L. Salasnich, Progr. Theor. Phys. Suppl. 139 414 (2000).

 L. Salasnich, A. Parola, L. Reatto, J. Phys. B 35, 3205 (2002).

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 E.P. Gross, Nuovo Cimento 20, 454 (1961); L.P. Pitaevskii, Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz. 40, 646 (1961) \[English Transl. Sov. Phys. JETP 13, 451 (1961)\]

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# Degeneracy in exotic gravitational lensing

## I Introduction

Gravitational lensing (GL) has long been advocated as an important tool in studying the Universe. It can act as a cosmic telescope, magnifying distant objects otherwise too dim to be detected. It is also an appropriate avenue to look for the detection of exotic objects in the universe. Unfortunately, initial hopes that GL would be able to resolve many long standing problems (e.g. finding out the value of the Hubble constant through the time delay between the images, or giving an independent estimate of the masses of celestial bodies) went down as it was discovered that GL is subject to degeneracy and is highly model dependent. For example, when statistics of gravitational lensing was first introduced, it was hoped that the dependence of the image separations on the redshift of the source could constitute a test of the curvature of the universe statistics . However, the large systematic and statistical uncertainties, involved with both the observed and predicted number of lensed arcs, as well as the rather small number of the multiply image systems available, do not allow us to constrain cosmological parameters based on current observations, nor even strongly favor one cosmological model above another waga ; antipode ; Cooray99 .

An apparently unique feature of any lens model is its lens equation. Given a class of matter distribution, one can write a corresponding lens equation and solving it (when possible), find all necessary properties of a particular lens. In this work we present three different theoretically foreseen astrophysical situations possessing the same form of the lens equation. The degeneracy is presented among three cases: the exotic lens (understood as a lens made up of matter violating the weak energy condition), the lens endowed with scalar charge, and the case of a closed universe with a source behind the first antipode. We present the details of the resulting images configurations, the reasons leading to the degeneracy, and discuss some ways to get around it.

## II Cases

### II.1 Exotic lens

An exotic lens is a lens made up of matter violating the weak energy condition (WEC). Existence of such matter admits existence of negative energy densities—and so negative masses. Negative masses within General Relativity have been studied since Bondi’s paper BONDI , but recent attention was regained when wormhole solutions were presented motho ; visser-book .

The detailed treatment of lensing properties of a point negative mass was presented in STR  (hereafter STR), for related studies see references therein. Here we will briefly describe the relevant features. If $`b`$ is the impact parameter of the unperturbed light ray, the deflection angle for a negative point mass lens is $`𝜶_\mathrm{d}=4G|M|𝐛/c^2b^2`$ and the lens equation is 111According to the standard notations in the gravitational lensing, we define $`D_\mathrm{L},D_\mathrm{S}`$ and $`D_{\mathrm{LS}}`$ as the angular diameter distances to the lens, the source and between the lens and the source, respectively. $`\beta `$ is angular positions of the source and $`\theta `$ is angular positions of the image.

$$\beta =\theta +\frac{4G|M|}{c^2}\frac{D_{\mathrm{LS}}}{D_\mathrm{S}D_\mathrm{L}\theta }.$$
(1)
Defining a useful angular scale in this problem, which in case of ordinary lensing is called an Einstein angle,

$$\theta _\mathrm{E}^2=\frac{4G|M|}{c^2}\frac{D_{\mathrm{LS}}}{D_\mathrm{S}D_\mathrm{L}},$$
(2)
we rewrite the lens equation as $`\beta =\theta +\theta _\mathrm{E}^2/\theta `$. It can be solved to obtain two solutions for the image position $`\theta `$: $`\theta _{1,2}=\frac{1}{2}\left(\beta \pm \sqrt{\beta ^24\theta _\mathrm{E}^2}\right)`$. Unlike in the lensing due to positive masses, three distinct regimes appear here: a) $`\beta <2\theta _\mathrm{E}`$. There is no real solution for the lens equation—no images when the source is inside $`2\theta _\mathrm{E}`$; b) $`\beta >2\theta _\mathrm{E}`$. There are two solutions, corresponding to two images on the same side of the lens. One is always inside the angle $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$, the other is always outside it; c) $`\beta =2\theta _\mathrm{E}`$. This is a degenerate case, $`\theta _{1,2}=\theta _\mathrm{E}`$; two images merge at the $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$ angular radius, forming the radial arc.

Two important scales in this case are the angle $`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$— the angular radius of the radial critical curve (RCC), and the angle $`2\theta _\mathrm{E}`$—the angular radius of the caustic. When the source crosses the caustic, the two images merge on the critical curve ($`\theta _\mathrm{E}`$) and disappear. We do not obtain a tangential critical curve (TCC)—in other words, no Einstein ring is possible and, accordingly, no tangential arcs.

### II.2 Scalar fields

With increased interest in string theory, scalar fields, both minimally and conformally coupled to gravity, have been the subject of intensive research in recent years. Several possible astrophysical relevant features of scalar fields have been described. Among them the so-called ‘spontaneous scalarization’ phenomenon damour-WHINNET , the scalar field origin of dark matter on galactic (e.g. Guzman ) and cosmological scales (e.g. Cho ), quintessence (e.g. Fara ), the possible existence of supermassive scalar objects in centers of galaxies TORRES-GAL , and, finally, the scalar field itself acting as a gravitational lens Vir ; Matos ; FRANZ .

One of the solutions to the Einstein-Massless Scalar field (EMS) equations derived for gravity minimally coupled to a scalar field is Janis-Newman-Winicour’s (JNW) JANIS . It describes the exterior of a static, spherically symmetric, and singular, massive object, endowed with the usual Schwarzschild mass $`M`$ and a so-called scalar charge $`q`$—the signature of the conformal coupling of the massless scalar field with gravitation. The “scalar charge” does not contribute to the total mass of the system, but it does affect the curvature of the spacetime vir97 . The JNW solution also describes the space-time due to a naked singularity. The difference between these two objects lies in the value of a parameter $`b`$, which is defined as the curvature singularity ($`b<r<\mathrm{}`$, where $`r`$ is the radial coordinate of the JNW metric). When the radius of the object is greater than $`b`$, the lens is extended, spherically symmetric and static. When $`r=b`$, it is a naked singularity Vir .

The deflection angle (up to the second order) for the JNW metric is given by

$`\alpha _\mathrm{d}(r_0)={\displaystyle \frac{4m}{r_0}}+{\displaystyle \frac{4m^2}{r_0^2}}({\displaystyle \frac{15\pi }{16}}2)+{\displaystyle \frac{2}{r_0^2}}[2m\sqrt{m^2+q^2}`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{q^2\pi }{8}}]+\mathrm{},`$ (3)
with $`m=GM/c^2`$, $`q`$ the scalar charge and $`r_0`$ being the impact parameter.

Another solution is an axially symmetric solution with a scalar field breaking the spherical symmetry, not the rotation Matos . Authors find the deflection angle to be

$$\alpha _\mathrm{d}(r_0)=\frac{4m}{r_0}+\frac{m^2}{r_0^2}\left(\frac{15\pi }{4}4\frac{1}{4}\pi R_{\mathrm{sm}}^2\right)+𝒪\left(\frac{m^3}{r_0^3}\right),$$
(4)
where the ratio of scalar charge to mass is denoted by $`R_{\mathrm{sm}}`$.

We express the lens equations for both lenses in terms of $`R_{\mathrm{sm}}`$. For the JNW metric, the equation is

$`\theta \beta ={\displaystyle \frac{D_{\mathrm{LS}}}{D_S}}[{\displaystyle \frac{4m}{D_\mathrm{L}\theta }}+{\displaystyle \frac{m^2}{D_\mathrm{L}^2\theta ^2}}({\displaystyle \frac{15\pi }{4}}8)+`$
$`{\displaystyle \frac{2m^2}{D_\mathrm{L}^2\theta ^2}}\{2\sqrt{1+R_{\mathrm{sm}}^2}{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{8}}R_{\mathrm{sm}}^2\}]+\mathrm{}.`$ (5)
And for the axial solution:

$$\theta \beta =\frac{D_{\mathrm{LS}}}{D_S}\left[\frac{4m}{D_\mathrm{L}\theta }+\frac{m^2}{D_\mathrm{L}^2\theta ^2}\left\{\frac{15\pi }{4}4\frac{\pi R_{\mathrm{sm}}^2}{4}\right\}\right]+\mathrm{}.$$
(6)
For very large values of $`R_{\mathrm{sm}}`$

$$R_{\mathrm{sm}}\frac{q}{M}500,$$
(7)
in both cases the equations reduce to

$$\beta =\theta \frac{\theta _\mathrm{E}^2}{\theta }+\frac{\theta _\mathrm{E}^2}{\theta ^2}\frac{m\pi R_{\mathrm{sm}}^2}{16D_\mathrm{L}},$$
(8)
where $`\theta _\mathrm{E}^2`$ is the Einstein scale (Eq. 2). In both cases it was found that for the “very large” ratio of the scalar charge to the mass (7) the lens forms two images of the opposite parities on the same side of the source. As $`|\beta |`$ decreases, the two images meet at the RCC, forming the radial arc, and for any further decrease in $`|\beta |`$ there are no images. There is no TCC (Einstein ring) for this case. For “small” values of $`R_{\mathrm{sm}}`$ the lensing is qualitatively similar to the Schwarzschild lens. Even for smaller values of $`R_{\mathrm{sm}}`$ the qualitative behaviour of both scalar field lenses is similar; the quantitative differences appear only for small $`R_{\mathrm{sm}}`$ ($`15`$) and for very small values of the image position $`\beta `$ (a few milliarcseconds), rendering the possibility of distinguishing between different types of these lenses nearly impossible.

### II.3 Closed Universe with Antipodes

A recent renewed interest in closed universes followed the result that the most probable values of ($`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{M}`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }`$) from observations of high redshift supernovae are indeed consistent with a mildly closed Universe (perm ; turok ), though the extreme closed model having antipodal redshift of $`z_{\mathrm{antipode}}<4.92`$ is ruled out antipode .

The metric for the closed FRW universe is given by $`ds^2=c^2dt^2a^2(t)\left(d\chi ^2+\mathrm{sin}^2\chi \left(\mathrm{sin}^2\theta d\phi ^2+d\theta ^2\right)\right)`$, where $`\chi `$ is the conformal radial coordinate, which takes values in the interval $`0\chi 2\pi `$ and is related to the comoving radial coordinate $`r`$ by $`r=\mathrm{sin}\chi `$. If $`D_\mathrm{A}(z)`$ is the angular diameter distance to an object at redshift $`z`$, then

$$D_\mathrm{A}(z)=\frac{cH_0^1}{(1+z)\left|\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{total}}1\right|^{\frac{1}{2}}}\mathrm{sin}\chi ,$$
(9)
$$\chi (z)=\left|\mathrm{\Omega }_{\mathrm{total}}1\right|^{\frac{1}{2}}_0^z\frac{du}{H(u)/H_0.}.$$
(10)
Angular distance $`D_\mathrm{A}(z)`$ becomes zero at the points $`\chi (z_n^a)=(2n1)\pi /2`$, where $`n=1,2,\mathrm{}`$. These points are called the antipodal points and the corresponding redshifts, $`z_n^a`$, antipodal redshifts. The effect of the closed geometry is to focus the light from any object in the opposite hemisphere.

Lensing in a universe with antipodes was first described in gott , and later, by Saini saini . Consider the situation of a source beyond the first antipode and the lens much closer than it, $`0<\chi _{lens}<\pi <\chi _{source}`$. In this case $`D_\mathrm{S}`$ is negative (see Eq. 9), while $`D_\mathrm{L}`$ and $`D_{\mathrm{LS}}`$ could still be positive. This makes $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\mathrm{crit}}`$ negative and, hence, the convergence, $`\kappa =\mathrm{\Sigma }(𝜽)/\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\mathrm{crit}}<0`$. We remind that $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(𝜽)`$ is the two-dimensional surface mass density of the lens and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_{\mathrm{crit}}=(c^2/4\pi G)(D_\mathrm{S}/D_\mathrm{L}D_{\mathrm{LS}})`$ is the critical density. A point lens will still form two images of the background sources, though they would be on the same side of the lens, unlike the case of normal lensing when they straddle the lens on either side. The lens equation for this case is

$$\beta =\theta +\frac{\theta _E^2}{\theta },$$
(11)
with the same angular scale as before (Eq. 2), and the solutions are, again, $`\theta =\frac{1}{2}[\beta \pm \sqrt{(\beta ^24\theta _E^2})].`$ From this it is clear that no images are formed if $`\beta <2\theta _E`$, and outside this radius both the images are on the same side of the lens. No Einstein ring can be formed: for $`\beta =0`$ there is no solution.

## III Discussion

In the three considered cases the reasons for the same observable signatures are different. In the first case, it is due to the assumption of the negative sign of the mass term and the corresponding negative sign of the deflection angle. In the second case, the scalar charge has an effective ‘negative’ contribution to the space-time curvature around the object. In that way, it is doing the same job as the negative mass, deflecting the light from it. Finally, in the third case, it is due to the negative sign of the angular diameter distance, leading to the negative sign of the convergence $`\kappa `$. To be more precise, the basic form of lens equation is $`𝜷=𝜽\mathbf{}\psi (𝜽)`$, where the dimensionless relativistic lens potential $`\psi `$ satisfies the two-dimensional Poisson equation $`\mathrm{\Delta }\psi (𝜽)=2\kappa (𝜽)`$ (see, eg. schneider ). Thus, negative $`\kappa `$ leads to a lens equation of the form (11). The question now is how to differentiate among the different possibilities if we actually see the effects of (11).

If we measure the redshift of the images, this could help getting rid of the antipodes case. The fact that a ‘normal’ multiple imaged quasar exists at a redshift of $`z=4.92`$ indicates that if the putative system is at a lower redshift, the case for the closed universe is ruled out (though, of course, not ruling out that we might, in fact, live in a closed universe).

In Fig. 1 we compare the lensing equation curves for the scalar field lens with four different values of scalar charge (solid lines) and a negative mass lens (dashed-dotted line). The lens equation curves are symmetric with respect to the origin; we label only the left part of the scalar field lens curves. The horizontal dot-dot-dashed lines are the lines of a constant source position and their intersection with the lensing curves shows the positions and numbers of images. For a small value of a scalar charge ($`R_{\mathrm{sm}}=5`$) the lens behaves like a Schwarzschild lens. Though the forms of the lens equations for these two cases are different, we can see from the figure that with increased value of a scalar charge ($`R_{\mathrm{sm}}300`$), the curves become similar (the positive term in Eq. 8 begins to dominate). The situation with intermediate $`R_{\mathrm{sm}}`$ values (and formation of two Einstein rings) is very unstable and with a slight change of lens system parameters (e.g. mass of the lens) quickly relaxes in one of the two other cases. Thus, in order to mimic the effect of an exotic lens, the scalar charge must be large. However, it is not at all clear whether the value of the scalar charge should be large or small.

For the case of negative mass objects, the lens will be, most likely, not seen. We would rather expect the existence of compact objects of solar or sub-solar negative mass, as opposed to larger structures whose effects are apparently absent from all deep fields images macro . Then we will not be able to see the images, but only to observe the microlensing light curves, and/or distinctive chromaticity effects (see eiroa ).

Finally, not only gravitational lensing observations can break this degeneracy. Forthcoming supernovae studies, might clearly distinguish between the different FRW models. If we live in a flat or open FRW universe, one of the three cases herein treated disappears. Theoretical investigations in GR and related areas might eventually lead to the proof of the cosmic censorship conjecture, or the energy conditions, and in that case, neither the JNW solution with non-zero scalar charge nor exotic negative mass lenses will be realized. As for the time being, we can not neglect any of these theoretical situations and the best way to attack the problem would be imposing direct astrophysical bounds. The MOA group is currently adapting their alert systems to take into account this kind of exotic lensing P . Maybe great surprises await to be discovered.

A number of dark lens candidates (quasar pairs with no detectable lensing mass) have been reported in the literature, and their true nature is still a matter of an open vigorous debate dark . Current attempts at solving the problem by trying to fit the existing candidates under the lensing by empty dark matter halos do not work rusin02 . Dark lenses are expected to have very small magnification ratios and prominent third images. The majority of current candidates have flux ratio that differ significantly from unity, and do not feature any third image. The absence of quads (four-image systems) makes the current dark lens sample even more peculiar. The type of lenses described here, with their image configurations (always two images, albeit on one side of most probably invisible lens), and magnification ratios (the ratio is much steeper than for the equivalent ordinary lensing, seem to be an interesting possibility for the dark lenses.

The considered cases might be not the only diverging lens systems possible. According to the paper by Amendola et al. waga2 , huge empty voids with radii larger than 100 $`h^1`$ Mpc can be individually detected via diverging weak lensing. Empty voids with radii 30 $`h^1`$ Mpc, characteristic of those seen in galaxy redshift surveys, have a lensing signal to noise ratio smaller than unity. Finally, we note that we have considered only strong lensing events, because it is only in this case that the degeneracy is manifested.

###### Acknowledgements.

MS is supported by a ICCR scholarship (Indo-Russian Exchange programme) and wishes to thank Dr. Amber Habib for his mathematical insights.


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# References

## Abstract

An Eötvös experiment to test the weak equivalence principle (WEP) for zero-point vacuum energy is proposed using a satellite. Following the suggestion of Ross for a terrestrial experiment of this type, the acceleration of a spherical test mass of aluminum would be compared with that of a similar test mass made from another material. The estimated ratio of the zero-point vacuum energy density inside the aluminum sphere to the rest mass energy density is $`1.6\times 10^{14}`$, which would allow a 1% resolution of a potential WEP violation observed in a satellite mission test that had a baseline sensitivity to WEP violations of $`10^{16}`$. An observed violation of the WEP for vacuum energy density would constitute a significant clue as to the origin of the cosmological constant and the source of dark energy, and test a recently proposed resolution of the cosmological constant problem, based on a model of nonlocal quantum gravity and quantum field theory.

Satellite Eötvös Test of the Weak Equivalence Principle for Zero-point Vacuum Energy
J. W. Moffat111e-mail:john.moffat@utoronto.ca
Department of Physics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A7, Canada
and
Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, Waterloo, Ontario N2J 2W9, Canada
and
G. T. Gillies222e-mail: gtg@virginia.edu,
School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904-4746, USA

A recent proposal to resolve the cosmological constant problem was based on a nonlocal quantum gravity theory and quantum field theory . The resolution demands that there exist a fundamental low-energy gravitational energy scale, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{Gvac}}10^3`$ eV, above which the coupling of gravitons to vacuum energy density was suppressed by a nonlocal gravitational form factor in the calculation of standard model vacuum polarization loop graphs. This would require a strong violation of the weak equivalence principle (WEP) for coupling of gravitons to pure vacuum energy loop graphs compared to ordinary matter.

It is generally believed that a solution to the cosmological constant problem could alter in a significant way our understanding of gravitation and particle physics . There is mounting observational evidence  that the universe is accelerating and that a form of dark energy exists. A small cosmological constant corresponding to a vacuum energy density $`\rho _{\mathrm{vac}}(2.4\times 10^3\mathrm{eV})^4`$ could explain the acceleration of the universe.

We can define an effective cosmological constant

$$\lambda _{\mathrm{eff}}=\lambda _0+\lambda _{\mathrm{vac}},$$
(1)
where $`\lambda _0`$ is the “bare” cosmological constant in Einstein’s classical field equations, and $`\lambda _{\mathrm{vac}}`$ is the contribution that arises from the vacuum density $`\lambda _{\mathrm{vac}}=8\pi G\rho _{\mathrm{vac}}`$. Already at the standard model electroweak scale $`10^2`$ GeV, a calculation of the vacuum density $`\rho _{\mathrm{vac}}`$, based on local quantum field theory, results in a discrepancy of order $`10^{55}`$ with the observational bound

$$\rho _{\mathrm{vac}}10^{47}(\mathrm{GeV})^4.$$
(2)
This results in a severe fine-tuning problem of order $`10^{55}`$, since the virtual quantum fluctuations giving rise to $`\lambda _{\mathrm{vac}}`$ must cancel $`\lambda _0`$ to an unbelievable degree of accuracy. This is the “particle physics” source of the cosmological constant problem.

A model of nonlocal quantum gravity with the action $`S=S_G+S_M`$ was presented in ref.  with the gravitational action ($`\kappa ^2=32\pi G`$)333A paper is in preparation in which more complete details of the model will be provided.:

$$S_G=\frac{2}{\kappa ^2}d^4x\sqrt{g}\left\{R[g,𝒢^1]+2\lambda _0\right\}.$$
(3)
The matter action $`S_M`$ for the simple case of a scalar field $`\varphi `$ is given by

$$S_M=\frac{1}{2}d^4x\sqrt{g}𝒢^1\left(g^{\mu \nu }_\mu \varphi ^1_\nu \varphi m^2\varphi ^1\varphi \right).$$
(4)
Here, $`𝒢`$ and $``$ are nonlocal regularizing, entire functions and $`_\mu `$ is the covariant derivative with respect to the metric $`g_{\mu \nu }`$. We chose the covariant functions

$$𝒢(x)=\mathrm{exp}\left[𝒟(x)/\mathrm{\Lambda }_G^2\right],$$
(5)
$$(x)=\mathrm{exp}[(𝒟(x)+m^2)/\mathrm{\Lambda }_M^2)],$$
(6)
where $`𝒟_\mu ^\mu `$, and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_G`$ and $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_M`$ are gravitational and matter energy scales, respectively.

A calculation of the first-order vacuum polarization tensor $`\mathrm{\Pi }_{\mu \nu \rho \sigma }^{\mathrm{Gvac}}`$ for the coupling of gravitons to a loop consisting of photons yields for the vacuum energy density

$$\rho _{\mathrm{vac}}M_{\mathrm{PL}}^2\mathrm{\Pi }^{\mathrm{Gvac}}(p)\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{Gvac}}^4.$$
(7)
If we choose $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{Gvac}}10^3`$ eV, then the quantum correction to the bare cosmological constant $`\lambda _0`$ is suppressed sufficiently to satisfy the observational bound on $`\lambda `$, and it is protected from large unstable radiative corrections.

This provides a solution to the cosmological constant problem at the energy level of the standard model and possible higher energy extensions of the standard model. The universal fixed gravitational scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{\mathrm{Gvac}}`$ corresponds to the fundamental length $`\mathrm{}_{\mathrm{Gvac}}1`$ mm at which virtual gravitational radiative corrections to pure vacuum energy are cut off. However, it is postulated in the model that gravitons coupled to ordinary matter have a form factor that is controlled by the energy scale, $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{GM}=\mathrm{\Lambda }_M110`$ TeV, which avoids any measurable violation of the WEP for gravitons coupled to ordinary matter and guarantees that the calculations of standard model diagrams agree with experiment. This would lead to a strong violation of the WEP for coupling of low energy gravitons to pure zero-point vacuum energy compared to the coupling to ordinary matter.

To explore the possibility that the cosmological constant arises from zero point energy, Ross  has suggested a novel scenario in which the violation of the WEP that would result from such an effect might be observed in an Eötvös experiment. In his proposal, the acceleration of a spherical test mass of aluminum would be compared with that of a similar test mass made from another material (e.g., a monel metal like copper or silver). He chose aluminum because it has a relatively sharp transition from reflectance to absorption of electromagnetic waves at photon energies of approximately 15.5 eV. His analysis indicated that the magnitude of the missing zero-point energy density inside aluminum is given by

$$=\frac{4\pi }{(\mathrm{}c)^3}_0^{E_{\mathrm{max}}}E^3𝑑E,$$
(8)
where $`E_{\mathrm{max}}`$ is the energy at which aluminum becomes transparent. For $`E_{\mathrm{max}}=15.5`$ eV, one obtains $`=2.37\times 10^{19}\mathrm{eV}/\mathrm{cm}^3`$. The rest mass energy density is $`1.52\times 10^{33}`$ eV, so he found that the ratio of the zero-point energy density inside the aluminum sphere to the rest mass energy density is $`1.6\times 10^{14}`$. Therefore, if comparisons were made between test masses of aluminum and, e.g., copper, a violation of WEP at approximately this level should be observed if the zero point energy does not couple to the gravitational field. Such an experiment would be a direct test of the role that a purely quantum mechanical effect plays in general relativity .

In a long series of elegant experiments with rotating torsion balances, the Eöt-Wash Group has searched for composition dependence in the gravitational force via tests of the universality of free fall. In terms of the standard Eötvös parameter $`\eta `$, they have reached sensitivities of $`\eta 1.1\times 10^{12}`$ in comparisons of the accelerations of Be and Al/Cu test masses  and, more recently, have resolved differential accelerations of approximately $`1.0\times 10^{14}\mathrm{cm}/\mathrm{s}^2`$ in experiments with other masses . Drop-tower experiments now underway in Germany  have as their goal testing WEP at sensitivities of $`\eta 1\times 10^{13}`$, and Unnikrishnan describes a methodology under study at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in India wherein torsion balance experiments aiming at sensitivities of $`\eta 1\times 10^{14}`$ are being developed

While it is not yet clear what ultimate sensitivities might be reached by terrestrial experiments of these types, it is generally accepted that significant gains in sensitivity will be made by space-based WEP experiments, and several of them are presently in various stages of planning and development. Among these are the STEP satellite , the MICROSCOPE experiment , the Galileo Galelei (GG) mission , and Project SEE . The target sensitivities of each of them are STEP: $`\eta 10^{18}`$, MICROSCOPE: $`\eta 10^{15}`$, GG: $`\eta 10^{17}`$, and SEE: $`\eta 10^{16}`$. The first three missions are in advanced stages of planning and hardware testing, and are expected to be launched over the next few years. Project SEE is still undergoing rigorous conceptual evaluation and is not yet a scheduled mission. However, one of the significant points of interest about it is the relative simplicity of the test mass configuration: one large spherical mass and one small one undergo a three-body interaction with the Earth during the orbit of the capsule containing them . Analysis of the small mass motion then yields measures of WEP violation, the absolute value of the Newtonian gravitational constant, and the time variation of it. Because it is still an early stage endeavor, it might be possible to incorporate into the mission schedule a test of WEP at the SEE target sensitivity using aluminum and copper test masses, in order to examine the zero-point energy coupling. This would avoid the need to design, fund and carry out a separate independent mission, which would be very difficult to justify because of the large costs. Further details about the SEE mission are given in the review by Sanders and Gillies .

The website http://www.phys.utk.edu/see/ provides a description of the fundamental design features of the proposed SEE mission. It is meant to be a multi-functional platform for gravitational physics experiments, providing the capability to measure the strength of the gravitational interaction between a pair of test bodies co-orbiting the Earth in a drag-free environment. The nearly identical circular orbits of the test bodies in the field of the Earth results in gravitationally-governed relative motions between them of the type predicted first by George Darwin in 1897 and exhibited in the celestial mechanics of two of the moons of Saturn . When one of the masses is much smaller than the other, an analysis of the mechanics of the interaction reveals how measurements of the relative motions can lead to a determination of the absolute value of the Newtonian gravitational constant and its time-rate of change, as well as limits on violations of the weak equivalence principle. As with any high precision measurement system of this type, great care must be taken to circumvent the problems arising from competing effects, noise, and other sources of experimental uncertainty. The satellite itself provides the first line of defense, with its capsule consisting of a series of concentric cylindrical shells that serve as radiation baffles and which provide the drag-free containment for the test masses. The orbital configuration will be a sun-synchronous trajectory that keeps the capsule illuminated at all times and thus much closer to a state of constant thermal equilibrium. The large and small test masses would be nominally 500 kg and 100 g respectively, and small masses of different materials could be orbited simultaneously to make differential measurements of the type needed to search for a WEP violation. The details of the optimal orbital parameters, composition of the error budget, and thermo-mechanics of the capsule are still under development.

If the SEE mission were able to accommodate a test of the type proposed here, the level at which the WEP violation is predicted to occur, $`1.6\times 10^{14}`$, means that a nearly 1% resolution of it would be possible within the context of the SEE interaction. In principle, this degree of resolution would not only provide a definitive statement of the presence of such an effect if it appeared at that level, but it would also allow for enough sensitivity to observe weaker manifestations of variants of the nominal prediction. The key issue in any case becomes one of maximizing the signal size and, as always, minimizing the consequences of competing effects. To accomplish the former task, a careful re-analysis of potential test mass materials should be carried out to ensure that those with maximum estimated difference in zero-point energy density are selected. This is an important point, particularly in light of possible complexities that arise in calculating the exact values of the Casimir effect cut-offs for spherical mass configurations .

Another concern would be one of interpreting the meaning of an unequivocal positive result. The task would be one of establishing, for instance, whether or not the signal might alternatively be due to the revelation of the presence of a long sought-for new weak force . Here again, selecting the proper experimental strategy within the context of theoretical guidance would play the key role. Moreover, while the prediction of the WEP violation in  is based on a straightforward analysis of the vacuum energy density deficit in aluminum relative to that present in other materials, a careful reconfirmation of that interpretation will be important to establish that the level of the violation is indeed what is claimed. A significant reduction of the strength of the expected violation brought on by any reanalysis of the coupling of gravity to the difference in vacuum energy densities in the test masses might place the measurement below the reach of the SEE Mission’s sensitivity. Lastly, if a satellite experiment were successful in revealing the predicted effect, physics would be faced with one additional concern: the need to repeat and independently confirm a finding of this significance. Perhaps completely new technologies for terrestrial experiments could eventually be called on to meet any such future need

As a point of historical interest, we note that one of the earliest cases where vacuum polarization effects were discussed within the context of a gravitational physics experiment was in Long’s interpretation of his non-null result for a breakdown in the inverse square law of Newtonian gravity . He claimed to find a scale dependence in the Newtonian gravitational constant, G and argued that a certain type of vacuum polarization process could explain his positive results. He further argued that the results consistent with no breakdown that were obtained in the null experiments of others  did not invalidate his findings of a variation in G with inter-mass spacing, because of the lack of a polarizing gravitational field in such experiments. Chen  extended the argument and contended that vacuum polarization could even resolve the differences between the null and the non-null results via a very weak shielding mechanism that could arise from it, but the very stringent limits on gravitational shielding phenomena  derived from recent experiments block that possibility. The present consensus is that the Newtonian inverse square law has been proven to be valid over the ranges through which it has been tested experimentally. The new laboratory searches for possible violations of it now focus on the sub-millimetric regime, and are driven largely by predictions for short-range variations in gravity that arise in extra-dimensional theories .

We call for a satellite test of the WEP that is designed to determine if the cosmological constant arises from zero-point energy, and whether the WEP is violated for coupling of gravitons to pure vacuum energy compared to ordinary matter. An observed violation of the WEP would serve as experimental support for the conjectured resolution of the cosmological constant problem, based on a model of nonlocal quantum gravity and quantum field theory .

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. GTG was supported in part by a NASA subcontract from the University of Tennessee to the University of Virginia, and he thanks D. K. Ross, A. J. Sanders and C. S. Unnikrishnan for interesting discussions.


text:
# Entropy of semiclassical 2D dilaton black holes away from the Hawking temperature

## I Introduction

Two-dimensional (2D) dilaton theories of gravity  (for a recent review see , ) attract much attention for a number of reasons. In particular, they contain solutions of a black hole type that gives a possibility to trace in details, exploiting simple models, rather subtle effects of interaction between curvature and quantum fields, that in the more realistic 4D case is obscured by mathematical complexities. In the present Letter we touch upon only one aspect of this subject, concerning connection between quantum backreaction and black hole thermodynamics.

It is known that, inasmuch as backreaction is neglected, the Euclidean action and black hole entropy are finite at arbitrary temperature for both the non-extreme and extreme cases. Once backreaction is taken into account, this brings about severe restrictions into black hole thermodynamics. For non-extreme black holes this enforces the choice of the temperature $`T=T_H`$, where $`T_H=\kappa /2\pi `$ is the Hawking temperature, $`\kappa `$ is the surface gravity, i.e. a pure geometrical characteristics of a system. Otherwise, for $`TT_H`$, quantum stresses blow up on the horizon that, typically, destroy a regular horizon completely. These circumstances were traced in detailed in , where the exact form of 2D stress-energy tensor was used explicitly. While the equality $`T=T_H`$ represents for non-extreme black holes well-established connection between geometry, quantum theory and thermodynamics, for the extreme case $`T_H=0`$ the situation is not so obvious. It was suggested in  (see also  \- ) to ascribe an arbitrary temperature $`T`$ to extreme black holes. Then one can calculate the Euclidean action and find the entropy $`S=0`$. Such a prescription works well on a pure classical level but quantum corrections, caused by backreaction, however small they be, destroy this picture completely for the same reasons as in the non-extreme case. Therefore, one is forced to put $`T=T_H=0`$, that makes thermodynamics questionable.

In previous works we showed that there exist exceptional situations, when infinite quantum backreaction on the horizon of dilaton black holes (in contrast to general relativity) may be compatible with regular geometry of a horizon both in the non-extreme  and extreme  cases. In doing so, infinite backreaction was in a sense compensated by infinite gravitation-dilaton coupling and infinite dilaton gradients. Meanwhile, for non-extreme black holes the entropy is proportional to the horizon value of this coupling, so it formally diverges as well as the Euclidean action as a whole. Thus, thermodynamic interpretation for such solutions fails. For extreme black holes, considered in , the entropy formally is zero, but the potential problem, caused by an infinite coupling, is connected with the energy, associated with the horizon since this energy is proportional to its gradient.

The aim of this Letter is to pay attention that there exists a possibility to combine the inequality $`TT_H`$ (and, thus, infinite backreaction) not only with the regularity of a horizon, but also with a well-defined entropy. This circumstance is especially important for the extreme case since it supplies us with examples, when the black hole entropy, whose very notion is the subject of intensive discussion in recent years  \- , may be advocated on a semiclassical (not only pure classical) level.

## II Non-extreme black holes and exactly solvable models

Let us consider the system governed by the action

$$I=I_0+I_{PL}\text{,}$$
(1)
where

$$I_0=\frac{1}{2\pi }_Md^2x\sqrt{g}[F(\varphi )R+V(\varphi )(\varphi )^2+U(\varphi )]+\frac{1}{\pi }_M𝑑skF(\varphi )\text{.}$$
(2)
Here the boundary term with the second fundamental form $`k`$ makes the variational problem self-consistent, $`ds`$ is the line element along the boundary $`M`$ of the manifold $`M.`$

$`I_{PL\text{ }}`$is the Polyakov-Liouville action  incorporating effects of Hawking radiation and its backreaction on the black hole metric for a multiplet of N scalar fields. It is convenient to write it down in the form ,

$$I_{PL}=\frac{\kappa }{2\pi }_Md^2x\sqrt{g}[\frac{(\psi )^2}{2}+\psi R]\frac{\kappa }{\pi }_M\psi k𝑑s\text{.}$$
(3)
The function $`\psi `$ obeys the equation

$$\mathrm{}\psi =R\text{,}$$
(4)
where $`\mathrm{}=_\mu ^\mu `$, $`\kappa =N/24`$ is the quantum coupling parameter.

Varying the action with respect to metric gives us $`(T_{\mu \nu }=2\frac{\delta I}{\delta g^{\mu \nu }})`$:

$$T_{\mu \nu }^{(tot)}T_{\mu \nu }^{(0)}+T_{\mu \nu }^{(PL)}=0\text{,}$$
(5)
where

$$T_{\mu \nu }^{(0)}=\frac{1}{2\pi }\{2(g_{\mu \nu }\mathrm{}F_\mu _\nu F)Ug_{\mu \nu }+2V_\mu \varphi _\nu \varphi g_{\mu \nu }V(\varphi )^2\}\text{,}$$
(6)
$$T_{\mu \nu }^{(PL)}=\frac{\kappa }{2\pi }\{_\mu \psi _\nu \psi 2_\mu _\nu \psi +g_{\mu \nu }[2R\frac{1}{2}(\psi )^2]\}$$
(7)
Variation of the action with respect to $`\varphi `$ gives rise to the equation

$$RF^{^{}}+U^{}=2V\mathrm{}\varphi +V^{}(\varphi )^2\text{,}$$
(8)
prime denotes derivative with respect to $`\varphi `$.

Inasmuch as the auxiliary function $`\psi `$ can be expressed in terms of $`\varphi `$ only, the action $`I_{0\text{ }}`$and the Polyakov-Liouville action are combined in such a way that field equations (5) - (7) can be formally obtained from the action $`I_0`$ only but with the ”renormalized” coefficients which receive some shifts: $`F\stackrel{~}{F},V\stackrel{~}{V}`$ where

$$\stackrel{~}{F}=F\kappa \psi \text{,}$$
(9)
$$\stackrel{~}{V}=V\frac{\kappa }{2}\psi ^2\text{.}$$
(10)
The dilaton equation (8) can be rewritten, with account of (4), as

$$R\stackrel{~}{F}^{^{}}+U^{}=2\stackrel{~}{V}\mathrm{}\varphi +\stackrel{~}{V}^{}(\varphi )^2\text{.}$$
(11)
Then there exists a class of exactly solvable models (see  and literature quoted there), for which

$$V=\omega (u\frac{\kappa \omega }{2})$$
(12)
or, equivalently,

$$\stackrel{~}{V}=\omega \stackrel{~}{F}^{}\text{}\omega \frac{U^{}}{U}\text{.}$$
(13)
Then it turns out that in the Schwarzschild gauge the metric of an eternal black hole reads

$$ds^2=fdt^2+f^1dx^2\text{,}$$
(14)
$$f=\frac{4\lambda ^2(\stackrel{~}{F}\stackrel{~}{F}_h)}{U}\text{}x=\frac{\mu }{2\lambda }\text{}\mu ^{}=\stackrel{~}{F}^{}e^\psi \text{}U=4\lambda ^2e^\psi \text{}\psi ^{}=\omega \text{,}$$
(15)
the curvature

$$R=\frac{U}{\stackrel{~}{F}^{}}[\frac{U^{}(\stackrel{~}{F}\stackrel{~}{F}_{h)}}{U\stackrel{~}{F}^{}}]^{}\text{.}$$
(16)
It was assumed in  that $`\stackrel{~}{F}^{}`$ $`0`$ to ensure the regularity of a horizon. Meanwhile, the equality $`\stackrel{~}{F}=0`$ may be compatible with the regularity of a horizon if, at the same time, $`U=0`$. Consider the case, when near the horizon

$$\stackrel{~}{F}\stackrel{~}{F}_h=A\left(\varphi \varphi _h\right)^2\text{,}$$
(17)
$$U=U_1(\varphi \varphi _h)\text{,}$$
(18)
where $`A`$ and $`U_1`$ are some constants.

It follows from (16) that $`R`$ is finite. Near the horizon $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ is finite, $`\stackrel{~}{V}2A`$ is finite, $`T_\mu ^{\nu (tot)}`$ are finite. It is instructive to note that for our exactly solvable models

$$\frac{f}{x}=2\lambda [1\frac{(\stackrel{~}{F}\stackrel{~}{F}_h)\psi ^{}}{\stackrel{~}{F}^{}}]\text{,}$$
(19)
$$T_H=\frac{1}{4\pi }\underset{xx_h}{lim}\frac{f}{x}=\frac{\lambda }{\pi }\text{.}$$
(20)
As a result, our Hawing temperature is as twice as little as compared to the standard case , when $`T_H=\frac{\lambda }{2\pi }`$. We have also

$$\frac{\stackrel{~}{F}}{x}=(2\lambda )^1U\text{}\stackrel{~}{V}=\stackrel{~}{F}^{}\psi ^{}\text{.}$$
(21)
Consider, for example, the spatial component. Then direct calculations give us that $`2\pi T_1^{1(tot)}=0`$, as it should be. The gravitation-dilaton part of the field equations

$$2\pi T_1^{1(0)}=\frac{f}{x}\frac{F}{x}U+Vf\left(\frac{\varphi }{x}\right)^2\text{,}$$
(22)
near the horizon behaves like

$$\frac{\pi T_1^{1(0)}}{2\lambda ^2}=\frac{3U_1}{8A}\kappa (\varphi \varphi _h)^1+\mathrm{}$$
(23)
In a similar way,

$$\frac{\pi T_1^{1(PL)}}{2\lambda ^2}=\kappa (\frac{f}{2}\frac{\psi }{x}+\frac{f}{x})\frac{\psi }{x}\text{.}$$
(24)
Near the horizon

$$\frac{\pi T_1^{1(PL)}}{2\lambda ^2}=\kappa \frac{3U_1}{8A}(\varphi \varphi _h)^1+\mathrm{}$$
(25)
We see that divergent parts of gravitation-dilaton and Polyakov-Liouville parts mutually compensate each other, as it should be. Thus, the entropy (up to the constant) $`S=2\stackrel{~}{F}_h`$  is finite; $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ are finite on the horizon, $`S`$ is well defined. The ”bare” quantities $`F`$, $`V`$ diverge: according to (9), (15), (18), near the horizon

$$F=\stackrel{~}{F}+\kappa \mathrm{ln}(\varphi \varphi _h)+const\text{,}$$
(26)
$$V=\stackrel{~}{V}+\frac{\kappa }{2}(\varphi \varphi _h)^1\text{.}$$
(27)
As $`T_\mu ^{\nu (PL)}`$ diverges, it means in turn that $`TT_H`$. Indeed, this component may be represented as (see, e.g.  for details) $`T_1^{1(PL)}=\frac{\pi N}{6f}[T^2\left(\frac{1}{4\pi }\frac{f}{x}\right)^2]`$. If spacetime is flat at infinity, $`\frac{f}{x}0`$, and the parameter $`T`$ has the meaning of temperature. Near the horizon, where $`\frac{1}{4\pi }\frac{f}{x}T_H`$, only the choice $`T=T_H`$ makes $`T_1^{1(PL)}`$ regular there. If $`T_1^{1(PL)}`$ diverges on the horizon, this is inconsistent with the equality $`T=T_H`$.

## III Extreme case

Exactly solvable models, exploited for the analysis of the non-extreme case, are now unsuitable since they give $`T_H0`$ according to (20). Fortunately, the essence of matter becomes clear even without resorting to exactly solvable models. Basic equations for $`00`$ and $`11`$ components read:

$$2f\frac{^2\stackrel{~}{F}}{x^2}+\frac{f}{x}\frac{\stackrel{~}{F}}{x}U\stackrel{~}{V}f\left(\frac{\varphi }{x}\right)^2=0\text{,}$$
(28)
$$\frac{f}{x}\frac{\stackrel{~}{F}}{x}U+\stackrel{~}{V}f\left(\frac{\varphi }{x}\right)^2=0\text{.}$$
(29)
It is also convenient to take the difference of (28), (29) to get

$$\frac{^2\stackrel{~}{F}}{x^2}=\stackrel{~}{V}\left(\frac{\varphi }{x}\right)^2\text{.}$$
(30)
Let us consider extreme black holes for which $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ are finite on the horizon. Let also on the horizon $`x=x_h`$ the dilaton $`\varphi =\varphi _h`$ and $`\frac{x}{\varphi }`$be finite. Then it follows from (29) that $`U(\varphi _h)=0`$. For a static metric eq. (4) gives us

$$\frac{\psi }{x}=\frac{a\frac{f}{x}}{f}\text{.}$$
(31)
Then it follows from (24) that

$$2\pi T_1^{1(PL)}=\frac{\kappa }{2}\frac{(a+\frac{f}{x})(a\frac{f}{x})}{f}\text{.}$$
(32)
If $`a=0`$, the quantity $`T_1^{1(PL)}`$ is finite on the extreme horizon since the denominator and numerator have the same order $`(xx_h)^2`$. Let, however, $`a0`$. Then near the horizon$`\frac{\psi }{x}=\frac{A_1}{(xx_h)^2}`$ and

$$\psi =\frac{A_1}{xx_h}=\frac{A_2}{\varphi \varphi _h}\text{,}$$
(33)
$`A_2=A_1lim_{xx_h}\left(\frac{\varphi }{x}\right)`$. As, by assumption, $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ is finite, the quantity $`F=\stackrel{~}{F}+\kappa \psi `$ behaves like $`(xx_h)^1(\varphi \varphi _h)^1`$, $`V=\stackrel{~}{V}+\frac{\kappa }{2}\left(\frac{\psi }{\varphi }\right)^2`$ behaves like $`(\varphi \varphi _h)^4`$. (Note that quantities $`F`$ and $`V`$ should diverge in any case, if we want to have finite $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ but for $`a=0`$ divergencies are milder: $`\psi \mathrm{ln}(\varphi \varphi _h)`$, $`F\mathrm{ln}(\varphi \varphi _h)`$, $`V(\varphi \varphi _h)^2`$.) On one hand, eqs. (28) and (30) have the solutions which can be obtained by Taylor series in $`(\varphi \varphi _h)`$or $`(xx_h)`$, with finite $`\stackrel{~}{F}_h`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{V}_h`$. On the other hand, for $`a0`$, $`T_1^{1(PL)}`$ diverges on the horizon according to (32). Direct calculations show that $`T_1^{1(0)}`$ have the leading divergent term that compensates exactly that in (32), as it should be. Thus, we get the regular solutions different parts of which diverge. The total Euclidean action of the quantum-corrected system is well defined since $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ is finite on the horizon (in this situation the enregy, as usual, is due to the term on the physical boundary and does not contain the contribution from the horizon). Then all the arguments of  \-  apply, with the only change that the classical coupling $`F`$ should be replaced now by the quantum-corrected one $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$. Thus, the value $`S=0`$ is advocated in that case. In other words, we should introduce appropriate counterterms into the gravitation-dilaton part of the action in such away, that they diverge on the horizon. Then, if they behave like we described it above, they compensate divergencies in Polyakov-Liouville part and give the quite definite well-defined answer for the entropy. The divergencies in $`I_0`$ is an inevitable price for the finiteness of the total action. There is no need to adjust very special logarithmic dependence for $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ to obtain semiclassical regular extreme black holes, as was done in  \- now $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ is finite on the horizon.

## IV Summary

A natural way to understand better fundamentals of black hole thermodynamics is to try to violate some ”obvious” assumptions, which are usually tacitly assumed and remain unspoken, and to look at the consequences to which this violation can lead. As a result, we can either realize, why these assumptions were necessary or, otherwise, extend some basic notions beyond their original region of validity. In this Letter we abandoned the assumption of the finiteness of the action coefficients on the horizon in the bare gravitation-dilaton part. We demonstrated, how divergencies in the corresponding couplings are connected with the violation of the condition $`T=T_H`$ and showed that this can be compatible with the well-defined black hole entropy. In particular, for corresponding solutions the prescription for the entropy value $`S=0`$ of extremal black holes  can be advocated.

From the other hand, the procedure under discussion cannot be considered only as a methodical exercise for elucidating, what happens if some ”obvious” assumption about the bare Lagrangian are violated. The point is that for a quantum-corrected system it is just quantities like $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ have direct meaning - meanwhile, they are finite in our case. (To some extent, the relationship between $`F`$, $`V`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{V}`$ can be considered in our case as some analogue of the renormalization procedure, but with the wording that this ”renormalization” should remove divergencies only on the horizon - outside the horizon all quantities are finite separately.) Only if one wishes to trace back the behavior of different parts in field equation and splits them explicitly to gravitation-dilaton part and quantum backreaction, the thermal divergencies on the horizon come into play (otherwise they remain hidden, since geometry near the horizon is perfectly smooth). This means that if spacetime is asymptotically flat, at infinity $`T_\mu ^{{}_{}{}^{\nu }(PL)}\frac{\pi T^2N}{6}diag(1,1)`$ has the form, inherent to thermal radiation, but with temperature $`T\kappa /2\pi `$.

Combining the results of the previous works ,  with the present ones, we see that dilaton gravity gives us a more rich set of possibilities than general relativity in what concerns thermal properties of black holes and relationship between the character of quantum stresses on the horizon and the regularity of the geometry.

For convenience, different cases are brought together in a table, where $`\mathrm{"}+\mathrm{"}`$ means ”exists”, while $`\mathrm{"}\mathrm{"}`$ means ”does not exists”, the row ”0” represents the classical case, all other rows refer to the semiclassical situation. Here case 1 can be called typical and in fact discussion in  applies to it, case 1’ showing, what happens if deviation of the temperature from the Hawking value occurs. Case 2 refers to models of , , case 3 is the subject of the present article. Case 1 for extreme black hole means that $`T=T_H`$, so a regular horizon is possible but, as $`T_H=0`$, there is no sensible thermodynamics. That for extreme semiclassical black holes there two possibilities in case 2, is explained by the fact that thermodynamics fails if $`\stackrel{~}{F}`$ and, correspondingly, the energy associated with the horizon grow too rapidly near the horizon (cf. ).

Non-extreme black holes

|  | $`T`$, $`T_H`$ | $`F_h,V_h`$ | $`\stackrel{~}{F}_h,\stackrel{~}{V}_h`$ | $`T_\mu ^{\nu (PL)}`$ on horizon | Regular horizon | Thermodynamics |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 0 | $`=`$or $``$ | finite | $`\stackrel{~}{F}=F`$, $`\stackrel{~}{V}=V`$ | $`0`$ | $`+`$ | $`+`$ ($`S=2F_h`$) |
| 1 | $`=`$ | finite | finite | finite | $`+`$ | $`+`$ ($`S=2\stackrel{~}{F}_h`$) |
| 1’ | $``$ | finite | infinite | infinite | $``$ | $``$ |
| 2 | $``$ | infinite | infinite | infinite | $`+`$ | $``$ |
| 3 | $``$ | infinite | finite | infinite | $`+`$ | $`+`$ ($`S=2\stackrel{~}{F}_h`$) |

Extreme black holes

|  | $`T`$ , $`T_H=0`$ | $`F_h,V_h`$ | $`\stackrel{~}{F}_h,\stackrel{~}{V}_h`$ | $`T_\mu ^{\nu (PL)}`$ on horizon | Regular horizon | Thermodynamics |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 0 | $``$ | finite | $`\stackrel{~}{F}=F`$, $`\stackrel{~}{V}=V`$ | $`0`$ | $`+`$ | $`+`$ ($`S=0`$) |
| 1 | $`=`$ | finite | finite | finite | $`+`$ | $``$ |
| 1’ | $``$ | finite | infinite | infinite | $``$ | $``$ |
| 2 | $``$ | infinite | infinite | infinite | $`+`$ | $`+`$ ($`S=0`$) or $``$ |
| 3 | $``$ | infinite | finite | infinite | $`+`$ | $`+`$ ($`S=0`$) |

It is seen from the table that in 2D dilaton gravity black hole thermodynamics becomes, on one hand, more restricted in that it fails to exist at all in certain dilaton theories. However, from the other hand, it extends to a more vast region than usually since it may withstand the violation of the property $`T=T_H`$ (that manifests that an intimate link between geometry and thermodynamics is now broken) and the appearance of infinite stresses on the horizon. In the given context it is worth mentioning that black hole thermodynamics fails to be mandatory also in some 4D theories with a scalar field (dilaton), even in the absence of quantum effects, because of an infinite area of an event horizon or divergencies in the coupling $`F`$; if $`F`$ grows too rapidly, the Euclidean action turns out to be infinite . Thus, divergencies in the gravitation-dilaton coupling do not deprive the corresponding models of physical sense but, rather, give rise to unusual and non-trivial relationship between the existence of thermal properties, quantum backreaction and/or concrete nature of the aforementioned divergencies.