UniversalCEFR/readme_en · Datasets at Hugging Face

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na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The synchronized-loss hypothesis is based on the idea that, if the queue is full, late-arriving packets from each connection will ﬁnd it so, and be dropped.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Epilog Ethernet dominates the LAN layer, but is not one single LAN protocol: it comes in a variety of speeds and ﬂavors.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	A router that drops a packet due to congestion experience was encouraged to send ICMP Source Quench to the originating host.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The most important psychopathological phenomena include thought echo; thought insertion or withdrawal; thought broadcasting; delusional perception and delusions of control; influence or passivity; hallucinatory voices commenting or discussing the patient in the third person; thought disorders and negative symptoms
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	It should be noted that Herbert Simon and Allen Newell identified the 'thinking-aloud' protocol, in which investigators view a subject engaged in introspection, and who speaks his thoughts aloud, thus allowing study of his introspection
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	It is based on decades of university-based research, drawing on knowledge gained through close observation and analysis of both successful and unsuccessful marriages and family units
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The glandular systems The body has two types of glandular systems, the endocrine, which generally secrete hormones through the bloodstream, and the exocrene which secrete fluids to the outer surfaces of the body, such as sweating
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	As with all mental events, underlying this general topic are the neuroscientific and biological factors that modulate the uses of the various sub-mechanisms
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	It has traditionally been associated with psychological treatment and psychotherapy, although modern clinical psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic approaches.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The major and most determining part of socialization occurs in the early childhood.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The proportion of correct responses would be the measurement used to describe whether or not all the tones were equally discriminable.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The method of data collection also varies, with self-report on one end of the spectrum and naturalistic observation on the other
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The Transmission of the Signal The transmission of the signal is basically the same in all cells, the signal is sent across the synapse by the axon and the dendrite of the next cell picks up the signal
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Cognitive psychology is the psychological science which studies cognition, the mental processes that are hypothesised to underlie behavior.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The work and theories of the above mentioned psychologists will be linked from this site soon
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The biological perspective is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states, very closely related to neuroscience
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	A related area is community psychology, which examines psychological and mental health issues on the level of the community rather than using the individual as the unit of measurement
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The social psychology can be divided into two major categories based on the emphasis given to either of the constituing disciplines, Psychology and Sociology.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Psychophysics is the branch of psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their perception
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	A2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Psychology is the scientific study of behavior, cognition, and emotion
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The peripheral nervous system Any part of the nervous system that is not part of the central nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	It contains the brain and the spinal cord which are both encased in bone which shows their importance.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Axons may be as small as several microns or as long as several meters in giraffes and whales.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Studies that do not test specific relationships between variables are called descriptive studies.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Trying to break up behavior into seperate parts is simplistic because everything affects everything else
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Organizational Psychology was not officially added until the 1970s and since then, the field has flourished.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy individuals.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The majority of mainstream psychology is based on a framework derived from cognitive psychology, although the popularity of this paradigm does not exclude others, which are often applied as necessary.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	If a researcher expects certain results from an experiment and influences the subjects response this is called demand characteristics.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	A2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	It allowed the study of new subjects including children and animals
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Psychometrics is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Debates continue, however, such as the questioned effectiveness of probability testing as a valid research tool.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	An understanding of brain function is increasingly being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Tourette's syndrome sufferers usually have faster reflexes than other people.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Psychodynamic psychology was first practiced by Sigmund Freud, although he didn't intend it to be a system
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Noam Chomsky's review of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior (that aimed to explain language acquisition in a behaviorist framework) is considered one of the major factors in the ending of behaviorism's reign.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Individual-to-individual variance, introduced in reproduction and meiosis, is the basis for different personality traits and differences in temperament between individuals
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Increasingly, though, an understanding of brain function is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence , neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside various therapy models.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Connectionism uses neural nets to simulate the brain.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Because some areas of psychology rely on "soft" research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics have claimed that psychology is not as scientific as psychologists assume.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Drawing has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The word photograph was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς (phos), meaning "light," and γραφή (graphê), meaning "drawing, writing," together meaning "drawing with light."
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	It is believed that drawing was used as a specialised form of communication before the invention of the written language, demonstrated by the production of cave and rock paintings around 30,000 years ago (Art of the Upper Paleolithic).
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Panoramic format images can be taken with cameras like the Hasselblad Xpan on standard film.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Before recent advances in digital photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness and accuracy of color rendition.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	These drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Furthermore, the influential artist and art critic John Ruskin emphasised the importance of perception in the drawing process in his book The Elements of Drawing.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Both became breakout characters used as a device to increase their shows' ratings.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Before the widespread availability of paper, 12th-century monks in European monasteries used intricate drawings to prepare illustrated, illuminated manuscripts on vellum and parchment.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The success of illustrated humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American, particularly Outcault's The Yellow Kid, led to the development of newspaper comic strips.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Drawing became significant as an art form around the late 15th century, with artists and master engravers such as Albrecht Dürer and Martin Schongauer (c. 1448-1491), the first Northern engraver known by name.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	A2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Do not pick it up from a corner, or even from two sides and hold it at eye level.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The types of printers used include inkjet printers, dye-sublimation printer, laser printers, and thermal printers.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	This condition is often used by an author to create conflict within a story.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour, while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	One study posited four key abilities in the drawing process: motor skills required for mark-making, the drawer's own perception of their drawing, perception of objects being drawn, and the ability to make good representational decisions.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Photographs sleeved or encapsulated in polyester cannot be stored vertically in boxes because they will slide down next to each other within the box, bending and folding, nor can the archivist write directly onto the polyester to identify the photograph.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic merit.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the required exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical and widely popular.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	A2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Common methods of digital drawing include a stylus or finger on a touchscreen device, stylus- or finger-to-touchpad, or in some cases, a mouse.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	In the post-war era modern Japanese comics began to flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Harvey saw McCloud's definition as excluding single-panel cartoons, and objected to McCloud's de-emphasizing verbal elements, insisting "the essential characteristic of comics is the incorporation of verbal content".
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Sometimes the artist leaves a section of the image untouched while filling in the remainder.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Today popular sites such as Flickr, PhotoBucket and 500px are used by millions of people to share their pictures.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Short-term memory plays an important part in drawing as one's gaze shifts between the object they are drawing and the drawing itself.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	While most narratives will often portray the protagonist as a hero and the antagonist as a villain, like Harry Potter and Lord Voldemort in Harry Potter, the antagonist does not always appear as the villain.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	In a sketch or outline drawing, lines drawn often follow the contour of the subject, creating depth by looking like shadows cast from a light in the artist's position.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	A2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Drawing diagrams of observations is an important part of scientific study.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Prime moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became established in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō newspaper—the first use of the word "manga" in its modern sense, and where, in 1902, Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	A2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Other tools used are circle compass, ruler, and set square.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	These early processes produced transparencies for use in slide projectors and viewing devices, but color prints became increasingly popular after the introduction of chromogenic color print paper in the 1940s.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Another technique is subtractive drawing in which the drawing surface is covered with graphite or charcoal and then erased to make the image.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	A2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, draftsman, or draughtsman.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Ganesh drawing is a popular drawing technique used in India that usually involves drawing a full-body illustration of Ganesh drawing is often practiced in the presence of Ganesh statues and devotees.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	These models predict an upward trend in the surface temperatures, as well as a more rapid increase in temperature at higher latitudes.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Modeling is used for understanding past, present and potential future climates.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Modern technology, including advances in printing, the advent of Geographic information systems and Graphics software, and the Internet, has vastly simplified the process of map creation and increased the palette of design options available to cartographers.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Society of Cartographers supports in the UK the practising cartographer and encourages and maintains a high standard of cartographic illustration
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Along with the substantial text he had written, he created a world map influenced mostly by the Ptolemaic conception of the world, but with significant influence from multiple Arab geographers.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	The cartographic process spans many stages, starting from conceiving the need for a map and extending all the way through its consumption by an audience.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	This idea that climate controls which countries excel depending on their climate, or climatic determinism, remained influential throughout history.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	C1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Phenomena of climatological interest include the atmospheric boundary layer, circulation patterns, heat transfer (radiative, convective and latent), interactions between the atmosphere and the oceans and land surface (particularly vegetation, land use and topography), and the chemical and physical composition of the atmosphere.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Attention is paid also to regionalization, which covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into regions.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	A simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Boundary-layer climatology is preoccupied with exchanges in water, energy and momentum near the surface.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	These methods revitalized the discipline in many ways, allowing scientific testing of hypotheses and proposing scientific geographic theories and laws.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B2	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Being raised from the rest of the block, the map lines cause indentations in the paper that can often be felt on the back of the map.
na	en	readme	sentence-level	reference	B1	CC BY SA NC 4.0	Physical geography is the study of earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans.

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The synchronized-loss hypothesis is based on the idea that, if the queue is full, late-arriving packets from each connection will ﬁnd it so, and be dropped.

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Epilog Ethernet dominates the LAN layer, but is not one single LAN protocol: it comes in a variety of speeds and ﬂavors.

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A router that drops a packet due to congestion experience was encouraged to send ICMP Source Quench to the originating host.

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The most important psychopathological phenomena include thought echo; thought insertion or withdrawal; thought broadcasting; delusional perception and delusions of control; influence or passivity; hallucinatory voices commenting or discussing the patient in the third person; thought disorders and negative symptoms

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It should be noted that Herbert Simon and Allen Newell identified the 'thinking-aloud' protocol, in which investigators view a subject engaged in introspection, and who speaks his thoughts aloud, thus allowing study of his introspection

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It is based on decades of university-based research, drawing on knowledge gained through close observation and analysis of both successful and unsuccessful marriages and family units

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The glandular systems The body has two types of glandular systems, the endocrine, which generally secrete hormones through the bloodstream, and the exocrene which secrete fluids to the outer surfaces of the body, such as sweating

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Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other.

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As with all mental events, underlying this general topic are the neuroscientific and biological factors that modulate the uses of the various sub-mechanisms

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It has traditionally been associated with psychological treatment and psychotherapy, although modern clinical psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic approaches.

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The major and most determining part of socialization occurs in the early childhood.

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The proportion of correct responses would be the measurement used to describe whether or not all the tones were equally discriminable.

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The method of data collection also varies, with self-report on one end of the spectrum and naturalistic observation on the other

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The Transmission of the Signal The transmission of the signal is basically the same in all cells, the signal is sent across the synapse by the axon and the dendrite of the next cell picks up the signal

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Cognitive psychology is the psychological science which studies cognition, the mental processes that are hypothesised to underlie behavior.

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The work and theories of the above mentioned psychologists will be linked from this site soon

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The biological perspective is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states, very closely related to neuroscience

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A related area is community psychology, which examines psychological and mental health issues on the level of the community rather than using the individual as the unit of measurement

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The social psychology can be divided into two major categories based on the emphasis given to either of the constituing disciplines, Psychology and Sociology.

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Psychophysics is the branch of psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their perception

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Psychology is the scientific study of behavior, cognition, and emotion

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The peripheral nervous system Any part of the nervous system that is not part of the central nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system.

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It contains the brain and the spinal cord which are both encased in bone which shows their importance.

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Axons may be as small as several microns or as long as several meters in giraffes and whales.

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Studies that do not test specific relationships between variables are called descriptive studies.

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Trying to break up behavior into seperate parts is simplistic because everything affects everything else

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Organizational Psychology was not officially added until the 1970s and since then, the field has flourished.

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In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy individuals.

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The majority of mainstream psychology is based on a framework derived from cognitive psychology, although the popularity of this paradigm does not exclude others, which are often applied as necessary.

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If a researcher expects certain results from an experiment and influences the subjects response this is called demand characteristics.

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It allowed the study of new subjects including children and animals

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Psychometrics is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits.

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It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind.

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Debates continue, however, such as the questioned effectiveness of probability testing as a valid research tool.

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An understanding of brain function is increasingly being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience

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Tourette's syndrome sufferers usually have faster reflexes than other people.

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Psychodynamic psychology was first practiced by Sigmund Freud, although he didn't intend it to be a system

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Noam Chomsky's review of Skinner's book Verbal Behavior (that aimed to explain language acquisition in a behaviorist framework) is considered one of the major factors in the ending of behaviorism's reign.

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Individual-to-individual variance, introduced in reproduction and meiosis, is the basis for different personality traits and differences in temperament between individuals

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Increasingly, though, an understanding of brain function is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence , neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience

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The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside various therapy models.

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Connectionism uses neural nets to simulate the brain.

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Because some areas of psychology rely on "soft" research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics have claimed that psychology is not as scientific as psychologists assume.

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Drawing has been a popular and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history.

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The word photograph was coined in 1839 by Sir John Herschel and is based on the Greek φῶς (phos), meaning "light," and γραφή (graphê), meaning "drawing, writing," together meaning "drawing with light."

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It is believed that drawing was used as a specialised form of communication before the invention of the written language, demonstrated by the production of cave and rock paintings around 30,000 years ago (Art of the Upper Paleolithic).

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Panoramic format images can be taken with cameras like the Hasselblad Xpan on standard film.

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Before recent advances in digital photography, transparencies were widely used by professionals because of their sharpness and accuracy of color rendition.

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These drawings, known as pictograms, depicted objects and abstract concepts.

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Furthermore, the influential artist and art critic John Ruskin emphasised the importance of perception in the drawing process in his book The Elements of Drawing.

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Both became breakout characters used as a device to increase their shows' ratings.

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Before the widespread availability of paper, 12th-century monks in European monasteries used intricate drawings to prepare illustrated, illuminated manuscripts on vellum and parchment.

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The success of illustrated humour supplements in the New York World and later the New York American, particularly Outcault's The Yellow Kid, led to the development of newspaper comic strips.

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Drawing became significant as an art form around the late 15th century, with artists and master engravers such as Albrecht Dürer and Martin Schongauer (c. 1448-1491), the first Northern engraver known by name.

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Do not pick it up from a corner, or even from two sides and hold it at eye level.

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The types of printers used include inkjet printers, dye-sublimation printer, laser printers, and thermal printers.

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This condition is often used by an author to create conflict within a story.

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However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art in its own right, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study.

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Traditional drawings were monochrome, or at least had little colour, while modern colored-pencil drawings may approach or cross a boundary between drawing and painting.

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One study posited four key abilities in the drawing process: motor skills required for mark-making, the drawer's own perception of their drawing, perception of objects being drawn, and the ability to make good representational decisions.

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Photographs sleeved or encapsulated in polyester cannot be stored vertically in boxes because they will slide down next to each other within the box, bending and folding, nor can the archivist write directly onto the polyester to identify the photograph.

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The composition of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of artistic merit.

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Other inventors soon made improvements which reduced the required exposure time from a few minutes to a few seconds, making portrait photography truly practical and widely popular.

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Common methods of digital drawing include a stylus or finger on a touchscreen device, stylus- or finger-to-touchpad, or in some cases, a mouse.

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In the post-war era modern Japanese comics began to flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work.

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Harvey saw McCloud's definition as excluding single-panel cartoons, and objected to McCloud's de-emphasizing verbal elements, insisting "the essential characteristic of comics is the incorporation of verbal content".

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Sometimes the artist leaves a section of the image untouched while filling in the remainder.

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Today popular sites such as Flickr, PhotoBucket and 500px are used by millions of people to share their pictures.

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Short-term memory plays an important part in drawing as one's gaze shifts between the object they are drawing and the drawing itself.

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While most narratives will often portray the protagonist as a hero and the antagonist as a villain, like Harry Potter and Lord Voldemort in Harry Potter, the antagonist does not always appear as the villain.

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In a sketch or outline drawing, lines drawn often follow the contour of the subject, creating depth by looking like shadows cast from a light in the artist's position.

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The illumination of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox.

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Drawing diagrams of observations is an important part of scientific study.

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Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows.

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Prime moments in a narrative are broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation.

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Shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became established in newspapers after the success in 1907 of Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff.

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1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji Shinpō newspaper—the first use of the word "manga" in its modern sense, and where, in 1902, Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic strip.

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Other tools used are circle compass, ruler, and set square.

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The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure.

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These early processes produced transparencies for use in slide projectors and viewing devices, but color prints became increasingly popular after the introduction of chromogenic color print paper in the 1940s.

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Another technique is subtractive drawing in which the drawing surface is covered with graphite or charcoal and then erased to make the image.

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An artist who practices or works in technical drawing may be called a drafter, draftsman, or draughtsman.

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Ganesh drawing is a popular drawing technique used in India that usually involves drawing a full-body illustration of Ganesh drawing is often practiced in the presence of Ganesh statues and devotees.

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Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man.

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These models predict an upward trend in the surface temperatures, as well as a more rapid increase in temperature at higher latitudes.

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Modeling is used for understanding past, present and potential future climates.

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Modern technology, including advances in printing, the advent of Geographic information systems and Graphics software, and the Internet, has vastly simplified the process of map creation and increased the palette of design options available to cartographers.

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Just as all phenomena exist in time and thus have a history, they also exist in space and have a geography.

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Society of Cartographers supports in the UK the practising cartographer and encourages and maintains a high standard of cartographic illustration

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Along with the substantial text he had written, he created a world map influenced mostly by the Ptolemaic conception of the world, but with significant influence from multiple Arab geographers.

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Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry.

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The cartographic process spans many stages, starting from conceiving the need for a map and extending all the way through its consumption by an audience.

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This idea that climate controls which countries excel depending on their climate, or climatic determinism, remained influential throughout history.

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Phenomena of climatological interest include the atmospheric boundary layer, circulation patterns, heat transfer (radiative, convective and latent), interactions between the atmosphere and the oceans and land surface (particularly vegetation, land use and topography), and the chemical and physical composition of the atmosphere.

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Attention is paid also to regionalization, which covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into regions.

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A simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy

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Boundary-layer climatology is preoccupied with exchanges in water, energy and momentum near the surface.

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These methods revitalized the discipline in many ways, allowing scientific testing of hypotheses and proposing scientific geographic theories and laws.

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Being raised from the rest of the block, the map lines cause indentations in the paper that can often be felt on the back of the map.

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Physical geography is the study of earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans.