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# Bohm’s interpretation and maximally entangled states.

## Abstract

Several no-go theorems showed the incompatibility between the locality assumption and quantum correlations obtained from maximally entangled spin states. We analyze these no-go theorems in the framework of Bohm’s interpretation. The mechanism by which non-local correlations appear during the results of measurements performed on distant parts of entangled systems is explicitly put into evidence in terms of Bohmian trajectories. It is shown that a GHZ like contradiction of the type+1=-1 occurs for well-chosen initial positions of the Bohmian trajectories and that it is this essential non-classical feature that makes it possible to violate the locality condition.

keywords: Bohmian dynamics, non-locality

## Introduction.

Several no-go theorems show that it is impossible to conciliate locality and quantum mechanics. The essence of these theorems is that it is impossible to simulate the results of observations carried out on distant parts of an entangled quantum system in terms of a local common cause mechanism. This impossibility can be expressed through the violation of an inequality  or, even “stronger”, of an equality . Besides it is well known that the Bohmian interpretation according to which particles have at any time a well-defined position  makes it possible to simulate all the quantum predictions for massive particles in the non-relativistic regime. Therefore, it is interesting to understand better how non-locality appears in the Bohmian picture. It is well-known that for entangled systems the velocity associated to the Bohmian trajectories can be non-locally influenced . The goal of our paper is to analyse in detail the nature of the Bohmian trajectories in the specific situations encountered in the formulation of three well-known no-go theorems, Bell’s theorem , Mermin’s theorem  and GHZ’s theorem , in which respectively two, three and four spin 1/2 particles are assumed to be prepared in maximally entangled states. The knowledge of the initial positions of these particles is sufficient in Bohm’s formulation in order to predict the whole trajectories and also the results of local spin measurements performed with Stern-Gerlach devices. The specification of the initial positions can thus be considered as a common cause mechanism which makes it possible to explain all the quantum correlations. In accordance with the no-go theorems and with the properties of the Bohmian dynamics, this common cause mechanism may however not be considered to be local. We shall show explicitly in the first section of this paper how, for well chosen initial positions, a GHZ like contradiction occurs for a situation during which Bell’s inequalities get violated. This result confirms Hardy’s formulation of Bell’s inequalities  according to which the violation of Bell’s inequalities is proportional to the probability that a GHZ like contradiction of the type +1=-1 occurs . We shall also show explicitly in the second section of this paper how in the situation considered in the no-go theorems of Mermin  and Greenberger, Horne and Zeilinger  the GHZ like contradiction occurs for all the initial positions.

## 1 Bell’s theorem in a Bohmian description.

### 1.1 Simultaneous Stern-Gerlach measurements performed on a pair of entangled particles.

In the situation described in Bell’s theorem , two particles are prepared in an entangled spin state and spin measurements are performed simultaneously on each particle. The full wave-function associated to such a state can be put in the form:

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)>=$$

$$a\psi _{++}(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)|+>_\mathrm{L}|+>_\mathrm{R}+b\psi _+(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)|+>_\mathrm{L}|>_\mathrm{R}$$

$$+c\psi _+(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)|>_\mathrm{L}|+>_\mathrm{R}+d\psi _{}(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)|>_\mathrm{L}|>_\mathrm{R}$$
(1)
where $`a,b,c,d`$ are complex constants representative of the spin entanglement, the indices $`L`$ and $`R`$ represent arbitrary spatial reference frames in two distant regions, the Left and Right regions, $`𝐫_{L/R}`$ represent the position vector expressed in these frames, and $`|+/>_{\mathrm{L}/\mathrm{R}}`$ represent up/down spin states along the (not necessary parallel) $`Z`$-axes of these frames. We shall assume for convenience that Stern-Gerlach devices are disposed at the same distance from the source, along the axes of propagation $`X_{L/R}`$ of the particles, that the point of penetration inside them coincides with the origins of the spatial frames, and with the origin of time, and that the initial state consists of a pair of Gaussian shaped particles of mass $`m`$ propagating at a speed $`v_0`$ :

$$\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)>=\frac{1}{(2\sqrt{\pi }\delta r_0)^{6/2}}exp(\frac{𝐫_L^2𝐫_R^2}{4\delta r_0^2})exp(ik_o(x_L+x_R)).$$
(2)
When the $`Z_{L/R}`$ axis is parallel to the $`L/R`$ magnetic field, it can be shown that the equation of evolution is separable into the coordinates $`(x_L,y_L,z_L,x_R,y_R,z_R).`$ For reasons of convenience, we shall also assume that the Stern-Gerlach set-ups are similar in the Left and Right regions. Then, it is easy to show that the solution of the equation of evolution given in the appendix 2 can be expressed in terms of the solution of the single particle case:

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)>=$$

$$a\psi _{+L}(𝐫_L,t)\psi _{+R}(𝐫_R,t)|+>_\mathrm{L}|+>_\mathrm{R}+b\psi _{+L}(𝐫_L,t)\psi _R(𝐫_R,t)|+>_\mathrm{L}|>_\mathrm{R}$$

$$+c\psi _L(𝐫_L,t)\psi _{+R}(𝐫_R,t)|>_\mathrm{L}|+>_\mathrm{R}+d\psi _L(𝐫_L,t)\psi _R(𝐫_R,t)|>_\mathrm{L}|>_\mathrm{R},$$
(3)
with:

$$\psi _{+/L/R}(𝐫_{L/R},t)=\psi _{+/L/R}^x(x_{L/R})\psi _{+/L/R}^y(y_{L/R},t)\psi _{+/L/R}^z(z_{L/R})$$
(4)
where $`\psi _{+/}^x,\psi _{+/}^y,`$ and $`\psi _{+/}^z`$ are the solutions of the single particle case that were originally derived by Bohm . This derivation is reproduced in detail in the appendix 1.

### 1.2 Bohm’s interpretation.

Bohm’s interpretation  is, in summary, the following: whenever we can associate to the equation of evolution of a quantum system a conservation equation of the form $`_t\rho =div(𝒥)`$, where $`\rho `$ is a positive definite density of probability, and $`div(𝒥)`$ is the divergence of a current vector, we can interpret this density as a distribution of localised material points moving with the velocity $`\frac{𝒥}{\rho }`$. It is thus possible to formulate a hidden variable theory for the system: it would consist of a spatial distribution of material points which initially coincides with the quantum distribution (given by $`\rho `$); these points move with a velocity equal to $`𝒥/\rho `$. In virtue of the conservation equation, the spatial distribution deduced from this evolution coincides then for all times with the quantum distribution. According to de Broglie, all the measurements being, in last resort, position measurements, this hidden variable theory is, for what concerns practical purposes, equivalent to orthodox quantum mechanics.

In the appendix 2, we show how to deduce such a conservation equation for the pair of particles considered here. From this equation of conservation, it is straightforward to deduce the conserved density (eqn 50):

$$\rho (𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)=<\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)|\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)>=$$

$$|a\psi _{+L}(𝐫_L,t)\psi _{+R}(𝐫_R,t)|^2+|b\psi _{+L}(𝐫_L,t)\psi _R(𝐫_R,t)|^2+$$

$$|c\psi _L(𝐫_L,t)\psi _{+R}(𝐫_R,t)|^2+|d\psi _L(𝐫_L,t)\psi _R(𝐫_R,t)|^2$$
(5)
This density depends in general on the two positions $`(𝐫_L,𝐫_R)`$. The 6-dimensional velocity (eqn 51) associated to the conserved density through the relation $`𝒥=\rho \stackrel{}{v}`$ can be splitted into two local 3-dimensional velocities $`\stackrel{}{v}_L,\stackrel{}{v}_R`$ defined as follows:

$$\stackrel{}{v}_L(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}}{m\rho }(\mathrm{}(\psi _{+L}(𝐫_L,t)^{}\stackrel{}{}_L\psi _{+L}(𝐫_L,t))(|a\psi _{+R}(𝐫_R,t)|^2+|b\psi _R(𝐫_R,t)|^2)$$

$$+\mathrm{}(\psi _L(𝐫_L,t)^{}\stackrel{}{}_L\psi _L(𝐫_L,t))(|c\psi _{+R}(𝐫_R,t)|^2+|d\psi _R(𝐫_R,t)|^2))$$
(6)
$$\stackrel{}{v}_R(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}}{m\rho }(\mathrm{}(\psi _{+R}(𝐫_R,t)^{}\stackrel{}{}_R\psi _{+R}(𝐫_R,t))(|a\psi _{+L}(𝐫_L,t)|^2+|c\psi _L(𝐫_L,t)|^2)$$

$$+\mathrm{}(\psi _R(𝐫_R,t)^{}\stackrel{}{}_R\psi _R(𝐫_R,t))(|b\psi _{+L}(𝐫_L,t)|^2+|d\psi _L(𝐫_L,t)|^2)$$
(7)
where $`\stackrel{}{}_{L(R)}`$ is the gradient on the spatial Left (Right) coordinates, and $`\mathrm{}(z)`$ the imaginary part of $`z`$. In general, these velocities contain a non-vanishing contribution depending on the position of the particle situated at the other side of the source, and are thus influenced by what happens in a region from which they are separated by a space-like distance. In the formulation of Bell’s theorem, the particles are assumed to be prepared in the so-called singlet state for which $`a=d=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}sin(\frac{\theta }{2})`$, and $`b=c=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}cos(\frac{\theta }{2})`$ where $`\theta `$ is the angle between the magnetic fields in the Left and Right Stern-Gerlach devices. When these axes are parallel, we recover the standard expression:

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)>=$$

$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\psi _{+L}(𝐫_L,t)\psi _R(𝐫_R,t)|+>_\mathrm{L}|>_\mathrm{R}\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\psi _L(𝐫_L,t)\psi _{+R}(𝐫_R,t)|>_\mathrm{L}|+>_\mathrm{R}$$
(8)
It is worth noting that when the axes of the devices are parallel, the results of spin measurements are always opposite. This perfect correlation is due to the fact that the singlet state is maximally entangled, and that its expression is invariant under a simultaneous rotation of the axes of quantization, when both axes are parallel. The specification of $`a`$, $`b`$, $`c`$ and $`d`$ allows us to express explicitly the Bohmian dynamics during the passage through the Stern-Gerlach devices. We obtain, after some lenghty but simple computations, the following velocities for the Left as well as for the Right $`x`$ and $`y`$ components:

$$\frac{dx}{dt}=v_0+\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}t(xv_0t)$$
(9)
$$\frac{dy}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}ty$$
(10)
(where $`k=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2m\delta ^2r_0}`$ expresses the diffusion inherent to the Schrödinger equation). The solutions of these dynamical equations are:

$$x=v_0t+x_0\sqrt{1+k^2t^2}$$
(11)
$$y=y_0\sqrt{1+k^2t^2}$$
(12)
In the appendix 1 we show that, during a typical Stern-Gerlach experiment, the diffusion is negligible during the time of flight through the Stern-Gerlach. The trajectories along these axes are thus essentially free translations, and present no special interest for the understanding of the measurement process.

In the singlet state, the dynamics of the $`z`$-components is given by:

$$\frac{dz_L}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}tz_L+$$

$$\frac{+s^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_L+z_R)}{2})}+c^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_Lz_R)}{2})}c^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_L+z_R)}{2})}s^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_Lz_R)}{2})}}{+s^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_L+z_R)}{2})}+c^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_Lz_R)}{2})}+c^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_L+z_L)}{2})}+s^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_Rz_L)}{2})}}$$

$$\{\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}\alpha t^3+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t\}$$
(13)
$$\frac{dz_R}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}tz_R+$$

$$\frac{+s^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_L+z_R)}{2})}c^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_Lz_R)}{2})}+c^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_L+z_L)}{2})}s^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_Rz_L)}{2})}}{+s^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_L+z_R)}{2})}+c^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_Lz_R)}{2})}+c^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_L+z_R)}{2})}+s^2e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_Lz_R)}{2})}}$$

$$\{\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}\alpha t^3+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t\}$$
(14)
where $`\alpha =a_1\mu /2m`$, $`\beta =a_1\mu /m\delta r_0^2`$, $`c=cos(\frac{\theta }{2})`$ and $`s=sin(\frac{\theta }{2})`$.

Numerical computations (confirmed by a careful evaluation of the terms present in the last equations) show that, when the two magnets act simultaneously, there exist four attractors for the trajectories, corresponding to the results of spin measurements $`(up_L,up_R)`$, $`(up_L,down_R)`$, $`(down_L,up_R)`$ and $`(down_L,down_R)`$. During the passage through the device, the trajectories can be shown to fall very quickly in the basin of one of these attractors. For instance, in the attractor basin of the $`(up_L,up_R)`$ outcome, the exponential factor $`e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(z_L+z_R)}{2})}`$ will dominate all the other exponential factors, and the $`z`$-velocities will obey the following equations:

$$\frac{dz_L}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}tz_L+1\{\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}\alpha t^3+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t\}$$

$$\frac{dz_R}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}tz_R+1\{\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}\alpha t^3+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t\}$$

In virtue of the fact that, in a well-conceived device, we can neglect the diffusion terms relatively to the classical drift terms, we can take $`k`$ to be equal to 0 in the previous equation, which gives the classical expression for the velocities ($`2\alpha `$ is the magnitude of the classical acceleration undergone inside the magnetic field of the device):

$$\frac{dz_L}{dt}=+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t$$

$$\frac{dz_R}{dt}=+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t$$

Similarly, in say the attractor basin of the $`(down_L,up_R)`$ outcome, we shall get:

$$\frac{dz_L}{dt}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t$$

$$\frac{dz_R}{dt}=+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t$$

This means that after a short time, the trajectories become and remain quasi-classical. The choice of the attractor basin is deterministically speficied by the initial positions. It is worth noting that when the initial positions lie in between the regions that are characterised by this quasi-classical behavior the deflection will be quite less important. These positions can be associated to the tails of the outgoing wave-packets and their weight is negligible, because the diffusion of the Gaussian wave-packets is negligible relatively to the average deflection undergone during the passage through the Stern-Gerlach device.

### 1.3 GHZ like contradiction in the two particles case.

In last resort, the final outcome is thus “nearly always” unambiguously determined by the initial positions $`z_L`$ and $`z_R`$. Let us assume that we choose to change the direction of the magnet in the Right device. Then, the final outcome is determined by the initial positions $`z_L`$ and $`z_R^{}`$. $`z_R^{}`$ depends on $`y_R`$ and $`z_R`$ and on the angle between the old quantization axis $`Z_R`$ and the new one $`Z_R^{}`$. It could happen that for the same initial position coordinates $`z_L,y_R,z_R`$, the attractor basin of the Left trajectory changes due to the change of $`z_R`$ into $`z_R^{}`$. This means that the choice of the basis of detection in the Right region can non-locally influence the outcome of the measurement in the Left region. Therefore although the results of all possible measurements can be deterministically foreseen on the basis of the knowledge of the initial positions, which constitutes a common-cause mechanism, this mechanism is non-local. This helps to understand how Bohmian mechanics makes it possible to violate Bell’s inequalities. The probability of an outcome can be obtained, after integration of the Bohmian velocities, by performing a weighted average on the predictions associated to this outcome for particular initial positions. The weight is equal to the initial probability of presence, a Gaussian distribution in our case. In accordance with Bohm’s interpretation, the probability obtained so is exactly the same as the standard quantum probability. In , the attractor basins of the outcomes related to different non-compatible spin measurements in the Left and Right region were explicitly determined for a well-chosen initial position and the following result was shown. If we choose four directions ($`Z_L,Z_L^{},Z_R,Z_R^{}`$) such that the directions $`Z_L,Z_L^{},Z_R^{}`$ are coplanar and are all separated by angles of 120 degrees, while $`Z_L^{}`$ and $`Z_R`$ are parallel, that the system of two particles is prepared in the singlet state, and that the initial coordinates of position of the pair are defined as follows: $`(y_L,z_L)(t=0)=10^3cm(\sqrt{3}/2,1/2)`$, and $`(y_R,z_R)(t=0)=1.110^3cm(\sqrt{3}/2,1/2)`$ then we shall observe, after integration of the Bohmian velocities, the following outcomes: $`(up_{Z_L},up_{Z_R}),(up_{Z_L^{}},up_{Z_R^{}})`$, and $`(down_{Z_L^{}},up_{Z_R})`$. If the locality assumption was valid, the results of the measurements ought to be predetermined, before the measurements take place. This can be shown by an EPR like reasoning  which is, roughly summarised, the following: -in the singlet state, the value of the spin component along an arbitrary axis of reference in the Left region can be deduced from the observation of the corresponding value in the Right region because the singlet state exhibits perfect (100 %) correlations; -if we assume that distant measurements may not influence the local spin values, then these values existed necessarily before their measurement took place. This means that the local value (in the Left region but also in the Right region by a similar reasoning) of the spin along an arbitrary direction ought to be predetermined before the measurement.

Obviously, if the locality assumption was valid, we could deduce from the predictions relative to the two first joint measurements ($`(up_{Z_L},up_{Z_R}),(up_{Z_L^{}},up_{Z_R^{}})`$), that the third result ought to be $`(up_{Z_L^{}},up_{Z_R})`$ too, which is not the case here (we find $`(down_{Z_L^{}},up_{Z_R})`$). In  we showed how Bohmian non-locality is related to the non-factorisability condition postulated by Bell as a consequence of the locality condition. For the purposes of the present paper, we went further. We also integrated the velocities when the magnets are parallel to the direction $`(Z_L,Z_R^{})`$, and we found the outcome $`(up_{Z_L},up_{Z_R^{}})`$. By assigning a value +1 to the outcome spin up and -1 to the outcome spin down, we arrive to a GHZ like contradiction of the type +1=-1 that we shall study in detail in the next section. This can be done by considering the product of the outcomes of $`Z_LZ_R`$ and $`Z_L^{}Z_R^{}`$ at one side and the product of the outcomes of $`Z_L^{}Z_R`$ and $`Z_LZ_R^{}`$ at the other side. If the outcomes associated to the four experiments were predetermined, these products ought clearly to be equal but for the choice of initial position considered here they are respectively equal to +1 and -1, which can be put in the paradoxical form +1=-1.

It can be shown  that when the four directions ($`Z_L,Z_L^{},Z_R,Z_R^{}`$) are coplanar and are all separated by angles of 120 degrees, while $`Z_L^{}`$ and $`Z_R`$ are parallel, and that the system of two particles is prepared in the singlet state, Bell’s and Clauser-Horne’s inequalities are violated. It can also be shown that a GHZ like contradiction occurs only for a fraction of the initial positions that differs significatively from unity. For instance when the initial coordinates of position of the pair are defined as follows: $`(y_L,z_L)(t=0)=10^3cm(\sqrt{3}/2,1/2)`$, and $`(y_R,z_R)(t=0)=110^3cm(\sqrt{3}/2,1/2)`$ then we shall observe, after integration of the Bohmian velocities, the following outcomes: $`(up_{Z_L},down_{Z_R}),(up_{Z_L^{}},down_{Z_R^{}})`$, $`(up_{Z_L},down_{Z_R^{}})`$ and $`(up_{Z_L^{}},down_{Z_R})`$. In this case, no GHZ contradiction occurs, and the results of local measurements do not depend on which measurements are performed in a distant region. These results confirm Hardy’s analysis who showed  that the degree of violation of Bell’s and Clauser-Horne’s inequalities is proportional to the probability of encountering GHZ like paradoxical situations.

Besides, Peres  showed that for two particles in the singlet state such a paradoxical situation also characterised the quantum average values of well-chosen observables. The interpretation of Peres’s paradox in the framework of Bohm’s theory was already studied by Dewdney in  so that we shall not repeat his work in the present paper. Furthermore, it is impossible to express Peres’s paradox in terms of local Stern-Gerlach measurements only because it involves non-local measurements. Therefore, presently, there is no explicit formulation of this paradox in terms of Bohmian trajectories. Nevertheless, such a formulation is possible in principle . It is worth noting that the implications of Bohm’s theory regarding non-locality were already recognised by Bohm and Bell, and that the elucidation of certain no-go theorems was qualitatively developed in the past (see for instance the references  and references therein). Computer simulations of the dynamics inside the Stern-Gerlach devices (with two particles and parallel magnets only) can be found in , as well as a qualitative discussion of their connection with Peres’s paradox. The analytical expression of Bohm’s velocities in the general two particle case (with parallel and non-parallel magnets) was given in , as well as the connection between Bohmian non-locality and non-factorisability. Nevertheless, the occurence of a GHZ like contradiction in the two particles case as well as the explicit study of the topology of the attractor basins for the three and four particle cases and their connection to GHZ like contradictions were not, to the knowledge of the authors, published elsewhere. This brings us to the next chapter.

## 2 Mermin and GHZ no-go theorems in a Bohmian description.

The two paradoxes that we shall study in this section are of the following form: for well-chosen local observables and quantum states, the quantum correlations are such that if the results of the local measurements are fixed by advance and do not depend on the measurements that are performed in distant regions we come to a contradiction of the type +1=-1. We showed in the previous section that in the two particles case such a contradiction could occur for well-chosen initial positions. However, after averaging over the initial positions of the particles, for which the contradiction occurs sometimes but not always, the paradox is expressed by the violation of an inequality in accordance with Hardy’s analysis . The novelty of Mermin’s and GHZ paradoxes  is that the contradiction does not take the form of the violation of an inequality but well of an equality. As we shall now show, the meaning of this result, interpreted in terms of Bohm’s trajectories is that all the initial positions lead to the same paradoxical situation, and not only some of them as in the two particles case.

### 2.1 Mermin’s no-go theorem: GHZ like contradiction in the three particles case.

In Mermin’s theorem , three particles are prepared in a maximally entangled spin state of the form:

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_1,𝐫_2,𝐫_3,t)>=$$

$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\psi _{+1}(𝐫_1,t)\psi _{+2}(𝐫_2,t)\psi _{+3}(𝐫_3,t)|+>_1|+>_2|+>_3$$

$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\psi _{1}(𝐫_1,t)\psi _{2}(𝐫_2,t)\psi _{3}(𝐫_3,t)|>_1|>_2|>_3,$$
(15)
The particles are sent along three coplanar directions separated by an angle of 120 degrees and $`|+>_\mathrm{i}`$ ($`|>_\mathrm{i}`$) represents a spin up (down) state along the direction of propagation of the $`i`$th particle. Four “product” observables each of which is associated to a simultaneous spin measurement performed on the three particles are considered: $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^1\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^3`$, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^1\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^3`$, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^1\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^1\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^3`$, where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^i`$ represents a Stern-Gerlach mesurement performed on the $`i`$th particle with the magnet parallel to the $`X`$ direction which is orthogonal to the plane of propagation of the particles and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^i`$ represents a Stern-Gerlach mesurement performed on the $`i`$th particle with the magnet parallel to the $`Y_i`$ direction which is orthogonal to the direction of propagation of the $`i`$th particle and to $`X`$. The $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ matrices possess two eigenvalues, +1 and -1. The eigenvalue +1 corresponds to the outcome spin up and -1 to the outcome spin down. $`|\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_1,𝐫_2,𝐫_3,t)>`$ is simultaneous eigenstate of the four product observables for the eigenvalues $`+1,+1,+1,1`$. This imposes severe constraints on the results of local spin measurements. For instance, without performing the measurement of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^1`$, we can deduce what would be the outcome observed during this measurement from the results of the measurements of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^3`$. By an EPR like reasoning similar to the one described in the previous section, the locality assumption implies that the outcome of the measurement of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^1`$ must be determined before the measurement took place and does not depend on which measurement is performed in distant regions on the other particles. A similar reasoning holds for the measurement of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^1`$, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^2`$, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^2`$, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^3`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^3`$. Let us denote $`S_x^i`$ and $`S_y^i`$ the prediction assigned to the measurement of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^i`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^i`$; the prediction +1 corresponds to an “up” deflection inside the Stern-Gerlach device, and -1 to a “down” deflection. The constraints imposed by the properties of the maximally entangled state in which the particles are prepared can be expressed as follows:

$$S_x^1S_y^2S_y^3=+1$$

$$S_y^1S_x^2S_y^3=+1$$

$$S_y^1S_y^2S_x^3=+1$$

$$S_x^1S_x^2S_x^3=1.$$
(16)
The product of the three first equations gives:

$$(S_y^1)^2(S_y^2)^2(S_y^3)^2S_x^1S_x^2S_x^3=+1$$
(17)
$`S_y^i`$ being equal to + or - 1, we get that

$$S_x^1S_x^2S_x^3=+1,$$
(18)
which together with the fourth equation leads to a contradiction of the type +1=-1. We encountered already such a contradiction in the previous section, and showed that it could be explained in terms of the non-local properties of Bohmian trajectories. This is also true in the present case. By a straightforward generalisation of the two particles case, it can be shown that the Bohmian velocities during the measurement of one spin component along $`X`$, one component along $`Y`$ and another one along $`Y^{}`$ are the following:

$$\frac{dx}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}tx+$$

$$\frac{+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+y+y^{})}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xyy^{})}{2})}e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xy+y^{})}{2})}e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+yy^{})}{2})}}{+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+y+y^{})}{2})}++e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xyy^{})}{2})}e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xy+y^{})}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+yy^{})}{2})}}$$

$$\{\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}\alpha t^3+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t\}$$
(19)
$$\frac{dy}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}ty+$$

$$\frac{+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+y+y^{})}{2})}e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xyy^{})}{2})}e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xy+y^{})}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+yy^{})}{2})}}{+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+y+y^{})}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xyy^{})}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xy+y^{})}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+yy^{})}{2})}}$$

$$\{\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}\alpha t^3+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t\}$$
(20)
$$\frac{dy^{}}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}ty^{}+$$

$$\frac{+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+y+y^{})}{2})}e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xyy^{})}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xy+y^{})}{2})}e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+yy^{})}{2})}}{+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+y+y^{})}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xyy^{})}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(xy+y^{})}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x+yy^{})}{2})}}$$

$$\{\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}\alpha t^3+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t\}$$
(21)
They possess four attractor basins that correspond to the outcomes (+ + +), (+ - -) (- - +) and (- + -). During the measurement of the fourth observable $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^1\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^3`$, the Bohmian trajectories obey:

$$\frac{dx_1}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}tx_1+$$

$$\frac{e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1x_2x_3)}{2})}e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1+x_2+x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1x_2+x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1+x_2x_3)}{2})}}{+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1x_2x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1+x_2+x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1x_2+x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1+x_2x_3)}{2})}}$$

$$\{\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}\alpha t^3+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t\}$$
(22)
$$\frac{dx_2}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}tx_2+$$

$$\frac{e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1x_2x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1+x_2+x_3)}{2})}e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1x_2+x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1+x_2x_3)}{2})}}{+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1x_2x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1+x_2+x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1x_2+x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1+x_2x_3)}{2})}}$$

$$\{\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}\alpha t^3+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t\}$$
(23)
$$\frac{dx_3}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}tx_3+$$

$$\frac{e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1x_2x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1+x_2+x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1x_2+x_3)}{2})}e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1+x_2x_3)}{2})}}{+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1x_2x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(x_1+x_2+x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1x_2+x_3)}{2})}+e^{(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+x_1+x_2x_3)}{2})}}$$

$$\{\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}\alpha t^3+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t\}$$
(24)
They possess four attractor basins that correspond to the outcomes (- - -), (- + +), (+ - +), and (+ + -). Very quickly, the Bohmian trajectory will fall into one of these basins and follow a nearly-classical dynamics. For each choice of initial position (excepted for the initial positions that belong to the regions which separate two basins, which are regions of negligible weight that correspond to the tails of the Gaussian packets), the product of the predicted outcomes associated to the observables $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^1`$, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^2`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^3`$ is equal to +1 when we consider their realisation during the three first experiments and to -1 when we consider the last one during which they are simultaneously measured.

### 2.2 Greenberger, Horne and Zeilinger’s no-go theorem: GHZ like contradiction in the four particles case.

For what concerns the GHZ paradox , we shall firstly reformulate it in a simplified form that is closer to Mermin’s formulation. Four particles are now prepared in a maximally entangled spin state of the form:

$$|\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_1,𝐫_2,𝐫_3,𝐫_4,t)>=$$

$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\psi _{+1}(𝐫_1,t)\psi _{+2}(𝐫_2,t)\psi _{3}(𝐫_3,t)\psi _{4}(𝐫_4,t)|+>_1|+>_2|>_3|>_4$$

$$\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\psi _{1}(𝐫_1,t)\psi _{2}(𝐫_2,t)\psi _{+3}(𝐫_3,t)\psi _{+4}(𝐫_4,t)|>_1|>_2|+>_3|+>_4,$$
(25)
The particles are sent along four different coplanar directions and $`|+>_\mathrm{i}`$ ($`|>_\mathrm{i}`$) represents a spin up (down) state along the direction of propagation of the $`i`$th particle. Four “product” observables, each of which is associated to simultaneous spin measurements performed on the four particles, are considered: $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^1\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^3\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^4`$, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^1\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^3\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^4`$, $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^1\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^3\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^4`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^1\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^3\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^4`$, where $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^i`$ represents a Stern-Gerlach mesurement performed on the $`i`$th particle with the magnet parallel to the $`X`$ direction which is orthogonal to the plane of propagation of the particles and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^i`$ represents a Stern-Gerlach mesurement performed on the $`i`$th particle with the magnet parallel to the $`Y`$ direction which is orthogonal to the direction of propagation of the $`i`$th particle and to $`X`$. $`|\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_1,𝐫_2,𝐫_3,𝐫_4,t)>`$ is simultaneous eigenstate of the four product observables for the eigenvalues $`1,1,1,+1`$. As before, this imposes severe constraints on the results of local spin measurements. By performing an EPR like reasoning similar to the previous ones, the assumption of locality implies that these results must be determined before the measurements take place and may not depend on which measurement is performed in distant regions on the other particles. Let us denote $`S_x^i`$ and $`S_y^i`$ the prediction assigned to the measurement of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^i`$ and $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_y^i`$; the prediction +1 corresponds to an up deflection inside the Stern-Gerlach device, and -1 to a down deflection. These constraints are expressed as follows:

$$S_x^1S_x^2S_x^3S_x^4=1$$

$$S_y^1S_x^2S_y^3S_x^4=1$$

$$S_y^1S_x^2S_x^3S_y^4=1$$

$$S_x^1S_x^2S_y^3S_y^4=+1.$$
(26)
The product of the three last equations gives:

$$S_x^1S_x^2S_x^3S_x^4=+1,$$
(27)
which together with the first equation leads to a contradiction of the type +1=-1. The analysis of Bohm’s trajectories is similar to the two and three particle cases so that we shall not repeat it entirely here. For instance, during the measurement of $`\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^1\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^2\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^3\mathrm{\Sigma }_x^4`$ we get that the velocity of the first particle obeys the following equation:

$$\frac{dx_1}{dt}=\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}tx_1+$$

$$\{sh(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}(x_1x_2x_3+x_4))sh(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}(x_1+x_2+x_3+x_4))$$

$$+sh(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}(+x_1x_2+x_3+x_4))+sh(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}(+x_1+x_2x_3+x_4))\}/$$

$$\{+ch(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}(x_1x_2x_3+x_4))+ch(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}(x_1+x_2+x_3+x_4))$$

$$+ch(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}(+x_1x_2+x_3+x_4))+ch(\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}(+x_1+x_2x_3+x_4))\}$$

$$\{\frac{k^2}{1+k^2t^2}\alpha t^3+\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha t\}.$$
(28)
Similar equations are associated to the other velocities and to the other measurements. Only the factor that contains exponential terms changes from equation to equation. It is easy to guess the form of this factor because it obeys the following simple rules. To each outcome corresponds at the numerator and at the denominator as well a product of exponential factors of the form $`exp((\frac{\beta t^2}{1+k^2t^2}\frac{(+/x_1+/x_2+/x_3+/x_4)}{2}))`$ where $`x_i`$ represents the projection on the axis parallel to the local $`i`$th magnet. The sign of $`x_i`$ in the exponent represents the spin value asymptotically reached during the local measurement. The weight of this product is equal at the numerator and at the denominator as well to the probability to find the corresponding outcome. When the sign of $`x_i`$ in the exponent is negative, the whole product will also be negatively weighted at the numerator when we consider the equation of evolution of $`x_i`$. Otherwise, and also at the denominator, the products will have a positive weight. This can be checked directly in the previous equation and is also true for the two and three particles cases.

As in the three particles case treated in the previous section, the integration of the velocities leads to a paradoxical situation for any value of the initial position (excepted for some positions that belong to a region of negligible weight).

## 3 Conclusions.

In conclusion, we showed in this paper how the elucidation of several paradoxical situations related to the question of non-locality can be realised in the framework of Bohm’s interpretation and is finally reduced to the study of the topology of attractor basins of the Bohmian dynamics. One could object that this explanation is obvious being given that no satisfying relativistically covariant formulation of the Bohm’s interpretation exists for situations in which more than one (entangled) particles are involved. This criticism is valid: in the present approach, we systematically considered the Schrödinger equation, in which a unique time appears, similar to the Newtonian, absolute, time. Now, a theorem due to Hardy  shows the impossibility to build a Lorentz-Invariant realistic theory that would mimick the predictions of quantum mechanics. In order to preserve realism it is therefore necessary to reintroduce a kind of absolute or etheric time, attached to an absolute or special frame of reference, which answers to the previous criticism. The interesting question is then, could the Bohmian interpretation help us to conceive an experiment that would reveal the existence of this quantum ether. The original Bohmian interpretation is too ad hoc to allow for such a possibility, but slightly modified versions of the interpretation (in which the randomisation of the hidden variable, here the position of the particle, according to the $`\psi ^2`$ distribution is not guaranteed for all times) would allow us to conceive such experiments . A realistic interpretation à la Bohm would then open the door to the conception of a quantum version of the Michelson-Morley experiment.

## 4 Appendix: Bohm’s solution for the passage of one spin 1/2 particle through a Stern-Gerlach device.

Let us describe the wave-function of a spin 1/2 particle as a superposition of a spin up and a spin down components along the direction $`Z`$ of the magnetic field of the Stern-Gerlach device: $`\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)=\psi _+(𝐫,t)|+>+\psi _{}(𝐫,t)|>`$. The Pauli-Schrödinger equation describes the evolution of this wave-function in the presence of an external magnetic field $`𝐁`$:

$$i\mathrm{}_t\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)\mu 𝐁𝚺\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t),$$
(29)
where $`𝚺`$ represents the Pauli matrices and $`\mu `$ is the gyromagnetic coupling constant of the (neutral) particle. In a Stern-Gerlach device, the field is always parallel to the $`Z`$ direction, and its gradient is constant ($`B_x=B_y=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$, and $`B_z=(a_0+a_1z)`$. Then, the evolutions of the two spin components decouple and we get that:

$$i\mathrm{}_t\psi _{+/}(𝐫,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\mathrm{\Delta }\psi _{+/}(𝐫,t)/+\mu (a_0+a_1z)\psi _{+/}(𝐫,t)$$
(30)
When the incoming wave-packet is initially Gaussian shaped, this equation is separable in Cartesian coordinates, and we find :

$$i\mathrm{}_t\psi _{+/}^x(x,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}_x^2\psi _{+/}^x(x,t)$$

$$i\mathrm{}_t\psi _{+/}^y(y,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}_y^2\psi _{+/}^y(y,t)$$

$$i\mathrm{}_t\psi _{+/}^z(z,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}_z^2\psi _{+/}^z(z,t)/+\mu (a_0+a_1z)\psi _{+/}^z(z,t)$$
(31)
The two first equations correspond to a free propagation, and in the case of an initial Gaussian wave packet, their solution is well known and given in many standard textbooks of quantum mechanics, sothat we shall not discuss how we obtain their contribution to the solution. The third equation is less common. We shall show, following Bohm himself  how to solve it. Let us try to find a generalised plane wave solution of the form $`\psi _{+/}^z(z,t)=f_{+/}(z,t)expi(kz\mathrm{}k^2t/2m)`$. Then, $`f`$ fulfills :

$$i\mathrm{}_tf_{+/}^z(z,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}(_z^2+/\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}ik_z)f_{+/}^z(z,t)/+\mu (a_0+a_1z)f_{+/}^z(z,t)$$
(32)
If we could neglect the derivatives, we would have $`f_{+/}^z(z,t)=exp(+/i\frac{\mu t}{\mathrm{}}(a_0+a_1z))`$, but then the derivatives are not zero but yeld $`\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\{+/kt\frac{2a_1\mu }{\mathrm{}}+(\frac{a_1\mu t}{\mathrm{}})^2\}`$. This term depends on the time only so that we can compensate it by multiplying the postulated value of $`f`$ by $`exp(i\{/+\frac{a_1\mu }{2m}kt^2\frac{\mu ^2a_1^2}{6m\mathrm{}}t^3\})`$. We find so the exact solution :

$$\psi _{+/}^z(z,t)=exp(i(kz\mathrm{}k^2t/2m+/\frac{\mu t}{\mathrm{}}(a_0+a_1z)/+\frac{a_1\mu }{2m}kt^2\frac{\mu ^2a_1^2}{6m\mathrm{}}t^3)$$
(33)
When $`t=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$, this wave is plane: $`\psi _{+/}^z(z,0)=exp(ikz)`$. Thanks to the linearity of the Schrödinger equation, the general solution is a superposition of these generalised plane waves with as weight the Fourier components at time zero. The initial packet being Gaussian shaped, we have :

$$\psi _{+/}^z(z,t=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0})=\sqrt{\frac{1}{(2\sqrt{\pi }\delta r_0)}}exp(\frac{z^2}{4\delta r_0^2})$$

Its Fourier transform is easily obtained thanks to the well-known formula :

$$_{v𝐑}𝑑vexp(av^2+bv)=\sqrt{\frac{\pi }{a}}exp(\frac{b^2}{4a})$$

It gives $`\sqrt{\frac{\delta r_0}{\sqrt{\pi }}}exp(\delta r_0^2k^2)`$

The wave function at time $`t`$ is thus :

$$\psi _{+/}^z(z,t)=\frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi }}dkexp(i(kz\mathrm{}k^2t/2m+/\frac{\mu t}{\mathrm{}}(a_0+a_1z)/+\frac{a_1\mu }{2m}kt^2\frac{\mu ^2a_1^2}{6m\mathrm{}}t^3)$$

$$\times \sqrt{\frac{\delta r_0}{\sqrt{\pi }}}exp(\delta r_0^2k^2)$$
(34)
We can let go out of the integral the terms independant of $`k`$, and reorder the other ones:

$$\psi _{+/}^z(z,t)=\frac{\sqrt{2\delta r_0}}{2\sqrt{\pi ^{3/2}}}exp(+/\frac{\mu t}{\mathrm{}}(a_0+a_1z)\frac{\mu ^2a_1^2}{6m\mathrm{}}t^3)$$

$$\times dkexp(k^2(\delta r_0^2+i\mathrm{}t/2m)+ik(z/+\frac{a_1\mu }{2m}t^2))$$
(35)
We get :

$$\psi _{+/}^z(z,t)=\sqrt{\frac{1}{2\sqrt{\pi }(\delta r_0+i\frac{\mathrm{}t}{2m\delta r_0})}}exp(+/\frac{\mu t}{\mathrm{}}(a_0+a_1z)\frac{\mu ^2a_1^2}{6m\mathrm{}}t^3)$$

$$\times exp\frac{(z/+\frac{a_1\mu }{2m}t^2)^2}{4(\delta r_0^2+i\mathrm{}t/2m)}$$
(36)
Using the equalities

$$\frac{1}{\delta r_0^2+i\mathrm{}t/2m}=\frac{(\delta r_0^2i\mathrm{}t/2m)}{(\delta r_0^4+\mathrm{}^2t^2/4m^2)}$$

$$\sqrt{\frac{1}{2\sqrt{\pi }(\delta r_0+i\frac{\mathrm{}t}{2m\delta r_0})}}=\sqrt{\frac{1}{2\sqrt{\pi }\sqrt{(\delta r_0^2+\frac{\mathrm{}^2t^2}{4m^2\delta r_0^2})}}expiarccos\frac{\delta r_0}{\sqrt{(\delta r_0^2+\frac{\mathrm{}^2t^2}{4m^2\delta r_0^2})}}}$$

and

$$\delta r_t^2=\delta r_0^2(1+\frac{\mathrm{}^2t^2}{4m^2\delta r_0^4})$$

we get the contribution of $`\psi _{+/}^z(z,t)`$ to the wave-function:

$$\psi _{+/}^z(z,t)=\frac{1}{(2\sqrt{\pi }\delta r_t)^{1/2}}exp\frac{(z/+a_1\mu t^2/2m)^2}{4\delta ^2r_t}$$

$$\times expi(\frac{\mathrm{}t(z/+a_1\mu t^2/2m)^2}{2m\delta ^2r_04\delta r_t^2}\frac{arccos\frac{\delta r_0}{\delta r_t}}{2}+/\frac{\mu t}{\mathrm{}}(a_0+a_1z)\frac{\mu ^2a_1^2}{6m\mathrm{}}t^3)$$
(37)
Notice that $`\psi _{+/}^y(y,t)`$ is obtained in exactly the same way, with the requirement that $`a_0=a_1=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$.

In conclusion,

$$\psi _{+/}(𝐫,t)=\frac{1}{(2\sqrt{\pi }\delta r_t)^{3/2}}exp\frac{(xv_0t)^2}{4\delta r_t^2}$$

$$\times expi(\frac{\mathrm{}t(xv_0t)^2}{2m\delta ^2r_04\delta r_t^2}+k_0x\frac{\mathrm{}k_0^2t}{2m}\frac{arccos\frac{\delta r_0}{\delta r_t}}{2})$$

$$\times exp\frac{y^2}{4\delta r_t^2}expi(\frac{\mathrm{}ty^2}{2m\delta ^2r_04\delta r_t^2}\frac{arccos\frac{\delta r_0}{\delta r_t}}{2})$$

$$\times exp\frac{(z/+a_1\mu t^2/2m)^2}{4\delta ^2r_t}expi(\frac{\mathrm{}t(z/+a_1\mu t^2/2m)^2}{2m\delta ^2r_04\delta r_t^2}\frac{arccos\frac{\delta r_0}{\delta r_t}}{2})$$

$$\times exp(+/\frac{\mu t}{\mathrm{}}(a_0+a_1z)\frac{\mu ^2a_1^2}{6m\mathrm{}}t^3)$$
(38)
with $`\delta r_t^2=\delta r_0^2(1+\frac{\mathrm{}^2t^2}{4m^2\delta r_0^4})`$. The interpretation of this solution which appeared originally in ) is straightforward: the wave-packet of the particles of spin up (down) diffuses under the influence of the free part of the Schrödinger evolution (the Laplacian term) and is simultaneously uniformly accelerated upwards (downwards). It “feels” effectively a potential due to the gyromagnetic coupling which varies linearly in $`z`$, and changes of sign with the $`z`$-spin.

After a time $`\tau `$, the particles leave the Stern-Gerlach device, and the Gaussian packets move freely, diffusing around centers which conserve the velocity that they possessed when leaving the magnets. The dependence in $`z`$ is thus, up to irrelevant global phases:

$$exp\frac{(z/+a_1\mu \tau t/m+/a_1\mu \tau ^2/2m)^2}{4\delta r_t^2}$$

$$expi(\frac{\mathrm{}t(z/+a_1\mu \tau t/m+/a_1\mu \tau ^2/2m)^2}{2m\delta ^2r_04\delta r_t^2}+/a_1\mu \tau /m(z/+a_1\mu \tau ^2/2m))$$
(39)
while the dependence in $`x`$ and $`y`$ is the same as before.

In a typical single Stern-Gerlach experiment involving silver atoms,

* the mass of the incoming atom is equal to 1,80 $`10^{22}`$ grams
* the gyromagnetic coupling constant $`\mu `$ is equal to 9,27 $`10^{21}`$ gram cm<sup>2</sup> sec<sup>-2</sup> Gauss<sup>-1</sup>
* the gradient of the magnetic field along the $`Z`$ axis is equal to $`10^4`$ Gauss cm<sup>-1</sup>
* the length of the magnet is equal to 10 cm
* the velocity of the incoming particle along the $`X`$ axis is equal to $`10^4`$ cm sec<sup>-1</sup>
* the time of flight through the magnet $`\tau `$ is equal to 10<sup>-3</sup> sec
* $`\mathrm{}`$ is equal to 1,05 10<sup>-27</sup> ergsec
* the spreading of the incoming particle $`\delta r_0`$ is equal to 10<sup>-3</sup> cm.

Then,

$$k=\frac{\mathrm{}}{2m\delta ^2r_0}=2,91\mathrm{sec}^1$$
(40)
$$\alpha =a_1\mu /2m=2,\mathrm{58\hspace{0.17em}10}^5\mathrm{cm}\mathrm{sec}^2$$
(41)
$$\beta =a_1\mu /m\delta r_0^2=5,\mathrm{15\hspace{0.17em}10}^{11}\mathrm{cm}^1\mathrm{sec}^2$$
(42)
The heights of the centers of the outgoing bundles moving up and downwards after the time $`\tau `$ are equal to $`+/\alpha \tau ^2=+/\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0},258`$ cm. Their $`Z`$-velocities are $`+/\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\alpha \tau =+/\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}5},15`$m sec<sup>-1</sup>. The spreading is then, taking the diffusion into account, $`\delta r_0\sqrt{1+k^2\tau ^2}=10^3\sqrt{1+(2,\mathrm{91\hspace{0.17em}10}^3)^2}`$ cm (approximatively 10<sup>-3</sup> cm),which is very small in comparison to the distance between the bundles (0,515 cm), sothat these bundles are clearly separated. If we place a screen at a distance 1 meter after the magnet, it is reached after 10<sup>-2</sup> seconds, and the spots are separated by a distance of order of 11 cm, while the extent of a single spot is still of the order of 10<sup>-3</sup> cm.

## 5 Appendix 2: The two particles case.

The Pauli-Schrödinger equation allows us to describe the evolution of the wave-function inside the magnets of the devices:

$$i\mathrm{}_t\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}(\mathrm{\Delta }_L+\mathrm{\Delta }_R)\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)+(\mu 𝐁_L𝚺_L+\mu 𝐁_R𝚺_R)\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)$$
(43)
with

$$\mathrm{\Delta }_L(\mathrm{\Delta }_R)(\psi _{+/L}(𝐫_L,t)\psi _{+^{}/^{}R}(𝐫_R,t)|+/>_\mathrm{L}|+^{}/^{}>_\mathrm{R})=$$

$$(\mathrm{\Delta }_L\psi _{+/L}(𝐫_L,t))\psi _{+^{}/^{}R}(𝐫_R,t)|+/>_\mathrm{L}|+^{}/^{}>_\mathrm{R}$$

$$(\psi _{+/L}(𝐫_L,t)(\mathrm{\Delta }_R\psi _{+^{}/^{}R}(𝐫_R,t))|+/>_\mathrm{L}|+^{}/^{}>_\mathrm{R})$$
(44)
where $`\mathrm{\Delta }_{L/R}`$ is the Laplacian operator in the Left/Right coordinates, $`𝐁_{𝐋/𝐑}`$ is the magnetic field in the Left/Right regions, while the components of $`𝚺_{𝐋/𝐑}`$ are the Sigma matrices of Pauli. When the magnetic fields ares parallel to the $`Z`$ axes, only the third Sigma matrices appear, which are defined by:

$$𝚺_{L(R)}^3\psi _{+/L}(𝐫_L,t)\psi _{+^{}/^{}R}(𝐫_R,t)|+/>_\mathrm{L}|+^{}/^{}>_\mathrm{R}=$$

$$+/(+^{}/^{})\psi _{+/L}(𝐫_L,t))\psi _{+^{}/^{}R}(𝐫_R,t)|+/>_\mathrm{L}|+^{}/^{}>_\mathrm{R}$$
(45)
Then, it is easy to check that the Pauli-Schrödinger equation is separable into the six spatial coordinates and that the general solution, when the wave-packet is initially Gaussian, can be expressed in terms of the solutions associated to the single particle case that we obtained in the previous appendix.

Let us now derive the conservation equation associated to this evolution law. We can write it in the form:

$$i\mathrm{}_t\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)+\mu 𝐁𝚺\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)$$
(46)
where the Laplacian is a 6-dimensional Laplacian, the magnetic field a 6-dimensional field. It is worth noting that $`𝚺`$ is a self-adjoint operator on the spin space (isomorph to $`𝐂^4`$). The adjoint (transposate-conjugate) of the previous equation is:

$$i\mathrm{}_t\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)+\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)\mu 𝐁𝚺$$
(47)
where we used the fact that $`𝚺=𝚺^{}`$. Let us now multiply the equation of evolution by $`\mathrm{\Psi }^{}`$, its adjoint equation by $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ and take their difference, we get:

$$i\mathrm{}_t\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)=\frac{\mathrm{}^2}{2m}\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)(\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t))(\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t))\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)$$
(48)
We can rewrite the second member of the last equation as the 6 dimensional divergency of a 6 dimensional flux:

$$\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)(\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t))(\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t))\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)=$$

$$div(\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)\mathrm{grad}\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)\mathrm{grad}\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t))$$
(49)
Now, $`\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)\mathrm{grad}\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)`$ is the complex conjugate of $`\mathrm{grad}\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)`$ so that we obtain the equation of conservation $`_t\rho =div(𝒥)`$ where:

$$\rho =\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t)$$
(50)
or, in another notation:

$$\rho (𝐫_L,𝐫_R,t)=<\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_L,𝐫_{R,t)}|\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫_L,𝐫_{R,t)}>$$

and

$$𝒥=(\mathrm{}/m)\mathrm{}(\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(𝐫,t)\mathrm{grad}\mathrm{\Psi }(𝐫,t))$$
(51)
where $`\mathrm{}(z)`$ the imaginary part of $`z`$.

The three and four particles cases can be treated in a similar way.