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# Generalized Bogoliubov Transformation for Confined Fields: Applications in Casimir Effect

## 1 Introduction

A way to treat the effect of temperature in quantum field theory is, for instance, through the Matsubara formalism, which is based on a formal substitution of time, say $`t`$, by a complex time, say $`i\tau .`$ In this imaginary time scheme, the temperature emerges as a consequence of a compactification of the field in a finite interval in time axis, $`0<\tau <\beta ,`$ where $`\beta `$ is the inverse of temperature (we take the Boltzmann constant as $`k_B=1;`$ thus $`\beta =1/k_BT=1/T)`$. This compactification effect of time coordinates has been generalized and associated with space confinement, for instance, of the electromagnetic field through the notion of image method for a Green function. Besides that, in the realm of euclidean theories, a generalization of the Matsubara formalism has been carried out to take into account spatial confinement of the scalar field in the $`\lambda \varphi ^4`$ approach using the Epstein-Hurwitz zeta-functions .

On the other hand, as an alternative finite-temperature quantum field theory, Takahashi and Umezawa introduced the so-called thermofield dynamics (TFD) approach, in order to handle finite temperature with a real time operator formalism. TFD is based on two elements. The first one is a doubling in the Fock space $``$ of the original field system, giving rise to an expanded Fock space denoted by $`_T=\stackrel{~}{}`$. This doubling, in terms of mappings in $`_T`$, is defined by what is called tilde (or dual) conjugation rules, associating each operator in $``$, say $`a`$, to two operators in $`_T`$, say $`A=a1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{A}=1a,`$ such that the physical variables are described by the non-tilde operators. The next basic ingredient of TFD is a Bogoliubov transformation, introducing a rotation in the tilde and non-tilde variables, such that the temperature effect emerges from a condensed state.

When TFD is compared with the imaginary-time (Matsubara) formalism, the Bogoliubov transformation works by confining the field in a restricted region of the time axis via the notion of a condensate. Here our main goal is to develop a generalization of TFD to extend the compactification of an arbitrary field for regions in space through the notion of condensate. This possibility finds support and should be useful in different contexts, in particular when associated with the vacuum properties of the electromagnetic field via the Casimir effect.

The Casimir effect arises from the fluctuation of the vacuum state of fields defined in space-time manifolds with non-trivial topologies. Nowadays there is a prominent interest in Casimir effect, as a consequence of the fact that in 1997 the Casimir force was measured with the precision of a few percent. This result points in particular to a practical use of the Casimir force in nano- and micro-technologies. Nevertheless, the finite-temperature corrections in the Casimir effect are one aspect which still demand more theoretical development and need greater experimental accuracy. Indeed, for example, only recently the implications of temperature have been analysed in the context of the classical limit of the Casimir effect, although, as it was emphazised by Mehra long ago , that the temperature effect is significant for plates separated by a distance of the order of micrometers.

Brown and Maclay treated temperature in the Casimir effect in a full finite-temperature quantum-field theory point of view. In their approach the energy-momentum tensor for the electromagnetic field is written in the context of the imaginary time formalism and the image-method procedure is used to calculate the propagator between two parallel plates. As a result the temperature effect emerges in the time axis by using the set of images for the propagator. In this calculation, all infinite images are summed up. A set of them (also infinite in number and called odd-images), associated with an attempt to make the formalism somewhat covariant, gives zero contribution by a resummation of the infinite series but only at the end of calculation. This remains as a difficulty, elucidated in the present formalism, since the algebraic manipulations are numerous and there is no available criterion to specify which set of images gives the proper contribution in any specific case. Here we overcome those difficulties by using a generalization of TFD via an analytic continuation of the Bogoliubov transformations. In this case, we are not concerned with images, such that the sum over odd-images is no longer needed. Furthermore, the calculations are carried out in a natural covariant way. These aspects represent an ease of calculations, following a rigorous procedure, with an unexpected elucidation of the whole process in a confined space, the Casimir force, derived via the Bogoliubov transformation, can be thought of as a vaccum condensation effect of the electromagnetic field.

We have also applied the method to the situation of one plate made of metal and the other of permeable material (the Casimir-Boyer model). The interest for this systems lies in the fact that we have a repulsive Casimir force, and this type of force has not been satisfactorily studied, although it is a fundamental ingredient to use the Casimir effect associated with technological nanodevices. Furthermore, the Casimir-Boyer model has been only recently addressed in more detail in the literature, in particular in the study of temperature effects . Regarding this sytem, the new results derived here include an explicit expression for the energy-momentum tensor and an analysis of thermodynamics functions such as Helmholtz free energy and entropy. The results thus obtained open an interesting perspective to use this procedure as an effective scheme for calculations in the studies of different confined fields, including non-abelian gauge fields like QCD. In other words, this generalized TFD formalism identifies the Casimir effect as giving a direct and clear picture of the vacuum as it displays its properties for differents fields including the non-abelian field.

In order to proceed with, in Section 2 the notation describing the basic elements of TFD is set forth, and the generalized Bogoliubov transformation is introduced for the scalar and the electromagnetic field. The subsequent sections are dedicated to applications. In Section 3, a thermal stress-energy tensor for the electromagnetic field is derived, and the results are compared with those from the imaginary-time formalism. In Section 4, the Casimir effect at zero and non-zero temperature are derived. In this case we consider the field constrained between two parallel plates (both made of either conducting or permeable material). The mixed situation, the Casimir-Boyer model, in which there is one conduting and one permeable plate, is discussed in Section 5. Our final remarks and conclusions are presented in section 6.

## 2 TFD and generalized Bogoliubov transformation

Thermofield dynamics is introduced by assuming that the set of operators in a field theory can be given in the form $`_T=\{A,B,C,\mathrm{},\stackrel{~}{A},\stackrel{~}{B},\stackrel{~}{C}\mathrm{}\}`$, defined in the Hilbert space $`_T=\stackrel{~}{}`$with elements $`|\mathrm{\Phi }=|\varphi ,\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$. The action of generic operators $`A`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{A}`$ on $`|\mathrm{\Phi }`$ is specified by

$`A|\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $``$ $`a1(|\varphi \varphi |)=(a|\varphi )\varphi |,`$ (1)
$`\stackrel{~}{A}|\mathrm{\Phi }`$ $`=`$ $`1a(|\varphi \varphi |)=|\varphi \varphi |a^{},`$ (2)
where the operator $`a`$ is defined in the usual Hilbert space, $``$, with $`|\varphi `$ (We follow the usual notation, which is introduced via the identification: $`A=a`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{A}=\stackrel{~}{a}`$). The tilde (or dual) conjugation rules are then a mapping $`\stackrel{~}{}:A\stackrel{~}{A},`$ specified by the relations (which can be derived from general algebraic properties),

$`(A_iA_j)\stackrel{~}{}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{A}_i\stackrel{~}{A}_j,`$ (3)
$`(cA_i+A_j)\stackrel{~}{}`$ $`=`$ $`c^{}\stackrel{~}{A}_i+\stackrel{~}{A}_j,`$ (4)
$`(A_i^{})\stackrel{~}{}`$ $`=`$ $`(\stackrel{~}{A}_i)^{},`$ (5)
$`(\stackrel{~}{A}_i)\stackrel{~}{}`$ $`=`$ $`A_i`$ (6)
$`[\stackrel{~}{A}_i,A_j]`$ $`=`$ $`0.`$ (7)
The physical variables are described by the non-tilde operators and thermal variables are introduced by a Bogoliubov transformation defined by the following procedure. For an arbitrary bosonic operator $`A`$ we define

$$(A^a)=\left(\begin{array}{c}A\\ \stackrel{~}{A}^{}\end{array}\right),(A^a)=(A^{},\stackrel{~}{A}).$$
(8)
The Bogoliubov transformation is defined as a $`2\times 2`$ matrix,

$$=\left(\begin{array}{cc}u(\alpha )& v(\alpha )\\ v(\alpha )& u(\alpha )\end{array}\right),$$
(9)
where $`u^2(\alpha )v^2(\alpha )=1,`$ with $`\alpha `$ being a parameter specifying the rotation between tilde and non-tide variables. For instance, for the case of the creation $`(a^{},\stackrel{~}{a}^{})`$ and destruction $`(a,\stackrel{~}{a})`$ boson operators, we have the extended (doubled) algebra

$`[a,a^{}]`$ $`=`$ $`[\stackrel{~}{a},\stackrel{~}{a}^{}]=1,`$ (10)
$`[a^{},\stackrel{~}{a}]`$ $`=`$ $`[a^{},\stackrel{~}{a}^{}]=[a,\stackrel{~}{a}]=[a,\stackrel{~}{a}^{}]=0.`$ (11)
Then the algebraic rules for the thermal bosonic operators are written as $`[a^a(\alpha ),a^b(\alpha )]=\delta ^{ab};`$ $`a,b=1,2,`$ such that $`a^a=(^1)^{ab}a^b(\alpha )`$and$`a^a=a^b(\alpha )^{ba}.`$ Writing explicitly, we have

$`a`$ $`=`$ $`u(\alpha )a(\alpha )+v(\alpha )\stackrel{~}{a}^{}(\alpha )`$ (12)
$`\stackrel{~}{a}`$ $`=`$ $`u(\alpha )\stackrel{~}{a}(\alpha )+v(\alpha )a^{}(\alpha ).`$ (13)
$`a^{}`$ $`=`$ $`u(\alpha )a^{}(\alpha )+v(\alpha )\stackrel{~}{a}(\alpha ),`$ (14)
$`\stackrel{~}{a}^{}`$ $`=`$ $`u(\alpha )\stackrel{~}{a}^{}(\alpha )+v(\alpha )a(\alpha ).`$ (15)
The thermal average is given by taking the vacuum avarage $`|0,\stackrel{~}{0}`$ of a thermal non-tilde variables. For instance for the particular case of the bosonic number operator, $`n=a^{}a`$, the thermal distribution is given by

$$n(\beta )=0,\stackrel{~}{0}|a^{}(\alpha )a(\alpha )|0,\stackrel{~}{0}\frac{1}{e^{\beta ϵ}1}=_{n=1}^{\mathrm{}}e^{\beta \epsilon n}.$$
(16)
This result is readily derived if the parameter $`\alpha `$ is taken to be the temperature, $`\alpha =\beta ,`$ such that

$`u(\beta )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{[1e^{\beta ϵ}]^{1/2}}},`$ (17)
$`v(\beta )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{[e^{\beta ϵ}1]^{1/2}}}.`$ (18)
However, obeserve that $`\alpha =\beta `$ is a particular choice, and other possibilities for $`\alpha `$ can be considered as it will be seen in the next sections.

The same scheme is generalized for a quantum field. In the case of the free scalar field, since we have equation of motion for the tilde and non-tilde variables, the $`\alpha `$dependent Klein-Gordon field theory is given by the Lagrangian

$$\widehat{L}=\frac{1}{2}_\mu \varphi (x;\alpha )^\mu \varphi (x;\alpha )\frac{m^2}{2}\varphi (x;\alpha )^2\frac{1}{2}_\mu \stackrel{~}{\varphi }(x;\alpha )^\mu \stackrel{~}{\varphi }(x;\alpha )+\frac{m^2}{2}\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(x;\alpha )^2,$$

where the metric $`g^{\mu \lambda }`$ is such that $`diag(g^{\mu \lambda })=(1,1,1,1).`$ This Lagrangian gives rise to the equations of motions

$$(_\mu ^\mu +m^2)\varphi (x;\alpha )=0,and(_\mu ^\mu +m^2)\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(x;\alpha )=0.$$

Therefore, in TFD the Lagrangian can be written as $`\widehat{L}=L\stackrel{~}{L}`$ and in consequence the Hamiltonian is $`\widehat{H}=H\stackrel{~}{H}`$ (this is a general result which can be used for every field). The two-point Green function for the $`\alpha `$scalar field is defined, then, by

$`G(xx^{};\alpha )^{(ab)}`$ $`=`$ $`0,\stackrel{~}{0}|T[\varphi (x;\alpha )^a\varphi (x^{};\alpha )^b|0,\stackrel{~}{0}`$ (19)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle d^4kG(k;\alpha )^{ab}e^{ik(xx^{})}},`$
where

$$G(k;\alpha )^{(ab)}=^1(k_o;\alpha )G_o(k)^{ab}(k_o;\alpha ),$$

with

$$(k,\alpha )=\left(\begin{array}{cc}u(k,\alpha )& v(k,\alpha )\\ v(k,\alpha )& u(k,\alpha )\end{array}\right),$$
(20)
and

$$(G_o(k)^{ab})=\left(\begin{array}{cc}G_0(k)& 0\\ 0& \stackrel{~}{G}_0(k)\end{array}\right)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\frac{1}{k^2m^2+iϵ}& 0\\ 0& \frac{1}{k^2m^2iϵ}\end{array}\right).$$
(21)
Then we have

$`G(k;\alpha )^{(ab)}`$ $`=`$ $`(k,\alpha )G(k)^{(ab)}(k,\alpha )`$
$`=`$ $`\left(\begin{array}{cc}G(k;\alpha )^{11}& G(k;\alpha )^{12}\\ G(k;\alpha )^{21}& G(k;\alpha )^{22}\end{array}\right),`$
with

$`G(k;\alpha )^{11}`$ $`=`$ $`G_0(k)+v^2(k,\alpha )[G_0(k)+\stackrel{~}{G}_0(k)],`$
$`G(k;\alpha )^{12}`$ $`=`$ $`G(k;\alpha )^{21}=v(k,\alpha )[1+v^2(k,\alpha )]^{1/2}[G_0(k)+\stackrel{~}{G}_0(k)],`$
$`G(k;\alpha )^{22}`$ $`=`$ $`\stackrel{~}{G}_0(k)+v^2(k,\alpha )[G_0(k)+\stackrel{~}{G}_0(k)].`$
The physical information is given by $`G(k;\alpha )^{11}.`$

Using the definition of $`(k_o,\alpha )`$ given in Eq.(20), with $`n(k,\alpha =\beta )=v(k,\alpha =\beta )^2=1/[e^{\beta k_o}1],`$and $`u(k,\alpha =\beta )^2=v(k,\alpha =\beta )^2+1=1/[1e^{\beta k_o}]`$, the components of $`G(k;\beta )^{ab}`$ read

$`G(k;\beta )^{(11)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{k^2m^2+iϵ}}2\pi in(k_o;\beta )\delta (k^2m^2),`$
$`G(k;\beta )^{(22)}`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{k^2m^2iϵ}}2\pi in(k_o;\beta )\delta (k^2m^2),`$
$`G(k;\beta )^{(12)}`$ $`=`$ $`G(k;\beta )^{21}=2\pi i[n(k_o;\beta )+n(k_o;\beta )^2]^{1/2}\delta (k^2m^2),`$
where $`n(k_o;\beta )=`$ $`u(k,\alpha =\beta )^2`$ is the boson distribution function. Notice that the physical propagator $`G(k;\beta )^{11}`$ is a well known result derived with the Matsubara method.

The components of

$$G(xx^{})^{(ab)}=0,\stackrel{~}{0}|T[\varphi (x)^a\varphi (x^{})^b|0,\stackrel{~}{0}$$

for a massless bosonic field can be explicitly written, by using Eq.(21), as

$`G_0^{(11)}(xx^{})`$ $``$ $`G_0(xx^{})={\displaystyle \frac{i}{(2\pi )^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(xx^{})^2+i\eta }},`$ (23)
$`G_0^{(22)}(xx^{})`$ $``$ $`\stackrel{~}{G}_0(xx^{})={\displaystyle \frac{i}{(2\pi )^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(xx^{})^2i\eta }},`$ (24)
and $`G_0^{(12)}(xx^{})=G_0^{(21)}(xx^{})=0.`$ These results will be useful in the following development.

Now we consider the case of electromagnetic field. Following the tilde conjugation rules, the doubled operator describing the energy-momentum tensor of the electromagnetic field is, then , given by

$$T^{\mu \lambda (ab)}=F^{\mu \alpha (ab)}F_\alpha ^{\lambda (ab)}+\frac{1}{4}g^{\mu \lambda }F_{\beta \alpha }^{(ab)}F^{\alpha \beta (ab)},$$
(25)
where the non-tensorial indices $`a,b=1,2`$ are defined according to the doubled notation given in Eqs. (8),

$$F_{\mu \nu }^{(ab)}=_\mu A_\nu ^a_\nu A_\mu ^b.$$

The doubled free-photon propagator is thus given by

$`iD_{\alpha \beta }^{(ab)}(xx^{})`$ $`=`$ $`0,\stackrel{~}{0}|T[A_\alpha ^a(x)A_\beta ^b(x)]|0,\stackrel{~}{0}`$ (26)
$`=`$ $`g_{\alpha \beta }G_0^{(ab)}(xx^{}),`$
where the non-zero components of $`G_0^{(ab)}(xx^{})`$ are given in Eqs.(23) and (24)

The vacuum average of the energy-momentum tensor reads

$`0,\stackrel{~}{0}|T^{\mu \nu (ab)}|0,\stackrel{~}{0}`$ $`=`$ $`i\{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mu \nu }(x,x^{})G_0^{(ab)}(xx^{})`$
$`+2(\eta ^\mu \eta ^\nu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}g^{\mu \nu })\delta (xx^{})\delta ^{ab}\}|_{xx^{}},`$
where $`\eta ^\mu =(1,0,0,0)`$ and

$$\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mu \nu }(x,x^{})=2(^\mu ^\nu \frac{1}{4}g^{\mu \nu }^\rho _\rho ^{}).$$

Inspired by the usual Casimir prescription, at this point we introduce the tensor $`T^{\mu \lambda (ab)}(\alpha )`$ by

$$T_{cas}^{\mu \lambda (ab)}(x;\alpha )=0,\stackrel{~}{0}|T^{\mu \lambda (ab)}(x;\alpha )|0,\stackrel{~}{0}0,\stackrel{~}{0}|T^{\mu \lambda (ab)}(x)|0,\stackrel{~}{0},$$
(27)
where

$`0,\stackrel{~}{0}|T^{\mu \lambda (ab)}(x;\alpha )|0,\stackrel{~}{0}`$ $`=`$ $`i\{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mu \lambda }(x,x^{})G^{(ab)}(xx^{};\alpha )`$
$`+2(\eta ^\mu \eta ^\lambda {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}g^{\mu \lambda })\delta (xx^{})\delta ^{ab}\}|_{xx^{}}.`$
As a consequence

$$T_{cas}^{\mu \lambda (ab)}(x;\alpha )=i\{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mu \lambda }(x,x^{})\overline{G}^{(ab)}(xx^{};\alpha )\}|_{xx^{}},$$
(28)
where

$$\overline{G}^{(ab)}(xx^{};\alpha )=\frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}d^4ke^{ik(xx^{})}\overline{G}^{(ab)}(k;\alpha ),$$

such that

$`\overline{G}^{(11)}(k;\alpha )`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{G}^{(22)}(k;\alpha )=v^2(k,\alpha )[G_0(k)+\stackrel{~}{G}_0(k)],`$
$`\overline{G}^{(12)}(k;\alpha )`$ $`=`$ $`\overline{G}^{(21)}(k;\alpha )=v(k,\alpha )[1+v^2(k,\alpha )]^{1/2}[G_0(k)+\stackrel{~}{G}_0(k)].`$
Let us write a general form for the Bogoliubov transformation by assuming the following analytical continuation for $`v^2(k,\alpha )`$, given originally in Eq.(16),

$$v^2(k,\alpha )\underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e^{i\alpha _lk},$$
(29)
where the notation is

$$\underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e^{i\alpha _lk}=\underset{l_0,l_1,l_2,l_3=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{exp}[i(\alpha _0l_0k_0+\alpha _1l_1k_1+\alpha _2l_2k_2+\alpha _3l_3k_3)],$$

with $`\alpha =(\alpha _0,\alpha _1,\alpha _2,\alpha _3)`$ representing a set of parameters to be specified. In the following we use this definition for calculating the physical components of the energy-momentum tensor, $`T^{\mu \lambda (11)}(x;\alpha )`$, in different situations.

## 3 TFD stress-energy tensor and temperature

As a basic result let us first calculate the temperature effect for the electromagnetic field using this TFD approach. For such a proposal we assume that $`\alpha _0=i\beta =i/T`$ and $`\alpha _1=\alpha _2=\alpha _3=0`$ in Eq.(29). In this case we have

$`\overline{G}^{(11)}(xx^{};\alpha )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle d^4ke^{ik(xx^{})}\overline{G}^{(11)}(k;\alpha )}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle d^4ke^{ik(xx^{})}\underset{j=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e^{\beta jk_0}[G_0(k)+\stackrel{~}{G}_0(k)]}`$
$`=`$ $`2{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}G_0(xx^{}i\beta jn),`$
where $`n^\mu =(1,0,0,0).`$ Using this result in Eq.(28) we find

$`T^{\mu \lambda (11)}(x;\alpha )`$ $`=`$ $`i\{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mu \lambda }(x,x^{})\overline{G}^{(11)}(xx^{};\alpha )\}|_{xx^{}},`$ (30)
$`=`$ $`i\{4(^\mu ^\lambda {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}g^{\mu \nu }^\rho _\rho ^{}){\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}G_0(xx^{}i\beta jn)\}|_{xx^{}},`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{g^{\mu \lambda }n^\mu n^\lambda }{(j\beta )^4}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{45}}\pi ^2T^4(g^{\mu \lambda }n^\mu n^\lambda ).`$
Therefore, the energy density of the photon gas is the well known result $`E(T)=T^{00(11)}(x;\alpha )`$ which leads to the relation for the black-body radiation, i.e.

$$E(T)=\frac{1}{15}\pi ^2T^4.$$
(31)
We find that the condensation effect introduced via the Bogoliubov transformation is equivalent, in the imaginary time formalism, to the displaced images in time by $`ij\beta `$ giving rise to a cut off in time axis . In the next section we will see as this condensation produces a cutoff in a space axes.

## 4  Compactification in space-time and the Casimir effect

In this section we use the formalism developed in Section 2 to derive the Casimir effect at zero and non-zero temperature. We proceed with the same prescription for the energy-momentum tensor but with a proper definition of the parameter $`\alpha `$.

### 4.1 Casimir effect at zero temperature

In the last section we have derived the temperature effect for the electromagnetic field with a proper choice for the parameters $`\alpha _l`$ which leads to a Green function $`\overline{G}^{(11)}(xx^{};\alpha _l)`$ written in terms of a modified free Green function, $`G_0(xx^{}i\beta jn).`$ Let us now assume that $`\alpha _0=\alpha _1=\alpha _2=0`$ and $`\alpha _3,`$ is a real parameter. In this case we have

$`\overline{G}^{(11)}(xx^{};\alpha )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle d^4ke^{ik(xx^{})}\overline{G}^{(11)}(k;\alpha )}`$ (32)
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle d^4ke^{ik(xx^{})}\underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e^{ilk_3\alpha _3}[G_0(k)+\stackrel{~}{G}_0(k)]}`$
$`=`$ $`2{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}G_0(xx^{}\alpha _3lz).`$
Observe from this expression that if we define $`\alpha _3=2d`$, the sum over $`l`$ defines the non trivial part of the Green function that leads to the Dirichlet boundary condition for the electromagnetic field, considering two conducting parallel plates, one at $`x_3=0`$ and the other at $`x_3=d`$, see Ref.. Here the sum is, equivalently interpreted as being, over half of even images of a photon propagating between two parallel plates (the factor 2 in the sum will take into account the other half of the even images when $`xx^{}`$). This result was first derived by Brown and Macley, who showed that the contributions due to odd images add to zero. In our approach this fact is obtained explicitly without reference to images, and the cancellation of the equivalent odd images is a result of the tilde-propagator contribution. Then the nature of the boundary conditions over the electromagnetic field, associated Green’s function, is then the prescription to define the physical content of the parameters $`\alpha `$.

Using Eq.(32) in Eq.(28), with $`\alpha _3=2d`$, we find for the energy-momentum tensor

$`T^{\mu \nu (11)}(x;d)`$ $`=`$ $`i\{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mu \nu }(x,x^{})\overline{G}^{(11)}(xx^{};\alpha )\}|_{xx^{}},`$ (33)
$`=`$ $`i\{2(^\mu ^\nu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}g^{\mu \nu }^\rho _\rho ^{})2{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}G_0(xx^{}2dlz)\}|_{xx^{}},`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2}{\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{g^{\mu \nu }+4z^\mu z^\nu }{(2ld)^4}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2^3\pi ^2d^4}}(g^{\mu \nu }+4z^\mu z^\nu ){\displaystyle \underset{l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{1}{l^4}}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{\pi ^2}{180d^4}}({\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}g^{\mu \nu }+z^\mu z^\nu ).`$
In particular the component of the Casimir energy, $`T^{00(11)}(x;\alpha )=E(d)`$, is then given as

$$E(d)=\frac{\pi ^2}{720d^4}.$$
(34)
### 4.2 Casimir effect at non-zero temperature

Consider the case $`\alpha _0=i\beta ,\alpha _1=\alpha _2=0,`$ $`\alpha _3=2d,`$ $`n^\mu =(1,0,0,0)`$ and $`z^\mu =(0,0,0,n_3),`$ In this case we have

$`\overline{G}^{(11)}(xx^{};\alpha )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle d^4ke^{ik(xx^{})}\overline{G}^{(11)}(k;\alpha )}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle d^4ke^{ik(xx^{})}\underset{j,l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}e^{\beta jk_0+ilk_3(2d)}[G_0(k)+\stackrel{~}{G}_0(k)]}`$
$`=`$ $`2{\displaystyle \underset{j,l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}G_0(xx^{}i\beta jn2dlz).`$
Using this result in Eq.(28) we find that the energy-momentum tensor is

$`T^{\mu \nu (11)}(x;d,\beta )`$ $`=`$ $`i\{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mu \nu }(x,x^{})\overline{G}^{(11)}(xx^{};\alpha )\}|_{xx^{}}`$ (35)
$`=`$ $`i\{2(^\mu ^\nu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}g^{\mu \nu }^\rho _\rho ^{})`$
$`\times 2{\displaystyle \underset{j,l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}G_0(xx^{}i\beta jn2dlz)\}|_{xx^{}}.`$
Notice that if we take in the sum given in Eq.(35) $`l=0`$ or $`j=0,`$ we recover the terms of the black body radiation, Eq.(31), and Casimir effect at zero temperature, Eq.(34). Thus in this case the energy-momentum tensor is

$`T^{\mu \nu (11)}(x;d,\beta )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j,l=0^{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}\{{\displaystyle \frac{g^{\mu \nu }}{[(2ld)^2+(j\beta )^2]^2}}`$ (36)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{4(2ld)^2z^\mu z^\nu (j\beta )^2n^\mu n^\nu }{[(2ld)^2+(j\beta )^2]^2}}\},`$
where the notation $`j,l=0^{}`$ is used to emphasize that the term for $`l=j=0`$ is not included in the sum (actually this is a divergent term which was subtracted in Eq.(27)).

Following Brown and Maclay , we define $`\xi =d/\beta `$ ,

$$f(\xi )=\frac{1}{4\pi ^2}\underset{j,l=0^{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{(2\xi )^4}{[(2l\xi )^2+(j)^2]^2},$$

and

$`s(\xi )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{d}{d\xi }}f(\xi )`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2^4}{\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j,l=0^{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{\xi ^3j^2}{[(2l\xi )^2+(j)^2]^3}}`$
resulting in

$$T^{\mu \nu (11)}(x;d,\beta )=\frac{1}{d^4}f(\xi )(g^{\mu \nu }+4z^\mu z^\nu )+\frac{1}{\beta d^3}(n^\mu n^\nu +z^\mu z^\nu )s(\xi ).$$

In particular the component $`T^{00(11)}(x;d,\beta )=E(d,\beta )`$ gives rise to the energy density

$$E(d,\beta )=\frac{1}{d^4}[f(\xi )+\xi s(\xi )].$$

Here $`f(\xi )`$ describes the Helmholtz free-energy density for photons and $`s(\xi )`$ is the entropy density.

## 5 Casimir-Boyer model

In the last section we applied the generalized Bogoliubov transformation to treat the Casimir effect, such that the Green function fulfilled the Dirichlet( Neumann) boundary condition for two conducting (permeable) parallel plates, one at $`x_3=0`$ and the other at $`x_3=d.`$ In this section we consider the Casimir-Boyer model, corresponding to a mixed situation of plates in which at $`x_3=0`$ we have a conducting plate (Dirichlet boundary conditions) and at $`x_3=d,`$ a permeable plate (Neumann boundary conditions). In order to have a Green function satisfying these conditions, we consider $`\alpha _0=i\beta ,\alpha _1=\alpha _2=0,`$ $`\alpha _3=2d+\pi /k_3,`$ $`n^\mu =(1,0,0,0)`$ and $`z^\mu =(0,0,0,1).`$ In this case we have

$`\overline{G}^{(11)}(xx^{};\alpha )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle d^4ke^{ik(xx^{})}\overline{G}^{(11)}(k;\alpha )}`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{(2\pi )^4}}{\displaystyle d^4ke^{ik(xx^{})}\underset{j,l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(1)^le^{\beta jk_0+ilk_3(2d)}[G_0(k)+\stackrel{~}{G}_0(k)]}`$
$`=`$ $`2{\displaystyle \underset{j,l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}(1)^lG_0(xx^{}i\beta jn2dlz).`$
Using this result in Eq.(28) we find the energy-momentum tensor to be

$`T^{\mu \nu (11)}(x;d,\beta )`$ $`=`$ $`i\{\mathrm{\Gamma }^{\mu \nu }(x,x^{})\overline{G}^{(11)}(xx^{};\alpha )\}|_{xx^{}}`$ (37)
$`=`$ $`i\{2(^\mu ^\nu {\displaystyle \frac{1}{4}}g^{\mu \nu }^\rho _\rho ^{})`$
$`\times 2{\displaystyle \underset{j,l=1}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}(1)^lG_0(xx^{}i\beta jn2dlz)\}|_{xx^{}}.`$
As before, if we take the sums starting from $`l,j=0`$, we include the Casimir effect at zero temperature and the black body radiation. Hence, carrying out the calculations in Eq.(37), we find that

$`T^{\mu \nu (11)}(x;d,\beta )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{4}{\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j,l=0^{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}(1)^l\{{\displaystyle \frac{g^{\mu \nu }}{[(2ld)^2+(j\beta )^2]^2}}`$ (38)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{4(2ld)^2z^\mu z^\nu (j\beta )^2n^\mu n^\nu }{[(2ld)^2+(j\beta )^2]^2}}\}.`$
Observe that for the term $`l=0,`$ the component $`T^{00(11)}(x;d,\beta )`$ is the black body radiation tem given in Eq.(31), and for $`j=0`$ we have $`T^{00(11)}(x;d,\beta )=E(d)`$

$$E(d)=\frac{7}{8}\frac{\pi ^2}{720d^4},$$

which is the Casimir energy for the Casimir-Boyer model. Notice that this energy corresponds to an attractive force which is $`7/8`$ of the Casimir energy for plates of the same material.

Using $`\xi =d/\beta `$ , we introduce

$$\widehat{f}(\xi )=\frac{1}{4\pi ^2}\underset{j,l=0^{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}(1)^l\frac{(2\xi )^4}{[(2l\xi )^2+(j)^2]^2},$$

and

$`\widehat{s}(\xi )`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{d}{d\xi }}f(\xi )`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{2^4}{\pi ^2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j,l=0^{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}}(1)^l{\displaystyle \frac{\xi ^3j^2}{[(2l\xi )^2+(j)^2]^3}}`$
resulting in

$$T^{\mu \nu (11)}(x;d,\beta )=\frac{1}{d^4}\widehat{f}(\xi )(g^{\mu \nu }+4z^\mu z^\nu )+\frac{1}{\beta d^3}(n^\mu n^\nu +z^\mu z^\nu )s(\xi ).$$

In particular, the component $`T^{00(11)}(x;d,\beta )=E(d,\beta )`$ gives rise to the energy density

$$E(d,\beta )=\frac{1}{d^4}[\widehat{f}(\xi )+\xi \widehat{s}(\xi )].$$

Here $`\widehat{f}(\xi )`$ describes the Helmholtz free-energy density for photons and $`s(\xi )`$ is the entropy density.

## 6 Concluding remarks

Summarising, in this work a generalization for the thermofield dynamics (TDF) formalism is presented, via an analytic continuation of the usual Bogoliubov transformation, in order to describe a field in a confined region in space. We apply the method to calculate the energy-momentum tensor of the electromagnetic field in different situations associated with the Casimir effect, such that in each case some peculiar aspect of the approach are emphasized.

Our aim with the applications was to demonstrate that our calculational method simplifies the study of the Casimir effect considerably, using the notion of covariance throughout the calculations. Furthermore the case that gives rise to repulsive force, which is of some interest in the most recent literature, is dealt with detail, resulting in the following new results: a) the explicit expression for the energy-momentum tensor; b) the explicit calculation of the expressions for the Helmholtz free energy, the internal energy and entropy.

In this TFD generalization, the Casimir effect is interpreted as a process of condensation of the electromagnetic field. In the case of the Casimir effect at zero temperature, the quasi-particles are described (for an arbitrary mode) by

$`a(\alpha )`$ $`=`$ $`u(\alpha )av(\alpha )\stackrel{~}{a}^{}`$
$`\stackrel{~}{a}^{}(\alpha )`$ $`=`$ $`u(\alpha )\stackrel{~}{a}^{}v(\alpha )a,`$
with $`a(\alpha )`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{a}`$ fulfilling the canonical algebra of the creation and destruction operators, that is $`[a(\alpha ),a^{}(\alpha )]=[\stackrel{~}{a}(\alpha ),\stackrel{~}{a}^{}(\alpha )]=1.`$ From these operators a vacuum state $`|0(\alpha )`$ can be defined, such that $`a(\alpha )|0(\alpha )=0`$. Therefore, regarding the operators $`a`$ and $`a^{},`$ the state $`|0(\alpha )`$ describes a condensate, as is the case for the temperature in the usual TFD. This provides an unusual insight into the role of vacuum in developing the Casimir force. Thus not only the notion of vacuum but also its structure (seen as a condensate) are crucial in producing the Casimir effect. In a broader sense, this notion of condensate is a central aspect thoroughout the paper, which can not be derived in the context of the Matsubara’s formalism.

In Ref., using a modification of the Matsubara approach to treat spontaneous symmetry breaking in compactified $`\lambda \varphi ^4`$ theory and superconducting transition temperature in thin films, it is shown how to describe a general space confinement of a field, not necessarily in the ground state as is the case of the Casimir effect. However, our contention is that a more refined understanding of that modified Matsubara method would be interesting, considering theoretical and practical applications. This aspect has been achieved here by using a generalization of TFD, which can be used as well for the systems studied in .

The Matsubara formalism has also been applied in the derivation of the so-called Lifshitz formula, describing the Casimir force in real media $`ϵ(𝐱,\beta )`$ (not $`ϵ_0=1`$) . Recently, this formula has been successfully used with the dielectric permittivity, as is given by the Drude model function, to describe the Casimir force at nonzero temperature between real metals . Thereof, it would be interesting to analyze the connection of our method and the Matsubara approach more closely. This can be carried out by using functional methods in TFD . In our case, considering the scalar field, we can start with the following definition for the generating funcional

$$𝒵^{ab}=N\mathrm{exp}\{\frac{i}{2}(JJ)G(xx^{},\alpha )\left(\begin{array}{c}J\\ J\end{array}\right)\}dxdy,$$
(39)
where the matrix $`G(xx^{},\alpha )`$ is given in Eq.(19). From $`𝒵^{ab}`$ an effective action, say $`W`$, can then be introduced by $`W^{ab}=i\mathrm{ln}𝒵^{ab}`$. Taking $`a=b=1`$, we recover the Matsubara method, and in particular the results given in Eq.(3.10) of Ref., for the the effective action under the zeta-functional regularization, the starting point to derive the aforementioned Lifshitz formula. These aspects regarding the use of generalized Bogoliubov transformation associated with Casimir effect for real (not only ideal) media will be discussed in more detail elsewhere.

Ending these remarks, it is worthy to add that as this method based on the Bogoliubov transformation is independent of the type of field involved, it should be useful to analyze the Casimir effect in the case of non-abelian gauge fields like quantum chromodynamics. In this case the Casimir effect affects the formation of the quark-gluon plasma, and as a consequence, the phase transition from a confined to a deconfined state.

Acknowledgments:  The authors thank Professor M. Revzen for the stimulating discussions and for his interest in this work. We also thank the Referee for the detailed commentary and the useful suggestions. One of us (AES) thanks A. P. C. Malbouisson, J. M. C. Malbouisson for the interesting discussions. This work was supported by CNPQ of Brazil and NSERC of Canada.