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# Untitled Document

Integrable Flows in $`c=1`$ String Theory

Ivan K. Kostov kostov@spht.saclay.cea.fr

Max-Planck-Institut für Gravitationsphysik

Albert-Einstein-Institut

Am Muehlenberg 1, D-14424 Golm, Germany

and

Service de Physique Théorique, CEA/DSM/SPhT,

Unité de recherche associée au CNRS, CEA/Saclay

91191 Gif-sur-Yvette cédex, France† Permanent address

In these notes we review the method to construct integrable deformations of the compactified $`c=1`$ bosonic string theory by primary fields (momentum or winding modes), developed recently in collaboration with S. Alexandrov and V. Kazakov. The method is based on the formulation of the string theory as a matrix model. The flows generated by either momentum or winding modes (but not both) are integrable and satisfy the Toda lattice hierarchy**Based on the talks presented at the James H. Simons Workshop on Random Matrix Theory Stony Brook, February 20 - 23, 2002, and the International Conference on Theoretical Physics Paris, UNESCO, July 22-27, 2002.

August, 2002

1. Introduction

The $`c=1`$ string theory (the theory of random surfaces embedded in 1 dimension) can be constructed as the collective theory for a 1-dimensional $`N\times N`$ hermitian matrix field . The $`U(N)`$-invariant sector of the matrix model is described by a non-relativistic quantum mechanics of free fermions in an upside-down quadratic potential. The mapping to free fermions allows to calculate virtually any quantity in the string theory in all orders in the genus expansion.

The elementary excitations of the $`c=1`$ string represent collective excitations of free fermions. The tree-level $`S`$-matrix can be extracted by considering the propagation of “pulses” along the Fermi sea and their reflection off the “Liouville wall” \[2\].

The exact nonperturbative $`S`$-matrix has been calculated by Moore et al . Each $`S`$-matrix element can be associated with a single fermionic loop with a number of external lines. One can then expect that the theory is also solvable in a nontrivial, time-dependent background generated by a finite tachyonic source. Dijkgraaf, Moore and Plesser  demonstrated that this is indeed the case when the allowed momenta form a lattice as in the case of the compactified Euclidean theory. In  it has been shown that the string theory compactified at any radius $`R`$ possesses the integrable structure of the Toda lattice hierarchy . The operators associated with the momentum modes in the string theory have been interpreted in  as Toda flows.

The explicit construction of these Toda flows is an interesting and potentially important task, because this would allow us to explore the time-dependent string backgrounds. This problem was recently solved in . The method used in  is conceptually similar to the method of orthogonal polynomials of Dyson-Mehta in the interpretation of M. Douglas , which has been used to solve the $`c<1`$ matrix models \[8,,9\]. The construction of  allows to evaluate the partition function of the string theory in presence of finite perturbation by momentum modes. The simplest case of such a perturbation is the Sine-Liouville string theory1 It is conjectured \[10\] that such a perturbation can lead to a target space geometry with a horizon. .

Besides the momentum modes, the compactified string theory contains a second type of excitations associated with nontrivial windings around the target circle. In the world-sheet description, the string theory represents a compactified gaussian field coupled to 2d quantum gravity. Then the momentum and winding modes are the electric and magnetic operators for this gaussian field. It is known \[11,,12\] that the winding modes propagate in the non-singlet sector of the $`c=1`$ matrix model, which is no more equivalent to a system of fermions. Explicit realization of the winding modes can be given by gauging the compactified matrix model. Then the winding modes are realized as the Polyakov loops winding around the Euclidean time interval .

The electric and magnetic operators are exchanged by the usual electric-magnetic duality $`R1/R`$ called also T-duality. If the momentum modes of the compactified string theory are described by the Toda integrable flows, then by T-duality the same is true also for the winding modes. A direct proof of is presented in , where it is also shown that the the grand-canonical partition function of the matrix model perturbed by only winding modes is a $`\tau `$-function of the Toda lattice hierarchy. Applying the T-duality backwards, we conclude that the same is true for the partition function of the theory perturbed by only momentum modes.

A special case represents the theory is compactified at the self-dual radius $`R=1`$, it is equivalent to a topological theory that computes the Euler characteristic of the moduli space of Riemann surfaces . When $`R=1`$ and only in this case, the partition function of the string theory has alternative realization as a Kontsevich-type model \[4,,15\].

In this notes we summarize the results concerning the Toda integrable structure of the compactified $`c=1`$ string theory obtained in refs. \[13,,16,,17,,6\]. We will follow mostly the last work , but will present the construction in the framework of the Euclidean compactified theory, while  discussed the theory in Minkowski space.

2. The matrix model for the $`c=1`$ string theory revisited

2.1. Partition function of the Euclidean theory compactified on a circle with radius $`R`$

The $`c=1`$ string theory (see Appendix A) describes the critical behavior of the large-$`N`$ matrix quantum mechanics (see the review  and the references therein). The critical point is associated with the maximum of the matrix potential. In the scaling limit, which is dominated by dense planar graphs, the potential can be approximated by a quadratic one (with the wrong sign), which is stabilized by imposing a cut-off wall far from the top. The relevant piece of the matrix Hamiltonian is thus

$$H_0=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{Tr}(P^2M^2),$$

where $`P=i/M`$ and $`M_{ij}`$ is an $`N\times N`$ hermitian matrix variable. The cosmological constant $`\mu `$ is introduced as a “chemical potential” coupled to the size of the matrix $`N`$, which should be considered as a dynamical variable.

We will consider the Euclidean theory with periodic Euclidean time $`x=it`$. The time interval

$$\beta =2\pi R$$

can be also interpreted as inverse temperature. The matrix model describes the $`c=1`$ string only when $`\beta >\beta _{KT}=4\pi `$. At $`\beta =\beta _{KT}`$ the winding modes associated with the $`N(N1)`$ angular degrees of freedom becomes important and produce a Berezinski-Kosterlitz-Thouless-like phase transition to a $`c=0`$ string theory . The angular degrees of freedom can be interpreted as the winding modes of the string, which represent strings winding several times around the target circle .

A sensible matrix model for $`\beta <\beta _{KT}`$ can be constructed by introducing an additional $`SU(N)`$ gauge field $`A(x)`$, which projects to the sector free of winding modes . The partition function of the compactified system is

$$𝒵(\mu )=\underset{N0}{}e^{\beta N}𝒵_N,$$

where $`𝒵_N`$ is given by a functional integral with respect to the one-dimensional matrix hermitian fields $`M(x)`$ and $`A(x)`$ with periodic boundary conditions

$$𝒵_N=\underset{\mathrm{periodic}}{}𝒟P𝒟M𝒟Ae^{\frac{1}{\mathrm{}}S_0}.$$

The action functional is

$$S_0=\mathrm{Tr}_0^\beta \left(iP_AMH_0\right)𝑑x,$$

$`_AM`$ denotes the covariant time derivative

$$_AM=_xMi[A,M].$$

The gauge field can be also used to study perturbations by winding modes, with appropriately tuned coupling constants, so that the long range order is not destroyed. It was shown in  that the winding modes couple to the moments of the $`SU(N)`$ magnetic flux associated with the gauge field $`A`$.

2.2. Chiral quantization

The analysis of the matrix model simplifies considerably if it is formulated in terms of the chiral variables

$$X_\pm =\frac{M\pm P}{\sqrt{2}}$$

representing $`N\times N`$ hermitian matrices. The Hamiltonian in the new variables is

$$H_0=\frac{1}{2}\mathrm{Tr}(\widehat{X}_+\widehat{X}_{}+\widehat{X}_{}\widehat{X}_+),$$

where the matrix operators $`\widehat{X}_\pm `$ obey the canonical commutation relation

$$[(\widehat{X}_+)_j^i,(\widehat{X}_{})_l^k]=i\delta _l^i\delta _j^k.$$

The partition function for fixed $`N`$ is now given by a path integral with respect to the one-dimensional hermitian matrix fields $`X_+(x)`$, $`X_{}(x)`$ and $`A(x)`$, satisfying periodic boundary conditions. The action (2.1) reads, in terms of the new fields,

$$S_0=\mathrm{Tr}_0^\beta \left(iX_+_AX_{}\frac{1}{2}X_+X_{}\right)𝑑x.$$

The partition function (2.1) depends on the gauge field only through the global holonomy factor, given by the unitary matrix

$$\mathrm{\Omega }=\widehat{T}e^{i_0^{2\pi R}A(x)𝑑x}.$$

This can be seen by imposing the gauge $`A=0`$, which can be done at the expense of replacing the periodic boundary condition $`X_\pm (\beta )=X_\pm (0)`$ by a $`SU(N)`$-twisted one

$$X_+(\beta )=X_+(0),X_{}(\beta )=\mathrm{\Omega }^1X_{}(0)\mathrm{\Omega }.$$

2.3. Gauge-invariant collective excitations: momentum and winding modes

The momentum modes $`V_{n/R}`$ of the matrix field are gauge-invariant operators with time evolution $`V_{n/R}(t)=e^{nt/R}V_{n/R}(0)`$. Here $`n`$ can be any positive or negative integer. The spectrum of momenta is determined by the condition that the time dependence is periodic in the imaginary direction with period $`2\pi R`$. The operators satisfying these conditions are

$$V_{n/R}=e^{\pm inx/R}\mathrm{Tr}X_\pm (x)^{n/R}=\{\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{Tr}X_+^{|n|/R}\hfill & \text{if }n>0\hfill \\ \mathrm{Tr}X_{}^{|n|/R}\hfill & \text{if }n<0\hfill \end{array}.$$

This form of the left and right momentum modes was first suggested to our knowledge by Jevicki .

As it was shown in , the winding modes $`\stackrel{~}{V}_{nR}`$ are associated with the $`SU(N)`$ magnetic flux through the compactified spacetime

$$\stackrel{~}{V}_{nR}=\mathrm{Tr}\mathrm{\Omega }^n$$

where $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ is the $`U(N)`$ holonomy (2.1). From the world sheet point of view the winding operator $`\stackrel{~}{V}_{nR}`$ creates a puncture with a Kosterlitz-Thouless vortex, $`i.e.`$ a line of discontinuity $`2\pi Rn`$ starting at the puncture.

2.4. The partition function as a three-matrix integral

In the $`A=0`$ gauge the path integral with respect to the fields $`X_\pm (x)`$ is gaussian with the determinant of the quadratic form equal to one. Therefore it is reduced to the integral with respect to the initial values $`X_\pm =X_\pm (0)`$ of the action (2.1) evaluated along the classical trajectories, which satisfy the twisted periodic boundary condition (2.1). Therefore the canonical partition function of the matrix model can be reformulated as an ordinary matrix integral with respect to the two hermitian matrices $`X_+`$ and $`X_{}`$, and the unitary matrix $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$:

$$𝒵_N=DX_+DX_{}𝑑\mathrm{\Omega }e^{i\mathrm{Tr}(X_+X_{}qX_{}\mathrm{\Omega }X_+\mathrm{\Omega }^1)},$$

where we denoted

$$q=e^{i\beta }=e^{2\pi iR}.$$

A general perturbations by momentum modes can be introduced by changing the homogeneous measures $`DX_\pm `$ to

$$[DX_\pm ]=DX_\pm e^{\pm i\mathrm{Tr}U_\pm (X_\pm )},$$

where we introduced the matrix potentials

$$U_\pm (X_\pm )=R\underset{n>0}{}t_{\pm n}\mathrm{Tr}X_\pm ^{n/R}$$

Similarly, a general perturbation by winding modes can be introduced by changing the invariant measure $`D\mathrm{\Omega }`$ on the group $`U(N)`$ to

$$[D\mathrm{\Omega }]=D\mathrm{\Omega }e^{\stackrel{~}{U}(q^{1/2}\mathrm{\Omega })\stackrel{~}{U}(q^{1/2}\mathrm{\Omega })}$$

where we introduced the following matrix potential

$$\stackrel{~}{U}(\mathrm{\Omega })=\underset{n0}{}\stackrel{~}{t}_n\mathrm{Tr}\mathrm{\Omega }^n.$$

In case of a generic perturbation with both momentum and winding modes, the three-matrix model (2.1) is not integrable. However, it can be solved exactly in case of an arbitrary perturbation only by momentum or only by winding modes. In the following we will discuss in details these two integrable cases. In both cases it is possible to integrate with respect to the angles and the matrix partition function reduces to an eigenvalue integral.

2.5. Integration with respect to the angles

Let us consider the case of a perturbation with only momentum modes. Then the gauge field plays the role of a Lagrange multiplier for the condition $`[X_+,X_{}]=0`$ and the two matrices can be simultaneously diagonalized. Applying twice the Harish-Chandra-Itzykson-Zuber formula we can reduce the matrix integral to an integral over the eigenvalues $`x_1^\pm ,\mathrm{},x_N^\pm `$ of the two hermitian matrices matrices $`X_\pm `$. We write, after rescaling the integration variables,

$$𝒵_N(t)=\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\underset{k=1}{\overset{N}{}}[dx_k^+][dx_k^{}]\underset{jk}{det}\left(e^{ix_j^{}x_k^+}\right)\underset{jk}{det}\left(e^{iqx_j^{}x_k^+}\right)$$

where the measures are defined by

$$[dx_\pm ]=dx_\pm e^{iU_\pm (x_\pm )}.$$

Then the grand canonical partition function can be written as a Fredholm determinant

$$Z(\mu ,t)=\mathrm{Det}(1+e^{\beta \mu }K_+K_{})$$

where

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill [K_+f](x_{})& =[dx_+]e^{ix_+x_{}}f(x_+)\hfill \\ \hfill [K_{}f](x_+)& =[dx_{}]e^{iqx_+x_{}}f(x_{}).\hfill \end{array}$$

3. The partition function of the non-perturbed theory

3.1. Eigenfunctions of the non-perturbed Hamiltonian.

In the absence of perturbation, the partition function is given by the Fredholm determinant

$$𝒵(\mu )=\mathrm{Det}(1+e^{\beta (\mu +H_0)})$$

and can be interpreted as the grand canonical finite-temperature partition function for a system of non-interacting fermions in the inverse gaussian potential. The Fredholm determinant (3.1) can be computed once we know a complete set of eigenfunctions for the one-particle Hamiltonian

$$H_0=\frac{1}{2}(\widehat{x}_+\widehat{x}_{}+\widehat{x}_{}\widehat{x}_+).$$

The canonically conjugated operators $`\widehat{x}_+`$ and $`\widehat{x}_{}`$

$$\widehat{x}_+\widehat{x}_{}\widehat{x}_{}\widehat{x}_+=i$$

are represented in the space of functions of $`x_+`$ as

$$\widehat{x}_+=x_+,\widehat{x}_{}=i_{x_+},$$

and in the space of functions of $`x_{}`$ as

$$\widehat{x}_{}=x_{},\widehat{x}_+=i_x_{}.$$

Since the inverse gaussian potential is bottomless, the spectrum of the Hamiltonian is continuous

$$H_0\psi _+^E(x_\pm )i(x_\pm _{x_\pm }+1/2)\psi _+^E(x_\pm )=E\psi _+^E(x_\pm )(E\mathrm{IR}).$$

The eigenfunctions in the $`x_\pm `$-representation, which we denote by Dirac brackets

$$\psi _\pm ^E(x_\pm )=E|x_\pm $$

are given by

$$E|x_\pm =\frac{1}{\sqrt{\pi }}e^{\frac{1}{2}i\varphi _0}x_+^{\pm iE\frac{1}{2}}$$

where the phase factor $`\varphi _0=\varphi _0(E)`$ will be determined in a moment2 The eigenfunctions (3.1) play in the chiral quantization the same role as the parabolic cylinder functions in the standard quantization, based on the original Hamiltonian (2.1).. The solutions (3.1) have a branch point at $`x_\pm =0`$ and are defined unambiguously only on the positive real axis. For each energy $`E`$ there are two solutions, since there are two ways to define the analytic continuation to the negative axis. The wave functions relevant for our problem have large negative energies and are supported, up to exponentially small terms due to tunnelling phenomena, by the positive axis3 This corresponds to the theory of type I of .. Therefore we define the analytic continuation to negative axis as

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill E|x_+& =E|e^{i\pi }x_+=e^{\pi E}E|x_+(x_+>0)\hfill \\ \hfill E|x_{}& =E|e^{i\pi }x_{}=e^{\pi E}E|x_{}(x_{}>0).\hfill \end{array}$$

The functions (3.1) with $`E`$ real form two orthonormal sets

$$\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝑑x_\pm E|x_\pm x_\pm |E^{}=\delta (EE^{}).$$

We will impose also the bi-orthogonality condition

$$\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\frac{dx_+dx_{}}{\sqrt{2\pi }}E|x_+e^{ix_+x_{}}x_{}|E^{}=\delta (EE^{}),$$

which fixes the phase $`\varphi _0`$

$$e^{i\varphi _0(E)}=\sqrt{\frac{1}{2\pi }}e^{\frac{\pi }{2}(Ei/2)}\mathrm{\Gamma }(iE+1/2).$$

The phase defined by (3.1) has in fact a small imaginary part, which we neglect4 The pure phase factor would be $`\sqrt{\frac{\mathrm{cosh}\pi E}{2\pi }}\mathrm{\Gamma }(iE+1/2)=\sqrt{1+e^{\pi E}}e^{i\varphi _0(E)}`$. . This is because the theory restricted to the Hilbert space spanned on these states is strictly speaking not unitary due to the tunneling phenomena across the top of the potential. In the following we will systematically neglect the exponentially small terms $`𝒪(e^{\pi E})`$. With this accuracy we can write the completeness condition

$$\underset{\mathrm{}}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}𝑑Ex_+|EE|x_{}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi }}e^{ix_+x_{}},$$

where the right-hand side is the kernel of the inverse Fourier transformation relating the $`x_+`$ and $`x_{}`$ representations. For real energy the phase $`\varphi _0`$ is real (up to non-perturbative terms), but we will analytically continue it to the whole complex plane. In this case the reality condition means

$$\overline{\varphi _0(E)}=\varphi _0(\overline{E}).$$

3.2. Cut-off prescription, density of states and free energy

To find the density of states, we need to introduce a cutoff $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$ such that $`\mathrm{\Lambda }>>\mu `$. This can be done by putting a completely reflecting wall at distance $`\frac{x_++x_{}}{\sqrt{2}}=\sqrt{2\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$ from the origin. Since the wall is completely reflecting, there is no flow of momentum through it, $`\frac{x_+x_{}}{\sqrt{2}}=0`$. Thus the cutoff wall is equivalent to the following boundary condition at $`x_+=x_{}=\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }}`$

$$\psi _+^E(\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }})=\psi _{}^E(\sqrt{\mathrm{\Lambda }})$$

on the wavefunctions (3.1). This condition is satisfied for a discrete set of energies $`E_n(n\text{ZZ})`$ defined by

$$\varphi _0(E_n)E_n\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Lambda }+2\pi n=0.$$

From (3.1) we can find the density of the energy levels in the confined system

$$\rho (E)=\frac{\mathrm{log}\mathrm{\Lambda }}{2\pi }\frac{1}{2\pi }\frac{d\varphi _0(E)}{dE}$$

Now we can calculate free energy $`(\mu ,R)=\mathrm{log}𝒵(\mu ,R)`$ as

$$(\mu ,R)=_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑E\rho (E)\mathrm{log}\left[1+e^{\beta (\mu +E)}\right]$$

with the density (3.1). Integrating by parts in (3.1) and dropping out the $`\mathrm{\Lambda }`$-dependent piece, we get

$$(\mu ,R)=\frac{1}{2\pi }𝑑\varphi _0(E)\mathrm{log}\left(1+e^{\beta (\mu +E)}\right)=R_{\mathrm{}}^{\mathrm{}}𝑑E\frac{\varphi _0(E)}{1+e^{\beta (\mu +E)}}.$$

We close the contour of integration in the upper half plane and take the integral as a sum of residues. This gives for the free energy

$$=i\underset{r=n+\frac{1}{2}>0}{}\varphi _0\left(ir/R\mu \right).$$

Using the explicit form (3.1) of $`\varphi _0`$ we can represent the free energy as a sum over pairs of positive half-integers

$$(\mu ,R)=\underset{r,s1/2}{\overset{\mathrm{}}{}}\mathrm{log}\left(\mu +ir+is/R\right)$$

which is explicitly invariant under the T-duality $`R1/R`$, $`\mu R\mu `$. From here it follows that the free energy satisfies the functional equation

$$4\mathrm{sin}\left(_\mu /2R\right)\mathrm{sin}\left(_\mu /2\right)(\mu ,R)=\mathrm{log}\mu .$$

From (3.1) we can express the phase factor in terms of the free energy

$$\varphi _0=2\mathrm{sin}\left(_\mu /2R\right)(\mu ,R).$$

3.3. Calculation of the free energy using the $`E`$-representation of the operators $`\widehat{x}_\pm `$

Let us now give an alternative, algebraic derivation of the free energy of the non-perturbed theory. For this purpose we will write the canonical commutation relation (3.1) for the matrix elements of the operators $`\widehat{x}_\pm `$ in $`E`$-representation.

The action of the operators $`\widehat{x}_\pm `$ to the wave functions is equivalent to a shift of the energy by an imaginary unit (we consider the wave functions as analytic functions of $`E`$) and a multiplication by a phase factor:

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill E|\widehat{x}_\pm |x_\pm & =e^{\pm \frac{1}{2}i[\varphi _0(Ei)\varphi _0(E)]}Ei|x_\pm \hfill \end{array}$$

As a consequence, the operators $`\widehat{x}_\pm `$ are represented by the finite difference operators acting in the $`E`$-space

$$\widehat{x}_\pm e^{\frac{1}{2}i\varphi }e^{i_E}e^{\pm \frac{1}{2}i\varphi }.$$

The Heisenberg relation (3.1) is equivalent to the condition

$$\varphi _0(E+\frac{1}{2}i)\varphi _0(E\frac{1}{2}i)=\mathrm{log}(E)$$

which is equivalent to the functional constraint (3.1).

4. Integrable perturbations by momentum modes.

4.1. One-particle eigenfunctions and the density of states of deformed system

Now we will consider perturbations generated by momentum modes $`V_{n/R}`$. As we argued in sect. 2.4, this can be achieved by deforming the integration measures $`dx_\pm `$ to

$$[dx_\pm ]=dx_\pm \mathrm{exp}\left(\pm iU_\pm (x_\pm )\right),U_\pm (x_\pm )=R\underset{k1}{}t_{\pm k}x_\pm ^{k/R}.$$

In this section we will show that such a deformation is exactly solvable, being generated by a system of commuting flows $`H_n`$ associated with the coupling constants $`t_{\pm n}`$. The associated integrable structure is that of a constrained Toda Lattice hierarchy. The method is very similar to the standard Lax formalism of Toda theory, but we will not assume that the reader is familiar with this subject. It is based on the possibility to describe the perturbation by vertex operators as deformations of the $`E`$-representation of the canonical commutation relation.

The partition function of the perturbed system is given by the Fredholm determinant (2.1), where the integration kernels (2.1) and (2.1) are defined with the deformed measures (4.1). The deformed kernel is diagonalized by a complete orthonormal system of wave functions5 As before, we understand the completeness in a weak sense, $`i.e.`$ up to non-perturbative terms due to tunnelings phenomena, which we have neglected. $`\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^E(x_\pm )`$

$$𝑑x_\pm \overline{\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^E(x_\pm )}\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^E(x_\pm )=\delta (EE^{})$$

which satisfy the following three conditions:

1) they are eigenfunctions of the evolution operator relating the points $`x=0`$ and $`x=\beta `$

$$e^{\beta H_0}\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^E=e^{\beta E}\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^E,$$

2) they behave at infinity as

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^E(x_\pm )x_\pm ^{\pm iE\frac{1}{2}}e^{\frac{1}{2}i\varphi (E)}e^{iU_\pm (x_\pm )},$$

3) they satisfy the bi-orthogonality condition (3.1)

$$\frac{dx_+dx_{}}{\sqrt{2\pi }}\overline{\mathrm{\Psi }_{}^E(x_{})}e^{ix_+x_{}}\mathrm{\Psi }_+^E^{}(x_+)=\delta (EE^{}).$$

The new eigenfunctions are not necessarily eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian $`H_0`$ itself. Indeed, the evolution operator $`e^{\beta H_0}`$ acts trivially on any entire function of $`x_\pm ^{1/R}`$. In particular, the condition (4.1) is compatible with the condition (4.1).

Once the basis of the perturbed wave functions is found, the logarithm of the Fredholm determinant can be calculated as the integral (3.1), where the new density of states is obtained from the phase $`\varphi (E)`$ in the asymptotics (4.1)

$$\rho (E)=\frac{1}{2\pi }\frac{d\varphi }{dE}.$$

Therefore the phase $`\varphi (E)`$ contains all the information about the perturbed system. It is related to the free energy by

$$=i\underset{r1/2}{}\varphi \left(ir/R\mu \right).$$

$$\varphi (\mu )=2\mathrm{sin}\left(\mathrm{}_\mu /2R\right)(\mu ,R).$$

4.2. Dressing operators

Now we proceed to the actual calculation of the phase $`\varphi `$. The method is a generalization of the algebraic method we have used in sect. 3.3. First we remark that the perturbed wave functions are given by the rhs of (4.1) up to factors of the form

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill W_\pm (x_\pm )=& \mathrm{exp}\left(iR\underset{n1}{}v_{\pm n}x_\pm ^{n/R}\right).\hfill \end{array}$$

which satisfy the second condition (4.1) and tend to $`1`$ when $`x_\pm \mathrm{}`$. The unknown coefficients $`v_n`$) and the phase $`\varphi `$ are determined functions of $`E`$ and the couplings $`t_n`$ by the third condition (4.1).

It follows from (3.1) that the deformed wave function

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^E(x_\pm )=e^{iU_\pm (x_\pm )}e^{\frac{1}{2}i\varphi (E)}x_\pm ^{\pm iE\frac{1}{2}}W_\pm (x_\pm )$$

can be obtained from the bare wave functions (3.1) by acting with two finite-difference operators in the $`E`$-space $`\widehat{𝒲}_+`$ and $`\widehat{𝒲}_{}`$

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^E(x_\pm )=E|e^{\pm \frac{1}{2}i\varphi _0}\widehat{𝒲}_\pm |x_\pm .$$

The explicit form of the dressing operators $`\widehat{𝒲}_\pm `$ is obtained by replacing $`x_\pm e^{i_E}`$ in (4.1). The dressing operators are unitary

$$\widehat{𝒲}_+\widehat{𝒲}_+^{\mathrm{}}=𝒲_{}\widehat{𝒲}_{}^{\mathrm{}}=1$$

since they relate two orthonormal systems of functions. Further, the bi-orthogonality condition (4.1) is equivalent to the identity

$$\widehat{𝒲}_{}^{\mathrm{}}e^{i\varphi _0}\widehat{𝒲}_+=1.$$

The identity (4.1) means that the product $`\widehat{𝒲}_{}\widehat{𝒲}_+^1`$ does not depend on the perturbation, which is a general property of all Toda lattice systems .

4.3. Lax operators and string equation

We have seen that the partition function is expressed in terms of the phase $`\varphi (\mu )`$. Therefore we assume that the energy is at the Fermi level $`E=\mu `$, and consider all variables as functions of $`\mu `$ instead of $`E`$. Let us denote by $`\widehat{\omega }`$ the operator

$$\widehat{\omega }=e^{i_\mu }$$

shifting the variable $`\mu `$ by $`i`$. The operators $`\widehat{\omega }`$ and $`\mu `$ satisfy the Heisenberg-Weyl commutation relation

$$[\widehat{\omega },\mu ]=\widehat{\omega },[\widehat{\omega }^1,\mu ]=\widehat{\omega }^1.$$

Now let us consider the representation of these commutation relations in the perturbed theory. The dressing operators $`𝒲_\pm `$ are now exponents of series in $`\widehat{\omega }`$ with $`\mu `$-dependent coefficients

$$\widehat{𝒲}_\pm =e^{iR_{n1}t_{\pm n}\widehat{\omega }^{n/R}}e^{\frac{1}{2}i\varphi (\mu )}e^{iR_{n1}v_{\pm n}(\mu )\widehat{\omega }^{n/R}}.$$

The operators

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill L_+& =𝒲_+\widehat{\omega }𝒲_+^1,L_{}=𝒲_{}\widehat{\omega }^1𝒲_{}^1,\hfill \\ \hfill M_+& =𝒲_+\mu 𝒲_+^1,M_{}=𝒲_{}\mu 𝒲_{}^1.\hfill \end{array}$$

known as Lax and Orlov-Schulman operators satisfy the same commutation relations as the operators $`\widehat{\omega }`$ and $`\mu `$

$$[L_+,M_+]=iL_+,[L_{},M_{}]=iL_{}.$$

The Lax operators $`L_\pm `$ represent the canonical coordinates $`\widehat{x}_\pm `$ in the basis of perturbed wave functions,

$$E|e^{\pm \frac{1}{2}i\varphi _0}\widehat{𝒲}_\pm L_\pm |x_\pm =E|e^{\pm \frac{1}{2}i\varphi _0}\widehat{𝒲}_\pm \widehat{x}_\pm |x_\pm $$

while the Orlov-Shulman operators $`M_\pm `$ represent Hamiltonian $`H_0=\frac{1}{2}(\widehat{x}_+\widehat{x}_{}+\widehat{x}_{}\widehat{x}_+)`$. Therefore the $`L`$ and $`M`$ operators are related also by

$$M_+=M_{}=\frac{1}{2}(L_+L_{}+L_{}L_+).$$

The last identity is not satisfied automatically in the Toda system and represent an additional constraint analogous to the string equations in the minimal models of 2D quantum gravity. The relation (4.1) is proved by inserting the identity (4.1) in the bare relation for $`E=\mu `$, satisfied by the operators (3.1). The string equation can be also written as the Heisenberg commutation relation between the two Lax operators

$$[L_+,L_{}]=i$$

which also follows directly from (3.1).

The operators $`M_\pm `$ can be expanded as infinite series of the $`L`$-operators. Indeed, as they act to the dressed wave functions as

$$\begin{array}{cc}& E|e^{\pm \frac{1}{2}i\varphi _0}\widehat{𝒲}_\pm M_\pm |x_\pm =\pm i(x_\pm _{x_\pm }1/2)\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^E(x_\pm )\hfill \\ & =\left(\underset{k1}{}kt_{\pm k}x_\pm ^{k/R}+\mu +\underset{k1}{}v_{\pm k}x_\pm ^{k/R}\right)\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^E(x_\pm ).\hfill \end{array}$$

we can write

$$M_\pm =\underset{k1}{}kt_{\pm k}L_\pm ^{k/R}+\mu +\underset{k1}{}v_{\pm k}L_\pm ^{k/R}.$$

In order to exploit the Lax equations (4.1) and the string equations (4.1) we need the explicit form of the two Lax operators. It follows from (4.1) that $`L_\pm `$ can be represented as series of the form

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill L_+& =e^{i\varphi /2}\left(\widehat{\omega }+\underset{k1}{}a_k\widehat{\omega }^{1n/R}\right)e^{i\varphi /2}\hfill \\ \hfill L_{}& =e^{i\varphi /2}\left(\widehat{\omega }^1+\underset{k1}{}a_k\widehat{\omega }^{1+n/R}\right)e^{i\varphi /2}.\hfill \end{array}$$

4.4. Integrable flows

Let us identify the integrable flows associated with the coupling constants $`t_n`$. From the definition (4.1) we have

$$_{t_n}L_\pm =[H_n,L_\pm ],$$

where the operators $`H_n`$ are related to the dressing operators as

$$H_n=(_{t_n}𝒲_+)𝒲_+^1=(_{t_n}𝒲_{})𝒲_{}^1.$$

The two representations of the flows $`H_n`$ are equivalent by virtue of the relations (4.1) and (4.1). A more explicit expression in terms of the Lax operators is derived by the following standard argument. Let us consider the case $`n>0`$. From the explicit form of the dressing operators it is clear that $`H_n=W_+\widehat{\omega }^{n/R}W_+^1+`$ negative powers of $`\widehat{\omega }^{1/R}`$. The variation of $`t_n`$ will change only the coefficients of the expansions (4.1) of the Lax operators, preserving their general form. But it is clear that if the expansion of $`H_n`$ contained negative powers of $`\widehat{\omega }^{1/R}`$, its commutator with $`L_{}`$ would create extra powers $`\widehat{\omega }^{1k/R}`$. Therefore

$$H_{\pm n}=(L_\pm ^{n/R})_{_<^>}+\frac{1}{2}(L_\pm ^{n/R})_0,n>0,$$

where the symbol $`()_{_<^>}`$ means the positive (negative) parts of the series in the shift operator $`\widehat{\omega }^{1/R}`$ and $`()_0`$ means the constant part. By a similar argument one shows that the Lax equations (4.1) are equivalent to the zero-curvature conditions

$$_{t_m}H_n_{t_n}H_m[H_m,H_n]=0.$$

Equations (4.1) and (4.1) imply that the perturbed theory possesses the Toda lattice integrable structure. The Toda structure implies an infinite hierarchy of PDE’s for the coefficients $`v_n`$ of the dressing operators, the first of which is the Toda equation for the phase $`\varphi (\mu )\varphi (E=\mu )`$

$$i\frac{}{t_1}\frac{}{t_1}\varphi (\mu )=e^{i\varphi (\mu )i\varphi (\mu i/R)}e^{i\varphi (\mu +i/R)i\varphi (\mu )}.$$

The uniqueness of the solution is assured by appropriate boundary conditions , which are equivalent to the constraint (4.1).

4.5. Representation in terms of a bosonic field

The momentum modes can be described as the oscillator modes of a bosonic field $`\phi (x_+,x_{})=\phi _+(x_+)+\phi _{}(x_{})`$. The bosonization formula is

$$\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^{E=\mu i/2}(x_\pm )=𝒵^1e^{\pm i\phi _\pm (x_\pm )}𝒵$$

where $`𝒵`$ is the partition function and

$$\phi _\pm (x_\pm )=+R\underset{k1}{}t_kx_\pm ^{k/R}+\frac{1}{R}_\mu +\mu \mathrm{log}x_\pm R\underset{k1}{}\frac{1}{k}x_\pm ^{k/R}\frac{}{t_k}.$$

Then by (4.1) the operators $`M_\pm `$ are represented by the currents $`x_\pm _\pm \phi `$

$$M_\pm ^{\mathrm{}}\mathrm{\Psi }_\pm ^E(x_\pm )|_{E=\mu i/2}=𝒵^1x_\pm _\pm \phi 𝒵.$$

4.6. The dispersionless (quasiclassical) limit

Let us reintroduce the Planck constant by replacing $`\mu \mu /\mathrm{}`$ and consider the quasiclassical limit $`\mathrm{}0`$. In this limit the integrable structure described above reduces to the dispersionless Toda hierarchy \[19,,20,,5\], where the operators $`\mu `$ and $`\widehat{\omega }`$ can be considered as a pair of classical canonical variables with Poisson bracket

$$\{\omega ,\mu \}=\omega .$$

Similarly, all operators become $`c`$-functions of these variables. The Lax operators can be identified with the classical phase space coordinates $`x_\pm `$, which satisfy

$$\{x_+,x_{}\}=1.$$

The two functions $`x_\pm (\omega ,E)`$ define the classical phase-space trajectories as functions of the proper time variable $`\tau =\mathrm{log}\omega .`$

The shape of the Fermi sea is determined by the classical trajectory corresponding to the Fermi level $`E=\mu `$. In the non-perturbed system the classical trajectory is

$$x_+(\omega )=\sqrt{\mu }\omega ,x_{}(\omega )=\sqrt{\mu }\omega ^1$$

and the Fermi sea has a hyperbolic shape

$$x_+x_{}=\mu .$$

In the perturbed theory the classical trajectories are of the form

$$x_\pm =L_\pm (\omega ,\mu )$$

where the functions $`L_\pm `$ are of the form

$$L_\pm (\omega ,\mu )=e^{\frac{1}{2}_\mu \varphi }\omega ^{\pm 1}\left(1+\underset{k1}{}a_{\pm k}(\mu )\omega ^{k/R}\right).$$

The flows $`H_n`$ become Hamiltonians for the evolution along the ‘times’ $`t_n`$. The unitary operators $`𝒲_\pm `$ becomes a pair of canonical transformations between the variables $`\omega ,\mu `$ and $`L_\pm ,M_\pm `$. Their generating functions are given by the expectation values $`S_\pm =𝒵^1\phi _\pm (x_\pm )𝒵`$ of the chiral components of the bosonic field $`\varphi `$

$$S_\pm =\pm R\underset{k1}{}t_{\pm k}x_\pm ^{k/R}+\mu \mathrm{log}x_\pm \frac{1}{2}\varphi \pm R\underset{k1}{}\frac{1}{k}v_kx_\pm ^{k/R}$$

where $`v_k=/t_k`$. The differential of the function $`S_\pm `$ is

$$dS_\pm =M_\pm d\mathrm{log}x_\pm +\mathrm{log}\omega d\mu +R\underset{n0}{}H_ndt_n.$$

If we consider the coordinate $`\omega `$ as a function of either $`x_+`$ or $`x_{}`$, then

$$\omega =e^{_\mu S_+(x_+)}=e^{_\mu S_{}(x_{})}.$$

The classical string equation

$$x_+x_{}=M_+=M_{}$$

can be written, using the expansion (4.1) of $`M_\pm `$, as

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill x_+x_{}& =\underset{k1}{}kt_kx_+^{k/R}+\mu +\underset{k1}{}v_kx_+^{k/R}\hfill \\ \hfill x_+x_{}& =\underset{k1}{}kt_kx_{}^{k/R}+\mu +\underset{k1}{}v_kx_{}^{k/R}.\hfill \end{array}$$

The first of these expansions is convergent for sufficiently large $`x_+`$ and the second one for sufficiently large $`x_{}`$. Comparing the two equations one can extract the form of the Fermi surface. Technically this is done as follows . First, note that if all $`t_{\pm k}`$ with $`k>n`$ vanish, the sum in (4.1) can be restricted to $`kn`$. Then it is enough to substitute the expressions (4.1) in the profile equations (4.1) and compare the coefficients in front of $`\omega ^{\pm k/R}`$.

The two expansions (4.1) can be combined into a single equation

$$x_{}x_{}\underset{k0}{}kt_kH_k(\omega )=\mu $$

where

$$H_{\pm k}(\omega )=[L_\pm ^{k/R}(\omega )]_{_<^>}+\frac{1}{2}[L_+^{k/R}(\omega )]_0(k>0).$$

The left hand side can be interpreted as the Hamiltonian for the perturbed system. It defines the profile of the perturbed Fermi sea, which is a deformation of the hyperbole (4.1).

4.7. One-point correlators in the dispersionless limit

It follows from $`\mathrm{log}\omega =_\mu S_\pm (x_\pm )`$ that the $`\mu `$-derivative of the one-point correlators

$$\mathrm{Tr}X_\pm ^{n/R}=\frac{}{t_n},$$

is given by the contour integrals

$$\frac{^2}{\mu t_{\pm n}}=\frac{1}{2\pi i}𝑑\omega ^{1/R}[L_\pm (\omega )]^{|n|/R}(n1)$$

where the closed contour of integration in the variable $`\omega ^{1/R}`$ goes along the arc between $`\omega =e^{i\pi R}`$ and $`\omega =e^{i\pi R}`$. (Note that the integrand is expanded in Laurent series in $`\omega ^{1/R}`$.)

4.8. Example: sine-Gordon field coupled to 2D gravity

The simplest nontrivial string theory with time-dependent background is the sine-Gordon theory coupled to gravity known also as Sine-Liouville theory. It is obtained by perturbing with the lowest couplings $`t_1`$ and $`t_1`$. In this case

$$x_\pm =e^{\frac{1}{2}_\mu \varphi }\omega ^{\pm 1}(1+a_{\pm 1}\omega ^{\frac{1}{R}}).$$

and (4.1) give

$$\begin{array}{cc}& \mu e^{_\mu \varphi }\left(1\frac{1}{R}\right)t_1t_1e^{(2\frac{1}{R})_\mu \varphi }=1,\hfill \\ & a_{\pm 1}=t_1e^{\frac{1}{2}(2\frac{1}{R})_\mu \varphi }.\hfill \end{array}$$

The first equation is an algebraic equation for the the susceptibility

$$u_0=_\mu ^2=R_\mu \varphi .$$

It was first found (for the T-dual theory) in . This algebraic equation resumes the perturbative expansion found in . The equation (4.1) with $`a_\pm `$ given in (4.1) was first found in  by integrating the Hirota equations for the Toda hierarchy with the boundary condition given by the non-perturbed free energy (3.1).

5. Integrable perturbations by winding modes

5.1. The partition function as integral over the $`U(N)`$ group

Let us consider a perturbation of the $`c=1`$ string theory by only winding modes. The relevant variable in this case is the gauge field $`A(x)`$ and the matrix model (2.1)/ can be viewed as a two-dimensional gauge theory defined on the disc having as a boundary the compactified Euclidean time interval. The only nontrivial degree of freedom in such a theory is the holonomy factor around the circle (2.1). The canonical partition function is given by the $`U(N)`$-integral

$$𝒵_N=\frac{[D\mathrm{\Omega }]}{|q^{1/2}\mathrm{\Omega }Iq^{1/2}I\times \mathrm{\Omega }|}$$

where $`I`$ is the unit $`N\times N`$ matrix. The integrand depends only on the eigenvalues $`z_1,\mathrm{},z_N`$ of the unitary matrix $`\mathrm{\Omega }`$ and the partition function becomes

$$𝒵_N(\stackrel{~}{t}_n)=|q^{1/2}q^{1/2}|^N\underset{k=1}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{[dz_k]}{2\pi iz_k}\underset{j<k}{}\left|\frac{z_jz_k}{q^{1/2}z_jq^{1/2}z_k}\right|^2.$$

where the integration goes along the unit circle $`|z|=1`$ with measure

$$[dz]=dze^{\stackrel{~}{U}(q^{\frac{1}{2}}z)\stackrel{~}{U}(q^{\frac{1}{2}}z)}.$$

This representation of the partition function was studied (for the non-perturbed theory) by Bulatov and Kazakov . Note that the absolute value can be abandoned, since the integrand is homogeneous.

The grand canonical partition function can be written as the absolute value of a Fredholm determinant

$$𝒵(\mu ,t_n)=\left|\mathrm{Det}(1+q^{i\mu }\widehat{K})\right|,$$

where the Fredholm kernel is defined by the contour integral

$$(\widehat{K}f)(z)=\frac{[dz]}{2\pi i}\frac{f(z^{})}{q^{1/2}zq^{1/2}z^{}}.$$

The integral has poles when $`z_i=qz_j`$ and should be evaluated by adopting a prescription for surrounding the poles. The prescription used in  is to add a small imaginary part to $`R`$ so that $`|q|<1`$. In the case of real $`q[0,1)`$ the partition function was studied by M. Gaudin .

5.2. Evaluation of the partition function of the non-perturbed theory

Boulatov and Kazakov showed in  that the prescription for the contour integration gives for the Fredholm determinant (5.1) the same result as (3.1), up to non-perturbative terms $`𝒪(e^{\pi \mu })`$. Here we recall their calculation. The integration kernel (5.1) acts to the monomials $`z^n`$ as

$$Kz^n=\{\begin{array}{cc}q^{n+\frac{1}{2}}z^n\hfill & \text{if }n0\hfill \\ 0\hfill & \text{if }n<0\hfill \end{array}$$

and the Fredholm determinant (5.1) reads

$$𝒵(\mu )=\underset{r>0}{}(1+q^{i\mu +r}).$$

The free energy then is equal to an infinite sum

$$(\mu )=\underset{n0}{}\mathrm{log}(1+q^{i\mu +n+1/2})=\underset{m1}{}\frac{()^mq^{im\mu }}{m}\frac{1}{q^{m/2}q^{m/2}}$$

The last sum is the result can be written as the integral

$$(\mu )=\underset{𝒞}{}\frac{dy}{y}\frac{q^{i\mu y}}{4\mathrm{sinh}(yR)\mathrm{sinh}(y)}.$$

along a contour $`𝒞`$ circling around the poles $`y=in,n>0`$ only. If $`|q|<1`$, then $`𝒞`$ goes from $`\mathrm{}`$ to $`0`$ and then up the imaginary axis to $`i\mathrm{}`$.

Note that if we close the contour around the poles of $`\mathrm{sinh}\pi Ry`$, then the result will be the sum over the residues $`k=inR(n>0)`$ which can be written as the partition function for the dual radius $`\stackrel{~}{R}=1/R`$.

5.3. Toda integrable structure

The Fredholm determinant (5.1) with non-homogeneous measure (5.1) can be represented as the Fock expectation value in a theory of chiral fermions defined on the unit circle . The deformations by winding modes are introduced as Bogolyubov transformations of the left and right fermionic vacua and the partition function was identified as a $`\tau `$-function of the Toda Lattice hierarchy.

As a consequence, the free energy satisfies an infinite hierarchy of PDE with the Toda ‘times’ $`\stackrel{~}{t}_n`$. The first one is the Toda equation dual to the equation (4.1)

$$i\frac{}{\stackrel{~}{t}_1}\frac{}{\stackrel{~}{t}_1}\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(\mu )=e^{i\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(\mu )i\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(\mu i)}e^{i\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(\mu +i)i\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(\mu )}$$

where

$$\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(\mu )=2\mathrm{sin}(_\mu /2)(\mu ,R).$$

Using the scaling relation given in the Appendix, one can reduce (5.1) to an ordinary differential equation, which should be solved with initial condition (5.1). In the quasi-classical (genus zero) limit, this differential equation can be integrated to an algebraic equation for the string susceptibility $`u_0=_\mu \stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$

$$\mu e^{\frac{1}{R}_\mu \stackrel{~}{\varphi }}+\stackrel{~}{t}_1\stackrel{~}{t}_1(R1)e^{\frac{2R}{R}_\mu \stackrel{~}{\varphi }}=1.$$

The one- and two-point correlators were calculated by Alexandrov and Kazakov from the higher equations of the Toda hierarchy . These results were later confirmed in  using the Lax formalizm of the constrained Toda system.

5.4. Lax operators and string equation

We will consider the potential $`\stackrel{~}{U}(z)`$ in the measure (5.1) as the value on the unit circle $`\overline{z}z=1`$ of the potential

$$\stackrel{~}{U}(z,\overline{z})=\underset{n0}{}(\stackrel{~}{t}_nz^n+\stackrel{~}{t}_n\overline{z}^n)$$

defined in the whole complex plane. Let us assume that the spectral variables $`z`$ and $`\overline{z}`$ are represented (in some sense) by a pair of Lax operators of the form

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill L& =e^{\frac{1}{2}i\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}\widehat{\omega }\left(1+\underset{k1}{}u_k\widehat{\omega }^{1k}\right)e^{\frac{1}{2}i\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}\hfill \\ \hfill \overline{L}& =e^{\frac{1}{2}i\stackrel{~}{\varphi }}\widehat{\omega }^1\left(1+\underset{k1}{}u_k\widehat{\omega }^{1k}\right)e^{\frac{1}{2}i\stackrel{~}{\varphi }},\hfill \end{array}$$

where the phase $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }`$ is related to the free energy by

$$\stackrel{~}{\varphi }(\mu )=i[(\mu +i/2)(\mu i/2)].$$

In order to find the constraint satisfied by $`L`$ and $`\overline{L}`$, we consider the non-perturbed theory, for which the expressions in the parentheses are equal to one. The functional equation (3.1) means that the bare phase $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_0`$ satisfies

$$\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_0(\mu +i/R)\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_0(\mu i/R)=i\mathrm{log}\mu .$$

In the case of no perturbation, this is equivalent to the algebraic relations

$$L^{1/R}\overline{L}^{1/R}+\overline{L}^{1/R}L^{1/R}=\mu $$

and

$$[L^{1/R},\overline{L}^{1/R}]=i.$$

The second identity is invariant with respect to the dressing procedure and therefore are satisfied by the the general Lax operators (5.1). This is the string equation for the constrained Toda system.

5.5. Quasiclassical limit and relation to the conformal map problem

In the dispersionless limit $`\mu \mathrm{}`$ the two Lax operators define a smooth closed curve $`\gamma `$ in the complex plane, whose equation is written in a parametric form as

$$z=L(\omega ),\overline{z}=\overline{L}(\omega )(|\omega |=1).$$

For example, in the case when only $`\stackrel{~}{t}_1`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{t}_1`$ are nonzero, the explicit form of the curve $`\gamma `$ is

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill z& =e^{\frac{1}{2}_\mu \stackrel{~}{\varphi }}\omega (1+\stackrel{~}{t}_1e^{\frac{2R}{2R}_\mu \stackrel{~}{\varphi }}\omega ^1)^R\hfill \\ \hfill \overline{z}& =e^{\frac{1}{2}_\mu \stackrel{~}{\varphi }}\omega ^1(1+\stackrel{~}{t}_1e^{\frac{2R}{2R}_\mu \stackrel{~}{\varphi }}\omega )^R.\hfill \end{array}$$

Assuming that the couplings $`\stackrel{~}{t}_n`$ and $`\stackrel{~}{t}_n`$ are complex conjugate, the map (5.1) can be extended to a conformal map from the exterior of the unit disk $`\omega <1`$ to a connected domain $`𝒟`$ with the topology of a disk containing the point $`z=\mathrm{}`$ and bounded by the curve $`\gamma `$. The couplings $`\stackrel{~}{t}_n(n0)`$ and $`\mu `$ can be thought of as a set coordinates in the space of closed curves. The relation between the conformal maps and the dispersionless Toda hierarchy was studied recently in a series of papers \[23,,24,,25\].

6. Conclusion

In these notes we explained how the the perturbations of the compactified $`c=1`$ string theory by momentum or winding modes are described by integrable deformations of a gauged matrix model on a circle. The momentum and winding modes are associated with the collective excitations of the matter and gauge fields. The deformed system is described by a constrained Toda Lattice hierarchy. The Lax formalism for the Toda lattice hierarchy allows to calculate explicitly the free energy and the correlation functions of the electric or magnetic operators for any genus. In particular, the partition function is a $`\tau `$-function of the Toda lattice hierarchy.

The integrability takes place only in the grand canonical ensemble, in which the size $`N`$ is a dynamical variable and the string interaction constant is controlled by the chemical potential $`\mu `$. The partition function is a Fredholm determinant, and not a usual determinant as in the case of the open matrix chains for the $`c<1`$ string theories.

It is not likely that the integrability is conserved for perturbations with both moment and winding modes. Nevertheless, the calculation of the correlation functions of the momentum modes in presence of a perturbation modes (or vice-versa) seem to be performable albeit very difficult. This calculation might help to check the hypothesis (related to the FZZ conjecture) that a strong perturbation by winding modes can lead to a curved background with Euclidean horizon .

Another problem, also related to the  conjecture, is to find the limit $`\mu /t_1t_10`$ of the matrix model, which is relevant to the sine-Liouville string theory. This limit seems to be subtle because at small $`\mu `$ the non-perturbative effects can enter into the game. In any case, the $`\mu 0`$ limit of the correlators of the matrix model does not seem to reproduce the results obtained in the Sine-Liouville theory \[10,,26\].

Finally, it would be very interesting to understand the origin of the integrability from the point of view of the world-sheet string theory.

Acknowledgments

We thank the Albert Enstein Institut, Golm, for hospitality. This research is supported in part by European network EUROGRID HPRN-CT-1999-00161.

Appendix A. Momentum and winding modes in the $`c=1`$ Euclidean string theory

In this section we will recall briefly the world-sheet description of the $`c=1`$ Euclidean string theory with compact target space. The elementary excitations in this theory are closed surfaces, or string world sheets, embedded in a circle of radius $`R`$. An embedded surface is defined by metric tensor $`g_{ab}(\sigma )`$ $`(a,b=1,2)`$ and the position $`x(\sigma )`$ in the target space as functions of the local coordinates $`\sigma =\{\sigma _1,\sigma _2\}`$. The free energy of the string theory is given by the functional integral over all connected surfaces

$$\frac{1}{\mathrm{}^2}(R,\mu ,\mathrm{})=𝒟g_{ab}𝒟xe^{𝒮(g_{ab},x)}$$

with a weight given by the the Polyakov action

$$𝒮(g_{ab},x)=\frac{1}{4\pi }\underset{\mathrm{world}\mathrm{sheet}}{}d^2\sigma \sqrt{\mathrm{det}g}[g^{ab}_ax_bx+4\pi \mu +\widehat{}^{(2)}\mathrm{log}\mathrm{}],$$

where $`\widehat{}`$ is the local curvature associated with the metric $`g_{ab}`$. The parameter $`\mu `$ is the cosmological constant, coupled to the area of the world sheet, and $`\mathrm{}`$ is the string coupling constant, which is associated with the processes of splitting and joining of closed strings. By the Euler theorem the global curvature is related to the genus $`h`$ of the world sheet as

$$\frac{1}{4\pi }d^2\sigma \sqrt{\mathrm{det}g}\widehat{}^{(2)}=22h$$

and one can write the free energy as a series

$$(R,g)=\underset{h0}{}\mathrm{}^{2h}^{(h)}(R,\mu ).$$

In the conformal gauge $`g_{ab}=e^{2\varphi (\sigma )}\delta _{ab}`$, the conformal factor $`\varphi `$ becomes a dynamical field due to the conformal anomaly, and the world-sheet action becomes essentially a $`c=1`$ conformal field theory coupled to a Liouville field

$$𝒮=\frac{1}{4\pi }\underset{\mathrm{world}\mathrm{sheet}}{}d^2\sigma [(x)^2+(\varphi )^2+\mu e^{b\varphi }+\widehat{}^{(2)}(\mathrm{log}\mathrm{}+Q\varphi )+\mathrm{ghosts}].$$

The background charge $`Q`$ and the exponent $`b`$ of the Liouville field are determined by the requirement that the total conformal anomaly vanishes

$$c_{\mathrm{matter}}+c_{\mathrm{Liouville}}+c_{\mathrm{ghosts}}=1+(1+6Q^2)26=0$$

and that the perturbation due to the cosmological term $`\mu e^{b\varphi }`$ is marginal

$$\frac{b(2Qb)}{4}=1.$$

These two conditions give

$$Q=2,b=2.$$

(The value $`Q=2`$ does not lead to a sensible classical limit.) The invariance of the action with respect to shifts $`\varphi \varphi +\varphi _0`$ implies that the free energy depends on $`\mu `$ and $`\mathrm{}`$ through the dimensionless combination $`\mu \mathrm{}`$, which is the statement of the double scaling limit in the $`c=1`$ string theory. Therefore we are free to choose $`\mathrm{}=1`$ and write the genus expansion (A.1) as an expansion in $`1/\mu ^2`$.

The primary operators associated with the matter field $`x(\sigma )`$ are the vertex operators $`V_e(\sigma )e^{iex(\sigma )}`$ and the Kosterlitz-Thouless vortices $`\stackrel{~}{V}_m(\sigma )`$. The operator $`V_m(\sigma )`$ is associated with a discontinuity $`2\pi m`$ of the field $`x`$ around the point $`\sigma `$ on the world sheet. We call $`e`$ and $`m`$ electric and magnetic charges, in analogy with the Coulomb gas on the plane. The electric and magnetic charges should satisfy the Dirac condition $`em=2\pi \times `$integer. From the point of view of the compactified string theory observables, the electric and magnetic charges are the momentum and winding numbers, correspondingly. The spectrum of the electric and magnetic charges for a periodic target space $`x+2\pi Rx`$ is

$$e=n/R,m=nR(n\text{ZZ}).$$

If we write the position field $`x`$ as a sum of a holomorphic and antiholomorphic parts, $`x=x_R+x_L`$, then the Kosterlitz-Thouless vortices are described by the vertex operators for the dual field $`\stackrel{~}{x}=x_Rx_L`$, whose target space is the circle of radius $`1/R`$. When integrated over the world sheet, these operators should be accompanied by nontrivial Liouville factors compensating their anomalous dimensions. The integrated operators have the form

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill V_e& d^2\sigma e^{iex}e^{(e2)\varphi },\hfill \\ \hfill \stackrel{~}{V}_m& d^2\sigma e^{im\stackrel{~}{x}}e^{(m2)\varphi }.\hfill \end{array}$$

The Liouville exponents are determined by the condition that the integrands are densities.

We are interested in deformations of the string theory obtained by allowing electric charges $`e=n/R`$ with fugacities $`t_n`$ and magnetic charges $`m=nR`$ with fugacities $`\stackrel{~}{t}_n`$. This is achieved by adding to the action (A.1) the perturbation term

$$\delta 𝒮=\underset{n0}{}(t_nV_{n/R}+\stackrel{~}{t}_n\stackrel{~}{V}_{nR}).$$

The translational invariance of the functional measure $`𝒟\varphi `$ yields the following Word identity for the free energy

$$2\mathrm{}\frac{}{\mathrm{}}2\mu \frac{}{\mu }+\underset{n0}{}\left(nR2\right)t_n\frac{}{t_n}+\underset{n0}{}\left(\frac{n}{R}2\right)\stackrel{~}{t}_n\frac{}{\stackrel{~}{t}_n}=0.$$

This means that the couplings $`t_n`$, $`\stackrel{~}{t}_n`$ and the string coupling $`\mathrm{}`$ scale with respect to the cosmological coupling $`\mu `$

$$t_n\mu ^{1\frac{1}{2}|n|/R},\stackrel{~}{t}_n\mu ^{1\frac{1}{2}R|n|},\mathrm{}\mu ^1.$$

The T-duality symmetry of the original theory

$$x\stackrel{~}{x},R1/R,\mu \mu /R$$

holds for the perturbed theory if one also exchanges the couplings as $`t_n\stackrel{~}{t}_n`$ (up to a rescaling by an $`R`$-dependent factor).

In the perturbation (A.1) we should retain only the relevant charges $`|e|<2/R`$ and $`|m|<2R`$. However, the correlation functions of a finite number of irrelevant operators are perfectly meaningful. The interesting phase of the deformed theory, which can be thought of as Coulomb gas coupled to quantum gravity, is the plasma phase, where the fugacities of the charges are tuned so that the Debye length is of the order of the size of the 2D universe.

References

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# Simplified and obvious expression of concurrence in Wootters’ measure of entanglement of a pair of qubits

## Abstract

We obtain a simplified and obvious expression of “concurrence” in Wootters’ measure of entanglement of a pair of qubits having no more than two non-zero eigenvalues in terms of concurrences of eigenstates and their simple combinations. It not only simplifies the calculation of Wootters’ measure of entanglement, but also reveals some its general and important features. Our conclusions are helpful to understand and use quantum entanglement further.

Quantum entanglement is an essential and inherent feature of quantum theory. Moreover, it is viewed as a useful resource in quantum information because it can be used in quantum teleportation QT , quantum computation QC , quantum cryptography QCG  and quantum error correction QEC . Therefore, it is interesting and important to quantify quantum entanglement.

One of the best known measures of entanglement is entanglement of formation (EF) in a bipartite systems, which is proposed by Bennett et. al. Bennett . Its definition is

$$E_{EF}(\rho _{AB})=\underset{\{p_i,\rho ^i\}𝒟}{\mathrm{min}}\underset{i}{}p_iS(\rho _B^i)$$
(1)
where $`𝒟`$ is a set that includes all the possible decompositions of pure states $`\rho =_ip_i\rho ^i`$, $`\rho _B^i=\mathrm{Tr}_A\rho ^i`$ is the reduced density matrix of $`\rho ^i`$ and $`S(\rho )`$ is von Neumann entropy of $`\rho `$. For a pure state in bipartite systems, it is extensively accepted. However, in the case of mixed states, it is heavily dependent on the pure state decompositions and so far there is no a general algorithm to find the minimum one. In order to avoid this problem and improve EF’s behavior in the mixed states, $`via.`$ Bennett et. al.’s suggestion and Wootters’ development, so-called magic basis defined by four Bell’s states $`|\mathrm{\Phi }^\pm ,|\mathrm{\Psi }^\pm `$ with particular phases

$`|e_1=|\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}(|00+|11),`$ (2a)
$`|e_2=\mathrm{i}|\mathrm{\Phi }^{()}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{i}}{\sqrt{2}}}(|00|11),`$ (2b)
$`|e_3=\mathrm{i}|\mathrm{\Psi }^{(+)}={\displaystyle \frac{\mathrm{i}}{\sqrt{2}}}(|01+|10),`$ (2c)
$`|e_4=|\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}}(|01|10),`$ (2d)
plays a key role. One can rewrite EF for a pure state as a binary entropy function

$$H(z)=z\mathrm{log}z(1z)\mathrm{log}(1z)$$
(3)
whose argument $`z`$ reads

$$z=\frac{1+\sqrt{1C^2}}{2}$$
(4)
where $`C`$ is called as “concurrence”. For a pure state, it is equal to the norm of summation of square of coefficients of $`|\psi =_{i=1}^4\alpha _i|e_i`$ in the magic basis, that is

$$C=\left|\underset{i=1}{\overset{4}{}}\alpha _i^2\right|$$
(5)
Wootters and Hill’s creative contribution is to find, for a mixed state $`\rho `$ of a pair of qubits, the concurrence can be defined by Wootters

$$C=\mathrm{max}(\lambda _1\lambda _2\lambda _3\lambda _4,0)$$
(6)
where the $`\lambda _i`$ ($`\lambda _1`$ is the maximum one) are the square roots of the eigenvalues of the following matrix

$$\rho ^{1/2}\stackrel{~}{\rho }\rho ^{1/2}=\rho ^{1/2}\sigma _2^{A_1}\sigma _2^{A_2}\rho ^{}\sigma _2^{A_1}\sigma _2^{A_2}\rho ^{1/2}$$
(7)
and $`\rho ^{}`$ denotes the complex conjugation of density matrix $`\rho `$ in the computation basis $`\{|00,|01,|10,|11\}`$. They proposed that the binary entropy function defined by eq.(3) is also a measure of entanglement of mixed states (WE or BE) if its concurrence takes form (6), and proved that it is not larger than EF for the mixed state. This nice work is thought of the best result to quantify entanglement for bipartite systems consist of a pair of qubits in the known measures of entanglement so far. Obviously, it is a main task to calculate concurrence in order to obtain WE. Knowing concurrence is just knowing WE. Usually, one uses numerical calculation to obtain concurrence and then the values of WE. However, from the original form of concurrence or from its numerical result, it seems to be difficult to cognize and understand the general features of concurrence or WE. Perhaps, this will lead a limitation of WE’s applications. It is interesting to deduce out an analysis and obvious form of concurrence, as well as WE, directly related with some physical quantities of the concerning quantum state.

In our early works MyCPL , we have found that a relation between the norm of polarized vector of reduced matrix and concurrence in the case of pure states of bipartite systems. That is,

$$𝝃^2=1C^2$$
(8)
In order to directly calculate concurrence of a pure state, we also prove that when the pure state is written as

$$|\psi =a|00+b|01+c|10+d|11$$
(9)
its concurrence can be expressed by MyCPL

$$C=2|adbc|$$
(10)
Moreover, for separable states, $`𝝃^2=1`$, and Bell’s states $`𝝃^2=0`$. Recently, we propose a sufficient and necessary separability criterion for pure states in multipartite and high dimensional systems MySC , i.e, a pure state is (fully) separable iff the norm of coherent vector of reduced density matrix of any $`A_i`$-partite arrives at the maximum value. We are able to verify that for any cat state in multipartite systems, the norm of coherent vector of reduced density matrix of any $`A_i`$-partite takes the minimum value. It implies that so-called coherent vectors play an important role in the measures of entanglement. Therefore, we suggest a principle method to define and obtain the measures of entanglement in multipartite and high dimensional systems, at least in the case of pure states. In fact, according to our idea, we have tried to propose the generalized entanglement of polarized vector MyCPL , the modified relative entropy of entanglement MyMRE  and the generalized entanglement of formation MyGEF  based on Bennett, Wootters et.al’s as well as Vedral et. al’s ideas Bennett ; Wootters ; Vedral . In this paper, we further would like to evaluate out how WE is dependent on the polarized vectors of reduced matrices or concurrences of eigenstates and their simple combinations, in order to analysis the general features of WE. Actually, it is also helpful to obtain an extended binary entropy of entanglement for multipartite and high dimensional systems in near future (in prepare).

For simplicity, we only consider the case having no more than two non-zero eigenvalues in bipartite systems with a pair of qubits. Without loss of generality, set two eigenvectors of density matrix of a quantum state as

$`|v_1=a_1|00+b_1|01+c_1|10+d_1|11`$ (11a)
$`|v_2=a_2|00+b_2|01+c_2|10+d_2|11`$ (11b)
which correspond to two non-zero eigenvalues, respectively denoting as $`v_1`$ and $`v_2`$, the density matrix in eigen decomposition is just

$$\rho =v_1|v_1v_1|+v_2|v_2v_2|$$
(12)
and then

$$\rho ^{1/2}=v_1^{1/2}|v_1v_1|+v_2^{1/2}|v_2v_2|$$
(13)
Through some calculations, we can obtain the eigenvalues of $`\rho ^{1/2}\stackrel{~}{\rho }\rho ^{1/2}`$ to be

$$\omega _\pm =x\pm \sqrt{y}$$
(14)
where

$`x`$ $`=`$ $`2v_1^2|a_1d_1b_1c_1|^2+2v_2^2|a_2d_2b_2c_2|^2`$ (15)
$`+{\displaystyle \frac{v_1v_2}{4}}|[(a_1+a_2)(d_1+d_2)(b_1+b_2)(c_1+c_2)]`$
$`[(a_1a_2)(d_1d_2)(b_1b_2)(c_1c_2)]|^2`$
$`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(v_1^2C_1^2+v_2^2C_2^2)+{\displaystyle \frac{v_1v_2}{4}}|𝒞_+𝒞_{}|^2`$
$`y`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{v_1^2v_2^2}{16}}|\{[(a_1+a_2)(d_1+d_2)(b_1+b_2)(c_1+c_2)]`$ (16)
$`[(a_1a_2)(d_1d_2)(b_1b_2)(c_1c_2)]\}^2`$
$`16(a_1d_1b_1c_1)(a_2d_2b_2c_2)|^2+x^2`$
$`=`$ $`x^2{\displaystyle \frac{v_1^2v_2^2}{16}}\left|(𝒞_+𝒞_{})^24𝒞_1𝒞_2\right|^2`$
Here, we have used the orthogonal and normalized relations of eigenvectors

$$v_i|v_j=\delta _{ij},(i,j=1,2)$$
(17)
and introduce the definitions of complex concurrences of pure states

$`𝒞_i`$ $`=`$ $`2(a_id_ib_ic_i)(i=1,2)`$ (18)
$`𝒞_\pm `$ $`=`$ $`(a_1\pm a_2)(d_1\pm d_2)(b_1\pm b_2)(c_1\pm c_2)`$ (19)
In general, they are complex numbers. The usual concurrences of pure states are norms of our complex concurrences of pure states, that is,

$`C_i`$ $`=`$ $`2|a_id_ib_ic_i|,(i=1,2)`$ (20)
$`C_\pm `$ $`=`$ $`|(a_1\pm a_2)(d_1\pm d_2)(b_1\pm b_2)(c_1\pm c_2)|`$ (21)
where $`C_\pm `$ are concurrences with respect to the simple combinations of two eigenstates defined by

$$\rho _\pm =\frac{1}{2}|v_1\pm v_2v_1\pm v_2|$$
(22)
From the definition of concurrence for a mixed state (6), it is easy to get

$$C^2=2x2\sqrt{x^2y}$$
(23)
Substitute $`x,y`$ in eq. (15) and eq.(16), we have the following theorem.

Theorem For a quantum state of a pair of qubits having no more than two eigenvalues, the square of concurrence can be expressed by

$`C^2`$ $`=`$ $`(v_1^2C_1^2+v_2^2C_2^2)+v_1v_2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}|𝒞_+𝒞_{}|^2`$ (24)
$`v_1v_2{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}|(𝒞_+𝒞_{})^24𝒞_1𝒞_2|`$
This is our simplified and obvious expression of concurrence in a quantum state having no more than two non-zero eigenvalues. It means that the concurrence in such a mixed state is dependent on concurrences of eigenstates and their simple combinations. So is WE. Obviously, for a pure state $`v_1=1,v_2=0`$ or $`v_1=0,v_2=1`$, our expression backs to the definition (5). Note that we have had a relation (8) between concurrence of a pure state and norm of polarized vector of reduced density matrix, as well as we know how to calculate easily concurrence of a pure state by the coefficients of the state via. eq.(10), the square of concurrence of such a mixed state as well as WE can be written as an obvious function of polarized vectors of reduced density matrices of eigenstates and their simple combinations or the coefficients of two eigenvectors corresponding to two non-zero eigenvalues.

It must be emphasized that our theorem not only simplifies calculation of Wootters’ measure of entanglement, but also reveals some its general and important features. In the following corollaries and examples, we can more clearly see this advantage in our simplified and obvious expression.

Corollary One The square of concurrence has the upper bound and the lower bound expressed by

$$(v_1C_1v_2C_2)^2C^2(v_1C_1+v_2C_2)^2$$
(25)
Note that when $`4|𝒞_1𝒞_2||𝒞_+𝒞_{}|^2`$, we have used the fact that

$`C^2`$ $``$ $`(v_1C_1v_2C_2)^2+v_1v_2(𝒞_+𝒞_{})^2`$ (26)
$`=`$ $`(v_1C_1+v_2C_2)^2v_1v_2(4|𝒞_1𝒞_2||𝒞_+𝒞_{}|^2)`$
$``$ $`(v_1C_1+v_2C_2)^2`$
Corollary Two If eigenvectors only have real components (coefficients in the computation basis $`\{|00`$, $`|01`$,$`|10,|11\}`$), then when $`(𝒞_+𝒞_{})^24𝒞_1𝒞_20`$, the square of concurrence arrives at the upper bound

$$C^2=(v_1C_1+v_2C_2)^2$$
(27)
when $`0(𝒞_+𝒞_{})^24𝒞_1𝒞_2`$, the square of concurrence becomes

$$C^2=(v_1C_1v_2C_2)^2+v_1v_2(𝒞_+𝒞_{})^2$$
(28)
while only $`𝒞_1𝒞_20`$, it reaches at the lower bound

$$C^2=(v_1C_1v_2C_2)^2$$
(29)
Corollary Three If $`𝒞_+=𝒞_{}`$, that is, $`a_1d_2+a_2d_1=b_1c_2+b_2c_1`$, the square of concurrence takes its lower bound

$$C^2=(v_1C_1v_2C_2)^2$$
(30)
Corollary Four If $`\rho _1=|v_1v_1|`$ or $`\rho _2=|v_2v_2|`$ is separable, that is $`𝒞_1=0`$ or $`𝒞_2=0`$, the square of concurrence is only dependent on another eigenvector and its probability, that is respectively

$$C^2=v_2^2C_2^2\text{or}C^2=v_1^2C_1^2$$
(31)
It must emphasized that WE defined by a binary entropy function (3) is a monotonic function of concurrence. Thus, these corollaries, in special, corollary one, tell us what is a possible minimum quantity of entanglement distilled from a mixed state and provide knowledge how to prepare a mixed state with a possible maximum quantity of entanglement.

These corollaries give the simple forms of concurrence as well as WE in many cases. It is just a very easy task to calculate them, in particular, for a lot of states including many interesting ones, which obey the conditions in corollary two, corollary three and corollary four.

Corollary four points out an interesting problem that a lot of quantum states has the same entanglement based on Wootters’ definition of binary entropy of entanglement. If it is real, then it will be helpful to keep entanglement against quantum error and distill the needed entanglement from various quantum state preparations. Corollary four also implies that when the probability related with entangled state is small enough and its concurrence is rather large, Wootters’s measure of entanglement greatly decreases, comparing with Bennett et. al’s entanglement of formation, if there is a precondition that at this time the eigen decomposition is just a minimum pure state decomposition. For example, $`v_1=0.1,C_2=0`$, we can compare WE and EF, in the following figure:

According to Lewenstein and Sanpera’s idea Lewenstein  to decomposition the concerning state into an entangled state and a separable state , above precondition may be true. Therefore, the conclusion from corollary four is worthy of studying further.

Now, let us discuss some useful examples.

Example One The mixture of two Bell’s states.

Because for all of four Bell’s states $`|\mathrm{\Phi }^{(\pm )}`$ and $`|\mathrm{\Psi }^{(\pm )}`$ defined by eqs.(2a-2d), it is easy to obtain that

$`𝒞(\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)})=𝒞(\mathrm{\Psi }^{()})=1`$ (32a)
$`𝒞(\mathrm{\Phi }^{()})=𝒞(\mathrm{\Psi }^{(+)})=1`$ (32b)
we can easily evaluate out

$$C^2=(12g)^2$$
(33)
in all of kinds of mixture of two Bell’s states. Thus, their separability condition is just $`g=1/2`$. In the following, let us discuss them one by one.

(1) $`\rho =g|\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}|+(1g)|\mathrm{\Phi }^{()}\mathrm{\Phi }^{()}|`$

Obviously, $`a_+=1,b_+=c_+=d_+=0`$ and $`a_{}=b_{}=c_{}=0,d_{}=1`$, that is $`𝒞((\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}\pm \mathrm{\Phi }^{()})/\sqrt{2})=0`$, we have eq.(33) in terms of corollary three.

(2) $`\rho =g|\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}|+(1g)|\mathrm{\Psi }^{(+)}\mathrm{\Psi }^{(+)}|`$

Obviously, $`a_+=b_+=c_+=d_+=1/2`$ and $`a_{}=b_{}=c_{}=d_{}=1/2`$, that is $`𝒞((\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}\pm \mathrm{\Psi }^{(+)})/\sqrt{2})=0`$, we have eq.(33) in terms of corollary three.

(3) $`\rho =g|\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}|+(1g)|\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}|`$

Obviously, $`a_+=b_+=c_+=d_+=1/2`$ and $`a_{}=b_{}=c_{}=d_{}=1/2`$, that is $`𝒞((\mathrm{\Phi }^{(+)}\pm \mathrm{\Psi }^{()})/\sqrt{2})=1`$, we have eq.(33) in terms of corollary three.

(4) $`\rho =g|\mathrm{\Phi }^{()}\mathrm{\Phi }^{()}|+(1g)|\mathrm{\Psi }^{(+)}\mathrm{\Psi }^{(+)}|`$

Obviously, $`a_+=b_+=c_+=d_+=1/2`$ and $`a_{}=b_{}=c_{}=d_{}=1/2`$, that is $`𝒞((\mathrm{\Phi }^{()}\pm \mathrm{\Psi }^{(+)})/\sqrt{2})=1`$, we have eq.(33) in terms of corollary three.

(5) $`\rho =g|\mathrm{\Phi }^{()}\mathrm{\Phi }^{()}|+(1g)|\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}|`$

Obviously, $`a_+=b_+=c_+=d_+=1/2`$ and $`a_{}=b_{}=c_{}=d_{}=1/2`$, that is $`𝒞((\mathrm{\Phi }^{()}\pm \mathrm{\Psi }^{()})/\sqrt{2})=0`$, we have eq.(33) in terms of corollary three.

(6) $`\rho =g|\mathrm{\Psi }^{(+)}\mathrm{\Psi }^{(+)}|+(1g)|\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}|`$

Obviously, $`a_+=c_+=d_+=0,b_+=1`$ and $`a_{}=b_{}=d_{}0,c_{}=1`$, that is $`𝒞((\mathrm{\Psi }^{(+)}\pm \mathrm{\Psi }^{()})/\sqrt{2})=0`$, we have eq.(33) in terms of corollary three.

Example Two Departure from Bell’s states.

We first consider the following four kinds of departure from Bell’s state $`\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}`$ to a mixture of it and a diagonal state, that is

$$B_i^D=p|\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}|+(1p)|ii|$$
(34)
where $`|i`$ takes over diagonal states $`|00,|01,|10,|11`$ respectively to $`i=1,2,3,4`$. It is easy to obtain that the square of their concurrences is

$$C^2=p^2$$
(35)
The simplest cases are that $`i`$ take 1 and 4. At this time, its two eigenvectors corresponding non-zero eigenvalues are $`|\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}`$ and $`|i,(i=1,4)`$. Because $`|1=|00`$ and $`|4=|11`$ are both separable, we have the above equation in terms of corollary four.

When $`|i=|2=|01`$, $`B_2^D`$’s two eigenvectors are

$`|V_1`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{1+x_{}^2}}}\left(x_{}|01|10\right)`$ (36a)
$`|V_2`$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1}{\sqrt{1+x_+^2}}}\left(x_+|01|10\right)`$ (36b)
$`x_\pm `$ $`=`$ $`{\displaystyle \frac{1p\pm \sqrt{12p+2p^2}}{p}}`$ (36c)
and their corresponding non-zero eigenvalues are

$`V_1=\left(1\sqrt{12p+2p^2}\right)/2`$ (37a)
$`V_2=\left(1+\sqrt{12p+2p^2}\right)/2`$ (37b)
Eigen decomposition of $`B_2^D`$ can be written as

$$B_2^D=V_1|V_1V_1|+V_2|V_2V_2|$$
(38)
By means of our definitions, we can obtain

$$𝒞_1=\frac{2x_{}}{1+x_{}^2},𝒞_2=\frac{2x_+}{1+x_+^2}$$
(39)
Note that $`x_{}0`$ and $`x_+0`$, we have $`𝒞_1𝒞_20`$. From our corollary two, it follows that

$$C^2=\left(V_1\frac{2|x_{}|}{1+x_{}^2}V_2\frac{2|x_+|}{1+x_+^2}\right)^2$$
(40)
Because $`x_{}x_+=1`$, we have $`(1+x_{}^2)(1+x_+^2)=(x_+x_{})^2=4(12p+2p^2)/p^2=4(V_2V_1)^2/p^2`$. Thus, it is easy to get

$$C^2=p^2$$
(41)
Likewise, when $`|i`$ take as $`|10`$, we have the same result.

Then, we consider a departure from Bell’s states to a mixture of it and its orthogonal state, that is

$$B^D=q|\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}|+(1q)|\chi \chi |$$
(42)
where

$$|\chi =x_1|00+x_2\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}(|01+|10)+x_4|11$$
(43)
Note that $`|x_1|^2+|x_2|^2+|x_3|^2=1`$. Thus, $`B^D`$’s two eigenvectors are just $`|\mathrm{\Psi }^{()}`$ and $`|\chi `$ with eigenvalues $`q`$ and $`1q`$ respectively. It is easy to obtain

$$𝒞_1=1,𝒞_2=2(x_1x_4x_2^2),𝒞_+𝒞_{}=0$$
(44)
From corollary three, it follows that

$$C^2=[q2(1q)|x_1x_4x_2^2|]^2$$
(45)
Obviously, the condition that $`B^D`$’s is separable is

$$|x_1x_4x_2^2|=\frac{q}{2(1q)}$$
(46)
In particular, if $`|\chi `$ is separable, that is

$$x_1x_4=x_2^2$$
(47)
we always have

$$C^2=q^2$$
(48)
It is the same as the result obtained by departure from Bell’s state to a mixture of it and a diagonal state belonging to $`\{|00,|01,|10,|11\}`$. We would like to know that why so many kinds of states have the same entanglement degree based on Wootters’ definition of binary entropy of entanglement. In our previous paper MyMRE , we found that there are differences between their entanglements for the departure from Bell’s states to a mixture of it and a diagonal state based on our definition of modified relative entropy of entanglement. It is interesting to research this problem further because we would like to know how to keep entanglement against quantum error and distill the needed entanglement from various quantum state preparations.

In the end, we would like to point out that our simplified and obvious expression of concurrence has an obvious relation with the polarized vectors of reduced matrices or the concurrences of eigenstates as well as their simple combinations. Therefore, we conjecture that a similar relation in form might exist in the more general cases having more than two non-zero eigenvalues. Its research is on progressing.


text:
# ANTIMATTER FROM PRIMORDIAL BLACK HOLES

## 1 Introduction

Primordial black holes (PBHs) could have formed in the early universe from the collapse of overdense regions through significant density fluctuations. Their detection nowadays is a great challenge as it could allow both to check the Hawking evaporation mechanism and to probe the early universe on very small scales that remain totally out of the range investigated by CMB or LSS measurements. They have recently been searched by their gamma-ray radiation $`^\mathrm{?}`$ $`^\mathrm{?}`$, extremely high-energy cosmic-ray emission $`^\mathrm{?}`$, and antiproton emission $`^\mathrm{?}`$. This brief paper gives the latest improvements obtained with antiprotons and antideuterons. Such antinuclei are very interesting as the background due to spallation of cosmic protons and helium nuclei on the interstellar medium is expected to be very small.

## 2 Source term

The Hawking spectrum $`^\mathrm{?}`$ for particles of energy $`Q`$ per unit of time $`t`$ is, for each degree of freedom:

$$\frac{\mathrm{d}^2N}{\mathrm{d}Q\mathrm{d}t}=\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_s}{h\left(\mathrm{exp}\left(\frac{Q}{h\kappa /4\pi ^2c}\right)(1)^{2s}\right)}$$
(1)
where $`\kappa `$ is the surface gravity, $`s`$ is the spin of the emitted species and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }_s`$ is the absorption probability. As it was shown by MacGibbon and Webber $`^\mathrm{?}`$, when the black hole temperature is greater than the quantum chromodynamics confinement scale $`\mathrm{\Lambda }_{QCD}`$, quarks and gluons jets are emitted instead of composite hadrons. To evaluate the number of emitted antiprotons $`\overline{p}`$ , one therefore needs to perform the following convolution:

$$\frac{\mathrm{d}^2N_{\overline{p}}}{\mathrm{d}E\mathrm{d}t}=\underset{j}{}_{Q=E}^{\mathrm{}}\alpha _j\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_j(Q,T)}{h}\left(e^{\frac{Q}{kT}}(1)^{2s_j}\right)^1\times \frac{\mathrm{d}g_{j\overline{p}}(Q,E)}{\mathrm{d}E}dQ$$

where $`\alpha _j`$ is the number of degrees of freedom, $`E`$ is the antiproton energy and $`\mathrm{d}g_{j\overline{p}}(Q,E)/\mathrm{d}E`$ is the normalized differential fragmentation function, i.e. the number of antiprotons between $`E`$ and $`E+\mathrm{d}E`$ created by a parton jet of type $`j`$ and energy $`Q`$ (including decay products). The fragmentation functions have been evaluated with the high-energy physics event generator pythia/jetset $`^\mathrm{?}`$, based on the string fragmentation model.

To evaluate the antideuterons production, we used a simple coalescence scheme implemented directly within the PBH jets. This approach is similar to the one used in Chardonnet et al. $`^\mathrm{?}`$ and Donato et al. $`^\mathrm{?}`$. The hadron momenta given by PYTHIA can be compared together and each time an antiproton and an antineutron are found to lie within the same coalescence sphere, an antideuteron is created. As the coalescence momentum $`p_0`$ is not Lorentz invariant, the condition must be implemented in the correct frame, namely in the antiproton-antineutron center of mass frame instead of the laboratory one. Depending on the models and experiments the value was found to vary between 60 MeV/c and 285 MeV/c. The number of antideuterons therefore reads as

$$\frac{\mathrm{d}^2N_{\overline{D}}}{\mathrm{d}E\mathrm{d}t}=\underset{j}{}_{Q=E}^{\mathrm{}}\alpha _j\frac{\mathrm{\Gamma }_{s_j}(Q,T)}{h}\left(e^{\frac{Q}{kT}}(1)^{2s_j}\right)^1\times \frac{\mathrm{d}g_{j\overline{D}}(Q,E,p_0)}{\mathrm{d}E}dQ$$
(2)
where $`\mathrm{d}g_{j\overline{D}}(Q,E,p_0)/\mathrm{d}E`$ is the fragmentation function into antideuterons evaluated with this coalescence model for a given momentum $`p_0`$.

In any case this spectrum is, then, convoluted with the PBH mass spectrum $`^\mathrm{?}`$ assumed to be scaling as $`M^2`$ below $`M_{}5\times 10^{14}`$g and as $`M^{2.5}`$ above $`M_{}`$ and normalised to the local density.

## 3 Propagation scheme

The propagation of cosmic rays throughout the Galaxy is described with a refined two–zone effective diffusion model which has been thoroughly discussed elsewhere (Maurin et al. $`^\mathrm{?}`$, Donato et al. $`^\mathrm{?}`$).

The Milky–Way is pictured as a thin gaseous disc with radius $`R=20`$ kpc and thickness $`2h=200`$ pc (see Fig. 1) where charged nuclei are accelerated and destroyed by collisions on the interstellar gas, yielding secondary cosmic rays. The thin ridge is sandwiched between two thick confinement layers of height $`L`$, called diffusion halo.

The five parameters of this model are $`K_0`$, $`\delta `$, describing the diffusion coefficient $`K(E)=K_0\beta ^\delta `$, the halo half-height $`L`$, the convective velocity $`V_c`$ and the Alfven velocity $`V_a`$. Actually, a confident range for these five parameters has been obtained by the analysis of cosmic ray data on charged stable nuclei $`^\mathrm{?}`$. This exhaustive study allows a fully consistant treatment of the problem.

The source distribution for PBHs was assumed to follow the usual isothermal halo profile.

## 4 Results

### 4.1 Upper limit on the PBH density with antiprotons

Fig. 2 gives, for a fixed set of astrophysical parameters, the antiproton flux due to the secondary and primary components $`^\mathrm{?}`$. The lowest curve is without any PBH whereas the upper one is for a local density $`\rho _{}^{PBH}=10^{32}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$. As expected, the experimental data can be reproduced without any new physics input. Taking into account the statistical significance of the astrophysical uncertainties, an upper limit on $`\rho _{}^{PBH}`$ can be obtained $`^\mathrm{?}`$ as a function of the diffusion halo thickness $`L`$. For a ”reasonable” value of this parameter around 3 kpc, the upper limit is $`\rho _{}^{PBH}<5.3\times 10^{33}\mathrm{g}\mathrm{cm}^3`$ which translates into $`\mathrm{\Omega }_{PBH}10^8\mathrm{\Omega }_M4\times 10^9`$ assuming that PBHs cluster as dark matter.

### 4.2 A new window for detection : antideuterons

To go beyond an upper limit and try to detect PBHs is seems very interesting to look for antideuterons. Below a few GeV, there is nearly no background for kinematical reasons $`^\mathrm{?}`$ and the possible signal due to PBHs evaporation could be easy to detect. We have evaluated the possible range of detection for the AMS experiment $`^\mathrm{?}`$. It is shown on Fig. 3 as a function of the three unknown parameters $`^\mathrm{?}`$: $`L`$, $`p_0`$ and $`\rho _{}^{PBH}`$. The sensitivity of the experiment should allow, for averaged parameters, an improvement in the current best upper limit by a factor of six, if not a positive detection.

A complete study of the uncertainties due to the PBHs halo profile, to the possible photosphere near the event horizon, to the finite reheating temperature, to nuclear process and experimental measurements can be found in Barrau et al. $`^\mathrm{?}`$ $`^\mathrm{?}`$.

## 5 Conclusion

Primordial black holes have been used to derive interesting limits on the scalar fluctuations spectrum on very small scales studies $`^\mathrm{?}`$ $`^\mathrm{?}`$. It was also found that pbhs are a great probe of the early Universe with a varying gravitational constant $`^\mathrm{?}`$. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of the evaporation mechanism itself, both at usual energies $`^\mathrm{?}`$ and in the near-planckian tail of the spectrum $`^\mathrm{?}`$ $`^\mathrm{?}`$. Looking for PBHs or improving the current upper limit is therefore a great challenge for the forthcoming years.

## References