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# Competing orders in high-𝑇_𝑐 superconductors

## Abstract

Within a (2+1)-dimensional U(1) gauge field theory, after calculating the Dyson-Schwinger equation for fermion self-energy we find that chiral symmetry breaking (CSB) occurs if the gauge boson has a very small mass but is suppressed when the mass is larger than a critical value. In the CSB phase, the fermion acquires a dynamically generated mass, which leads to antiferromagnetic (AF) long-range order. Since in the superconducting (SC) state the gauge boson acquires a finite mass via Anderson-Higgs mechanism, we obtain a field theoretical description of the competition between the AF order and the SC order. As a compromise of this competition, there is a coexistence of these two orders in the bulk material of cuprate superconductors.

Understanding the competition of various ground states of cuprate superconductors is one of the central problems in modern condensed matter physics. At hall-filling, the cuprate superconductor is a Mott insulator with antiferromagnetic (AF) long-range order. When the doping concentration increases, AF order rapidly disappears and superconducting (SC) order emerges as the ground state. How to describe this evolution from AF order to SC order upon doping in a simple way is a very interesting problem.

Since the discovery of high temperature superconductors, extensive theoretical and experimental work appeared to investigate the possibility of spin-charge separation , which states that the spin and charge degrees of freedom might be carried by different quasiparticles, i.e. charge carrying holons and spin carrying spinons. The recently observed breakdown of the Wiedemann-Franz (WF) law in underdoped cuprates  confirms its existence . In spin-charge separated theories, the pseudogap in the normal state is the spin gap arising from pairing of spinons. Superconductivity is achieved when the holons Bose condense into a macroscopic quantum state, which indicates that the vortex of high temperature superconductors carries a double flux quantum $`hc/e`$. However, so far experiments found only $`hc/2e`$ vortices . Recently Lee and Wen  showed that SU(2) slave-boson theory  can naturally lead to a stable $`hc/2e`$ vortex inside which a finite pseudogap exists .

In this Letter, we propose that the competition between the AF order and the SC order can be modeled by a competition between chiral symmetry breaking (CSB) and the mass of a gauge boson within an effective theory of the SU(2) formulation. After calculating the Dyson-Schwinger (DS) equation for fermion self-energy, we find that CSB happens if the gauge boson mass is zero or very small but is destroyed when the gauge boson mass is larger than a finite critical value. We then show that CSB corresponds to the formation of long-range AF order by calculating AF correlation function. Because the gauge boson mass is generated via the Anderson-Higgs mechanism in the superconducting state, there is a competition between AF order and SC order.

We start our discussion from the staggered flux state in the SU(2) slave-boson treatment of the $`t`$-$`J`$ model . In this paper we adopt the following effective model of the underdoped cuprates that consists of massless fermions, bosons and a U(1) gauge field

$$_F=\underset{\sigma =1}{\overset{N}{}}\overline{\psi }_\sigma v_{\sigma ,\mu }\left(_\mu ia_\mu \right)\gamma _\mu \psi _\sigma +\left|\left(_\mu ia_\mu \right)b\right|^2+V(\left|b\right|^2).$$
(1)
The Fermi field $`\psi _\sigma `$ is a $`4\times 1`$ spinor. The $`4\times 4`$ $`\gamma _\mu `$ matrices obey the algebra, $`\{\gamma _\mu ,\gamma _\nu \}=2\delta _{\mu \nu }`$, and for simplicity, we let $`v_{\sigma ,\mu }=1`$ ($`\mu ,\nu =0,1,2`$). $`b=(b_1,b_2)`$ is a doublet of scalar fields representing the holons.

In Lagrangian (1) the fermions are massless, so it respects the chiral symmetries $`\psi \mathrm{exp}(i\theta \gamma _{3,5})\psi `$, with $`\gamma _3`$ and $`\gamma _5`$ two $`4\times 4`$ matrices that anticommute with $`\gamma _\mu `$ ($`\mu =0,1,2`$). If the fermion flavor is below a critical number $`N_c`$ the strong gauge field can generate a finite mass for the fermions \[9-11\], which breaks the chiral symmetries. This phenomenon is called chiral symmetry breaking (CSB), which has been studied for many years in particle physics as a possible mechanism to generate fermion mass without introducing annoying Higgs particles. Previous study found that CSB happens when the holons are absent \[9-11\] and when the holons are not Bose condensed .

We now would like to consider the superconducting phase where boson $`b`$ acquires a nonzero vacuum expectation value, i.e., $`b0`$. The nonzero $`b`$ spontaneously breaks gauge symmetry of the theory and the gauge boson acquires a finite mass $`\xi `$ via Anderson-Higgs mechanism. CSB is a low-energy phenomenon because (2+1)-dimensional U(1) gauge field theory is asymptotically free and only in the infrared region the gauge interaction is strong enough to cause fermion condensation. This requires the fermions be apart from each other. In the superconducting state, the gauge boson becomes massive and can not mediate a long-range interaction. Intuitively, a finite gauge boson mass is repulsive to CSB which is achieved by the formation of fermion-anti-fermion pairs. To determine whether CSB still occurs in the SC state, quantitative calculations should be carried out.

CSB is a nonperturbative phenomenon and can not be obtained within any finite order of the perturbation expansion. The standard approach to this problem is to solve the self-consistent DS equation for the fermion self-energy. The inverse fermion propagator is written as $`S^1(p)=i\gamma pA\left(p^2\right)+\mathrm{\Sigma }\left(p^2\right)`$, $`A(p^2)`$ is the wave-function renormalization and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(p^2)`$ the fermion self-energy. If the DS equation has only trivial solutions, the fermions remain massless and the chiral symmetries are not broken. However, not all nontrivial solutions correspond to a dynamically generated fermion mass . If a nontrivial solution of the DS equation satisfy an additional squarely integral condition , it then signals the appearance of CSB.

The DS equation is

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }(p^2)=\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}\frac{\gamma ^\mu D_{\mu \nu }(pk)\mathrm{\Sigma }(k^2)\gamma ^\nu }{k^2+\mathrm{\Sigma }^2(k^2)}.$$
(2)
In this paper, we use the following propagator of the massive gauge boson

$$D_{\mu \nu }(pk)=\frac{8}{(N+1)(\left|pk\right|+\eta )}\left(\delta _{\mu \nu }\frac{(pk)_\mu (pk)_\nu }{(pk)^2}\right),$$
(3)
where $`\eta `$ reflects the effect of the gauge boson mass $`\xi `$ ($`\eta =8\xi ^2/(N+1)`$). After performing angular integration and introducing an ultraviolet cutoff $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$, we have

$`\mathrm{\Sigma }(p^2)`$ $`=`$ $`\lambda {\displaystyle _0^\mathrm{\Lambda }}𝑑k{\displaystyle \frac{k\mathrm{\Sigma }(k^2)}{k^2+\mathrm{\Sigma }^2(k^2)}}`$ (4)
$`\times {\displaystyle \frac{1}{p}}\left(p+k\left|pk\right|\eta \mathrm{ln}\left({\displaystyle \frac{p+k+\eta }{\left|pk\right|+\eta }}\right)\right),`$
where $`\lambda =4/(N+1)\pi ^2`$ serves as an effective coupling constant. Here, for simplicity, we assumed that $`A(p^2)=1`$. For $`\eta =0`$, this assumption leads to $`N_c=32/\pi ^2`$ . More careful treatment  calculated the DS equation for $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(p^2)/A(p^2)`$ considering higher-order corrections and found that the critical behaviour is qualitatively unchanged. Since assuming that $`A(p^2)=1`$ can significantly simplify the calculations and the higher-order corrections are small we expect the result derived from DS equation (4) is reliable.

If we do not introduce an ultraviolet cutoff ($`\mathrm{\Lambda }\mathrm{}`$), the critical behavior of Eq.(4) is completely independent of $`\eta `$, which can be easily seen by making the scale transformation, $`pp/\eta `$, $`kk/\eta `$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\mathrm{\Sigma }/\eta `$. This scale invariance is destroyed by an ultraviolet cutoff $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ which is natural because the theory (1) was originally defined on lattices. Once an ultraviolet cutoff is intrdoduced, the solution $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(p^2)`$ then automatically satisfies the squarely integrable condition  and hence is a symmetry breaking solution. Theoretical analysis implies that the critical fermion number $`N_c`$ of Eq.(4) should depend on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/\eta `$. Actually, we have showed that when the gauge boson has a very large mass, say $`\eta \mathrm{\Lambda }`$, the DS equation has no physical solutions. If the gauge boson is massless, the last term in the kernel of Eq.(4) can be dropped off, leaving an equation that has a critical number $`32/\pi ^2`$. However, at present we do not have a detailed dependence of the critical number $`N_c`$ on $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/\eta `$. In particular, it is not clear whether $`N_c`$ is a monotonous function of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/\eta `$ or not. To settle this problem, we should solve the DS equation quantitatively.

The most intriguing property of the DS equation is that it is a (or a set of) nonlinear integral equation which exhibits many interesting phenomena and at the same time is very hard to be studied analytically and numerically. In this paper, based on bifurcation theory we are able to obtain the phase transition point of the nonlinear DS equation by studying the eigenvalue problem for its associated Frêchet derivative. This scheme  simplifies the numerical computation and also can lead to a reliable bifurcation point. We will calculate the eigenvalues of the linearized integral equation using parameter imbedding method, which can eliminate the uncertainty that is unavoidable when carrying out numerical computation in the vicinity of a singularity. The details of the computation will be given elsewhere.

Making Frêchet derivative of the nonlinear equation (4), we have the following linearized equation

$$\mathrm{\Sigma }(p^2)=\lambda _0^{\mathrm{\Lambda }/\eta }𝑑k\mathrm{\Sigma }(k^2)\frac{1}{pk}\left(p+k\left|pk\right|\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{p+k+1}{\left|pk\right|+1}\right)\right)$$
(5)
where for calculational convenience we made the transformation $`pp/\eta `$, $`kk/\eta `$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }\mathrm{\Sigma }/\eta `$. The smallest eigenvalue $`\lambda _c`$ of this equation is just the bifurcation point from which a nontrivial solution of the DS equation (4) branches off. For $`\lambda >\lambda _c`$, the DS equation has nontrivial solutions and CSB happens. The ultravoilet cutoff $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ is provided by the lattice constant and hence is fixed. We can obtain the relation of $`N_c`$ and $`\eta `$ by calculating the critical coupling $`\lambda _c`$ for different values of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/\eta `$.

In order to get the smallest eigenvalue $`\lambda _c`$, we first use parameter imbedding method  to convert Eq.(5) into two differential-integral equations with $`\lambda `$ their variable. After choosing an appropriate contour in the complex $`\lambda `$-plane and integrating with respect to the parameter $`\lambda `$, we finally obtain the exact eigenvalue $`\lambda _c`$.

Our numerical result is presented in Fig.(1). The most important result is that the critical fermion number $`N_c`$ is a monotonously increasing function of $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/\eta `$. It conforms our expectation that a finite mass of the gauge boson is repulsive to CSB. For small $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/\eta `$ the critical number $`N_c`$ is smaller than physical fermion number 2, so CSB does not happen. When $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/\eta `$ increases, the critical number $`N_c`$ increases accordingly and finally becomes larger than 2 at about $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/\eta _c=10^8`$. When $`\mathrm{\Lambda }/\eta `$ continues to increase, $`N_c`$ increases more and more slowly and finally approaches a constant value 2.15. Thus we can conclude that CSB takes place when the gauge boson mass is zero and very small but is destroyed when the gauge boson mass is larger than a critical value.

We next show that CSB corresponds to the formation of AF long-range order  by calculating the AF spin correlation function. At the mean field level, the AF correlation function is defined as

$$S^+S^{}_0=\frac{1}{4}\frac{d^3k}{(2\pi )^3}Tr\left[G_0(k)G_0(k+p)\right],$$
(6)
where $`G_0(k)`$ is the fermion propagator. For massless fermions, $`G_0(k)=\frac{i}{\gamma _\mu k^\mu }`$, we have

$$S^+S^{}_0=\frac{\left|p\right|}{16},$$
(7)
and the AF correlation is largely lost. This result is natural if we look back to our starting point, i.e., the staggered flux mean field phase which is based on the resonating valence bond (RVB) picture proposed by Anderson . The RVB state is actually a liquid of spin singlets, so it has only short range AF correlation. Since a Néel order was observed in experiments, we should find a way to get back the long-range spin correlation. One possible way is to go beyond the mean field treatment and include the gauge fluctuations which is necessary to impose the no double occupation constraint. As discussed above, when strong gauge interaction is taken into account, the system undergoes a chiral instability and the massless fermions acquire a finite mass. Although the dynamically generated fermion mass depends on the 3-momentum, here, for simplicity, we assume a constant mass $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_0`$ for the fermions. This approximation is valid because we only care about the low-energy property and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }(0)`$ is actually a constant. Then the propagator for the massive fermions is written as

$$G_0(k)=\frac{i\gamma _\mu k^\mu }{k^2+\mathrm{\Sigma }_0^2},$$
(8)
which leads to

$$S^+S^{}_0=\frac{1}{4\pi }(\mathrm{\Sigma }_0+\frac{p^2+4\mathrm{\Sigma }_0^2}{2\left|p\right|}\mathrm{arcsin}\left(\frac{p^2}{p^2+4\mathrm{\Sigma }_0^2}\right)^{1/2}).$$
(9)
This spin correlation behaves like $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_0/2\pi `$ as $`p0`$ and we have long-range AF correlation when CSB happens.

We should emphasize that CSB is necessary for producing AF long-range order. If we only include gauge fluctuations into the staggered spin correlation (6) while keeping the fermions massless, then

$$S^+S^{}_{GF}=\frac{8}{12\pi ^2(N+1)}\left|p\right|\mathrm{ln}\left(\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }^2}{p^2}\right)$$
(10)
which approaches zero at the limit $`p0`$. Wen and coworkers  used to claim that long-range AF correlation can be obtained by reexponentiating the spin correlation function based on the conclusion that the gauge field can not generate a finite mass for fermions and hence is a marginal perturbation. This result is derived by means of perturbation expansion. However, CSB is a nonperturbative phenomenon and whether the gauge field generates a finite mass for the massless fermions can only be settled by investigating the self-consistent DS equation for the fermion self-energy. Studies of the DS equation show that gauge field is strong enough to generate a mass for fermions, so it is not a marginal perturbation. Moreover, the AF long-range order breaks the rotational symmetry accompanying a massless Goldstone boson (spin wave). This is difficult to understand if the AF order is induced by a marginally perturbative gauge field, rather than by a spontaneous symmetry breaking.

In the superconducting state, the gauge boson mass $`\xi `$ is proportional to the superfluid density $`\rho _s`$, i.e., $`\xi \rho _s`$. Since $`\eta \xi ^2`$ and the superfluid density in high-$`T_c`$ superconductors is proportional to doping concentration $`\delta `$, we have $`\eta \delta ^2`$. Then whether CSB exists at $`T0`$ depends on the doping level and the knob that tunes the different orders is the holon degree of freedom. At half-filling and very low $`\delta `$ CSB occurs because the holons are not Bose condensed and the gauge boson is massless. As $`\delta `$ increases the cuprate becomes a superconductor which gives the gauge boson a finite mass. When $`\delta `$ is larger than a critical value $`\delta _c`$ the mass of the gauge boson ($`\xi _c\delta _c`$) is large enough to suppress CSB. Thus we obtain a competition between the AF order, which dominates at half-filling and low $`\delta `$, and the SC order, which dominates at high $`\delta `$. As a compromise of this competition, there is a coexistence of these two orders in the bulk material of cuprate superconductors for doping concentration between $`\delta _c`$ and the critical point $`\delta _{sc}`$ at which superconductivity begins to emerge.

It was generally claimed that the AF order is destroyed by the moving holes because no long-range AF correlation has been observed in cuprates at high doping $`\delta `$. However, our result  indicated that CSB and hence the AF order can coexist with free holons. It seems to us that the AF order is actually destroyed by Bose condensation of holons (or spontaneous gauge symmetry breaking) at low temperature and thermal fluctuations at high temperature (above $`T_c`$). To find out the true mechanism that destroys the AF order, experiments, preferably scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) or neutron scattering, should be performed at the $`T0`$ limit when the superconductivity is suppressed, for example, by strong magnetic fields.

Based on spin-charge separation and CSB, we now have a clear picture of the evolution of zero temperature ground states upon increasing the doping concentration. For doping concentration less than $`\delta _c`$, CSB occurs and leads to long-range AF correlation, which is then destroyed by superconducting order for doping concentration higher than $`\delta _c`$. On the other hand, when superconductivity is completely suppressed by strong magnetic fields, CSB occurs in underdoped cuprates and gives the nodal spinons (originally gapless due to the $`d`$-wave symmetry of the spin-gap) a finite mass which provides a gap for free fermions to be excited at low temperatures, causing the breakdown of the WF law . Thus the combination of spin-charge separation and CSB gives a unified field theoretical description of both the breakdown of WF law and the competition between long-range AF order and long-range SC order. This is the most notable advantage of our scenario.

Recently, much experimental  and theoretical  effort has been made to the magnetic field induced AF order in the vortex state of cuprate superconductors. In particular, neutron scattering and STM experiments found that AF order appears around the vortex cores where the superfluid is suppressed by magnetic field locally. Our result is consistent with these experiments. Qualitatively, the AF correlation is enhanced in regions where the superfluid density and hence the gauge boson mass becomes smaller than their critical value. Within our scenario, since CSB can coexist with a small gauge boson mass, the length scale for AF order to appear should be larger than the vortex scale, which is consistent with STM experiments . However, to quantitatively explain the experimental data, several subtle problems should be made clear, especially the ratio of gauge boson mass to superfluid density and the detailed distribution of the superfluid density in the vortex state, which are beyond the scope of this paper.

We thank Cheng Lee for his help in numerical calculations and V. P. Gusynin for pointing out one typing error in the original manuscript. This work is supported by National Science Foundation in China No.10175058.


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# Mode-coupling and polar nanoregions in the relaxor ferroelectric Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3

## I Introduction

Considerable advances have been made over the past several years in our understanding of the lattice dynamics of the relaxor ferroelectric Pb(Mg1/3Nb2/3)O3 (PMN), which is a prototypical member of a class of compounds that possesses exceptional piezoelectric properties, and an unusually broad and frequency-dependent dielectric susceptibility that peaks at a temperature $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$ ($`265`$ K at 1 kHz for PMN). Ye\_review  Pioneering neutron scattering work on PMN in 1999 by Naberezhnov et alNaberezhnov\_99  has been followed by a systematic series of neutron scattering experiments by Gehring et al. Gehring\_00\_1 ; Gehring\_proc\_00 ; Gehring\_00\_2 ; Gehring\_01  and Wakimoto et al. waki\_02  The results of these latter measurements have firmly established the existence of significant soft mode dynamics in PMN. In particular, they have demonstrated a linear temperature dependence of the zone-center soft phonon energy squared $`(\mathrm{}\omega _0)^2`$ over a wide temperature range, as shown in Fig. 1.

A fundamental feature that appears common to all relaxors is that of the polar nanoregions, or PNR. The presence of these regions was inferred in 1983 by Burns and Dacol, who found that the optic index of refraction of PMN deviates from a linear temperature dependence at a temperature $`T_d620`$ K that is far above $`T_{\mathrm{max}}`$Burns\_83  In conventional ferroelectrics this deviation corresponds to a uniform polarization that only develops below $`T_c`$. Given the absence of any net polarization in PMN at $`T_d`$, the optical data indicate the formation of tiny regions of local and randomly-oriented polarization that were speculated to originate in Nb-rich parts of the crystal several unit cells in size. The dynamical effects of these PNR are clearly manifest in neutron scattering measurements. Gehring et al. have found that the long-wavelength transverse optic (TO) phonons are heavily damped below $`T_d`$, which gives rise to the anomalous “waterfall” feature. Gehring\_01  Neutron scattering measurements further suggest that the appearance of the PNR at $`T_d`$ is accompanied by a remarkable overdamping of the zone center ($`q=0`$) TO phonons. As shown in Fig. 1(a), the zone center TO phonon linewidth broadens with decreasing temperature until finally at $`T_d`$ no discernible phonon peak remains. It has subsequently been reported that the overdamped zone-center TO mode reappears below $`220`$ K. waki\_02

The formation of the PNR at $`T_d`$ is the most important aspect of the relaxor problem, and it is intriguing that it is accompanied not only by the overdamping of the zone-center TO soft mode, but also by the appearance of diffuse scattering. The Brillouin zone dependence of the neutron diffuse scattering intensities has been extensively measured by Vakhrushev et al.Vakhrushev\_89 ; Vakhrushev\_93  and later it was shown by Naberezhnov et al. that the onset of the diffuse scattering occurs at $`T_d`$Naberezhnov\_99  The coincidence of these phenomena at $`T_d`$ point to a picture in which the PNR result from the condensation of the soft TO mode. If this picture is correct, then the atomic displacements associated the diffuse scattering must match those associated with the soft TO phonon, namely they must satisfy the center-of-mass condition. However, the diffuse scattering intensities in different Brillouin zones are entirely inconsistent with the TO phonon intensities. This long-standing puzzle was resolved recently by Hirota et alHirota\_01  By calculating the dynamic structure factor with the assumption that the soft TO mode condenses with an additional uniform shift of all atoms, they demonstrated that the intensities of TO phonon and diffuse scattering can be completely reconciled. Their calculation shows that this uniform shift $`\delta _{shift}`$ is comparable to the displacement due to the TO mode condensation $`\delta _{c.m.}`$, and that $`\delta _{shift}`$ is 60 % of the displacement of Pb atom. While the origin of this uniform phase shift is unknown, the success of the model provides further support to the idea connecting the PNR and the soft mode.

In this paper we demonstrate that a simple model that couples the transverse acoustic and soft optic modes, similar to that used by Harada et al. to describe the asymmetric phonon lineshapes found in BaTiO3Harada\_71  is able to reproduce the phonon lineshapes observed in PMN in both the (200) and (300) Brillouin zones, which exhibit very different scattering profiles. This naturally implies that a condensation at $`T_d`$ of a coupled TO mode would then contain a TA component, and this might closely relate to the uniform phase shift reported by Hirota et al. Hirota\_01

## II Experimental details

Single crystals of PMN were grown using a top-seeded solution method with PbO as flux. Two crystals were chosen for the neutron scattering experiments. One has a volume of 0.09 cm3 and a mass of 0.74 g, and the other has a volume of 0.40 cm3 and a mass of 3.25 g (the density of PMN is 8.13 gm/cm3). Since both samples show quantitatively similar results, we will not distinguish between the two samples in this paper.

Our neutron scattering experiments were performed at the BT9 triple-axis spectrometer located at the NIST Center for Neutron Research. The (002) reflection of highly-oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) crystals was used to monochromate the incident neutron energy $`E_i`$ and to analyze final neutron energy $`E_f`$. The data were taken with a fixed final energy $`E_f=14.7`$ meV ($`\lambda =2.36`$ Å1), and horizontal collimations of 40-40-S-40-80 (“S”=sample) between source and detector. An HOPG filter was placed after the analyzer to eliminate higher order wavelength contamination in the scattered beam. The crystal was placed with a natural {100}cubic facet facing down on to a boron nitride post, and held in place with tantalum wire. This orientation allows access to $`(h0l)`$-type reflections in the horizontal scattering plane. The mosaic spreads of the crystals were less than 24 at the (200) reflection which is resolution-limited with the above configuration, and indicate a high crystal quality. The room temperature lattice constant is 4.04 Å, therefore one reciprocal lattice unit (rlu) equals 1.553 Å-1.

PMN reportedly remains cubic down to 5 K. deMathan  Consistent with this observation, we find no definitive evidence of a structural transition in the temperature range $`50T400`$ K. On the other hand, a macroscopic ferroelectric state can be established in PMN by cooling it in a moderate ($`E=1.7`$ kV/cm) applied electric field. The induced polarization then vanishes upon warming above $`T_c=213`$ K as a first-order phase transition. Ye\_review  To date, the aforementioned reappearance of the zone-center TO mode, which also coincides with the disappearance of the TA phonon broadening, waki\_02  is the most direct evidence of ferroelectric ordering in zero field associated with $`T_c`$. Other anomalies have also been reported near $`T_c`$, such as the sharp peak in the temperature dependence of the hypersonic damping reported by Tu et al., Tu\_95  and the abrupt change in the thermal expansion of the lattice parameter observed by Dkhil et al. Dkhil\_02  To pursue this issue more carefully, we looked for subtle structural changes near $`T_c`$ by employing a tighter sequence of horizontal collimations (40-10-S-10-80) to improve the instrumental $`q`$ resolution. Figure 2 shows the temperature dependence of the $`(2,0,2)`$ Bragg peak width along the (a) $`[101]`$ (longitudinal) and (b) $`[10\overline{1}]`$ (transverse) directions. If PMN were to transform from a cubic to a rhombohedral structure, then the $`(2,0,2)`$ Bragg peak would split along the longitudinal direction. However, we observed neither a splitting nor a broadening of the $`(2,0,2)`$ Bragg peak along $`[101]`$. Figures 2(c) and (d) show longitudinal scans of the $`(2,0,2)`$ Bragg peak measured at 300 K and 50 K. The peak width is almost resolution limited for $`50T300`$ K. Instead, we observed a small, but clear, jump in the transverse width at $`T_c`$ which is shown in Fig. 2(b). However, we did not observe a corresponding enhancement of the peak intensity below $`T_c`$ that is normally expected at a structural phase transition due to the release of primary extinction.

## III Mode coupling model cross section

The neutron inelastic scattering technique provides a direct measure of the scattering function $`S(𝐪,\omega )`$, as this is simply related to the experimentally measured scattering cross section. More importantly, $`S(𝐪,\omega )`$ is related to the imaginary part of the dynamic susceptibility $`\chi ^{\prime \prime }(𝐪,\omega )`$ via the fluctuation-dissipation theorem

$$S(𝐪,\omega )=\{1+n(\omega )\}\chi ^{\prime \prime }(𝐪,\omega ),$$
(1)
where $`n(\omega )`$ is the Bose factor $`(e^{\omega /k_BT}1)^1`$. By choosing the scattering vector $`𝐐=𝐆+𝐪`$, where $`𝐆`$ is a reciprocal lattice vector and $`𝐪`$ is a phonon wave vector, one can measure the phonon dispersions in different Brillouin zones. The measurements reported here were made at $`𝐆=(2,0,0)`$ and $`(3,0,0)`$. However a model cross section is required in order to extract meaningful parameters from the measurements, and to correct for the effects of the instrumental resolution. The form we chose for $`S(𝐪,\omega )`$ is discussed by Harada et al., Harada\_71  and pertains to a system in which a coupling exists between two vibrational modes. In this case we have

$$\begin{array}{cc}S(𝐪,\omega )=\{1+n(\omega )\}\frac{\omega }{A^2+\omega ^2B^2}\{[(\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2\omega ^2)B\mathrm{\Gamma }_2A]F_1^2& \\ & \\ +2\lambda BF_1F_2+[(\mathrm{\Omega }_1^2\omega ^2)B\mathrm{\Gamma }_1A]F_2^2\},& \end{array}$$
(2)
where

$$A=(\mathrm{\Omega }_1^2\omega ^2)(\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2\omega ^2)\omega ^2\mathrm{\Gamma }_1\mathrm{\Gamma }_2\lambda ^2,$$
(3)
$$B=\mathrm{\Gamma }_1(\mathrm{\Omega }_2^2\omega ^2)+\mathrm{\Gamma }_2(\mathrm{\Omega }_1^2\omega ^2).$$
(4)
The model parameters $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$, $`F`$, and $`\lambda `$ represent the phonon frequency, damping, dynamic structure factor, and coupling constant, while the indices 1 and 2 denote the TO and TA modes, respectively. Hereafter, we shall refer to this as the mode-coupling (MC) function. This function shows larger coupling effects the closer the TO and TA frequencies become, or the more heavily damped either mode becomes. In the appendix we identify several important features of the MC function that can produce large differences in the phonon profiles.

## IV Neutron scattering experimental results

### IV.1 Phonon profiles at 690 K

Substantial differences between the phonon profiles obtained in the $`(2,0,q)`$ and $`(3,0,q)`$ Brillouin zones are apparent in Fig. 3, which displays typical data sets for $`q=0.2`$ measured at 690 K. A major difference is that the scattering associated with the TA phonon appears to peak at different energies, i. e. the TA energy seems lower at $`(3,0,0.2)`$ than it is at $`(2,0,0.2)`$. This difference is systematically observed at different $`q`$ positions as shown in the inset of Fig. 3, where the apparent TA phonon energies obtained from the peak position are plotted as a function of $`q`$ in the (200) and (300) zones at 690 K. The solid lines are merely guides to the eye. As is clearly seen, the TA mode energies in the (300) zone are consistently lower than those in (200) at all values of $`q`$ studied. Of course, for a crystal that possesses true long-range translational order, all phonon energies in different Brillouin zones must be identical.

When fitting these phonon profiles with the MC function, we found that a change in the sign of the product of the dynamic structure factors $`F_1F_2`$ can reconcile the discrepancies in the TA phonon peak position. Specifically, if we set $`F_1F_2<0`$ for $`(2,0,0.2)`$ and $`F_1F_2>0`$ for $`(3,0,0.2)`$, we obtain the same TA phonon energy $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$ for each zone. This occurs because for positive $`F_1F_2`$ the spectral weight of the TO mode increasingly shifts to the region below the TA mode energy $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$ with increasing TO mode damping $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$, whereas for negative $`F_1F_2`$ this spectral weight shifts to the region between the TO and TA mode energies. Thus the MC function produces a higher (lower) apparent TA phonon energy for negative (positive) $`F_1F_2`$, even though $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$ is always the same. Further details are given in the Appendix. The fits to the MC function include an additional Gaussian component which is used to describe the elastic incoherent peak at $`\mathrm{}\omega =0`$. The fitted curves are shown in Fig. 3, where the solid and dashed lines correspond to the MC and Gaussian functions, respectively. The fitting parameters are listed in Table 1. It is satisfying to note that the values for $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }`$ derived from the fits of both the $`(2,0,0.2)`$ and $`(3,0,0.2)`$ phonon profiles agree quite well, even though the apparent TA peak positions are different.

Another important difference between the (200) and (300) zones is that the dynamic structure factor $`|F_2|`$ at $`(3,0,0.2)`$ is about ten times smaller than that for $`(2,0,0.2)`$. This fact is readily confirmed since, for wave vectors close to the zone center, the ratio of $`|F_2|`$ in two different zones should agree with that for $`|F_N|`$, the nuclear static structure factor. This is given by

$$F_N(𝐐)=\underset{j}{}b_je^{i𝐐𝐝_j}e^{W_j},$$
(5)
where $`b_j`$, $`𝐝_j`$, and $`e^{W_j}`$ are the neutron scattering length, atomic coordination vector, and the Debye-Waller factor for the $`j`$th atom, respectively. In fact, this formula gives $`|F_N(200)|/|F_N(300)|=11.2`$ which is in excellent agreement with the value $`|F_2(2,0,0.2)|/|F_2(3,0,0.2)|=12.0`$ obtained from the fits. This implies, however, that the actual intensity of the TA mode at $`(3,0,0.2)`$ (which is proportional to $`|F_2|^2`$) should be over 100 times smaller than that at $`(2,0,0.2)`$. Yet the TA peak is clearly visible at $`(3,0,0.2)`$. This can also be explained by the MC function, since the intensity of the TO mode is transferred to the TA mode due to the coupling, which in turn produces an enhancement of the TA cross section. This feature is also described in more detail in the Appendix.

Features similar to those discussed above are also found in the phonon profiles at smaller $`q`$. Data taken at $`(3,0,0.12)`$ and $`(3,0,0.08)`$ are shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b), along with the fits to the MC function. As before, the solid and dashed lines correspond to MC and Gaussian functions, respectively. The fitting parameters are listed in Table 1. The coupling constant $`\lambda `$ was determined such that $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1`$ and $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$ are equal in each zone. At smaller $`q`$, the parameter $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ becomes larger, meaning that the TO mode is more heavily damped. This is consistent with the “waterfall” picture. We have thus shown that the phonon profiles in both the (200) and (300) Brillouin zones can be explained satisfactorily by the MC function at all $`q`$. However there is still an open question. While we know that $`\lambda `$ decreases at smaller $`q`$, we do not yet have a specific model that describes the $`q`$-dependence of $`\lambda `$.

### IV.2 Temperature dependence of the phonon cross section

To check the consistency of our model, we have analyzed the TA phonon profiles at $`(3,0,0.2)`$ at different temperatures. Before showing the results for $`(3,0,0.2)`$, we first present the temperature dependence of the phonon profiles obtained at $`(2,0,0.2)`$. These are displayed in the left panel of Fig. 5 at (a) 700 K, (b) 500 K, and (c) 290 K. Each profile has been fit to a resolution-convoluted MC function plus a Gaussian centered at $`\mathrm{}\omega =0`$ with $`F_1F_2<0`$. The fitted parameter values are listed in Table 2. Consistent with the results of the previous section, $`|F_1|/|F_2|2`$ at 700 K, and is almost independent of temperature down to 290 K. Similarly, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2`$, and $`\lambda `$ are also independent of temperature. On the other hand, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2`$ (the TA mode linewidth) is larger at 500 K and 290 K, which is consistent with the TA linewidth broadening below $`T_d`$ reported in Ref. 7 The linewidth of the TO mode $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$ is also slightly broader below 700 K.

The right panel of Fig. 5 shows the temperature dependence of the TA phonon for Q = (3,0,-0.2) measured at (d) 570 K, (e) 350 K, and (f) 50 K. Because these data do not include the TO mode, the profiles for 570 K and 350 K were fit fixing $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1=11.2`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1=6`$, and $`\lambda =17.4`$, while $`F_1F_2>0`$. Consequently, the uncertainties associated with the parameters in this zone will be larger. Values for the fitted parameters are listed in Table 2. From this analysis we find that the ratio $`|F_1(200)|/|F_1(300)|1`$. Since the nuclear structure factor calculations imply $`|F_2(200)|/|F_2(300)|10`$, and we know that $`|F_1(200)|/|F_2(200)|2`$, we can estimate that $`|F_1(300)|/|F_2(300)|20`$. This agrees reasonably well with the fitted ratio $`|F_1|/|F_2|16`$ at both temperatures, and represents a reassuring self consistency check of our model. Moreover, a broadening of the TA mode is found at (3,0,-0.2) that is qualitatively similar to that observed at (2,0,-0.2). Thus, the temperature dependence of the phonon profiles is consistent with the mode-coupling model. However we did not obtain a clear TA phonon peak at 50 K. Instead, the solid line shown in Fig. 5(f) represents the profile that would be expected for the TA mode assuming the same parameters as those obtained from fits to the 570 K data. The agreement between the data and fit in this case is quite good.

### IV.3 Dynamic structure factor for TO cross section

The ratio of the dynamic structure factors that govern the transverse optic phonon intensities in different Brillouin zones depends on the associated atomic vibrational displacements. Two of the most important atomic vibrational modes are those proposed by Slater and Last, and are discussed by Harada et al. Harada\_70  The Slater mode corresponds to atomic motions in which the oxygen and Mg/Nb atoms move in opposition while the Pb atoms remain stationary. The Last mode corresponds to opposing motions of the Pb atoms and rigid (Mg/Nb)O6 octahedra. The dynamic structure factor is given by

$$F_{inel}=\underset{j}{}[𝐐\xi _j]b_je^{i𝐆𝐝_j}e^{W_j},$$
(6)
where $`\xi _j`$ is the normalized displacement vector for the $`j`$th atom. Assuming only the Slater and Last modes are significant, then $`\xi _j`$ can be written in terms of the atomic displacement vectors for the Slater ($`𝐬_{j1}`$) and Last ($`𝐬_{j2}`$) modes, and the parameter $`S`$, which is a measure of the relative contributions of the Last and Slater modes, as follows:

$$\xi _j=𝐬_{j1}+S𝐬_{j2}.$$
(7)
For PMN, Hirota et al. Hirota\_01  calculated the value of $`|F_{inel}|^2`$ for $`0.5S2`$ at (200), (300), and (110) as shown in Fig. 6 of Ref. 11. Our result of $`|F_1(200)|/|F_1(300)|1`$ obtained from our fits to the MC function is consistent with the value $`S=1.5`$ determined by Hirota et al. As an additional check, we measured the TO cross section at 80 K at several zone centers in the \[hhl\] zone. Because the TO cross section at 80 K is greatly diminished by the Bose factor, we were unable to perform a quantitative comparison of the phonon intensities to the dynamic structure factors using Eq. 6. However, we find that the TO phonon cross section at $`(111)`$ is quite small. This observation agrees qualitatively with the calculations of Hirota et al. Hirota\_01  using $`S=1.5`$ for which $`|F_{inel}(111)|^2/|F_{inel}(200)|^2=0.14`$.

## V Discussion

In the previous section we presented our mode-coupling analysis and demonstrated that the characteristic features of the phonon profiles in PMN can be explained by a coupling between the TO and TA modes, without need for any additional mode. This fact implies that the TO mode we observe is the ferroelectric soft mode. However our interpretation conflicts with the model proposed by Naberezhnov et al.Naberezhnov\_99  and later refined by Vakhrushev and Shapiro, Vakhrushev\_02  which requires an additional soft mode. To reconcile these two models, we made a careful comparison of their data with ours. We find that, where there is overlap, the data agree quite well, and that only the interpretations are different. In this section, we attempt to explain the possible reasons for this difference.

### V.1 Naberezhnov-Vakhrushev branch

In 1999 Naberezhnov et al. published an extensive study of the lattice dynamics of PMN. Naberezhnov\_99  They observed well-defined TA and low-lying TO modes in the vicinity of the (220) zone center at 800 K. Surprisingly, they found that the structure factors of the TO modes are inconsistent with those derived from the diffuse scattering intensities reported earlier by Vakhrushev et al. Vakhrushev\_89 ; Vakhrushev\_93  This conclusion was based on the fact that the normalized displacements for the Pb ($`\delta (Pb)=1.00`$), Mg or Nb ($`\delta (MN)=0.18`$), and oxygen atoms ($`\delta (O)=0.64`$), determined by Vakhrushev et al., Vakhrushev\_93  do not satisfy the center-of-mass condition. Naberezhnov et al. noted that the center of mass of the unit cell is shifted from its original position, and thus cannot correspond to optical lattice vibrations. They attributed this shift to the slow relaxation of superparaelectric clusters. They therefore concluded that the observed low-lying TO mode could not be the ferroelectric soft mode. Instead they identified it as a hard TO1 mode. A “quasi-optic” (QO) was mode was derived by fitting the TA profiles at the (200) and (110) zones to a function that couples the TA and QO modes, and this QO mode was identified as the soft mode. However, the inconsistency between the structure factors associated with the diffuse scattering and the TO mode has since been resolved by the “phase-shifted condensed soft mode” model proposed by Hirota et al. Hirota\_01  Hirota et al. realized that the atomic displacements can be separated into two components: a uniform phase shift $`\delta _{shift}=0.58`$, and displacements that do satisfy the center-of-mass condition, namely $`\delta _{cm}(Pb)=0.42`$, $`\delta _{cm}(MN)=0.40`$, and $`\delta _{cm}(O)=1.22`$. Moreover, these center-of-mass displacements are consistent with the observed phonon cross section in that they correspond to a TO mode that is a mixture of Slater and Last modes in the ratio $`S=1.5`$. Thus, the “phase-shifted condensed soft mode” model is able to reconcile the intensities of the TO phonon and diffuse scattering, and demonstrates that the diffuse scattering originates from the condensation of the soft TO mode.

Vakhrushev and Shapiro have since analyzed the phonon profiles in the (300) zone where the TA phonon cross section is expected to be extremely weak as a result of a small dynamic structure factor. Their analysis uses a function that couples the TA and QO modes and neglects the TA cross section because it was expected to be weak. VS\_neglect  But as demonstrated in Fig. 3(b) and in the appendix, the coupling between modes greatly enhances the TA phonon cross section in spite of the small structure factor. Thus the TA mode is not negligible. The data taken by Vakhrushev and Shapiro acknowledge\_VS  shows peaks that are completely identical to the TA peaks we observe. For example, they observe a peak at $`2`$ meV at (3,0.075,0) at 880 K (Fig. 3 in Ref. 17), which is completely consistent with the TA peak we observe in Fig. 4(b). Another data of the identical sample at $`(3,0.1,0)`$ at 880 K is also published in Fig. 3 of Ref. 4. However, these peaks were treated as a “Bragg tail” Gens\_book  in the analyses of Ref. 17. Again, the TA cross section is enhanced by the coupling and therefore one cannot neglect the TA cross section even though the structure factor for the TA mode in the (300) Brillouin zone is very small. Our model of coupling between TA and TO modes describes all of the characteristics of the phonon profiles and thus removes the need for an additional QO branch.

### V.2 Dielectric constant

Because the QO mode is an artifact of the mode-coupling cross section, the Curie-Weiss behavior of the static dielectric constant must come from the softening of the zone-center TO mode. Therefore this TO mode is the ferroelectric soft mode. In fact, the zone-center TO mode measured at (200) exhibits a significant temperature dependence as shown in Fig. 1, and the linear temperature dependence of $`(\mathrm{}\omega _0)^2`$ shown in Fig. 1(b) is qualitatively similar to that observed in conventional soft-mode ferroelectrics, such as PbTiO3Shirane\_70  However, the temperature dependence of $`(\mathrm{}\omega _0)^2`$ in Fig. 1(b) does not satisfy the Lyddane-Sachs-Teller (LST) relation

$$1/ϵ(\mathrm{}\omega _0)^2,$$
(8)
where $`ϵ`$ represents the static dielectric constant. Measurements of $`ϵ`$ by Viehland et alViehland\_92  for $`T600`$ K show that the static dielectric constant exhibits a Curie-Weiss behavior

$$ϵ1/(TT_0),$$
(9)
with $`T_0=400`$ K, which is shown by the dotted line in Fig. 1(b). On the other hand, a linear extrapolation of $`(\mathrm{}\omega _0)^2`$ for $`T>T_d`$ gives $`T_00`$ K. This was pointed out by Vakhrushev and Shapiro in Ref. 17. We have since reanalyzed the data and confirmed that the temperature dependence of $`(\mathrm{}\omega _0)^2`$ indeed follows the solid line shown in Fig. 1(b).

Vakhrushev and Shapiro found that $`T/I(T)`$ for $`T>T_d`$ varies as $`TT_0`$ with $`T_0=340`$ K, where $`I(T)`$ is the integrated intensity measured at $`(3,0,0)`$ over the energy range $`2<\mathrm{}\omega <12`$ meV. We have performed a similar analysis on our data measured at the (200) zone center which shows well-defined TO peaks. We fit the (200) zone center phonon profiles to a resolution-convoluted cross section composed of a Gaussian component to describe the elastic ($`\mathrm{}\omega =0`$) scattering plus a damped harmonic oscillator function to describe the TO mode. The fits to the data at 1100 K and 700 K are shown in the insets to Fig. 6. The solid lines represent the damped harmonic oscillator component. We next evaluated the Bose-factor corrected integrated intensity for the damped harmonic oscillator component by numerical summation. Figure 6 shows the temperature dependence of the inverse integrated intensity so obtained. The high temperature data agree with the Curie-Weiss behavior of $`1/ϵ`$ reported by Viehland et al., with $`T_0=400`$ K, which is shown as a dotted line in Fig. 6.

### V.3 Concluding remarks

We have established the coupled nature of the TA and TO modes in PMN at 690 K, which lies above the Burns temperature $`T_d`$. This coupling, along with the soft character of the TO mode, leads naturally to the idea of a soft coupled optic mode that condenses at $`T_d`$, and which therefore contains a significant transverse acoustic component. This idea was originally suggested by Y. Yamada. Yamada\_model  The condensation of such a coupled optic mode would then provide an elegant explanation for the origin of the phase-shifted condensed soft mode model of the PNR proposed by Hirota et al. Hirota\_01  If correct, this concept may be the key to understanding the fundamental mechanism underlying the unusual relaxor behavior. We have not as yet established a definite connection between such a soft coupled TO mode and the phase-shifted condensed soft mode. However this is one of our future projects.

###### Acknowledgements.

Stimulating conversations with Y. Yamada provided us with one of the key concepts presented in this paper. We also gratefully acknowledge S. B. Vakhrushev and S. M. Shapiro for sharing their data prior to publication, and we thank R. J. Birgeneau, A. A. Bokov, K. Hirota, and J. -M. Kiat for interesting discussions. Work at the University of Toronto is supported by the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada. Finally, we acknowledge financial support from the U. S. DOE under contract No. DE-AC02-98CH10886, and the Office of Naval Research under Grant No. N00014-99-1-0738.

## VI Appendix

The phonon cross sections presented here have all been fit using the MC function (Eqs. 2, 3, and 4) given by Harada et al. Harada\_71  In this appendix we present several important features of the MC function that give rise to large differences in the phonon profiles measured in different Brillouin zones.

The effects of coupling can vary substantially when the sign of $`F_1F_2`$ is changed. Figure 7 shows the cross sections calculated using the MC function. The product of the two dynamic structure factors $`F_1F_2`$ was set to be $`2`$ (negative) for Fig. 7(a), and $`85`$ (positive) for Fig. 7(b). In both figures three cross sections are plotted for $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1=12`$, $`8`$ and $`4`$, while the other parameters are fixed at $`T=690`$ K, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1=11`$ meV, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2=4`$ meV, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2=1`$ meV, and $`\lambda =20`$. These parameters are approximately the same as those for obtained from fits to data measured for Q $`=(2,0,0.2)`$ and $`(3,0,0.2)`$. The intensities have been normalized so that the integrated cross section is kept constant. The TO phonon cross section for negative $`F_1F_2`$ shifts increasingly to the energy region between the TA and TO modes with increasing $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1`$. On the other hand, the TO phonon spectral weight shifts to the energy region below the TA mode near $`\mathrm{}\omega =0`$ for positive $`F_1F_2`$. Because of this, the apparent TA peak position tends to shift to higher energy for negative $`F_1F_2`$, and to lower energy for positive $`F_1F_2`$. Thus, a change in the sign of $`F_1F_2`$ causes the apparent TA peak position to shift in different directions.

Another important effect of the mode-coupling is shown in Fig. 8, which displays MC cross sections for $`\lambda =0`$, $`5`$, and $`10`$. The other parameters are fixed at $`T=690`$ K, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_1=10`$, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_2=3`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_1=8`$, $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_2=1`$, and $`F_1/F_2=24`$. Again the cross sections have been normalized to keep the integrated cross section constant. As a result of the coupling between modes, the TO cross section is partially transferred to the TA cross section. With sufficiently large values of $`\lambda `$, a remarkably large enhancement of the TA peak can occur.


text:
# Supersymmetric Dark Matter

## 1 Introduction

A large number of independent astronomical observations (on galactic halos, clusters of galaxies, large scale structures) indicate that in our Universe the average density of matter, normalized to the critical density $`\rho _c=1.8810^{29}h^2\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$ (h is the Hubble constant in units of 100 km $`\mathrm{s}^1\mathrm{Mpc}^1`$), is in the range $`0.2<\mathrm{\Omega }_m<0.4`$ (or equivalently, $`0.05<\mathrm{\Omega }_mh^2<0.3`$) . The value $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m0.3`$ may also be derived by combining CMB measurements  with data on high-redshift SNIa , with the further result that a large value, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\mathrm{\Lambda }0.7`$, should be assigned to the cosmological-constant (or quintessence) contribution.

By comparing these results on $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$ with the contribution to matter provided by visible matter, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{vis}0.003`$, and with the amount of baryonic matter, as deduced from primordial nucleosynthesis, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_b<0.05`$ , one concludes that: i) most of the matter in the Universe is dark, ii) only a small fraction of it is baryonic.

Particle physics offers a large selection of possible candidates for dark matter, once one considers extensions of the Standard Model (SM). The most obvious option is represented by massive neutrinos, as suggested by oscillation effects observed in solar and atmospheric neutrinos (for the latest data, see Ref. and Ref., respectively). In these experiments only differences in neutrino squared masses are measured; from these results and from the standard formula $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu h^2=_\nu m_\nu /(93\mathrm{eV})`$ a lower bound may be established for neutrino contribution to the cosmological matter density, $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu h^2>610^4`$. Obviously, the cosmological neutrino contribution may be larger, in case of neutrino mass degeneracy. However, taking into account the stringent upper bound, $`m_{\nu _e}<2.2`$ eV, derived from Tritium beta decay , an upper limit on the neutrino cosmological contribution may be derived: $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu h^2<0.07`$ (or $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu <0.14`$, using the central value $`h=0.7`$).

The existence of an upper bound of roughly this order of magnitude for the neutrino contribution to the matter density in the Universe is not unexpected, since the evolution theory of the primordial density fluctuations into the present cosmological structures indicates that most of the dark matter must be comprised of cold particles, i. e. of particles that decoupled from the primordial plasma when nonrelativistic. Massive neutrinos, with masses up to about 1 MeV, are relativistic at decoupling, and then, by their free streaming, tend to erase small–scale structures. A recent investigation , based on the largest galaxy redshift survey (2dFGRS), has derived the upper bound $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\nu <0.05`$.

Thus, by using particle physics results and cosmological observations, one arrives at the conclusion that light neutrinos are expected to only constitute a subdominant dark matter component.

We turn now to cold relics. The order of magnitude of the relic abundance of these cold particles, or WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particle), is set by the approximate formula $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\chi h^2310^{27}\mathrm{cm}^3\mathrm{s}^1/<\sigma _av>_{int}`$, where $`<\sigma _av>_{int}`$ denotes the thermal average of the product of the annihilation cross-section $`\sigma _a`$ times the relative velocity $`v`$ for a pair of WIMPs, integrated from the freeze–out temperature $`T_f`$ to the present–day one .

As mentioned above, to identify a WIMP with a specific particle candidate, one has to move beyond the Standard Model. The only guidance in the selection of a specific model is provided by theoretical motivations. Indeed, from measurements at accelerators and in other precision experiments no significant evidence of physics beyond the SM emerged so far; thus we can only count on bounds, which significantly constrain the amount of acceptable deviations from the SM predictions.

One of the most strongly motivated extension of the Standard Model is represented by Supersymmetry. This is the theoretical framework within which we consider here possible candidates for dark matter.

## 2 Supersymmetric models

Supersymmetric relics are interesting because of the following properties: i) if R–parity is conserved, the Lightest Supersymmetric Particle (LSP) is stable; ii) if colourless and uncharged, the LSP is a nice realization of a relic WIMP . In the present paper we assume that supersymmetry exists in Nature and that properties (i) and (ii) hold.

The nature of the LSP depends on the susy–breaking mechanism and on the specific regions of the susy parameter space considered. Here we limit ourselves to gravity–mediated schemes, and domains of the parameter space where the LSP is the neutralino. The neutralino is defined as the lowest–mass linear superposition of photino ($`\stackrel{~}{\gamma }`$), zino ($`\stackrel{~}{Z}`$) and the two higgsino states ($`\stackrel{~}{H}_1^{}`$, $`\stackrel{~}{H}_2^{}`$): $`\chi a_1\stackrel{~}{\gamma }+a_2\stackrel{~}{Z}+a_3\stackrel{~}{H}_1^{}+a_4\stackrel{~}{H}_2^{}`$. Hereafter, the nature of the neutralino is classified in terms of a parameter $`P`$, defined as $`Pa_1^2+a_2^2`$. The neutralino is called a gaugino when $`P>0.9`$, a higgsino when $`P<0.1`$, mixed otherwise.

Extensive calculations on relic neutralino phenomenology in gravity–mediated models have been performed (among the most recent references on neutralino dark matter see, for instance, ).

Even limiting oneself to a the Minimal Supersymmetric extension of the Standard Model (MSSM), a significant variety of different schemes exists, from those based on universal or non-universal supergravity, with susy parameters defined at the grand unification scale (GUT), to an effective supersymmetric model defined at the Electro–Weak (EW) scale.

### 2.1 Universal and non–universal SUGRA

The MSSM is described by a Yang–Mills Lagrangian, by the superpotential, which contains all the Yukawa interactions between the standard and supersymmetric fields, and by the soft–breaking Lagrangian, which models the breaking of supersymmetry. The Yukawa interactions are described by the parameters $`h^i`$, which are related to the masses of the standard fermions by the usual expressions, e.g., $`m_t=h^tv_2,m_b=h^bv_1`$, where $`v_1`$ and $`v_2`$ are the $`vev`$’s of the two Higgs fields, $`H_1`$ and $`H_2`$.

Implementation of this model within a supergravity scheme leads naturally to a set of unification assumptions at a Grand Unification (GUT) scale, $`M_{GUT}`$: i) Unification of the gaugino masses: $`M_i(M_{GUT})m_{1/2}`$, ii) Universality of the scalar masses with a common mass denoted by $`m_0`$: $`m_i(M_{GUT})m_0`$, iii) Universality of the trilinear scalar couplings: $`A^l(M_{GUT})=A^d(M_{GUT})=A^u(M_{GUT})A_0m_0`$. The relevant parameters of the model at the electro–weak (EW) scale are obtained from their corresponding values at the $`M_{GUT}`$ scale by running these down according to the renormalization group equations (RGE). By requiring that the electroweak symmetry breaking is induced radiatively by the soft supersymmetry breaking, one finally reduces the model parameters to five: $`m_{1/2},m_0,A_0,\mathrm{tan}\beta (v_2/v_1)`$ and sign $`\mu `$. In this very strict scheme (universal SUGRA) the phenomenology of relic neutralinos is very sensitive to the way in which various constraints (for instance those on the bottom quark mass, $`m_b`$, on the top quark mass, $`m_t`$, and on the strong coupling $`\alpha _s`$) are implemented.

Models with unification conditions at the GUT scale represent an appealing scenario; however, some of the assumptions listed above, particularly ii) and iii), are not very solid, because, as was already emphasized some time ago , universality might occur at a scale higher than $`M_{GUT}10^{16}`$ GeV, e.g., at the Planck scale.

To take into account the uncertainty in the unification scale one may introduce deviations in the unification conditions at $`M_{GUT}`$. For instance, deviations from universality in the scalar masses at $`M_{GUT}`$, which split $`M_{H_1}`$ from $`M_{H_2}`$ may be parametrized as $`M_{H_i}^2(M_{GUT})=m_0^2(1+\delta _i)`$. This is the case of non–universal SUGRA (nuSUGRA) that we considered in Refs. . Further extensions of deviations from universality in SUGRA models which include squark and/or gaugino masses are discussed, for instance, in .

The possibility that the initial scale for the RGE running, $`M_I`$, might be smaller than $`M_{GUT}10^{16}`$ GeV has been raised, on the basis of a number of string models (see, for instance,  and references quoted therein). As is stressed in Ref., $`M_I`$ might be anywhere between the EW scale and the Planck scale, with significant consequences for neutralino phenomenology, e. g. for the size of the neutralino–nucleon cross section.

### 2.2 Effective MSSM

In view of the large uncertainties involved in the choice of the scale $`M_I`$, the SUGRA schemes turn out to be somewhat problematic: the originally appealing feature of a universal SUGRA with few parameters fails, because of the need to take into consideration the variability of $`M_I`$ or, alternatively, to add new parameters which quantify the various effects of deviation from universality at the GUT scale. Thus, it appears more convenient to work with a phenomenological susy model whose parameters are defined directly at the electroweak scale. Here, this effective scheme of MSSM is denoted as effMSSM. It provides, at the EW scale, a model, defined in terms of a minimum number of parameters: only those necessary to shape the essentials of the theoretical structure of MSSM, and of its particle content. Once all experimental and theoretical constraints are implemented in this effMSSM model, one may investigate its compatibility with specific theoretical schemes at the desired $`M_I`$.

In the effMSSM scheme we consider here, we impose a set of assumptions at the electroweak scale: a) all trilinear parameters are set to zero except those of the third family, which are unified to a common value $`A`$; b) all squark soft–mass parameters are taken degenerate: $`m_{\stackrel{~}{q}_i}m_{\stackrel{~}{q}}`$; c) all slepton soft–mass parameters are taken degenerate: $`m_{\stackrel{~}{l}_i}m_{\stackrel{~}{l}}`$; d) the $`U(1)`$ and $`SU(2)`$ gaugino masses, $`M_1`$ and $`M_2`$, are assumed to be linked by the usual relation $`M_1=(5/3)\mathrm{tan}^2\theta _WM_2`$ (this is the only GUT–induced relation we are using, since gaugino mass unification appears to be better motivated than scalar masses universality). As a consequence, the supersymmetric parameter space consists of seven independent parameters. We choose them to be: $`M_2,\mu ,\mathrm{tan}\beta ,m_A,m_{\stackrel{~}{q}},m_{\stackrel{~}{l}},A`$ ($`m_A`$ is the mass of the CP-odd neutral Higgs boson).

Much larger extensions of the supersymmetric models could be envisaged: for instance, non–unification of the gaugino masses , and schemes with CP–violating phases .

In the present note we only report results obtained in the framkework of the effMSSM. For a comparison with results derived in other susy schemes see Ref..

### 2.3 Constraints on supersymmetric parameters

In our exploration of the susy parameter space, we have implemented the following experimental constraints: accelerators data on supersymmetric and Higgs boson searches (CERN $`e^+e^{}`$ collider LEP2  and Collider Detector CDF at Fermilab ); measurements of the $`bs+\gamma `$ decay .

A further constraint is supplied by the bounds on the supersymmetric contribution to muon anomalous magnetic moment $`a_\mu ^{susy}`$. The Muon (g-2) Collaboration at Brookhaven National Laboratory has recently reported a new experimental determination of $`a_\mu (g2)/2`$ ; this confirms their previous measurement  with a precision increased by a factor of two. Unfortunately, the theoretical evaluation of the SM contribution to $`a_\mu `$, $`a_\mu ^{SM}`$, is affected by an error which is about twice the present experimental uncertainty. If we use for the leading hadronic contribution the average of the evaluations in Refs. (see also Ref.), for higher order corrections the results of Refs. and for the hadronic light–by–light contribution the average of the results of Refs., we find that $`a_\mu ^{SM}`$ deviates from $`a_\mu ^{exp}`$  only by a mere 1.4$`\sigma `$, i.e. that $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu a_\mu ^{exp}a_\mu ^{SM}`$ sits in the rounded–off 2$`\sigma `$ range: $`100\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu 10^{11}550`$. In the present paper we restrain $`a_\mu ^{susy}`$ to stay inside this range. Parenthetically, we note that $`\mathrm{\Delta }a_\mu `$ would rise to a 2.6$`\sigma `$ level, if for the leading hadronic contribution one arbitrarily uses only the results of Ref. and disregards those of Refs..

## 3 Detection rates for relic neutralinos

Relic neutralinos may produce many different effects, generated either by their interactions with ordinary matter or by their pair–annihilations. These effects may be detected in experiments designed to search for WIMPs, either directly or indirectly.

### 3.1 Direct detection

Direct detection aims at the measurement of the energy released by a WIMP to a target nucleus as a consequence of their mutual interaction . The detection rate is proportional to the WIMP–nucleus cross–section convoluted over the phase–space distribution function of the WIMPs in the galactic halo, calculated at the solar–system neighbourhood. As is customary, we assume that this distribution function may be written as the product of a matter density $`\rho _\chi `$ times a velocity distribution funcion $`f(\stackrel{}{v})`$. Once a specific $`f(\stackrel{}{v})`$ is chosen, measurements of the detection rate in direct WIMP experiments provide information on the product of $`\rho _\chi `$ times the WIMP–nucleus cross–section, or on the product $`\rho _\chi \sigma _{scalar}^{(nucleon)}`$, when coherent interactions dominate over spin–dependent ones ($`\sigma _{scalar}^{(nucleon)}`$ denotes the WIMP–nucleon scalar cross–section) . We further express $`\rho _\chi `$ as $`\rho _\chi =\xi \rho _l`$, where $`\rho _l`$ is the local total dark matter density and $`\xi `$ ($`\xi 1`$) is a scaling parameter which accounts for the actual fraction of local dark matter to be ascribed to the candidate $`\chi `$. Thus, in the case of WIMPs with coherent interactions with matter, the range of WIMP parameters under current exploration in WIMP direct searches may approximately be given as:

$$10^{10}\mathrm{nbarn}<\xi \sigma _{scalar}^{(nucleon)}<210^8\mathrm{nbarn},$$
(1)
for WIMP masses $`m_\chi `$ in the range:

$$30\mathrm{GeV}<m_\chi <270\mathrm{GeV}.$$
(2)
In deriving the ranges in Eqs. (12), a variety of WIMP galactic distribution functions and uncertainties in astrophysical quantities have been taken into account . When interpreted as due to a WIMP with coherent interactions, the DAMA annual–modulation effect  provides a $`3\sigma `$ region in the plane $`m_\chi \xi \sigma _{scalar}^{(nucleon)}`$ which is embedded in the range of Eqs.(12). Other experiments of WIMP direct detection provide upper bounds on $`\xi \sigma _{scalar}^{(nucleon)}`$ . It is worth stressing that a comparison of results derived from experiments using different target nuclei is only feasible under the assumption that the WIMP–nucleus interaction is dominantly coherent; otherwise, the comparison is either impossible or strongly model–dependent. Interpretation of the DAMA annual–modulation results in terms of a WIMP with a mixed (coherent and spin dependent) coupling is discussed in Ref. .

### 3.2 Indirect detection

Indirect signals may be produced by:

a) Annihilation of neutralinos inside celestial bodies (Earth and Sun), where $`\chi `$’s have been captured and accumulated. Among the various annihilation products, neutrinos would be able to emerge form the celestial bodies and be detectable as up–going muons in neutrino telescopes.

b) Neutralino–neutralino annihilations taking place in the galactic halo. Specific signals would emerge: most notably, neutrino fluxes, photon fluxes, and rare components in cosmic rays (positrons, antiprotons, antideuterons).

In case of signals of category (a) the detection rate is, as in the case of direct detection, proportional to the product $`\rho _\chi \sigma _{scalar}^{(nucleon)}`$ (assuming that coherent interactions dominate over spin–dependent ones); for signals of category (b), the detection rates are proportional to the product $`\overline{\rho }_\chi ^2<\sigma _{ann}v>`$, where $`\overline{\rho }_\chi ^2`$ is the average of $`\rho _\chi ^2(\stackrel{}{r})`$ over the galactic halo. This makes the size of signals of type (b) very sensitive to effects of clumpiness in spatial distribution of WIMPs . Actually, recent high–resolution simulations of cosmic structures appear to favour formation of regions of matter overdensity inside galaxies , with important implications for neutralino signals (see, for instance, ).

One may wonder whether constraints on neutralinos could be derived from some other indirect means, not related to specific experiments designed to search for WIMPs. For instance, it has been argued that significant constraints could be deduced from helioseismology or from data on solar neutrino fluxes . However, it has been subsequently proved that no constraints can be derived at present from solar physics for WIMPs with masses above 30 GeV .

## 4 Results

A first important question is whether present sensitivities in WIMP direct and indirect experiments are enough to explore some parts of the supersymmetric parameter space. Furthermore, one wonders whether the relevant neutralinos provide a significant contribution to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$. These two questions are connected, since $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\chi h^2`$ and $`\sigma _{scalar}^{(nucleon)}`$ (and consequently also the neutralino direct detection rate) are approximately anticorrelated .

Fig.1 provides an answer to the above questions. First, it shows that present experiments of WIMP direct search actually explore significant regions of the supersymmetric parameter space. This property was already pointed out in Ref.; actually, in the mid–nineties, with the advent of new detectors, WIMP direct searches acquired the capability of exploring regions of the susy parameter space not yet excluded by accelerator bounds. Since then, the progressively more stringent limits established by new accelerator data have been counterbalanced by the improved sensitivities of WIMP direct experiments . For analyses by other groups see for instance Refs..

Secondly, Fig.1 shows that exploration by WIMP direct search is effective also in sectors where relic neutralinos may provide a substantial contribution to $`\mathrm{\Omega }_m`$. In view of the anticorrelation between $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\chi h^2`$ and $`\sigma _{scalar}^{(nucleon)}`$, this property is far from being trivial.

However, also the case of relic neutralinos which only constitute a subdominant dark matter population are interesting in view of their explorability by WIMP direct experiments . To further illustrate this point, in Fig.2 we display a scatter plot of the susy configurations which belong to the value $`[\rho _\chi `$/(0.3 GeV cm<sup>-3</sup>) $`\sigma _{\mathrm{scalar}}^{(\mathrm{nucleon})}]_{expt}=110^9`$ nbarn, which is representative of a value of $`\rho _\chi \sigma _{\mathrm{scalar}}^{(\mathrm{nucleon})}`$ inside the experimental sensitivity range of Eq.(1), and to the mass interval of Eq.(2). The plot is obtained in the following way: 1) $`\rho _\chi `$ is evaluated as $`[\rho _\chi \sigma _{\mathrm{scalar}}^{(\mathrm{nucleon})}]_{expt}`$ / $`\sigma _{\mathrm{scalar}}^{(\mathrm{nucleon})}`$ ($`\sigma _{\mathrm{scalar}}^{(\mathrm{nucleon})}`$ is calculated within the susy model), 2) to each value of $`\rho _\chi `$ one associates the corresponding calculated value of $`\mathrm{\Omega }_\chi h^2`$. For a full discussion of the various sectors displayed in Fig.2 we refer to . Here we wish to call the attention only to two of these sectors. The most interesting one is obviously the rectangular (cross-hatched) region, where 0.2 GeV cm$`{}_{}{}^{3}\rho _\chi `$ 1.7 GeV cm<sup>-3</sup>  and $`0.05\mathrm{\Omega }_mh^20.3`$; this corresponds to a situation where the neutralino may be a dominant dark matter component. A second interesting region is the band delimited by the slanted dot–dashed lines and simply–hatched in the figure. For configurations which fall inside this band, the neutralino would provide only a fraction of the cold dark matter, at the level of local density and of the average relic abundance; a situation which would be possible, for instance, if the neutralino is not the unique cold dark matter particle component. To neutralinos belonging to these configurations one should assign a rescaled local density. Our results prove that also these relic neutralinos are actually probed by WIMP direct searches.

We turn now to indirect WIMP searches. It may be shown that also measurements of up–going muons at neutrino telescopes  might be capable of exploring interesting neutralino configurations , with some overlap with those analysed in WIMP direct detection experiments . Fig.3 displays the scatter plot for the up-going muon flux from the center of the Earth, evaluated in effMSSM, for a standard galactic distribution function and taking into account the effect of $`\nu _\mu \nu _\tau `$ oscillations, for neutrino mass and mixing angle parameters which best fit the atmospheric neutrino data .

A number of susy configurations are at the level of current experimental bounds. However, one should be aware of the fact that the efficiency of capture of WIMPs by the Earth, and then also the up-going muon flux from the center of the Earth, are very sensitive to the modifications induced by the Sun on the local low-energy WIMP population. Depending on the Damour-Krauss conjecture  or the Gould-Alam conjecture , the up-going muon flux from the center of the Earth might be either enhanced or suppressed, as compared to the standard one. Therefore, at present, derivations of constraints on supersymmetric configurations from experimental bounds on up-going muon flux from the center of the Earth is very hazardous. This important point is often disregarded in the literature.

Very promising are also strategies for measuring in space signals due to neutralino pair–annihilations taking place in the halo. Here we briefly mention only some signals consisting of rare components in cosmic rays.

One of the most widely discussed case is a possible primary flux of low-energy antiprotons. Calculations of secondary antiprotons, due to interactions of cosmic rays with interstellar material, have greatly improved in recent years  and have shown that at low-energy (antiproton kinetic energy $`T_{\overline{p}}`$ less then about 1 GeV) the secondary spectrum is much flatter than previously believed and fits remarkably well the experimental data . Therefore, only tiny room is left to exotic components, and the discrimination between secondary and primary components becomes very problematic. However, since a number of supersymmetric configurations reach or even exceed the level of the experimental spectrum , high statistics in $`\overline{p}`$ measurements and great accuracy in the evaluation of the primary and secondary spectra may provide useful constraints for supersymmetry.

Recently, it has been suggested that a measurement of low–energy antideuterons in space would provide a way of looking at a distinctive signature of WIMP pair annihilation in the halo . In fact at energies below about 1 GeV per nucleon the primary spectrum would be quite dominant over the secondary one (see Fig. 4). This property is at variance with what happens in case of the antiproton low–energy spectra. Thus, the antideuteron measurements open up quite new interesting perspectives for detecting $`\chi \chi `$ annihilation in space.

We wish also to mention that the Heat Collaboration  reported evidence for an excess of positrons in cosmic rays at energies around 10 GeV. This might be considered as due to neutralino–neutralino annihilation (see for instance ). However, it should be noted that this interpretation requires an ad hoc boost factor in order to fit the experimental data.

Other important signals possibly produced by neutralino pair–annihilations in the halo are provided by gamma-rays; for this class of processes see, for instance, Refs..

In conclusion, it may be said that quite different strategies of searching for WIMPs are now capable of providing independent information on supersymmetric relic particles.