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# DAMTP-2002-94 The dynamics of vortices on 𝑆² near the Bradlow limit

## 1 Introduction

The abelian Higgs model in the plane is one of the most studied examples of a field theory with topological solitons. The solitons are vortices. At critical coupling there are Bogomolny equations, and it is known that there is a $`2N`$-dimensional manifold of gauge-inequivalent $`N`$-vortex solutions . This is known as the $`N`$-vortex moduli space, and denoted $`_N`$. As a manifold, $`_N^N`$. There is a natural metric on $`_N`$, arising from the kinetic terms in the Lagrangian of the model, and it has been proved by Stuart  that, at least for finite time intervals, geodesic trajectories on the moduli space give a good approximation to the true dynamics of slowly moving vortices.

It is convenient to introduce the standard complex coordinate $`z`$ on the plane. The locations of the vortices are the $`N`$ unordered points where the Higgs field vanishes. These points may be regarded as the roots of a monic polynomial in $`z`$ (monic means that the coefficient of $`z^N`$ is 1), and the natural coordinates on moduli space are the $`N`$ complex coefficients of such a polynomial. If a particular geodesic motion is known, then the time-dependence of the polynomial is known, and hence the time-dependence of the roots can be calculated.

Now, a general formula for the metric on moduli space has been given by Samols , but it is not explicit, so only very special geodesics, with a high degree of symmetry, are understood in detail for $`N>2`$ . One vortex just moves at constant speed along a straight line. The geodesic motion for two vortices has been calculated by Samols numerically. The most interesting phenomenon is that, in a head-on collision, two vortices scatter at right angles. Recently, Manton and Speight  have found an explicit metric for $`N`$ well separated vortices, from which the geodesic motion could be computed.

In this paper we are interested in the opposite limit. It is possible to consider the abelian Higgs model with fields defined on any compact surface. We shall only consider the case of a 2-sphere with its standard round metric, parametrized by its radius $`R`$. There are again Bogomolny equations and a $`2N`$-dimensional moduli space of $`N`$-vortex solutions. As a manifold this is $`^N`$. However, there is an important geometrical constraint, discovered by Bradlow . This is that the area of the sphere must be greater than $`4\pi N`$ for non-trivial solutions of the Bogomolny equations to exist. Equivalently, $`R^2>N`$. The metric on moduli space is known to collapse to zero size as the Bradlow limit $`R^2N`$ is approached. We shall be interested here in the case where $`R^2`$ is slightly greater than $`N`$. One should think of this as a situation where the vortices are densely squeezed together. We shall present an approximate general solution of the Bogomolny equations, and using this, calculate the metric on moduli space directly from its definition. Again the solutions involve a polynomial, and the natural coordinates are the complex coefficients of the polynomial. We shall find that the metric is that of Fubini-Study, with an overall scale factor that depends on $`R^2N`$.

The geodesics on Fubini-Study are quite simple, and hence, in principle, the motion of vortices can be calculated straightforwardly. However, this does involve finding the roots of polynomials with time-varying coefficients, which is not algebraically trivial for three or more vortices. We shall present examples, mainly of two vortex motion. We should also remark that Stuart’s proof of the validity of the geodesic approximation for vortex motion does not extend automatically to this regime of being close to the Bradlow limit, so our results on vortex motion remain rather formal at this stage. The particle dynamics we obtain at the end is, nevertheless, quite “physical”.

The paper is structured as follows. In Section 2 we introduce the Bogomolny equations on $`S^2`$, which is identified with $`^1`$. As in , the equations are defined on complex line bundles over this surface. In Sections 3 and 4 we explain our approximation for $`R^2`$ close to $`N`$, and proceed to compute the metric on the moduli space of the approximate solutions. The geodesics of this Fubini-Study metric are then used in Section 5 to give an explicit description of the $`N`$-vortex dynamics. Some examples of motions are presented in Section 6, and finally in Section 7 a general result concerning the number of vortex collisions is proved.

## 2 The Bogomolny equations

According to Bradlow’s generalization of the classical vortices over $`^2`$ , when the base manifold is the sphere $`S^2^1`$, the setup for the problem is a complex line bundle $`\pi :ES^2`$ of degree $`N`$ equipped with a hermitian metric $`h`$. The Higgs field $`\varphi `$ is now a section of this bundle, and the gauge potentials are the local 1-forms of an $`h`$-compatible connection $`D`$ on the bundle. We will take the metric on $`S^2`$ to be $`g_R:=R^2\times (\text{standard metric on}S^2)`$, so that the volume of $`(S^2,g_R)`$ is $`4\pi R^2`$.

Letting $`𝒜:=\{h\text{-compatible connections on}E\}`$ and $`\mathrm{\Gamma }(E):=\{\text{global}C^{\mathrm{}}\text{sections}`$ of$`E\}`$, the Bogomolny equations for $`(D,\varphi )𝒜\times \mathrm{\Gamma }(E)`$ are () :

$$D^{0,1}\varphi =0$$
(1)
$$F+\frac{1}{2}(|\varphi |_h^21)(\text{vol}_R)=0$$
(2)
where $`D^{0,1}`$ is the anti-holomorphic part of $`D`$, $`\text{vol}_R\mathrm{\Omega }^2(S^2,)`$ is the volume form of the metric $`g_R`$, and $`iF`$ is the globally defined curvature form of $`D`$, so that $`F\mathrm{\Omega }^2(S^2,)`$.

We remark that the problem does not depend essentially on $`(E,h)`$, because all complex line bundles over $`S^2`$ of a given degree $`N`$ are isomorphic. In fact, for another choice $`(E^{},h^{})`$ there will always be an isomorphism $`f:EE^{}`$ such that $`f^{}(h^{})=h`$ . It is then not difficult to check that $`(D,\varphi )`$ is a solution of $`(1)`$ and $`(2)`$ on $`(E^{},h^{})`$ if and only if $`(f^{}D,f^1\varphi )`$ is a solution on $`(E,h)`$, where $`f^{}D`$ is the pull-back connection on $`E`$. Notice in particular that $`\varphi \mathrm{\Gamma }(E^{})`$ and $`f^1\varphi \mathrm{\Gamma }(E)`$ have the same zeros on $`S^2`$, and hence correspond to the same vortex configuration.

We will now define the particular pair $`(E,h)`$ which is to be used in the remainder of this paper. Let $`U_1=^1\{[0,1]\}`$, $`U_2=^1\{[1,0]\}`$, where we use the standard homogeneous coordinates $`[z_0,z_1]`$ for points on $`^1`$, and let $`\phi _i:U_i`$ be the standard complex charts of $`^1`$ with transition functions $`\phi _1\phi _2^1=\phi _2\phi _1^1:z1/z`$. Define $`g_{ij}:U_iU_jU(1)`$ by

$$g_{21}\phi _2^1(z)=(z/|z|)^N,g_{12}=1/g_{21},g_{11}=g_{22}=1.$$

Since the $`g_{ij}`$ satisfy the usual cocycle conditions, it is possible to construct a complex line bundle $`\pi :E^1`$ with trivializations $`\psi _i:\pi ^1(U_i)U_i\times `$ such that $`\psi _i\psi _j^1(p,y)=(p,g_{ij}(p)y)`$. The hermitian metric $`h`$ on $`E`$ is defined by requiring the unitarity of the trivializations $`\psi _i`$, that is $`|\psi _i^1(p,y)|_h^2=|y|^2`$; it is well defined because $`g_{ij}`$ has values in $`U(1)`$.

We should now check that deg$`E=N`$. Define the real valued 1-forms $`A_i\mathrm{\Omega }^1(U_i,)`$ by

$$A_i=\phi _i^{}A\text{ with}A:=\frac{iN}{2(1+|z|^2)}(\overline{z}dzzd\overline{z})\mathrm{\Omega }^1(,).$$
(3)
On $`U_1U_2`$ one has

$$(\phi _2^1)^{}(A_1A_2)=\left(\frac{1}{z}\right)^{}AA=i\left(\frac{|z|}{z}\right)^Nd\left(\frac{z}{|z|}\right)^N=i(\phi _2^1)^{}(g_{12}dg_{21}),$$

or equivalently

$$(iA_1)(iA_2)=g_{12}dg_{21},$$

which shows that the local forms $`iA_1`$ and $`iA_2`$ define a connection $`D_N`$ on $`E`$. The curvature $`iF_N`$ of $`D_N`$ is a global 2-form on $`^1`$ determined by $`F_N=dA_j`$ on $`U_j`$. In particular, one can compute that

$$(\phi _1^1)^{}F_N=dA=\frac{iN}{(1+|z|^2)^2}dzd\overline{z}=(\phi _1^1)^{}(\frac{1}{2}\text{vol}_\sqrt{N}),$$

and hence

$$\text{deg}E:=\frac{i}{2\pi }_^1(iF_N)=\frac{1}{2\pi }_{}(\phi _1^1)^{}F_N=N.$$

Integrating equation $`(2)`$ over $`^1`$, and using that $`_^1F=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\pi \text{deg}E=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\pi N`$, it is clear that for $`R^2<N`$ the Bogomolny equations have no solution, and that for $`R^2=N`$ any solution $`(D,\varphi )`$ must satisfy $`\varphi =0`$ and $`F=\frac{1}{2}\text{vol}_\sqrt{N}=F_N`$. Since we have already constructed a connection $`D_N`$ on $`E`$ with curvature $`iF_N`$, we have an explicit solution of the Bogomolny equations for the case $`R^2=N`$ (which is called the Bradlow limit), and it can be shown that it is unique up to gauge transformations.

For $`R^2>N`$ Bradlow has shown , in a more general context, that for any solution $`(D,\varphi )`$ of $`(1)`$ and $`(2)`$, the section $`\varphi `$ has exactly $`N`$ zeros (which are called vortices), counting multiplicities. Moreover, the moduli space $`_N`$ of these solutions up to gauge tranformations, is parametrized by the positions in $`^1`$ of these $`N`$ vortices. Since the vortices are indistinguishable, this moduli space is identified with $`(^1)^N/\text{S}_N`$, where $`\text{S}_N`$ is the group of permutations of $`N`$ elements.

Now consider the map $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}:(^1)^N/\text{S}_N^N`$ defined in homogeneous coordinates by

$$[[u^1,v^1],\mathrm{},[u^N,v^N]][\mathrm{},\underset{\sigma \text{S}_N}{}v^{\sigma (1)}\mathrm{}v^{\sigma (k)}u^{\sigma (k+1)}\mathrm{}u^{\sigma (N)},\mathrm{}]_{0kN}.$$

With some care, one can verify that $`\mathrm{{\rm Y}}`$ is a bijection. In fact, its inverse may be described in the following way . Given $`[w_0,\mathrm{},w_N]^N`$, consider the non-zero polynomial

$$P(z)=\underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}(1)^k\frac{N!}{k!(Nk)!}w_kz^{Nk},$$

which has degree $`lN`$. Calling $`z_1,\mathrm{},z_l`$ the complex roots of $`P(z)`$, one has

$$\mathrm{{\rm Y}}^1\left([w_0,\mathrm{},w_N]\right)=[[1,z_1],\mathrm{},[1,z_l],[0,1],\mathrm{},[0,1]].$$

Using this bijection, $`_N`$ can also be identified with $`^N`$.

## 3 Vortices near the Bradlow limit

Although we have an accurate description of the moduli space $`_N`$, the explicit form of the solutions $`(D,\varphi )`$ of $`(1)`$ and $`(2)`$ is not known. In particular, this has prevented any successful attempt to describe the dynamics of the vortices by means of the well-known geodesic approximation. The purpose of this paper is to show that by replacing the exact Bogomolny equations by two other conditions, which should be a good approximation near the Bradlow limit $`R^2N`$, one can obtain the solutions explicitly; they also have $`^N`$ as their moduli space, and furthermore the dynamics of these “pseudo-vortices” is completely computable in the framework of the geodesic approximation.

Since for $`R^2=N`$ the pair $`(D_N,0)𝒜\times \mathrm{\Gamma }(E)`$ is an exact solution of $`(1)`$ and $`(2)`$, we may expect that for $`R^2`$ close to $`N`$ the solutions $`(D,\varphi )`$ will have $`DD_N`$ (after a gauge transformation if necessary). We therefore impose $`D=D_N`$ and look for $`\varphi \mathrm{\Gamma }(E)`$ such that :

$`(D_N,\varphi )\text{ is a solution of }(1)\text{, i.e.}D_N^{0,1}\varphi =0;`$ (4)
$`(D_N,\varphi )\text{ satisfies }(2)\text{ “on average”, i.e.}{\displaystyle _^1}(F_N+{\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}(|\varphi |_h^21)\text{vol}_R)=0;`$ (5)
( We note in passing that eq.(4) is analogous to the equation for electron wavefunctions of the first Landau level in the uniform background magnetic field $`F_N`$; eq.(5) is then a wavefunction normalization condition. )

We will now find the explicit solutions of $`(4)`$ and $`(5)`$, and then describe their moduli space. Using the local trivialization $`\psi _1`$ of $`E`$ and the chart $`\phi _1`$ of $`^1`$ defined before, the equation $`D_N^{0,1}\varphi =0`$ over the domain $`U_1`$ is the same as $`(\overline{}iA^{0,1})\varphi _1=0`$, or explicitly, using $`(3)`$:

$$\frac{\varphi _1}{\overline{z}}=\frac{Nz}{2(1+|z|^2)}\varphi _1,$$
(6)
where $`\varphi _1C^{\mathrm{}}()`$ is the representative of $`\varphi `$ with respect to $`\psi _1`$.

Equation $`(6)`$ has the general solution $`\varphi _1=f(z)(1+|z|^2)^{N/2}`$, with $`f`$ holomorphic on $``$. The section $`\varphi `$ of $`E`$ determined by $`\varphi _1`$, which is only defined over $`U_1`$, has a representative $`\varphi _2`$ with respect to $`\psi _2`$ given by $`\varphi _2(z)=g_{12}(z)\varphi _1(\frac{1}{z})`$, which is smooth on $`\{0\}`$. But since we are looking for global solutions of $`(4)`$, $`\varphi `$ must be extensible to all of $`^1`$, and this will happen iff $`\varphi _2(z)`$ is smoothly extensible to $``$. Writing $`f`$ as a Taylor series, it is then not difficult to check that this requires that the coefficient of $`z^n`$ vanishes for all $`n>N`$. Thus any solution $`\varphi `$ of $`(4)`$ must have a representative $`\varphi _1`$ over $`U_1`$ of the form

$$\varphi _1(z)=\frac{a_0z^N+\mathrm{}+a_N}{(1+|z|^2)^{N/2}},$$
(7)
and conversely any $`\varphi _1`$ of this form determines a global section $`\varphi `$ of $`E`$ which is a solution of $`(4)`$ over $`U_1`$, and by continuity over all of $`^1`$.

If $`\varphi `$ is represented by $`\varphi _1`$ as in $`(7)`$, then the representative $`\varphi _2`$ will be

$$\varphi _2(z)=\frac{a_0+\mathrm{}+a_Nz^N}{(1+|z|^2)^{N/2}}$$

and hence, as for $`(1)`$ and $`(2)`$, any solution $`\varphi `$ of $`(4)`$ has exactly $`N`$ zeros over $`^1`$, counting multiplicities.

We now turn to condition $`(5)`$. Using that $`iF_N`$ is the curvature form of a degree $`N`$ bundle, $`(5)`$ is equivalent to

$$4\pi (R^2N)=_^1|\varphi |_h^2\text{vol}_R=_{}|\varphi _1|^2\frac{2iR^2}{(1+|z|^2)^2}𝑑zd\overline{z}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}\pi R^2\underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{k!(Nk)!}{(N+1)!}|a_k|^2,$$

where the last integral is calculated in the appendix for $`\varphi _1`$ of the form $`(7)`$. We can therefore conclude that $`\varphi _1`$ represents a solution $`\varphi `$ of $`(4)`$ and $`(5)`$ iff $`\varphi _1`$ is of the form $`(7)`$ and satisfies the normalization condition

$$\underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{k!(Nk)!}{(N+1)!}|a_k|^2=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}\frac{N}{R^2}.$$

Calling $`𝒟𝒜\times \mathrm{\Gamma }(E)`$ the subspace of solutions of $`(4)`$ and $`(5)`$, we thus get a bijection $`\alpha :𝒟S^{2N+1}^{N+1}`$ that maps each $`\varphi 𝒟`$, represented by a $`\varphi _1`$ like in $`(7)`$, to the point

$$\left(1\frac{N}{R^2}\right)^{1/2}(\mathrm{},\left(\frac{k!(Nk)!}{(N+1)!}\right)^{1/2}a_k,\mathrm{})_{0kN}.$$
(8)
The following step is to determine when two solutions in $`𝒟`$ are gauge equivalent. Let therefore $`(D_N,\varphi )`$ and $`(D_N,\stackrel{~}{\varphi })`$ be a pair of solutions, an suppose $`g:^1U(1)`$ is a gauge transformation on $`E`$ that takes one into the other. Using the usual transformation rule for connection forms under $`g`$, and the key fact that the connection is fixed, it is readily shown that $`g`$ must be constant. So $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }=e^{i\beta }\varphi `$ for some $`\beta `$. Since the converse is clear, we conclude that $`(D_N,\varphi )`$ and $`(D_N,\stackrel{~}{\varphi })`$ are gauge equivalent iff

$$\stackrel{~}{\varphi }=e^{i\beta }\varphi \stackrel{~}{\varphi _1}=e^{i\beta }\varphi _1\stackrel{~}{c}=e^{i\beta }c$$

for some $`\beta `$, where $`c,\stackrel{~}{c}S^{2N+1}`$ are the images of $`(D_N,\varphi )`$ and $`(D_N,\stackrel{~}{\varphi )}`$ under the bijection $`\alpha `$. Furthermore, notice that this last condition is also equivalent to $`\pi (\stackrel{~}{c})=\pi (c)`$ in $`^N`$, where $`\pi :S^{2N+1}^N`$ is the usual principal $`U(1)`$-bundle.

Calling $`_N`$ the moduli space of solutions of $`(4)`$ and $`(5)`$ up to gauge transformations, and $`p:𝒟_N`$ the natural projection, we therefore have :

$$\begin{array}{ccc}𝒟& \stackrel{\alpha }{}& S^{2N+1}\\ p& & \pi & & \\ _N& \stackrel{\stackrel{~}{\alpha }}{}& ^N\end{array}$$
(9)
where $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$, defined by the commutativity of the diagram, is, like $`\alpha `$, a bijection. The right-hand side of this diagram is a concrete model for the space of solutions $`𝒟`$ and its moduli space.

## 4 The metric on the moduli space

Using the usual prescriptions of the geodesic approximation (first described in ), we will now obtain the metric $`m`$ on $`_N`$ which, within the framework of this approximation, determines the dynamics of the “pseudo-vortices” (which from now on will be just called vortices).

Suppose one has a curve $`\gamma `$ in $`𝒟`$:

$$t\stackrel{𝛾}{}(D_N,\varphi (t))𝒟\stackrel{𝛼}{}(w_0(t),\mathrm{},w_N(t))S^{2N+1}.$$

A natural hermitian metric on $`𝒟`$ is defined by

$$\frac{d\gamma }{dt},\frac{d\gamma }{dt}_{\gamma (t)}:=\frac{1}{2}_^1h(\dot{\varphi }(t),\dot{\varphi }(t))\text{vol}_R,$$
(10)
where the dot stands for the time derivative. Notice that in this case, as opposed to what happens in , the gauge potentials do not contribute to the metric, since the connection in our space $`𝒟`$ is fixed, and thus time independent.

Writing

$$\varphi _1(t)=\frac{a_0(t)z^N+\mathrm{}+a_N(t)}{(1+|z|^2)^{N/2}}$$

for the usual representative of $`\varphi (t)`$, using the unitarity of $`\psi _1`$, and noting that
$`\dot{\varphi }_1=(1+|z|^2)^{N/2}(\dot{a}_0z^N+\mathrm{}+\dot{a}_N)`$, one has that

$`{\displaystyle \frac{d\gamma }{dt}},{\displaystyle \frac{d\gamma }{dt}}_{\gamma (t)}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle _{}}|\dot{\varphi }_1|^2{\displaystyle \frac{2iR^2}{(1+|z|^2)^2}}𝑑zd\overline{z}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\pi R^2{\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{k!(Nk)!}{(N+1)!}}\dot{a}_k\dot{\overline{a}}_k=`$
$`=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\pi (R^2N){\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}}\dot{w}_k\dot{\overline{w}}_k,`$
again using the integral calculated in the appendix. We conclude that the hermitian $`L^2`$ metric on $`𝒟`$ corresponds via the map $`\alpha `$ to the restriction to $`S^{2N+1}`$ of the canonical hermitian metric on $`^{N+1}`$, up to the constant factor $`2\pi (R^2N)`$. This metric will also be called $`,`$.

According to the usual procedure, the metric $`m`$ on $`_N`$ is induced from $`,`$ on $`𝒟`$ in the following way. Given $`q𝒟`$ and a tangent vector $`\frac{d\gamma }{dt}T_q𝒟`$, let $`(\frac{d\gamma }{dt})_{}`$ be its component perpendicular to the subspace of $`T_q𝒟`$ formed by the vectors tangent to curves on $`𝒟`$ which are pure gauge transformations, that is perpendicular to ker$`(p_{})_q`$. Then

$$(p^{}m)_q(\frac{d\gamma }{dt},\frac{d\gamma }{dt}):=(\frac{d\gamma }{dt})_{},(\frac{d\gamma }{dt})_{}_q.$$

We will now compute the metric on $`^N`$ corresponding to $`m`$ by the identification $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }`$. It will also be called $`m`$.

Using the diagram $`(9)`$, the subspace ker$`(p_{})_qT_q𝒟`$ corresponds to the subspace ker$`(\pi _{})_{\alpha (q)}T_{\alpha (q)}S^{2N+1}`$. Given $`wS^{2N+1}^{N+1}`$, we have that ker$`(\pi _{})_w`$ is the one-dimensional real subspace generated by the vector $`\frac{d}{dt}(e^{it}w)(0)=iw`$. Therefore, given a tangent vector $`\frac{d\gamma }{dt}=(\dot{\gamma }_0,\mathrm{},\dot{\gamma }_N)T_wS^{2N+1}T_w^{N+1}`$, we have

$$(\frac{d\gamma }{dt})_{}=\frac{d\gamma }{dt}\frac{\frac{d\gamma }{dt},w}{w,w}w,$$

so

$$(\frac{d\gamma }{dt})_{},(\frac{d\gamma }{dt})_{}_w=\frac{d\gamma }{dt},\frac{d\gamma }{dt}\frac{\frac{d\gamma }{dt},ww,\frac{d\gamma }{dt}}{w,w}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\pi (R^2N)\underset{j,k=0}{\overset{N}{}}(\delta _{jk}\overline{w}_jw_k)\dot{\gamma }_j\dot{\overline{\gamma }}_k,$$

where the computation in the last step uses that $`w,w=2\pi (R^2N)`$, since $`wS^{2N+1}`$. Thus $`\pi ^{}m`$ is the restriction to $`S^{2N+1}`$ of the $`2`$-tensor in $`^{N+1}`$

$$2\pi (R^2N)\underset{j,k=0}{\overset{N}{}}(\delta _{jk}\overline{w}_jw_k)dw_jd\overline{w}_k.$$

Now consider the Kähler form $`\mu `$ associated to $`m`$. It is defined, as usual, using the imaginary part of $`m`$: $`\mu =\text{Im}m\mathrm{\Omega }^2(^N,)`$. We have

$`\pi ^{}\mu `$ $`=\pi ^{}(\text{Im}m)=\text{Im}(\pi ^{}m)=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\pi (R^2N){\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j,k=0}{\overset{N}{}}}(\delta _{jk}\overline{w}_jw_k)dw_jd\overline{w}_k|_{S^{2N+1}}`$
$`=2\pi (R^2N){\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}{\displaystyle \underset{j,k=0}{\overset{N}{}}}({\displaystyle \frac{\delta _{jk}}{|w_0|^2+\mathrm{}+|w_N|^2}}{\displaystyle \frac{\overline{w}_jw_k}{(|w_0|^2+\mathrm{}+|w_N|^2)^2}})dw_jd\overline{w}_k|_{S^{2N+1}}`$
$`=2\pi (R^2N){\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\overline{}\mathrm{log}(|w_0|^2+\mathrm{}+|w_N|^2)|_{S^{2N+1}}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\pi (R^2N)\pi ^{}\mu _{\mathrm{FS}}`$
where $`\mu _{\mathrm{FS}}`$ is the Fubini-Study form on $`^N`$, and the last equality is a well-known result \[8, p. 160\]. Since $`\pi `$ and $`(\pi _{})_w`$ are both surjective,

$$\pi ^{}\mu =\pi ^{}(2\pi (R^2N)\mu _{\mathrm{FS}})\mathrm{implies}\mu =2\pi (R^2N)\mu _{\mathrm{FS}}.$$

Therefore $`m=2\pi (R^2N)m_{\mathrm{FS}}`$, where $`m_{\mathrm{FS}}`$ is the Fubini-Study metric on $`^N`$, because a hermitian metric is uniquely determined by its Kähler form.

## 5 Vortex dynamics

Having determined the metric $`m`$ on the moduli space $`_N^N`$, we will now proceed to explicitly describe its geodesics, which provide an approximate description of the low-energy particle dynamics. Note that $`mm_{\mathrm{FS}}`$ implies that the geodesics of $`m`$ are exactly the Fubini-Study geodesics. These are well-known \[8, p. 277\] but nevertheless we will rederive them here again.

Let $`\pi :^{N+1}\{0\}^N`$ be the natural projection and $`\chi _0:U_0^N`$ one of the standard charts of $`^N`$, where $`U_0=\{[w^0,\mathrm{},w^N]^N:w^00\}`$. Calling $`(c^1,\mathrm{},c^N)`$ the coordinate functions of this chart, then by definition of the Fubini-Study metric we have on $`U_0`$:

$`\mu _{\mathrm{FS}}`$ $`={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}\overline{}\mathrm{log}(1+|c^1|^2+\mathrm{}+|c^N|^2)={\displaystyle \frac{i}{2}}h_{j\overline{k}}dc^jd\overline{c}^k\text{and}`$
$`m_{\mathrm{FS}}`$ $`=h_{j\overline{k}}dc^jd\overline{c}^k,`$
with

$$h_{j\overline{k}}=\frac{\delta _{jk}}{1+|c|^2}\frac{c^k\overline{c}^j}{(1+|c|^2)^2}.$$
(11)
For a general Kähler metric the geodesic equations have the simplified form \[14, p. 4\]:

$$\ddot{c}^k=\frac{h_{j\overline{s}}}{c^l}h^{k\overline{s}}\dot{c}^l\dot{c}^j,\text{ where}h^{k\overline{s}}:=(sk\text{ entry of }[h_{i\overline{j}}]^1).$$

In our case $`h^{k\overline{s}}=(1+|c|^2)(\delta ^{sk}+c^k\overline{c}^s)`$, and so the geodesic equations for $`(^N,m_{\mathrm{FS}})`$ in the chart $`\chi _0`$ are

$$\ddot{c}=\frac{2<\dot{c},c>}{1+<c,c>}\dot{c},$$
(12)
where $`c(t)`$ is a curve in $`^N`$ and $`<,>`$ is the canonical hermitian product.

Now consider curves in $`S^{2N+1}^{N+1}`$ of the form:

$$\gamma (t)=\mathrm{sin}(\omega t)y+\mathrm{cos}(\omega t)x,t$$
(13)
where $`x,y^{N+1}`$ are orthonormal with respect to the canonical hermitian product of $`^{N+1}`$. If $`x^00`$, then $`\pi \gamma (t)U_0`$ only for a discrete set $`D`$ of non-zero values of $`t`$, and a short computation shows that, in $`D`$,

$$c(t):=\chi _0\pi \gamma (t)=c(0)+\dot{c}(0)\frac{x^0\mathrm{sin}(\omega t)}{\omega (y^0\mathrm{sin}(\omega t)+x^0\mathrm{cos}(\omega t))}$$
(14)
where

$$c^k(0)=\frac{x^k}{x^0}\text{and}\dot{c}^k(0)=\frac{\omega (y^kx^0x^ky^0)}{(x^0)^2},k=1,\mathrm{},N.$$
(15)
One can verify directly that this $`c(t)`$ satisfies $`(12)`$, and therefore $`\pi \gamma (t)`$ is a geodesic for $`t`$ in $`D`$, and by continuity for all $`t`$. If $`x^0=0`$, a similar computation in one of the other standard charts of $`^N`$ would establish that, also in this case, $`\pi \gamma (t)`$ is a geodesic.

On the other hand, it is not difficult to verify that every geodesic of $`(^N,m_{\mathrm{FS}})`$ can be written as $`\pi \gamma `$, where $`\gamma `$ has the form $`(13)`$. Although one could give a general, chart-independent argument for this, for later convenience we will proceed unnaturally. Namely, using $`(15)`$, one may simply check that given any $`c(0)^N`$ and $`\dot{c}(0)T_{c(0)}^N^N`$, the geodesic $`\pi \gamma (t)`$ with

$$\begin{array}{cc}\hfill x& =(1+|c(0)|^2)^{1/2}(\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1},c(0))\hfill \\ \hfill y& =\omega ^1(1+|c(0)|^2)^{1/2}(\frac{<\dot{c}(0),c(0)>}{1+|c(0)|^2},\dot{c}(0)\frac{<\dot{c}(0),c(0)>}{1+|c(0)|^2}c(0))\hfill \\ \hfill \omega & =(1+|c(0)|^2)^{1/2}\left(|\dot{c}(0)|^2\frac{|<\dot{c}(0),c(0)>|^2}{1+|c(0)|^2}\right)^{1/2}\hfill \end{array}$$
(16)
has initial position and velocity $`\chi _0^1(c(0))`$ and $`(\chi _0^1)_{}(\dot{c}(0))`$, respectively. This shows that every geodesic starting in $`U_0`$ is of the form $`\pi \gamma (t)`$. Similar calculations in the other standard charts would extend the result to all of $`^N`$.

We now note two general properties of the geodesics $`\pi \gamma (t)`$. Firstly, using $`(11)`$ and $`(15)`$, one can compute that the velocity of the geodesic, which is a constant of motion, is $`|\omega |`$. Secondly, notice that all the geodesics of $`(^N,m_{FS})`$ are periodic. It is not difficult to show that for $`\omega 0`$ the period is $`\pi /|\omega |`$.

We will now use our knowledge of the geodesics on the moduli space $`(^N,m)`$ to give an explicit description of the vortex dynamics.

Recall from Section 3 that the solutions $`(D_N,\varphi )𝒟`$ with the vortices (zeros of $`\varphi `$) in positions $`\phi _1^1(z_1),\mathrm{},\phi _1^1(z_N)`$ in $`^1`$, are represented by a function $`\varphi _1`$ of the form $`(7)`$, where we now have

$$a_0z^N+\mathrm{}+a_N(zz_1)\mathrm{}(zz_N),$$

and therefore

$$a_k=A(1)^kS_k(z_1,\mathrm{},z_N),k=0,\mathrm{},N$$

where the $`S_j`$ are the usual elementary symmetric polynomials, and $`A`$ is a normalization factor which is non-zero for $`R^2>N`$. Thus such solutions $`(D_N,\varphi )𝒟`$ correspond by $`\pi \alpha `$ to (see$`(8)`$)

$$[\mathrm{},(1)^k\left(\frac{k!(Nk)!}{(N+1)!}\right)^{1/2}S_k(z_1,\mathrm{},z_N),\mathrm{}]_{0kN}^N_N$$

and by $`\chi _0\pi \alpha `$ to $`c=(c^1,\mathrm{},c^N)^N`$, where

$$c^k=(1)^k\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{N}{k}\right)^{1/2}S_k(z_1,\mathrm{},z_N).$$
(17)
Inverting these relations, we can obtain the positions of the $`N`$ vortices as a function of the coordinates $`c^k`$ of a given point in the moduli space $`^N`$. In particular, to the geodesics $`c(t)`$ of the form $`(14)`$ corresponds a motion of the vortices determined by:

$$w^N+\underset{k=1}{\overset{N}{}}\left(\genfrac{}{}{0pt}{}{N}{k}\right)^{1/2}c^k(t)w^{Nk}=(wz_1(t))\mathrm{}(wz_N(t))$$
(18)
where the $`z_i(t)`$ are the coordinates of the vortices in the chart $`(\phi _1,U_1)`$ of $`^1`$. Thus, since we know all the geodesics of $`(^N,m)`$, we can determine all the possible $`N`$-vortex motions by finding the roots of polynomials of degree $`N`$ — either analytically for $`N4`$ or numerically for $`N>4`$.

Now suppose we are given initial positions $`z_i(0)`$ and initial velocities $`\dot{z}_i(0)`$ for the vortices, where we assume that the $`z_i(0)`$ are all different. Through $`(17)`$ and its derivative we can get the corresponding values $`c(0),\dot{c}(0)^N`$, then use $`(16)`$ to determine which geodesic $`c(t)`$ corresponds to this initial data, and finally solve $`(18)`$ to get the motions $`z_i(t)`$. This general procedure has been used to obtain the various special vortex motions shown below.

We remark that, because $`(17)`$ is a local diffeomorphism only in the region where the vortices do not coincide, only in this region can we guarantee that the final result $`z_i(t)`$ has indeed the prescribed initial velocities. This is why we take the $`z_i(0)`$ all different. If the $`z_i(0)`$ are not all different there are some values of $`\dot{z}_i(0)`$ that do not correspond to any $`z_i(t)`$ coming from a geodesic motion.

## 6 Examples of motions

Using the method described in the previous Section, we now give a few examples of 2-and 3-vortex motions on the sphere . The trajectories are shown in the complex plane through the use of the stereographic projection $`\phi _1:S^2\{N\}`$. The particular initial positions and velocities used in each case are listed in Table 1.

To help with the interpretation of the figures, we recall that the stereographic projection has the property of mapping circles of $`S^2`$ (not necessarily great circles) to circles and straight lines in the plane. The inverse $`\phi _1^1`$ has the converse property. Also the circle of unit radius is always shown in a dashed line; the northern (southern) hemisphere of $`S^2`$ projects to the exterior (interior) of that circle.

Fig. 1(a)

Fig. 1(b)

Fig. 1(c)

Fig. 1(d)

Figure 1 :

Two colliding vortices, one of which is at rest.
One of the particles describes a great circle on the sphere that passes through the static position of the other.

Head-on collision of two vortices with the same speed.
There are two collisions at antipodal points. The total trajectory is the union of two great circles.

Head-on collision of two vortices with different initial speeds.
Again two collisions occur. The total trajectory is the union of a great circle and another circle.

Symmetrical collision of three vortices with equal speeds.
The three vortices collide twice at antipodal points. The total trajectory is the union of three great circles.

Fig. 2(a)

Fig. 2(b)

Fig. 2(c)

Fig. 2(d)

Figure 2 :
Except for 2(c), no collisions occur, and each vortex returns to its initial position after one period. The degenerate case 2(c) is the same as 1(c) — one great circle and another circle — in a different orientation.

Fig. 3

Figure 3 (with a=2) :
No collision takes place and the vortices exchange positions after one period. The coordinate $`c^1(t)`$ of expressions $`(14)`$ and $`(18)`$ is always zero. The coordinate $`c^2(t)`$ is of the form
$`a^2+2a(1+a^4)/[2a^3+i\omega \mathrm{cot}(\omega t)]`$ . Taking one of the roots $`z(t)=x(t)+iy(t)`$ of $`(18)`$ and eliminating $`t`$ from the system $`x(t),y(t)`$, one obtains that the trajectory on the plane has the simple equation $`(x^2+y^2)^2+(1/a^2a^2)(x^2y^2)1=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}0}`$. These are special cases of Cassini’s ovals and, when projected back to the sphere, look like the joint of a tennis ball.

## 7 Coincident particles and collisions

In this Section we start by finding an algebraic condition which determines when a point in the moduli space $`_N^N`$ corresponds to a vortex configuration where at least two of the vortices coincide. We then use this condition to show that, for a system of $`N`$ vortices starting in different positions with arbitrary initial velocities, there are at most $`2N2`$ collisions during one period of the motion.

Using diagram $`(9)`$ and the definition $`(8)`$ of the bijection $`\alpha `$, it is not difficult to recognize that a point $`[w_0,\mathrm{},w_N]^N`$ corresponds by $`\stackrel{~}{\alpha }^1`$ to the equivalence class in $`_N`$ of a solution $`\varphi `$ represented by

$$\varphi _1(z)=A(1+|z|^2)^{N/2}\underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{w_k}{(k!(Nk)!)^{1/2}}z^{Nk},$$

where $`A`$ is a non-zero normalization factor. Thus, asserting that $`[w_0,\mathrm{},w_N]`$ corresponds to a solution with at least two coincident vortices is equivalent to saying that one of the following conditions holds :

$`P(z):={\displaystyle \underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{w_k}{(k!(Nk)!)^{1/2}}}z^{Nk}\text{has a root of multiplicity at least two};`$
$`w_0=w_1=0,\text{ which corresponds to a double zero of }\varphi \text{ at}[0,1]^1.`$
We now use the following result, whose proof is at the end of this section :
Lemma: For any $`n`$, there is a homogeneous polynomial $`S`$ in $`n+1`$ variables of degree $`2n2`$, such that $`S(a_0,\mathrm{},a_n)=0`$ if and only if $`_{k=0}^na_kz^{nk}`$ has a multiple root or $`a_0=a_1=0.`$
An explicit formula for $`S`$ is given in the proof and we note that, up to a sign, $`S`$ coincides with the discriminant of $`_ka_kz^{Nk}`$ whenever $`a_00`$ .

Using this lemma, it is clear that the points $`[w_0,\mathrm{},w_N]^N`$ which correspond to at least two coincident vortices, are exactly those of the algebraic hypersurface $`H`$ of degree $`2N2`$ in $`^N`$ determined by the equation

$$\stackrel{~}{S}(\mathrm{},w_k,\mathrm{}):=S(\mathrm{},\frac{w_k}{(k!(Nk)!)^{1/2}},\mathrm{})=0.$$

As we have seen in Section $`5`$, any motion of $`N`$ vortices in $`S^2`$ corresponds to a Fubini-Study geodesic in $`^N`$, and these are all of the form $`t\pi (\mathrm{sin}(\omega t)y+\mathrm{cos}(\omega t)x)`$, with $`x,y^{N+1}`$ orthonormal and $`\pi `$ being the projection from $`^{N+1}`$ to $`^N`$. By the discussion above, it is also clear that this motion will have a collision of two or more vortices iff the corresponding geodesic intersects $`H`$. But since this geodesic lies on the projective line $`L=\pi (\text{span}_{}\{x,y\})^N,`$ and does not intersect itself during one period, we conclude that the number of collisions is not bigger than the cardinality of $`LH`$.

It is, however, a standard result in algebraic geometry that either $`LH`$ or # $`(LH)\text{deg}H=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}N2.`$ In fact, denoting $`x=(x_0,\mathrm{},x_N)`$ and $`y=(y_0,\mathrm{},y_N)`$ in $`^{N+1}`$, it follows that a point $`\pi (ux+vy)`$ in $`L`$, with $`(u,v)^2\{0\}`$, belongs to $`H`$ iff

$$Q(u,v):=\stackrel{~}{S}(ux_0+vy_0,\mathrm{},ux_N+vy_N)=0.$$

But since $`\stackrel{~}{S}`$ is homogeneous of degree $`2N2`$, so is $`Q`$, and therefore there is a factorization (see \[7, p. 31\] )

$$Q(u,v)=\underset{i=1}{\overset{2N2}{}}(\alpha _iu+\beta _iv),\text{for some }(\alpha _i,\beta _i)^2.$$

If $`Q`$ is identically zero we have $`LH`$. If $`Q`$ is not identically zero then the roots of $`Q`$ are $`(\beta _i,\alpha _i)0i`$, and it is apparent that $`LH`$ consists of the points $`\pi (\beta _ix\alpha _iy)`$, which are at most $`2N2`$.

We finally conclude that, either the vortices have a motion with at least two of them coincident for all time, which corresponds to $`LH`$, or there are at most $`2N2`$ collisions in one period.

Proof of the lemma :
This lemma is a slight generalization of well-known algebraic results, as stated for example in \[5, p. 168\] or \[3, p. 178\]. Consider $`P(z)=_{k=0}^na_kz^{nk}`$ and its derivative $`P^{}(z)=_{k=1}^n(nk+1)a_{k1}z^{nk}`$, and form the usual resultant

$$_{P,P^{}}(a_0,\mathrm{},a_n):=\left|\begin{array}{ccccc}a_0& & \mathrm{}& & a_n\\ & \mathrm{}& & & & \mathrm{}\\ & & a_0& & \mathrm{}& & a_n\\ na_0& & \mathrm{}& & a_{n1}\\ & \mathrm{}& & & & \mathrm{}\\ & & na_0& & \mathrm{}& & a_{n1}\end{array}\right|$$

where there are $`n1`$ rows with the coefficients of $`P`$ and $`n`$ rows with the coefficients of $`P^{}`$, so that the matrix is $`(2n1)\times (2n1)`$. Applying the usual expansion to the first column of this determinant we get

$$_{P,P^{}}(a_0,\mathrm{},a_n)=a_0S(a_0,\mathrm{},a_n)$$

with

$$\begin{array}{c}S(a_0,\mathrm{},a_n)=\hfill \\ \hfill =\left|\begin{array}{cccc}a_0& \mathrm{}& & a_n\\ & \mathrm{}& & & \mathrm{}\\ & & a_0& \mathrm{}& & a_n\\ (n1)a_1& \mathrm{}& a_{n1}\\ na_0& \mathrm{}& & a_{n1}\\ & \mathrm{}& & & \mathrm{}\\ & & na_0& \mathrm{}& & a_{n1}\end{array}\right|+(1)^nn\left|\begin{array}{ccc}a_1& \mathrm{}& a_n\\ a_0& \mathrm{}& & a_n\\ & \mathrm{}& & & \mathrm{}\\ & & a_0& \mathrm{}& & a_n\\ na_0& \mathrm{}& & a_{n1}\\ & \mathrm{}& & & \mathrm{}\\ & & na_0& \mathrm{}& & a_{n1}\end{array}\right|.\end{array}$$

Expanding again the first columns of the determinants in $`S(0,a_1,\mathrm{},a_n)`$ we get

$$S(0,a_1,\mathrm{},a_n)=(1)^n(n1)a_1_{Q,Q^{}}+(1)^nna_1_{Q,Q^{}}=(1)^n(2n1)a_1_{Q,Q^{}}$$

where $`Q(z)=_{k=1}^na_kz^{nk}`$.

Now, if $`a_00`$, by standard results in basic algebra (see ),

$$_{P,P^{}}=(1)^{n(n1)/2}a_0D(P),$$

where $`D(P)`$ is the discriminant of $`P`$, and therefore

$$S(a_0,\mathrm{},a_n)=0D(P)=0P\text{ has a multiple root}.$$

If $`a_0=0`$ then $`P(z)=Q(z)`$ and

$$S(a_0,\mathrm{},a_n)=S(0,a_1,\mathrm{},a_n)=0a_1=0\text{ or }_{Q,Q^{}}=0.$$

But when $`a_10`$, by the same algebraic results, $`_{Q,Q^{}}=0Q=P\text{has a multiple root}`$.

We finally conclude that

$$S(a_0,\mathrm{},a_n)=0P\text{ has a multiple root or }a_0=a_1=0.$$

Acknowledgements

NSM thanks Michael Singer for discussions about the Fubini-Study metric, and also thanks the Pure Mathematics Department, University of Adelaide, for hospitality at the time this work was initiated. JMB is supported by the ‘Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia’, Portugal, through the research grant SFRH/BD/4828/2001.

Appendix

In this appendix we compute integrals of the form

$$_{}\varphi \overline{\psi }\frac{2iR^2}{(1+|z|^2)^2}𝑑zd\overline{z}=_^2\varphi \overline{\psi }\frac{4R^2}{(1+x^2+y^2)^2}𝑑x𝑑y$$

where $`\varphi =(1+|z|^2)^{N/2}(a_0z^N+\mathrm{}+a_N)`$ and $`\psi =(1+|z|^2)^{N/2}(b_0z^N+\mathrm{}+b_N)`$ .

Write

$$\varphi \overline{\psi }=\underset{k,j=0}{\overset{N}{}}a_{Nj}\overline{b}_{Nk}f_{kj}(z),\text{with}f_{kj}(z)=\overline{z}^kz^j(1+|z|^2)^N.$$

Using polar coordinates and integration by parts,

$`I(k,j,N):`$ $`={\displaystyle _^2}{\displaystyle \frac{f_{kj}(z)}{(1+|z|^2)^2}}={\displaystyle _0^{2\pi }}e^{i(jk)\theta }𝑑\theta {\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{r^{k+j}}{(1+r^2)^{N+2}}}r𝑑r=`$
$`=2\pi \delta _{jk}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{r^{2k+1}}{(1+r^2)^{N+2}}}𝑑r=\delta _{jk}{\displaystyle \frac{\pi }{N+1}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}r^{2k}{\displaystyle \frac{d}{dr}}\left({\displaystyle \frac{1}{(1+r^2)^{N+1}}}\right)𝑑r=`$
$`=\delta _{jk}{\displaystyle \frac{2k\pi }{N+1}}{\displaystyle _0^{\mathrm{}}}{\displaystyle \frac{r^{2k1}}{(1+r^2)^{N+1}}}𝑑r=\delta _{jk}{\displaystyle \frac{k}{N+1}}I(k1,k1,N1)`$
where the vanishing of the boundary terms in the integration by parts is valid for $`Nk1`$. Since

$$I(0,0,Nk)=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}2}\pi _0^{\mathrm{}}\frac{r}{(1+r^2)^{Nk+2}}𝑑r=\frac{\pi }{Nk+1}\left[\frac{1}{(1+r^2)^{Nk+1}}\right]_0^{\mathrm{}}=\frac{\pi }{Nk+1}$$

we have

$$I(k,j,N)=\delta _{jk}\frac{k(k1)\mathrm{}1}{(N+1)\mathrm{}(N+2k)}I(0,0,Nk)=\frac{k!(Nk)!}{(N+1)!}\pi \delta _{jk}.$$

The final result is therefore

$$_{}\varphi \overline{\psi }\frac{2iR^2}{(1+|z|^2)^2}𝑑zd\overline{z}=4R^2\underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}I(k,k,N)a_{Nk}\overline{b}_{Nk}=\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}4}\pi R^2\underset{k=0}{\overset{N}{}}\frac{k!(Nk)!}{(N+1)!}a_k\overline{b}_k.$$


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text:
# SIDE-SLIPPING OF A RADIATING PARTICLE

(  Radiation reaction is revisited, first in a new classical aproach, where the physical particle 4-momentum is redefined as the energy-momentum flux across the future light cone and is not parallel to the 4-velocity. Then in a semi-classical approach, it is shown that, when emitting a photon, the particle "side-slips" transversaly to its initial momentum, justifying the non-colinearity between momentum and mean velocity. Side-slipping is finally checked in a pure quantum mechanical treatment of synchrotron radiation. PACS: 3.50.De 41.60.-m 61.85  )

1. RECALL ABOUT RADIATION

An electron submitted to an external field $`(𝐄_{in},𝐁_{in})`$ in vacuum emits radiation with the power :

$$\frac{dW_{rad}}{dt}=\frac{2}{3}\alpha _{cl}\left(\frac{d𝐗}{dt}\right)^2$$
$`(1)`$
The relativistic 4-vector generalization is

$$\frac{dP_{rad}^\mu }{d\tau }=\frac{2}{3}\alpha _{cl}(\ddot{X}\ddot{X})\dot{X}^\mu $$
$`(1^{})`$
We take unified dimensions for space and time ($`c=1`$) with the $`(+++)`$ metric. $`\dot{𝐗}d𝐗/d\tau `$, where $`\tau `$ is the proper time. We also use rationalized Maxwell equations, e.g. $`𝐄=\rho `$. We keep $`\mathrm{}1`$ and define $`\alpha _{cl}e^2/(4\pi )=\mathrm{}/137`$, where $`e=|e|`$ is the charge of the electron. To account for the loss of the electron energy, Abraham and Lorentz introduced the dissipative force

$$𝐟_{reac}=\frac{2}{3}\alpha _{cl}\stackrel{\mathrm{}}{𝐗}$$
$`(2)`$
The non-relativistic equation of motion is then

$$m\ddot{𝐗}=e(𝐄_{in}+\dot{𝐗}\times 𝐁_{in})+𝐟_{reac}$$

whose relativistic generalization is the Abraham-Lorentz-Dirac (ALD) equation :

$$m\ddot{X}=eF_{in}(X)\dot{X}\frac{2}{3}\alpha _{cl}[(\ddot{X}\ddot{X})\dot{X}\stackrel{\mathrm{}}{X}]$$
$`(3)`$
We use the notation $`(F\dot{X})^\mu F^{\mu \nu }\dot{X}_\nu `$. $`F_{in}=\{𝐄_{in},𝐁_{in}\}`$ is the "incoming" (or "external") electromagnetic field, related to the total, retarded, advanced and outgoing fields by

$$F_{tot}=F_{in}+F_{ret}=F_{adv}+F_{out},$$
$`(4)`$
$$F_{rad}=F_{out}F_{in}=F_{ret}F_{adv}.$$
$`(4^{})`$
In the following we shall omit the suffix $`in`$. An excellent review on radiation reaction can be found in Ref.

The "mad electron".

Although mathematically elegant, the ALD equation is not physically acceptable for the following reasons :

* a third initial condition $`\ddot{X}(0)`$ is needed in addition to $`X(0)`$ and $`\dot{X}(0)`$.

* for almost every $`\ddot{X}(0)`$, the electron eventually goes into a run-away motion.

* given $`X(0)`$ and $`\dot{X}(0)`$, there may exist one (or a discrete set of) $`\ddot{X}(0)`$ such that the electron avoids run-away motion, but this value depends on all the fields $`F_{in}(X)`$ that the electron will encounter in the future. Saying that "nature precisely chooses this $`\ddot{X}(0)`$" constitutes a violation of the causality principle.

One may compare this situation with the following one : In a bus, a passenger puts a stick vertical on the floor and wants it to remain standing up in equilibrium during the whole journey, and also after the bus has stopped. To counter-act the accelerations of the bus, he or she must give some initial angular velocity to the stick (Fig.1). To do so, the passenger must know exactly in advance the accelerations of the vehicle during the whole journey.

The run-away instability is probably related to the point-like limit of the classical electron considered by Lorentz : For a sufficiently small radius, the electrostatic self-energy is larger than the physical mass. Then the electron "core" has a negative mass and "likes" to accelerate, since that lowers its kinetic energy.

It is possible to find approximations of the ALD equation, valid to first order in $`\alpha _{cl}`$, which remove the arbitrariness of $`\ddot{X}(0)`$ and have no run-away solutions. One of them  is obtained by replacing $`\ddot{X}`$ and $`\stackrel{\mathrm{}}{X}`$ in the right-hand side of (3) by their values calculated without radiation reaction,

$$\ddot{X}(e/m)F\dot{X},$$

$$\stackrel{\mathrm{}}{X}(e/m)\dot{F}\dot{X}+(e/m)^2FF\dot{X}$$

with $`\dot{F}=\dot{X}^\lambda _\lambda F(X)`$. On obtains

$$m\ddot{X}=eF\dot{X}+\sigma _{Th}\left[FF\dot{X}(F\dot{X})^2\dot{X}\right]+\frac{2e}{3}r_{cl}\dot{F}\dot{X},$$
$`(5)`$
where $`r_{cl}=e^2/(4\pi m)`$ is the classical electron radius and $`\sigma _{Th}=(8\pi /3)r_{cl}^2`$ the Thomson cross section. The second term of (5) can be interpreted as the radiation pressure of the incoming field.

REFORMULATION OF THE ALD EQUATION AND NEW APPROXIMATIONS

Usually, one identifies $`m\ddot{X}`$ with the physical 4-momentum of the particle. Then Eqs. (1’) and (3) do not seem to conserve the total 4-momentum instantaneously, because of the Schott term $`(2\alpha _{cl}/3)\stackrel{\mathrm{}}{X}`$. Redefining the 4-momentum as

$$P^\mu =m\dot{X}^\mu \frac{2}{3}\alpha _{cl}\ddot{X}^\mu ,$$
$`(6)`$
the ALD equation can be replaced by the following system :

$$m\dot{X}=P+\frac{2}{3}\alpha _{cl}\ddot{X}$$
$`(7a)`$
$$\dot{P}=eF\dot{X}\frac{2}{3}\alpha _{cl}(\ddot{X}\ddot{X})\dot{X}.$$
$`(7b)`$
Eqs.(1’) and (7b) make the instantaneous conservation of the total 4-momentum manifest. On the other hand, the mass is not conserved : $`PPm^2`$ and $`𝐏`$ is not colinear to the electron velocity. These two features are not physically damning. (6) can be approximated by $`P(\tau )m\dot{X}(\tau 2r_e/3)`$, telling that the electromagnetic part of $`P^\mu `$ follows the variations of the core velocity with some delay.

In what follows, we shall show that (6) is a quite natural definition of $`P^\mu `$. As usual, we separate $`P^\mu `$ in core and electromagnetic contributions :

$$P=m_c\dot{X}+\delta P$$
$`(8)`$
with

$$\delta P^\mu =_\mathrm{\Sigma }𝑑\mathrm{\Sigma }_\nu \mathrm{\Theta }^{\mu \nu },$$
$`(9)`$
where $`\mathrm{\Theta }^{\mu \nu }`$ is the energy-momentum flux tensor of the electron field. The latter field is not uniquely defined : it can be the retarded one, the advanced one or any linear combination of the two. Looking at the first decomposition of Eq.(4), we choose the retarded field. So we consider that the incoming field does not contribute to the self 4-momentum and only exerts a force on the core according to the first term of (3). As hyper-surface $`\mathrm{\Sigma }`$ we a priori choose the future light cone of the electron (Fig.2). This avoids a contribution from the radiated field $`F_{rad}`$, the 4-momentum of which flows parallel to the cone and does not cross it.

Let us consider a point $`X^\mu (\tau _0)`$ of the electron world line. For a space-time point $`Y^\mu `$ of its future light cone, we define

$$YX(\tau _0)R=(r,𝐫)=r(1,\widehat{𝐫}).$$

The integrand of (9) can be evaluated most easily in the electron rest frame, using standard formulas for $`𝐄_{ret}`$, $`𝐁_{ret}`$, $`\mathrm{\Theta }^{\mu \nu }`$ and

$$(d\mathrm{\Sigma }_\nu )=d^3𝐫(1,\widehat{𝐫}).$$
$`(10)`$
We only give the result :

$$\delta P=\frac{\alpha _{cl}}{8\pi }\frac{d^3𝐫}{r^4}(1,\widehat{𝐫})$$

$$=\frac{\alpha _{cl}}{8\pi }\frac{d^3𝐫}{r}[\dot{X}(\tau _0)R]^4R.$$
$`(11)`$
The second expression is Lorentz invariant and applies as well in frames where the electron is not at rest. Note that the acceleration does not enter this formula. It confirms that there is no contribution of the radiated field.

The integral diverges at $`𝐫=0`$, recalling that the classical self-energy of a point-like charge is infinite. In the following, we will assume that the electron has some very small but finite extension $`r_c`$. To treat the divergence, we truncate the light cone by a hyperplane orthogonal to the electron world line at $`X(\tau )`$ where $`\tau \tau _0=\rho `$ is a small distance, but larger than $`r_c`$ (Fig.3). We now take the rest frame of the electron at $`X(\tau )`$ (not $`\tau _0`$). We close the cone, truncated at $`r\rho `$, by the piece of hyperplane $`R^0=\rho `$, $`|𝐑|\rho `$ and integrate (9) on the new hypersurface (in grey on Fig.3) which we call a "flower-pot". To first order in $`\rho `$,

$$\dot{X}(\tau _0)=(1,\rho \ddot{𝐗})$$

$$[\dot{X}(\tau _0)R]^4=r^4[\mathrm{\hspace{0.17em}1}4\rho \ddot{𝐗}\widehat{𝐫}].$$
$`(12)`$
The truncated integral of (11) is

$$\delta P_{r>\rho }=\alpha _{cl}(\frac{1}{2\rho },\frac{2}{3}\ddot{𝐗}(\tau ))$$

$$=\frac{\alpha _{cl}}{2\rho }\dot{X}(\tau )\frac{2}{3}\alpha _{cl}\ddot{X}(\tau ),$$
$`(13)`$
the second expression being frame-independent. The hyperplane piece (bottom of the flower-pot) is the interior the sphere of radius $`\rho `$ at fixed time. It is approximately centered at $`𝐗(\tau )`$, the displacement being of second order in $`\rho `$. Its contribution to (9) is

$$\delta P_{r<\rho }=(\delta m_{r<\rho },0)=\delta m_{r<\rho }\dot{X}(\tau ).$$
$`(14)`$
The total 4-momentum at proper time $`\tau `$ (not $`\tau _0`$) is obtained from (8), (13) and (14). We recover the new definition

$$P(\tau )=m\dot{X}(\tau )\frac{2}{3}\alpha _{cl}\ddot{X}(\tau )$$
$`(6)`$
where

$$m=m_c+\delta m_{r<\rho }+\frac{\alpha _{cl}}{2\rho }$$
$`(15)`$
is the renormalized mass of the electron. The third term is the Coulomb self-energy at $`r\rho `$ whereas the detailed short range structure of the electron is summarized in the sum of the first two terms.

Let us make the energy-momentum balance in the space-time region between two successive "flower-pots" at proper times $`\tau `$ and $`\tau +d\tau `$ :

* $`P(\tau )`$ is coming through the first flower-pot,

* $`dP_{in}=eF_{in}\dot{X}d\tau `$ is brought to the core by $`F_{in}`$,

* $`dP_{rad}=\frac{2}{3}\alpha _{cl}(\ddot{X}\ddot{X})\dot{X}d\tau `$ is radiated at infinity between the two flower-pots,

* $`P(\tau +d\tau )=P(\tau )+\dot{P}d\tau `$ is outgoing through the second flower-pot.

Adding the first two quantities and subtracting the last two ones must give zero. This gives (7b).

The above calculations constitute a new and relatively simple derivation of the ALD equation, written in the form (7). From this form on can derive new types of approximations \[3-5\], also valid to first order in $`\alpha _{cl}`$. The simplest one to implement in a computer code is obtained replacing $`\ddot{X}`$ in the right-hand sides by $`(e/m^2)FP`$. On may in addition replace the last $`\dot{X}`$ by $`P/m`$. Compared to (5), these approximations have the advantage of not involving the field derivatives.

3. SEMI-CLASSICAL APPROACH

Eq.(6) tells that the momentum does not follow the velocity, but one may see things the other way around and say that the electron does not follows the direction of its momentum. We call this phenomenon side-slipping, by analogy with a skier whose track is not always tangential to the skis (Fig.4)

A discrete side-slipping is naturally obtained in a semi-classical description of the process $`e^{}e^{}+photon`$ in an external field. If we consider this process as instantaneous and local at a definite point $`𝐗`$ of the trajectory, it cannot satisfy the conservation of both momentum,

$$𝐏=𝐏^{}+\mathrm{}𝐤$$
$`(16)`$
and energy

$$ϵ=ϵ^{}+\mathrm{}\omega $$
$`(17)`$
with $`ϵ\sqrt{𝐏^2+m^2}`$. However, 4-momentum conservation becomes possible if we assume that the final electron trajectory starts from a point $`𝐗^{}𝐗`$ aside from the initial trajectory. In the case of a static electric field, we replace (17) by

$$U(𝐗)+ϵ=U(𝐗^{})+ϵ^{}+\mathrm{}\omega $$
$`(17^{})`$
where $`U(𝐗)`$ is the potential energy. (17’) and (17) give

$$\delta U=U(𝐗^{})U(𝐗)\frac{ϵ}{ϵ^{}}\mathrm{}\omega \frac{\gamma ^2+\theta ^2}{2},$$
$`(18)`$
where $`\theta `$ is the angle between $`𝐏`$ and $`𝐤`$. $`\delta U`$ is obtained by a finite displacement $`\delta 𝐗=𝐗^{}𝐗`$ of the electron toward a lower potential energy. In the ultrarelativistic case, we take $`\delta 𝐗`$ perpendicular to the trajectory :

$$\delta 𝐗=\frac{ϵ}{ϵ^{}}\mathrm{}\omega \frac{\gamma ^2+\theta ^2}{2}\frac{𝐟_{}}{|𝐟_{}|^2}$$
$`(19)`$
where $`𝐟_{}`$ is the transverse component of the force. Such a "side-slipping" was already introduced in channeling radiation (Eqs.15-17 of Ref.). It contributes to the decrease of the transverse energy which explains the very fast energy loss of axially channeled electrons above hundred GeV.

Let us now consider synchrotron radiation in a uniform magnetic field $`𝐁=B\widehat{𝐳}`$ derived from the vector potential

$$𝐀=(yB,0,0).$$
$`(20)`$
The particle hamiltonian is $`(𝐏^2+m^2)^{1/2}`$ where $`𝐏=𝐩e𝐀`$ is the mechanical momentum and $`𝐩`$ the canonical one. In the gauge (20), the hamiltonian is invariant under translation in the $`x`$ and $`z`$ directions, therefore $`p_x`$ and $`p_z`$ are conserved. We assume that the photon is emitted when the electron is at $`x=0`$, $`y=R`$ (Fig.5). Then we require the conservation laws (16-17), but with $`𝐩`$ and $`𝐩^{}`$ in place of $`𝐏`$ and $`𝐏^{}`$. For the $`x`$-component it writes

$$P_x+eyB=P_x^{}+ey^{}B+\mathrm{}k_x,$$
$`(21)`$
where have anticipated a side-slipping $`y^{}=y+\delta y`$. For $`|e|B\delta y`$ we obtain the same result (18) as for $`\delta U`$ and, since $`|e|B|𝐟|`$, $`\delta y`$ is given by (19) or

$$\delta y=\frac{\mathrm{}\omega }{ϵ^{}}R\frac{\gamma ^2+\theta ^2}{2}.$$
$`(22)`$
The side-slipping has also the virtue of insuring angular momentum conservation. Let us consider again the circular trajectory of Fig.5, but now due to the spherically symmetric potential $`U(|𝐗|)`$. Neglecting spin, the $`z`$-component of the angular momenta of the initial and final electrons are

$$L_z=yP_x,L_z^{}=y^{}P_x^{}.$$
$`(23)`$
Here we neglect the quantum recoil effect, i.e. we use the classical or soft photon approximation ($`\mathrm{}\omega ϵm`$). The source of the radiation - and the radiation itself - is invariant under a time translation by $`\mathrm{\Delta }t`$ times a rotation by the angle $`v\mathrm{\Delta }t/R`$. For a photon quantum state of definite angular momentum $`J_z`$ and frequency $`\omega `$, this invariance is expressed as

$$\mathrm{exp}[i(v\mathrm{\Delta }t/R)J_z]\times \mathrm{exp}(i\omega \mathrm{\Delta }t)=1$$

therefore

$$J_z=\omega R/v.$$
$`(24)`$
The conservation of angular momentum,

$$L_z=L_z^{}+J_z.$$
$`(25)`$
together with that of linear momentum along $`\widehat{𝐱}`$,

$$P_x=P_x^{}+\mathrm{}k_x$$
$`(26)`$
yield the result (22) again, with $`ϵϵ^{}`$.

Incidentally, identifying (24) with the "classical photon" result $`J_z=yk_x`$ implies a "side-slipping" for the photon also :

$$y_{phot}R=\frac{\gamma ^2+\theta _z^2}{2}R,$$
$`(27)`$
which could be observed at low-energy synchrotron machines.

The side-slipping formula (19) can be generalized in a covariant form, writing the 4-momentum conservation as

$$P+Q=P^{}+\mathrm{}K$$
$`(28)`$
We assume that $`Q`$ is provided by the work of the external field along $`\delta X`$ :

$$Q=eF\delta X$$
$`(29)`$
Squaring the two sides of (28), using $`P^2=P^2=m^2`$, $`K^2=0`$ and neglecting $`Q^2`$ a priori, we obtain

$$PQ=\mathrm{}KP^{}\left(\frac{ϵ}{ϵ^{}}\mathrm{}KP\right).$$
$`(30)`$
Using $`PF\dot{P}=\dot{P}FP`$ and, to first order in $`\alpha _{cl}`$, $`P=m\dot{X}`$, $`F\dot{X}=\dot{P}`$, one can verify that

$$\delta X^\mu =\frac{\mathrm{}}{m}\frac{KP^{}}{\dot{P}\dot{P}}\dot{P}^\mu ,$$
$`(31)`$
inserted in (29), satisfies (30). The neglect of $`Q^2`$ has to be checked a posteriori from (29). We expect it to be small if the external field varies smooththly, e.g. in synchrotron or channeling radiations, interpreting $`Q`$ as the momentum of the virtual photon(s) taken from the external field.

In the limit $`\mathrm{}0`$, the 4-momenta of the individual photons goes to zero and their number goes to infinity so that the total radiated 4-momentum is finite and given by (1’). Summing all the small side-slippings (31) during the proper time $`d\tau `$, approximating $`KP^{}`$ by $`KP`$, one recovers Eq.(7a), to first order in $`\alpha _{cl}`$. This is illustrated in Fig.6.

4. FULL QUANTUM DERIVATION

Side-slipping was deduced above from semi-classical arguments of energy, momentum and angular momentum conservation. Here we will derive side-slipping from a full quantum treatment, in the particular case of synchrotron radiation. Neglecting electron spin, we start from the Klein-Gordon equation (now $`\mathrm{}=1`$),

$$[(ie𝐀)^2_t^2m^2]\mathrm{\Psi }=0$$
$`(32)`$
and consider a wave packet of the form

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=e^{ipxiϵt}\psi $$
$`(33)`$
where $`P^\mu =(ϵ,p,0,0)`$ is a reference 4-momentum and $`\psi `$ a slowly varying function of $`(t,x,y,z)`$. Using $`ϵ^2=p^2+m^2`$, (32) becomes

$$[iϵ_+_+_{}+i(Ep)_x+_y^2+_z^2$$

$$+2fy(pi_x)f^2y^2]\psi =0$$
$`(34)`$
where $`_\pm =_t\pm _x`$ and $`f=|e|B`$. Assuming $`ϵpm`$ we consider $`_+`$ to be of order $`ϵ^1`$, which allows us to neglect the second and third terms of the square bracket. Furthermore, we take a wave packet located near $`(x,y,z)=0`$ at time $`t=0`$ (we change the origin of the coordinates in Fig.5). So we neglect the terms in $`y^2`$ and $`y_x`$ (but not in $`yp`$). We get

$$[i(_t+_x)+\frac{1}{2ϵ}(_y^2+_z^2)fy]\psi =0.$$
$`(35)`$
Looking for solution of the form

$$\psi (t,x,y,z)=\chi (xt)\varphi (t,y,z),$$
$`(36)`$
we are left with the 2-dimensional Schrödinger equation for a particle of mass $`ϵ=\gamma m`$ in the linear potential $`V(y)=by`$ :

$$[i_t+\frac{1}{2ϵ}(_y^2+_z^2)fy]\varphi =0$$
$`(37)`$
Using the coordinate of the accelerated frame

$$y_a=y+\frac{f}{2ϵ}t^2$$
$`(38)`$
and setting

$$\varphi (t,y,z)=\varphi _a(t,y_a,z)\mathrm{exp}\left(iftyi\frac{b^2t^3}{6ϵ}\right)$$
$`(39)`$
we transform (37) in the free-particle Schrödinger equation,

$$[i_t+\frac{1}{2ϵ}(_{y_a}^2+_z^2)]\varphi _a(t,y_a,z)=0.$$
$`(40)`$
Thus $`\varphi _a`$ can be expanded in plane waves :

$$\varphi _a=\frac{dq}{2\pi }\frac{dr}{2\pi }\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_a(q,r)\mathrm{exp}\left(iqy_a+irzi\frac{q^2+r^2}{2ϵ}t\right)$$
$`(41)`$
To sum up,

$$\mathrm{\Psi }=e^{ipxiϵt}\chi (xt)\mathrm{exp}\left(iftyi\frac{b^2t^3}{6E}\right)\frac{dq}{2\pi }\frac{dr}{2\pi }$$

$$\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_a(q,r)\mathrm{exp}\left[i\left(qy+\frac{qft^2}{2ϵ}+rz\frac{q^2+r^2}{2ϵ}t\right)\right]$$
$`(42).`$
We consider the transition from the electron state $`|i=|\mathrm{\Psi }`$ (in the Schrödinger representation) to the electron + photon state $`|f=|\mathrm{\Psi }^{}|𝐤,𝐚`$ where $`\mathrm{\Psi }^{}`$ is given by (42) with primed quantities. The wave packets $`\mathrm{\Psi }`$ and $`\mathrm{\Psi }^{}`$ are represented by the striated ellipses of Fig.5. Taking (without loss of generality) $`𝐤`$ along the $`x`$ axis, the photon vector potential is given by

$$𝐀(t,𝐗)=𝐚e^{ik(xt)}.$$
$`(43)`$
To first order in perturbation, the transition amplitude is

$$f|S|i=i𝑑tf|H_I|i$$
$`(44)`$
with the interaction hamiltonian $`H_I`$ given by

$$f|H_I|i=ied^3𝐗\mathrm{\Psi }^{}(t,𝐗)𝐀^{}(t,𝐗)\mathrm{\Psi }(t,𝐗).$$
$`(45)`$
We now combine Eqs.(42-45). Integrations over $`y`$ and $`z`$ impose $`q=q^{}`$ and $`r=r^{}`$. Using the shifted variable $`x^{}=xt`$, the integration over the $`x`$-dependent factors gives

$$e^{i(p^{}+kp)t}𝑑x^{}e^{i(p^{}+kp)t}\chi (x^{})\chi ^{}(x^{}).$$
$`(46)`$
We introduce the parameter

$$\mathrm{\Lambda }=(ϵ^{}ϵp^{}+p)/m^2\frac{k}{2ϵϵ^{}}$$
$`(47)`$
and write the remaining 3-fold integral as

$$I=𝑑t𝑑q𝑑r\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_a^{}(q,r)(q𝐚_y^{}+r𝐚_z^{})\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_a(q,r)$$

$$\mathrm{exp}\left\{i\mathrm{\Lambda }\left[(m^2+q^2+r^2)tqft^2+f^2\frac{t^3}{3}\right]\right\},$$
$`(48)`$
Shifting the time variable $`t^{}=tq/f`$, we can decouple the exponential into

$$\mathrm{exp}\left\{i\mathrm{\Lambda }\left[(m^2+r^2)t^{}+f^2\frac{t^3}{3}\right]\right\}$$
$`(49)`$
and

$$\mathrm{exp}\left\{i\frac{\mathrm{\Lambda }}{f}\left[(m^2+r^2)q+\frac{q^3}{3}\right]\right\}.$$
$`(50)`$
The phase factor of (49) is the same as in the semi-classical radiation formula,

$$\mathrm{exp}\left\{i\frac{ϵ}{ϵ^{}}[\omega t^{}𝐤𝐗(t^{})]\right\},$$
$`(51)`$
knowing that the transverse components of the velocity $`d𝐗/dt^{}`$ are $`v_y(t^{})=ft^{}/ϵ`$, $`v_z=r/ϵ`$. The factor $`ϵ/ϵ^{}`$ is a recoil correction.

The factor which interests us is (50). Linearizing the cubic term about the mean value $`<q>=ϵv_y`$ and replacing $`r`$ by $`<r>=ϵv_z`$, we can rewrite (50) as

$$C\mathrm{exp}(iq\delta y)$$
$`(52)`$
where $`\delta y`$ is equal to the right-hand side of (19) or (22). In (52) we recognize the operator of the $`y`$-translation by $`\delta y`$, written in the momentum space representation. The maximum transition amplitude is obtained when the wave packet $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_a^{}`$ is transversaly shifted from $`\stackrel{~}{\varphi }_a`$ by $`\delta y`$. This confirms the semi-classical derivation of the side-slipping.

5. CONCLUSION

In this study, we have got new insight in the radiation mechanism. Using purely classical, semi-classical and quantum-mechanical approaches, we have shown that the velocity and the properly defined momentum of the radiating particle are not parallel, as illustrated in Fig.6. The classical run-away problem still remains unsolved, but we have obtained a new approximation of the ALD equation, without run-away and not involving the field derivatives. It can be easily implemented on a computer code.

The discrete side-slipping accompanying the emission of a photon is of the order of the comptom wavelength, hence hardly detectable. However its contribution to the decrease of the transverse energy of a high-energy electron channeled in crystals may be non-negligible. The "side-slipping of the photon" (27), much larger than the electron one, may be observed with precise optics.

The transverse jumping of the particle from the initial to the final trajectory has no classical counterpart. It can be viewed as a tunnel effect. A similar effect should take place in the crossed reaction $`\gamma e^++e^{}`$ in a strong field (Eq.2 of Ref.).

Part of this work was supported by the INTAS contract 97-30392 : "Theoretical Investigation of Propagation of Particles, Ions and X-Rays through Straight and Bent Nanotubes and Associated Phenomena". Two of us (G.B. and T.Q.) took part in this work during training periods at Institut de Physique Nucléaire de Lyon.

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