Social Relations of Kalmyks in the First Half of the XIX<sup>th</sup> Century
The article examines the social relations in Kalmyk society in the ﬁrst half of the XIX<sup>th</sup> century. Legally dependent relations had not been recorded in any document till the Russian legislation ﬁxed them between the commoners and the privileged nomadic elite, having strengthened caste hierarchy in Kalmyk society. Taisha, who was ofﬁcially called Khan governed the people. Noyons-landlords belonged to the highest class in the traditional social structure of Kalmyk nomads and their rights were hereditary. They were the heads of uluses but aimags were under zayangs. The descendants of Kalmyk commoners also belonged to tsagan yasn („white bone‟). They had received from the Dalai Lama or khans freedom from taxes and land allotments - the aimags. The composition of the upper class also included the Kalmyk clergy, whose positions were not hereditary. The most part of the Kalmyk society were the commoners, or khar yasn („black bone‟), who since the time of the Mongol Empire had to provide a certain number of the armed men and provisions. The commoners were divided into several groups: aimag, ketcheners, shabiners, tarkhans / darkhans, andyns. In the course of time the privileged position of the nomadic elite disappeared and both commoners and representatives of the highest class became full-ﬂedged citizens of the Russian Empire.